Bob Hayden is the former Referee In Chief of USA Hockey.  He served as the head of the National Ice Hockey Officials Association prior to that.  He provided an annual comparison of ice hockey rules in the NCAA, National Federation, and USA Hockey.  His positions on ice hockey rules were regularly available on USA Hockey's "Ask an Official Page" .  He is generally regarded as being against "old time hockey", that is, he is in favor of more restrictive rules that protect players and help to eliminate fighting, checking from behind, any hits to the head, and zero tolerance to verbal abuse of officials.

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American ice hockey officials

Bob Hayden


Christianity is the largest religion in Seychelles, with Roman Catholicism being its largest denomination.

The country is officially secular and its constitution guarantees freedom of conscience and religious practice.

Demographics

According to the most recent census of 2010, the majority of the population were Roman Catholic (76%); Anglican Christians made up 6%, Hindus made up 2.4% and Muslims were 1.6% of the country.  Other Christian groups included Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Assemblies of God, the Pentecostal Church, Nazarites, Greek Orthodox, and Jehovah's Witnesses; there were also a small number of Rastafarians, Baha'is and Brahma Kumaris.

Background

The initial settlers in Seychelles were Roman Catholics, and the country has remained so, despite ineffective British efforts to establish Protestantism in the islands during the nineteenth century. The nation has been a bishopric since 1890, and mission schools had a virtual monopoly on education until the government took over such schools in 1944. Sunday masses are well attended, and religious holidays are celebrated throughout the nation both as opportunities for the devout to practice their faith and as social events. Practicing Catholicism, like speaking French, historically conferred a certain status by associating its adherents with the settlers from France.

Most Anglicans are descendants of families converted by missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th century. Evangelical Protestant churches are active and growing, among them Pentecostals and Seventh-day Adventists.  A Hindu temple and  mosque exist on Mahé. Some tax exemptions are granted to groups which are registered with the Finance Ministry.

Although the clergy and the civil authorities disapprove, many Seychellois see little inconsistency between their orthodox religious observance and belief in magic, witchcraft, and sorcery. It is not uncommon to consult a local seer - known as a bonom di bwa - for fortune-telling or to obtain protective amulets or charms, called gri-gri, to bring harm to enemies.

Freedom of religion
In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.

See also
 Hinduism in Seychelles
 Islam in Seychelles
 Roman Catholicism in Seychelles

References

Religion in Seychelles


Khimki () is a city in Moscow Oblast, Russia.

Location

History
Khimki was located as a railway station at the Moscow–St. Petersburg railway northwest of Moscow. The Moskva-Volga Canal was constructed between 1932 and 1937 on which the city of Khimki lies on the west bank of the Moscow Saint Petersburg highway. Khimki was founded in 1939.

Khimki was located at the Moscow–St. Petersburg railway northwest of Moscow. Khimki was incorporated in 1939, grewing from a small nucleus of summer cottages (dachi). It is now an important industrial centre, with engineering, tile, and glass concerns.

Transportation
There are buses and trolleys in Khimki.
Sheremetyevo International Airport is located in Khimki.
Station Khimki and platforms Lecoberezhnaya, Skhodnya, Firsanovskaya of October railroad.

Cities and towns in Moscow Oblast

Khimki


Aroon Belinda Clansey (born 12 February 1986) is an association football player who has represented New Zealand as a goalkeeper at international level. She signed for English FA WSL club Liverpool Ladies in February 2012.

Clansey represented New Zealand U-20 at the 2006 FIFA U-20 Women's World Championship in Russia, playing all three group games.

She made her début for the senior national side, the Football Ferns in a 0–2 loss to China on 16 November 2006. Despite having not made the field in a competitive match since, Clansey continues to be selected as second choice goalkeeper, being named in the squad to contest the Cyprus Women's Cup in 2010, and the Oceania Women's Nations Cup where she made her second appearance.

In 2011, Clansey was signed by Canberra United. She joined the team after leaving her New Zealand club side, Three Kings United. Clansey helped Canberra finish unbeaten and win the 2011–2012 W-League championship, then transferred to the women's section of Liverpool FC—the club she supports. In April 2012 Clansey was appointed as one of eight WSL digital media ambassadors, one from each team, who wear their Twitter account name on their shirt sleeves to raise the profile of the league.

Due to injuries, Clansey only made two competitive appearances for Liverpool. She was released by the club at the end of the season, returning to Canberra United to work as a video analyst.

References

External links

1986 births
Living people
New Zealand women's international footballers
New Zealand women's association footballers
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in England
Expatriate women's footballers in England
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in Australia
Expatriate women's soccer players in Australia
Women's association football goalkeepers
2011 FIFA Women's World Cup players
Liverpool F.C. Women players

Aroon Clansey


Jerina's town, Brangović (; meaning "Jerina's town") is an archaeological site of an early medieval fortress, located in the village of Brangović, western Serbia. The fort is located on the east bank of the Gradac.

Name
The locals ascribed the city walls to the fairy "curse" of Jerina. The site is also called Brangovići (Бранговићи) The ruins were called "Runaway" (Бежане) by the people as it was used as a hiding place from the Ottomans.

Geography
The fortress is located in Brangović (Бранговић), also known as Branegovići (Бранеговићи), situated  southwest from the city of Valjevo. It was built on a high cliff on the west slopes of Branig hill, on the west riverside of the Gradac.

The site is under the auspices of the municipality of Valjevo and the Ćelije Monastery.

Fortifications
The fort is an irregular angular shape, 320 by 220 m. The highest point is located at altitude  and the lowest at 268m.  The structure is topped with towers, from which long walls descend on a sharp slope viewing the river. The preserved fortification area is , among the largest in northwestern Serbia. Vestiges indicate that the walls were from cut stone and lime mortar. Two sides feature sharp edges, strengthened almonds to prevent access. On the third side "Duzon" guard tower built at the end of narrow steep rocks that are difficult to pass. On the fourth side the fortress was protected by the river. On the top of the fortress, from the east side, a 5x7 m tower rose. On the west side at the lowest elevation is a 7,1 x 6,6 m tower. Other towers are thought to be similar in size.

There are remains of a 5th-6th century church that was destroyed in an Avar or Slavic attack at the end of the 6th century. It was built on the foundations of a building that burned in the 4th century, with dimensions of 13 m by 9 m. Its walls rose 1.7 m to 1.3 m above the cliffs fronting the river. Near the church was found two more premises (connected to the church, with the walls younger than the church walls) and a tomb 2 x 1 m, that was robbed in the ancient period, with the remains of four persons.

History
The city was built in the 4th century to serve as an episcopal seat in the Roman Balkans. Researchers found the a remains of a church and the remains of the episcopal throne within. The fortress and the city were destroyed and rebuilt several times during barbarian invasions. In the 10th century it was abandoned, perhaps due to a Magyar-Serb conflict during Serbian Prince Časlav (r. 926–960). The church was only about two feet from the cliffs in the southwest corner of the fortress. This indicates that within the walls of the city there was a well-developed settlement that hosted many buildings. The church was built on the city's outskirts. Stratigraphic data in tower 1 and the church dates to around the 6th century.

The city's construction techniques belong to the tradition of early Byzantine military architecture. During the 6th century, starting from the reign of Anastasius I Dicorus came a major renovation of the northern part of the Empire. The renovation lasted until the middle of the century. The fortress may have been built in that time. The Gradac canyon was of great importance during the Roman Empire because, it reached one of the main cities, Simriy, near the metalliferous area of Podrinje and east Bosna's border. Trade reached Dalmatia and was one of the key economic systems of this part of the Empire. The fortress may have been built on an earlier city. Archaeologists found two layers of arson and destruction, one from the first half of the 5th century, and the other from the end of the 6th century. It developed into a significant regional center that likely connected to the minerals industry in the region. The fortifications were possibly improved later, at the end of the 4th century, to protect the settlement from the river. Communities within the city walls were later moved a few miles downstream, on the Grabac and Kolubara deltas, where the core of the modern city of Valjevo formed.

Evidence of bitter struggle between Slavs against invaders was excavated, including remnants of broken arms lost in combat and metal objects (primarily iron used to build wooden structures). The need for metals at that time led the Slavs to sift through the ashes looking for metal.

Little remains of the fortress' walls and buildings. Among the most interesting locations within the fortress is the remains of the "donjon" (keep) tower, episcopal church and Lent premises. The National Museum of Valjevo contains artifacts of Jerina.

Etymology
Veselin Čajkanović believed that the Slavic name Jerinin grad was actually derived from Hellene ethnonym. This is implied also by the fact that the city emerged under the Roman Empire, and then became part of the Byzantine (eastern) empire. The city's first large-scale destruction came from Huns and their allies. Towards the end of the 5th century, the Byzantines retook it. As Slavs and Serbs arrived in this Greek-dominated empire, it is logical that they called towns "Hellenic" (Greek). Another interpretation is that the term "damned Jerina" (prokleta Jerina) comes from the oldest Slavic fairy (vila) and that "damned" means condemned to eternal wandering in the ruins of the city.

References

External links

Protected Archaeological Sites
Medieval sites in Serbia
Ruins in Serbia
Demolished buildings and structures in Serbia
Byzantine Serbia
Valjevo

Jerina's town, Brangović


There are or have been a number of separatist movements in Pakistan  based on ethnic and regional nationalism, that have agitated for independence, and sometimes fighting the Pakistan state at various times during its history.   As in many other countries, tension arises from the perception of minority/less powerful ethnic groups that other ethnicities dominate the politics and economics of the country to the detriment of those with less power and money.  The government of Pakistan has attempted to subdue these separatist movements,  which have included those in Bangladesh,  the Baloch Liberation Front (BLF) in Balochistan; the "Sindhudesh" movement in Sindh province;  "Balawaristan" in  Gilgit-Baltistan; Jinnahpur and Muhajir Sooba movement for muhajir immigrants from India.

Influence and success of separatist groups has varied from total, in the case of Bangladesh, which separated from Pakistan in 1971, to marginal, as in the case of the Mohajir Qaumi Movement, which when accused by Pakistani intelligence of wanting an independent state, claimed to only want more autonomy.

Separatist sentiment by opinion poll

The separatist movement in Balochistan is engaged in a low-intensity insurgency against the Government of Pakistan.

In 2009, the Pew Research Center conducted a Global Attitudes survey across Pakistan, in which it questioned respondents whether they viewed their primary identity as Pakistani or that of their ethnicity. The sample covered an area representing 90% of the adult population, and included all major ethnic groups. According to the findings, 96% of Punjabis identified themselves first as Pakistanis, as did 92% each of Pashtuns and Muhajirs; 55% of Sindhis chose a Pakistani identification, while 28% chose Sindhi and 16% selected "both equally"; whereas 58% of Baloch respondents chose Pakistani and 32% selected their ethnicity and 10% chose both equally. Collectively, 89% of the sample opted their primary identity as Pakistani. Similarly in 2010, Chatham House conducted an opinion poll in the Pakistani and Indian-administered regions of Kashmir asking respondents if they favoured independence or an accession to either countries; in Azad Kashmir controlled by Pakistan, 50% of respondents voted to join Pakistan, 44% voted for independence, and only 1% voted for accession to India. In the northern region of Gilgit-Baltistan, longstanding local sentiments oppose any merger of the area with Kashmir, and instead demand a constitutional integration with Pakistan.

Bangladesh

Pakistan was established in 1947, from the partition, as a state for Muslims. Its formation was based on the basis of Islamic nationalism.

As part of the Partition of India in 1947, Bengal was partitioned between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The Pakistani part of Bengal was known as East Bengal until 1955 and thereafter as East-Pakistan following the implementation of the One Unit program. However, rampant corruption within the ranks of the Pakistani government and bureaucracy, economic inequality between the country's two wings caused mainly by a lack of representative government and the government's indifference to the efforts of fierce ethno-nationalistic politicians, like Sheik Mujibur Rahman from East Pakistan, who fought for Bangladeshi independence, resulted in civil war in Pakistan and subsequent separation of East Pakistan as the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Bilateral relations between the two wings grew strained over the lack of official recognition for the Bengali language, democracy, regional autonomy, disparity between the two wings, ethnic discrimination, and the central government's weak and inefficient relief efforts after the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which had affected millions in East Pakistan. These grievances led to several political agitations in East Bengal and ultimately a fight for full independence, which was made possible in 1971 with the assistance of the Indian military.

Balochistan

The Baloch Liberation Front (BLF) separatist group was founded by Jumma Khan Marri in 1964 in Damascus, and played an important role in the 1968-1980 insurgency in Pakistani Balochistan and Iranian Balochistan. Mir Hazar Ramkhani, the father of Jumma Khan Marri, took over the group in the 1980s. The Balochistan Liberation Army (also Baloch Liberation Army or Baluchistan Liberation army) (BLA) is a Baloch nationalist militant secessionist organization. However, Jumma Khan Marri ended his opposition and pledged allegiance to Pakistan on 17 February 2018. The stated goals of the organization include the establishment of an independent state of Balochistan separate from Pakistan and Iran. The name Baloch Liberation Army first became public in summer 2000, after the organization claimed credit for a series of bomb attacks in markets and railways lines. The BLA has also claimed responsibility for the systematic ethnic genocide of Punjabis, Pashtuns and Sindhis in Balochistan (about 25,000 as of July 2010) as well as blowing up of gas pipelines. Local Balochs have also been targeted by the separatist groups in the province. Brahamdagh Khan Bugti, alleged leader of Baloch Liberation Army (BLA), also asked separatists to conduct ethnic cleansing of Non-Baloch citizens from the province. In 2006, the BLA was declared to be a terrorist organization by the Pakistani and British governments.

However, the insurgency led by the Baloch separatists in the province is on its last leg. Baloch separatists have been losing their leaders and they have been unable to fill their ranks. There is also currently ongoing infighting between the different insurgents groups. The last insurgent leader, Balach Marri, was able to keep the different insurgent groups united. However, after his death in Afghanistan, infighting broke out between various insurgent groups. The insurgents were unable to replace him. Similarly, Baloch separatist follow Marxism. However, the Marxism ideology died across the world and there is no other ideologies to succeed it. So the founding father of Baloch separatist are dead. Moreover, attacks on pro-government leaders and politicians who are willing to take part in election has also contributed to the decline in separatist appeal.

The News International reported in 2012 that a Gallup survey conducted for DFID revealed that the majority of Baloch do not support independence from Pakistan. Only 37 percent of Baloch were in favour of independence. Amongst Balochistan's Pashtun population support for independence was even lower at 12 percent. However, a majority (67 percent) of Balochistan's population did favour greater provincial autonomy. Majority of Baloch also don't support separatist groups. They support political parties who use legislature to address their grievances. Experts also claim that most of the nationalists in the province had come to believe that they could fight for their political right within Pakistan.

As of 2018, the Pakistani state was using Islamist militants to crush Balochi separatists. Academics and journalists in the United States have allegedly been approached by Inter-Services Intelligence spies, who threatened them not to speak about the insurgency in Balochistan, as well as human rights abuses by the Pakistani Army, or else their families would be harmed.

By 2020, insurgency by Baluch had been "greatly weakened" by Pakistan counterinsurgency operations including   incentives for the militants to lay down their weapons, and by fatigue and rifts among the separatists. In addition, the safe haven for the separatists in Afghanistan was eliminated by the victory of the Taliban in 2021. However, in 2021 the number of terrorist attacks by separatists in Baluchistan "nearly doubled" compared to the previous year.

Sindhudesh

Sindhudesh (, literally "Sindhi Country") is an idea of a separate Homeland for Sindhis proposed by Sindhi nationalist parties for the creation of a Sindhi state, which would be independent from Pakistan. The movement is based in the Sindh region of Pakistan and was conceived by the Sindhi political leader G. M. Syed. A Sindhi literary movement emerged in 1967 under the leadership of Syed and Pir Ali Mohammed Rashdi, in opposition to the One Unit policy, the imposition of Urdu by the central government and to the presence of a large number of Muhajir (Indian Muslim refugees) settled in the province.

However, neither the separatist party nor the nationalist party have ever been able to take centre stage in Sindh. Local Sindhis strongly support Pakistan People Party (PPP). The unparalleled and unhindered success of the PPP in Sindh shows the preference of Sindhis for a constitutional political process over a separatist agenda to resolve their grievances. Similarly public opinion is also not heavily in favour of these parties either. In other words, neither the Sindhi separatists nor the nationalists have significant popular support — certainly not the kind that will make them capable of fuelling a full-scale insurgency. Almost all of the Sindhis have a strong Pakistani identity and prefer to remain part of Pakistan.

In 2012, a Sindhudesh rally was organised by a nationalist party in Karachi, which had a notably low turnout. The nationalist party had claimed that they would gather around million people for their million march. Although, only 3,000 to 4,000 people attended the rally.

In 2020, the Pakistani government banned multiple separatist outfits including the Jeay Sindh Qaumi Mahaz - Aresar group, Sindhudesh Liberation Army, and Sindhudesh Revolutionary Army

Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan

As of 2015, an independence movement exists in Gilgit-Baltistan (called "Balawaristan" by its supporters).  Balawaristan National Front (Hameed Group) (BNF-H) led by Abdul Hamid Khan were trying to seek independence of Gilgit-Baltistan from Pakistan. However, Abdul Hamid Khan unconditionally surrendered to Pakistan security officials on 8 February 2019 after being banned for having connections to Indian intelligence agencies. Following his surrender, 14 more members of BNF-H were arrested for their anti-Pakistani activities. Since then the fate of BNF-H is unknown. Another organisation by the name of Balawaristan National Front led by Nawaz Khan Naji seeks to declare Gilgit-Balistan an autonomous Region under Administration of Pakistan till Promised pelbicite.

In Pakistan administred Kashmir, no political parties with that do not agree with accession with Pakistan can contest elections.

Sardar Arif Shahid, was a Kashmiri nationalist leader who advocated the independence of Kashmir from both India and Pakistan's rule. He was killed on May 14, 2013 outside his house in Rawalpindi. It was the first time any pro-independence Kashmiri leader was targeted in this way in Pakistan. His supporters allege that he was killed by Pakistan security forces. Within the area, "Custodial torture and intimidation of independence supporters and other activists" has occurred.

In 2010, Chatham House, a London based think tank, did a survey, sponsored by Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, in both Pakistani and Indian administered Kashmir. Based on a sample size of 3,774, it found that Kashmiri's on both sides wanted independence. The survey states, 44% of Kashmiri's in Pakistan administered Kashmir wanted independence.

In October 2019, the People National Alliance organised a rally to free Kashmir from Pakistani rule. As a result of the police trying to stop the rally, 100 people were injured. Large-scale demonstrations have erupted in the region of Gilgit-Baltistan, currently under Pakistani control. Protesters are fervently chanting 'Let's go to Kargil' and expressing a desire to unite with India.

Jinnahpur and Muhajir Sooba

Jinnahpur refers to an alleged plot in Pakistan to form a breakaway autonomous state to serve as a homeland for the Karachi based Urdu-speaking Muhajir community. Mohajirs are immigrants who came to Pakistan from India in the wake of the violence that followed the independence of India in 1947. The alleged name to be given to the proposed breakaway state was "Jinnahpur", named after Mohammed Ali Jinnah. In 1992, the Pakistani military claimed it had found maps of the proposed Jinnahpur state in the offices of the Mohajir Qaumi Movement (now renamed Muttahida Qaumi Movement), despite the party's strong denial of the authenticity of the maps. Despite the party's strong commitment to the Pakistani state, at that time government of Nawaz Sharif chose to use it as the basis for the military operation against the MQM, known as Operation Clean-up.

The Muhajir Sooba (literally meaning 'Immigrant Province') is a political movement which seeks to represent the Muhajir people of Sindh. This concept floated as a political bargaining tool by the leader of Muttahida Qaumi Movement, Altaf Hussain for the creation of a Muhajir province for the Muhajir-majority areas of Sindh, which would be independent from Sindh government.

References

Further reading

Separatist movements of Pakistan


In mathematics, an n-ary relation on n sets, is any subset of Cartesian product of the n sets (i.e., a collection of n-tuples), with the most common one being a binary relation, a collection of order pairs from two sets containing an object from each set. The relation is homogeneous when it is formed with one set.

For example, any curve in the Cartesian plane is a subset of the Cartesian product of real numbers, RxR.
The homogeneous binary relations are studied for properties like reflexiveness, symmetry, and transitivity, which determine different kinds of orderings on the set. Heterogeneous n-ary relations are used in the semantics of predicate calculus, and in relational databases.

In relational databases jargon, the relations are called tables.
There is a relational algebra consisting in the operations on sets, because relations are sets, extended with operators like projection, which forms a new relation selecting a subset of the columns (tuple entries) in a table, the selection operator, which selects just the rows (tuples),according to some condition, and join which works like a composition operator.

The use of the term "relation" is often used as shorthand to refer to binary relations, where the set of all the starting points is called the domain and the set of the ending points is the codomain.

Different types of relationship
An example for such a relation might be a function. Functions associate each key with one value.  The set of all functions is a subset of the set of all relations - a function is a relation where the first value of every tuple is unique through the set.

Other well-known relations are the equivalence relation and the order relation. That way, sets of things can be ordered: Take the first element of a set, it is either equal to the element looked for, or there is an order relation that can be used to classify it. That way, the whole set can be classified (i.e., compared to some arbitrarily chosen element).

Relations can be transitive.One example of a transitive relation is the "smaller-than" relation. If X "is smaller than" Y,and Y is "smaller than" Z,then X "is smaller than" Z. In general, a transitive relation is a relation such that if relations (a,b) and (b,c) both belong to R, then (a,c) must also belongs to R.

Relations can be symmetric. One example of a symmetric relation is the relation "is equal to". If X "is equal to" Y, then Y "is equal to" X. In general, a symmetric relation is a relation such that if (a,b) belongs to R, then (b,a) must belong to R as well.

Relations can be asymmetric, such as the relation " is smaller than". In general, a relation is asymmetric if whether (a,b) belongs to R, (b,a) does not belong to R.

Relations can be reflexive. One example of a reflexive relation is the relation "is equal to" (e.g., for all X, X "is equal to" X). In general, a reflexive relation is a relation such that for all a in A, (a,a) belongs to R.

By definition, every subset of AxB is a relation from A to B.

In category theory, relations play an important role in the Cartesian closed categories, which transform morphisms from tuples to morphisms of single elements. That corresponds to Currying in the Lambda calculus.

Databases and Relations
In relational database theory, a database is a set of relations.
To model a real world, the relations should be in a canonical form called normalized form.
That transformation ensure no loss of information, nor the insertion of spurious tuples with no corresponding meaning in the world represented in the database. The normalization process takes into account properties of relations like functional dependencies among their entries, keys and foreign keys, transitive and join dependencies.

References

Mathematics
Computer science

Relation (mathematics)


Ramón Destorrents was a Catalan mid-14th century painter and miniaturist. He was influenced by the Sienese Gothic painting.

Numerous works, once assigned to other painters or anonymous, have been recently attributed to Destorrents, such a polyptych in the church of Santa Maria de Manresa. In 1351, at the death of Ferrer Bassa, he was named court miniaturist of Peter IV of Aragon. Pere Serra was a member of Destorrents' workshop.

His other works include a triptych in the church of Santa Maria of Iravalls (1360), showing the influence of Simone Martini, and retablos for the royal palace in Valencia and Palma de Mallorca (chapel of the Royal Palace of La Almudaina), and for the Monastery of Santa María de Sigena.

14th-century Spanish painters
Painters from Catalonia
Manuscript illuminators
Medieval Catalan artists
Spanish male painters
14th-century Catalan people

Ramón Destorrents


Donn Óge Mag Oireachtaigh (died 1230) was the lord of Clann Taidg.

Biography

Mag Oireachtaigh had been dispossessed of his lands by King Aedh Ua Conchobair and to regain them enlisted the aid of King Aed Meith Ua Neill of Tír Eógain. This resulted in the deposition of King Aedh in 1225, and a war which great loss of life took place.

However, intervention by English allies of Aedh led to his restoration, with the result that Mag Oireachtaigh was forced to flee.

He was killed during an invasion of Connacht by Richard Mór de Burgh in 1230.

Annalistic references

The Annals of the Four Masters record the deaths of two of his sons:

 1260: Manus, the son of Hugh Mageraghty, was slain by Donnell O'Flahiff.
 1266: Dermot Roe, son of Conor, the son of Cormac Mac Dermot, and Donncahy, son of Donn Oge Mageraghty, were blinded by Hugh O'Conor.

Descendants

Anglicised Geraghty, descendants of the family are still found in large numbers in County Galway, County Mayo, County Roscommon, County Sligo and among the Irish diaspora.

See also
 War in Connacht (1225)
 Siege of Galway (1230)

References
 http://www.irishtimes.com/ancestor/surname/index.cfm?fuseaction=Go.&UserID=
 Irish Kings and High-Kings, Francis John Byrne (2001), Dublin: Four Courts Press,
 CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork

Nobility from County Galway
People from County Roscommon
Medieval Gaels from Ireland
13th-century Irish people
Irish lords
1230 deaths

Donn Óge Mag Oireachtaigh


Missing Child is an American neo-noir psychological thriller film directed and co-written by Luke Sabis, and produced by 9W Productions. It stars Luke Sabis, Kristen Ruhlin, and Charles Gorgano.

Plot
Gia is a young woman in her 20s, with a troubled past. Having never met her natural parents, Gia was raised in foster care where she experienced physical and sexual abuse as a young girl, which lead to many unhealthy experiences and relationships in her teenage years. Now Gia tries to put her past behind focusing on her ambitions. Gia's goals are interrupted when she discovers, through her boyfriend Joe, an age-progressed photo of a missing child, who she resembles. Her friend Debbie, a single mother going through her own financial troubles, is concerned that Gia is repeating
unhealthy habits by being with her boyfriend Joe, who is nearly twice Gia's age. Gia, however, develops a stronger bond with Joe, who is supportive of Gia's desire to learn of her roots. More than anything else, she wants an answer to the question of where she
came from.

Gia and Joe drive to the house of Henry Whittle, the man they believe may be Gia's father. When Gia sees the room of Henry's daughter she feels a connection, however when she looks at old photos she sees a discrepancy that makes her believe she is not the missing child. Gia is heartbroken but Joe encourages her not to give up hope. Her primal desire to learn about her past drives her to go along with Joe. Henry's bond with Gia becomes stronger. Gia notices similarities between herself and
Henry's missing daughter. Hearing Henry speak about his child and wife makes Gia imagine what life would have been, if she was Henry's daughter. While having dinner, Gia and Joe become disoriented and Henry takes on a darker tone.

It becomes clear that Henry has drugged Gia and Joe as the two become incapacitated. Gia and Joe pass out. Gia and Joe lie shackled in the living room. They awaken to see Henry sitting nearby in a rocking chair, viewing them with disgust. Gia has spent her life being figuratively held prisoner to her unresolved past. Now the chains are real. Henry expresses a devout religious side. With a shotgun in his hands, he stands over Joe, condemning him for trying to make Henry believe Gia is his daughter.

Henry shifts his attention to Gia, who he considers equally responsible. Henry sees her as a misguided child who did not have the benefit of his parenting. This is the night he intends to change that. Gia reveals a spiritual side which Henry views as hypocrisy. She endures Henry's ridicule and abuse as she has done in her past with other parental
figures in her life. They deal with each other as if it was a dysfunctional father-daughter relationship they shared. Gia becomes defiant. Henry responds by dragging Gia into his missing daughter's bedroom.

While captive, Gia draws a connection between this violence, and the violence and abuse of her own childhood. She begins to identify with Henry's missing daughter. Henry exposes a mentally twisted and unbalanced side. Gia wants to understand this
abusive person who could have been her father. She wants to learn more about her disjointed past even if it's through her abusive captor.

Gia questions Henry about his relationship with his daughter. He confesses that he had abused her. It becomes clear to Gia that his abuse had gone further than she ever could have imagined.

Cast
 Kristen Ruhlin as Gia
 Charles Gorgano as Henry
 Luke Sabis as Joe

Music
According to Sabis, something that the characters of Gia and Henry share is a certain level of discomfort in dealing with silence. Because of traumatic events they each hold in their past, neither character is comfortable alone with their own thoughts. These characters always have a
TV or radio on, at all times. Originally, Director Luke Sabis had planned not to have any
scored music in the film. He wanted the background sounds of the TV and radio to be
the score for these troubled characters. When he got deeper into the production, he
realized he was being too idealistic with his vision and that some moments could be
brought out more with music. Not having the budget to hire someone, Director Sabis fell back on his own musical background, (playing in rock bands earlier in his life) and wrote and performed the score himself. The intention of the scored music was to accentuate the internal emotional lives of Gia and Henry.

Reception
Missing Child was an official selection of the Boston International Film Festival, Big Island Film Festival, Dances with Films, and the Beyond the Beaten Path Film Festival. In Boston, the film won awards for Indie Soul Best Actor (Charles Gorgano) and the Director Special Recognition Award (Luke Sabis). It won Best Feature at the Beyond the Beaten Path Film Festival.

In 2017 the film was featured at the Idyllwild International Festival of Cinema.

References

External links

2015 crime thriller films
2015 independent films
2010s mystery films
2010s psychological thriller films
American crime thriller films
American independent films
American mystery films
American psychological thriller films
2010s psychological drama films
Films about child sexual abuse
2015 films
2010s English-language films
2010s American films

Missing Child (film)


The Cundill History Prize (formerly the Cundill Prize in Historical Literature) was founded in 2008 by Peter Cundill to recognize and promote literary and academic achievement in history. The prize is presented annually to an author who has published a non-fiction book in the prior year that is likely to have profound literary, social, and academic impact in the area of history. At a value of US$75,000, the Grand Prize is claimed to be the richest non-fiction historical literature prize in the world. In addition, two "Recognition of Excellence" prizes of US$10,000 each are awarded. The winners of the prizes are selected by an independent jury of at least five internationally qualified individuals selected by McGill University. The Cundill Prize in History at McGill is administered by McGill University's Dean of Arts, with the help of the McGill Institute for the Study of Canada (MISC).

When the Prize was announced in April 2008, Mr. Cundill noted that he "…was surprised to learn there were no major prizes in history." He explained his affinity to history: "I am an investment researcher of finance and I think there is an analogy between the two disciplines – both study the past to understand the present and predict the future."

Honorees

See also
 List of history awards

References

2008 establishments in Quebec
Awards established in 2008
Canadian non-fiction literary awards
History awards

Cundill Prize


The  German city of Freiburg was bombed erroneously on 10 May 1940 by the Luftwaffe, killing 57 inhabitants.

Timing
The kette (three aircraft) involved, commanded by Leutnant Paul Seidel, were from 8. Staffel, Kampfgeschwader 51 "Edelweiss" (8./KG51) operating the Heinkel He 111 medium bomber. They had taken off at 14:27 from Landsberg-Lech Air Base, to bomb the French city of Dijon, or the alternative target Dole–Jura Airport, as part of the Battle of France. However, due to navigation errors they lost orientation and never arrived there. Although they were not able to determine their exact position, they were convinced of being on the other side of the Rhine and, in spite of the landmarks they saw, the town beneath them was thought to perhaps be Colmar, which is at a distance of only . Since, on the other hand, the Freiburg Air Guard in Hilda Tower on the Loretto mountain identified the aircraft as German, it was only after the attack was already over that air raid warning was given. Starting from 15:59 the planes dropped a total of 69 bombs on the city.

Immediate consequences
The German command tried to cover up the mistake and passed the bombing off as enemy action. The German media accepted that version without any hesitation. UFA Weekly Review, for example, reported in its issue no. 506 on 15 May 1940 at the end of a longer contribution of the "brutal and ruthless air raid on an unfortified German city". The newspaper Freiburger Zeitung described it on 11 May 1940 as a "malicious air raid" by the enemy. In the course of this "sneaky, cowardly air raid against all laws of humanity and international law", the newspaper continued "24 civilians were overtaken by death". At the same time the incident was used to justify further attacks against the enemy. Thus, "any further planned bombing of the German population will be counteracted by five times as many German aircraft  attacking an English or French town." In a speech at the enterprise Borsig-Werke on 10 December 1940 Adolf Hitler accused the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to have started with "terrorist" attacks against the civilian population with the bombing of Freiburg.

The pilots, for their part, declared to have attacked the secondary target Dole Tavaux. However, that declaration was made only later in the year. The claim that the duds of the attack were not German, had already been refuted by the time code. Nevertheless, the myth that foreign aircraft had bombed Freiburg had a long-standing basis. Background for this could have been memories of the air raids during World War I. Then Freiburg was bombed 25 times by allied aircraft. Another factor might have been the shelling of Freiburg by French artillery on 11 and 13 June 1940. On that occasion shells fell on the southern Loretto mountain,  Merzhausen, Günterstal, and the area around the airport as well as on the premises of the company Rhodia and the gasworks. This possibility of attack was eliminated by the advance of the German troops in France from 15 June 1940 onwards.

Later consequences

Colonel Josef Kammhuber, at that time commander of  KG51, alleged for a long time that it would never be possible to clarify who was responsible for the bombing of Freiburg on this day. In August 1980, however, he presented his knowledge regarding the bombing of Freiburg on 10 May 1940 to two military historians: "The fact that the attack on Freiburg was conducted mistakenly by a chain of III/KG51 is evident".
The German historians Anton Hoch, Wolfram Wette and Gerd R. Ueberschär contributed significantly to the clarification of the events on 10 May 1940. In consequence of their work the responsible persons could be identified in 1956. On 5 April 1956 The New York Times reported that the puzzle of who bombed Freiburg on 10 May 1940 had been solved.
On the Hilda playground in Freiburg's suburb Stühlinger next to which 20 children were killed, a memorial stone refers to the incident. The construction of the memorial stone was initiated by the Union of Persecutees of the Nazi Regime. On the 40th anniversary a preliminary plaque existing only for a short time was installed. It followed up the assumption that Freiburg was intentionally bombed by the German Air Force which was later disproved. The present monument was dedicated on the 45th anniversary. The present inscription on the plaque is based on the findings of historical research about the event. Mayor Rolf Böhme as well as the chairman of the VVN and the chairman of the SPD local association of the suburb Stühlinger spoke at the dedication of the memorial stone.

Further reading
 Anton Hoch: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 4 (Quarterly Journal of Contemporary History 4), 1956, pp. 115 – 144.
 Anton Hoch: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (From politics and contemporary history) No. XXI B/56 of 23 April 1956, pp. 321 – 332
 The document on 10 May 1940 in the Freiburg City Archive: C 4 / XI / 31/3, of the municipal headquarters Freiburg. Category: Military Affairs. Subject: Air raid on 10 May 1940, Issue 1 year 40/43.
 Gerd R. Ueberschär and Wolfram Wette: Bomben und Legenden. Die schrittweise Aufklärung des Luftangriffs auf Freiburg am 10. Mai 1940 (Bombs and legends. The gradual clarification of the raid on Freiburg on 10 May 1940). Rombach, Freiburg, 1981,
 Gerd R. Ueberschär: Freiburg im Luftkrieg 1939–1945 (Freiburg during the air raids 1939-1945). Ploetz, Freiburg, 1990,
 Len Deighton: Blitzkrieg - From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk. William Collins, London, 2014,

See also
 Operation Tigerfish: Air raid on Freiburg on 27 November 1944.

References

Freiburg
History of Freiburg im Breisgau
1940 in Germany
1940 in military history
May 1940 events

Bombing of Freiburg on 10 May 1940


The Mil Mi-42 was a projected assault/transport helicopter featuring the NOTAR concept, fit to replace the Mi-40 program. The Mi-40 did not attract that many customers. Because of this and other reasons, the Mi-42 program (originally part of the Mi-40 program) was launched in 1985. The entire Mi-40 program, including the Mi-42 program, was cancelled after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Design and development
Starting in 1985 a further development along the lines of the Mil Mi-40 was sought which would provide higher performance in the "Aerial Infantry Fighting Vehicle" category.

Primary roles included landing troops, providing rapid redeployment, escort, close air support and tactical strikes. Its secondary roles would include transport of equipment, medivac, SAR/CSAR, reconnaissance and communications. Requirements specified day, night and all weather capability as well as diverse operating conditions. In addition the craft was to run on standard diesel fuel, be easy to maintain and simple to pilot.

A vectoring NOTAR system would replace the tail rotor. It was hoped that this would be more durable and increase safety of people working in the vicinity of the tail. Finally, it was planned that, as the aircraft picked up speed and aerodynamic forces began to have a stabilising effect, the vectoring system would angle the NOTAR nozzle so that it faced straight backward – hopefully allowing the Mi-42 to achieve its required top speed of .

The design was intended to be heavily armoured and carry a mobile forward firing cannon and four hardpoints (equivalent armament to the Mil Mi-28 gunship).

As a result of the complex requirements (essentially those of a truck, transport helicopter, attack helicopter and strike aircraft combined) the design continuously took on increasing complexity and weight. Attempts were made to improve the powerplant and replace the NOTAR system with a series of powered fans. In the end it was Mil that concluded that the specifications were impossible to meet. The design reached the mock-up stage but apparently ceased toward the end of the 1980s, although attempts were made in the 1990s to restart a less ambitious design based on the Mil Mi-40.

See also

References

 VR Mikheev, "MVZ Mil – 50 years"

1980s Soviet attack aircraft
1980s Soviet military transport aircraft
Mil aircraft
1980s Soviet helicopters
Abandoned military aircraft projects of the Soviet Union
NOTAR helicopters
Military transport helicopters

Mil Mi-42


David Morgan  (born 30 September 1964) is a Welsh weightlifter.

Morgan won the British under-16 championship in 1979. He became the youngest ever Commonwealth Games weightlifting champion in 1982 at Brisbane, at 17 years of age. Competing in the lightweight class (67.5 kg), he achieved 132.5 kg in the snatch and 162.5 kg in the clean and jerk to defeat former champion Basil (Bill) Stellios of Australia. Morgan is the only competitor to win medals in six different Commonwealth Games, with victories in 1982, 1986, 1990, 1994, 1998, and 2002.  He won two gold and one silver medals in 2002 at Manchester (with 145 kg in the snatch and 160 in the clean and jerk), bringing his career medal total to twelve (nine gold, three silver).

Morgan recorded his best attempt in the snatch at the 1984 Junior World Championships, with a lift of 150 kg which gave him the gold in the snatch in the 75 kg class. He then went on to finish second overall after a clean and jerk of 180k.  This was the first time in 27 years that a British weightlifter has won a gold medal in a world championship.

Morgan placed fourth in the 1984 Summer Olympics. At the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, Morgan competed in the 82.5 kg class and finished fourth again with a total of 365 kg.  David Morgan is also the only person in history to have won overall gold in 5 commonwealth games.

He was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2020 New Year Honours for services to weightlifting.

References

External links
Commonwealth Games 2002:  Weightlifting:  Morgan has no plans to carry on
Commonwealth Games 2002: Weightlifting: MORGAN RECORD SIX HAUL.(Sport)

1964 births
Living people
Welsh male weightlifters
Olympic weightlifters for Great Britain
Weightlifters at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Weightlifters at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Weightlifters at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Wales
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Wales
Weightlifters at the 1982 Commonwealth Games
Weightlifters at the 1986 Commonwealth Games
Weightlifters at the 1990 Commonwealth Games
Weightlifters at the 1994 Commonwealth Games
Weightlifters at the 1998 Commonwealth Games
Weightlifters at the 2002 Commonwealth Games
Commonwealth Games medallists in weightlifting
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Medallists at the 1986 Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 1998 Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 2002 Commonwealth Games

Dave Morgan (weightlifter)


Automated theorem proving (also known as ATP or automated deduction) is a subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic dealing with proving mathematical theorems by computer programs.  Automated reasoning over mathematical proof was a major impetus for the development of computer science.

Logical foundations
While the roots of formalised logic go back to Aristotle, the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the development of modern logic and formalised mathematics. Frege's Begriffsschrift (1879) introduced both a complete propositional calculus and what is essentially modern predicate logic.  His Foundations of Arithmetic, published in 1884, expressed (parts of) mathematics in formal logic. This approach was continued by Russell and Whitehead in their influential Principia Mathematica, first published 1910–1913, and with a revised second edition in 1927. Russell and Whitehead thought they could derive all mathematical truth using axioms and inference rules of formal logic, in principle opening up the process to automatisation. In 1920, Thoralf Skolem simplified a previous result by Leopold Löwenheim, leading to the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and, in 1930, to the notion of a Herbrand universe and a Herbrand interpretation that allowed (un)satisfiability of first-order formulas (and hence the validity of a theorem) to be reduced to (potentially infinitely many) propositional satisfiability problems.

In 1929, Mojżesz Presburger showed that the first-order theory of the natural numbers with addition and equality (now called Presburger arithmetic in his honor) is decidable and gave an algorithm that could determine if a given sentence in the language was true or false.
However, shortly after this positive result, Kurt Gödel published On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems (1931), showing that in any sufficiently strong axiomatic system there are true statements that cannot be proved in the system. This topic was further developed in the 1930s by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, who on the one hand gave two independent but equivalent definitions of computability, and on the other gave concrete examples of undecidable questions.

First implementations

Shortly after World War II, the first general-purpose computers became available. In 1954, Martin Davis programmed Presburger's algorithm for a JOHNNIAC vacuum-tube computer at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. According to Davis, "Its great triumph was to prove that the sum of two even numbers is even". More ambitious was the Logic Theorist in 1956, a deduction system for the propositional logic of the Principia Mathematica, developed by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon and J. C. Shaw. Also running on a JOHNNIAC, the Logic Theorist constructed proofs from a small set of propositional axioms and three deduction rules: modus ponens, (propositional) variable substitution, and the replacement of formulas by their definition. The system used heuristic guidance, and managed to prove 38 of the first 52 theorems of the Principia.

The "heuristic" approach of the Logic Theorist tried to emulate human mathematicians, and could not guarantee that a proof could be found for every valid theorem even in principle.  In contrast, other, more systematic algorithms achieved, at least theoretically, completeness for first-order logic. Initial approaches relied on the results of Herbrand and Skolem to convert a first-order formula into successively larger sets of propositional formulae by instantiating variables with terms from the Herbrand universe. The propositional formulas could then be checked for unsatisfiability using a number of methods. Gilmore's program used conversion to disjunctive normal form, a form in which the satisfiability of a formula is obvious.

Decidability of the problem

Depending on the underlying logic, the problem of deciding the validity of a formula varies from trivial to impossible. For the common case of propositional logic, the problem is decidable but co-NP-complete, and hence only exponential-time algorithms are believed to exist for general proof tasks. For a first-order predicate calculus, Gödel's completeness theorem states that the theorems (provable statements) are exactly the semantically valid well-formed formulas, so the valid formulas are computably enumerable: given unbounded resources, any valid formula can eventually be proven. However, invalid formulas (those that are not entailed by a given theory), cannot always be recognized.

The above applies to first-order theories, such as Peano arithmetic. However, for a specific model that may be described by a first-order theory, some statements may be true but undecidable in the theory used to describe the model. For example, by Gödel's incompleteness theorem, we know that any consistent theory whose axioms are true for the natural numbers cannot prove all first-order statements true for the natural numbers, even if the list of axioms is allowed to be infinite enumerable. It follows that an automated theorem prover will fail to terminate while searching for a proof precisely when the statement being investigated is undecidable in the theory being used, even if it is true in the model of interest. Despite this theoretical limit, in practice, theorem provers can solve many hard problems, even in models that are not fully described by any first-order theory (such as the integers).

Related problems

A simpler, but related, problem is proof verification, where an existing proof for a theorem is certified valid. For this, it is generally required that each individual proof step can be verified by a primitive recursive function or program, and hence the problem is always decidable.

Since the proofs generated by automated theorem provers are typically very large, the problem of proof compression is crucial, and various techniques aiming at making the prover's output smaller, and consequently more easily understandable and checkable, have been developed.

Proof assistants require a human user to give hints to the system. Depending on the degree of automation, the prover can essentially be reduced to a proof checker, with the user providing the proof in a formal way, or significant proof tasks can be performed automatically. Interactive provers are used for a variety of tasks, but even fully automatic systems have proved a number of interesting and hard theorems, including at least one that has eluded human mathematicians for a long time, namely the Robbins conjecture. However, these successes are sporadic, and work on hard problems usually requires a proficient user.

Another distinction is sometimes drawn between theorem proving and other techniques, where a process is considered to be theorem proving if it consists of a traditional proof, starting with axioms and producing new inference steps using rules of inference.  Other techniques would include model checking, which, in the simplest case, involves brute-force enumeration of many possible states (although the actual implementation of model checkers requires much cleverness, and does not simply reduce to brute force).

There are hybrid theorem proving systems that use model checking as an inference rule. There are also programs that were written to prove a particular theorem, with a (usually informal) proof that if the program finishes with a certain result, then the theorem is true. A good example of this was the machine-aided proof of the four color theorem, which was very controversial as the first claimed mathematical proof that was essentially impossible to verify by humans due to the enormous size of the program's calculation (such proofs are called non-surveyable proofs).  Another example of a program-assisted proof is the one that shows that the game of Connect Four can always be won by the first player.

Industrial uses

Commercial use of automated theorem proving is mostly concentrated in integrated circuit design and verification.  Since the Pentium FDIV bug, the complicated floating point units of modern microprocessors have been designed with extra scrutiny. AMD, Intel and others use automated theorem proving to verify that division and other operations are correctly implemented in their processors.

First-order theorem proving

In the late 1960s agencies funding research in automated deduction began to emphasize the need for practical applications. One of the first fruitful areas was that of program verification whereby first-order theorem provers were applied to the problem of verifying the correctness of computer programs in languages such as Pascal, Ada, etc. Notable among early program verification systems was the Stanford Pascal Verifier developed by David Luckham at Stanford University. This was based on the Stanford Resolution Prover also developed at Stanford using John Alan Robinson's resolution principle. This was the first automated deduction system to demonstrate an ability to solve mathematical problems that were announced in the Notices of the American Mathematical Society before solutions were formally published.

First-order theorem proving is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving. The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way. On the other hand, it is still semi-decidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling fully automated systems. More expressive logics, such as higher-order logics, allow the convenient expression of a wider range of problems than first-order logic, but theorem proving for these logics is less well developed.

Benchmarks, competitions, and sources
The quality of implemented systems has benefited from the existence of a large library of standard benchmark examples—the Thousands of Problems for Theorem Provers (TPTP) Problem Library—as well as from the CADE ATP System Competition (CASC), a yearly competition of first-order systems for many important classes of first-order problems.

Some important systems (all have won at least one CASC competition division) are listed below.
 E is a high-performance prover for full first-order logic, but built on a purely equational calculus, originally developed in the automated reasoning group of Technical University of Munich under the direction of Wolfgang Bibel, and now at Baden-Württemberg Cooperative State University in Stuttgart.
 Otter, developed at the Argonne National Laboratory, is based on first-order resolution and paramodulation. Otter has since been replaced by Prover9, which is paired with Mace4.
 SETHEO is a high-performance system based on the goal-directed model elimination calculus, originally developed by a team under direction of Wolfgang Bibel. E and SETHEO have been combined (with other systems) in the composite theorem prover E-SETHEO.
 Vampire was originally developed and implemented at Manchester University by Andrei Voronkov and Kryštof Hoder. It is now developed by a growing international team. It has won the FOF division (among other divisions) at the CADE ATP System Competition regularly since 2001.
 Waldmeister is a specialized system for unit-equational first-order logic developed by Arnim Buch and Thomas Hillenbrand. It won the CASC UEQ division for fourteen consecutive years (1997–2010).
 SPASS is a first-order logic theorem prover with equality. This is developed by the research group Automation of Logic, Max Planck Institute for Computer Science.

The Theorem Prover Museum is an initiative to conserve the sources of theorem prover systems for future analysis, since they are important cultural/scientific artefacts. It has the sources of many of the systems mentioned above.

Popular techniques

First-order resolution with unification
Model elimination
Method of analytic tableaux
Superposition and term rewriting
Model checking
Mathematical induction
Binary decision diagrams
DPLL
Higher-order unification
Quantifier elimination

Software systems

Free software
 Alt-Ergo
 Automath
 CVC
 E
 IsaPlanner
 LCF
 Mizar
 NuPRL
 Paradox
 Prover9
 PVS
 SPARK (programming language)
 Twelf
 Z3 Theorem Prover

Proprietary software
 CARINE
 Wolfram Mathematica
 ResearchCyc

See also

 Curry–Howard correspondence
 Symbolic computation
 Ramanujan machine
 Computer-aided proof
 Formal verification
 Logic programming
 Proof checking
 Model checking
 Proof complexity
 Computer algebra system
 Program analysis (computer science)
 General Problem Solver
 Metamath language for formalized mathematics

Notes

References

  II .

External links
 A list of theorem proving tools

Formal methods

Automated theorem proving


The purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) is a frog species in the family Sooglossidae. It lives in the Western Ghats in India. Common names for this species are  Indian purple frog, pignose frog or doughnut frog. It was discovered by S.D. Biju and F. Bossyut in October 2003.

This frog's body is shaped similarly to that of most frogs.  It is somewhat rounded. It has a small head and an unusual pointed snout. Adults are typically dark purple in color. Its cry sounds more like one from a chicken.

The frog spends most of the year underground.  It comes out only for about two weeks, during the monsoon.  This is to mate.

Unlike many other digging species of frogs that feed above the ground, this species eats underground.  They feed mainly on termites using their tongue.

The purple frog has one close relative, Bhupathy's purple frog, which also lives in the Western Ghats.

Other ideas

Scientists say that because the purple frog and Bhupathy's purple frog have close relatives in the Seychelles, which are close to Africa, it is likely that the Gondwanaland idea of why the continents are where they are is right.  This idea says that Africa and India used to be one large continent, called Gondwanaland.

References

Frogs of Asia

Purple frog


Indra Lorentzen (born 17 August 1956 in Stockholm, Sweden) is a Norwegian dancer and choreographer with family roots on the mother's side, in Indonesia.

Biography
Lorentzen started dancing at four years old in Stockholm. She studied dancing at the Opera Ballet School in Oslo, and became a member of the ballet ensemble of the Norwegian National Ballet in 1973, soloist in 1977. With her background as a half Indonesian, half Norwegian, she is in contact with a different culture of human relations also through body gestures.

She debuted as a choreographer for the Norwegian National Ballet in 1998 with the Sami-inspired Flettede stier, and has since choreographed several productions in Sweden, Norway and Greenland, including Peer Gynt and A Midsummer Night's Dream, and also dance films like Skårungen and the Radioballetten.

Lorentzen has danced an impressive list of roles in the Opera Ballet. It is like a list of highlights in recent Norwegian scene dance. She was awarded the Critics prize for the title role in Månerenen by Birgit Cullberg (1981), an immensely demanding role with hefty leap in savagery and pain. In Volven (1989) by Kjersti Alveberg, a piece created over Norse creation myths, she was elevated and strong, sometimes almost motionless, yet the center point that the show revolved about. The term dance theater got a new meaning in her representation of the mother in the family drama Tango (1987). She could visualize abstract sounds like in the figure 'Miranda' from The Tempest (1980). Moreover, she added the physical surplus that classical roles need in dance theatre. Her farewell performance in the Opera Ballet in 1997 was also Tango.

Lorentzen is a living example of the wisdom of an Indonesian statement: "A bad dancer showcases herself, the best dancer showcases dance". In this statement you find the wisdom that music, as the mystery of life, is all around us at all times. We don't create it, but we can borrow it from a universal source and make it visible. The music is in the Universe.

Honors
Kritikerprisen (Norwegian Dance Critics Award) 1981, for the title role in Månerenen by Birgit Cullberg

References

External links
Indra Lorentzen Biography at Store Norske Leksikon
Kjersti Alveberg, ASHES MIST, WINDBLOWN DUST, NRK 1986 on YouTube

1956 births
Norwegian female dancers
Norwegian choreographers
Living people
Norwegian women choreographers

Indra Lorentzen


The iPhone 3GS is a smartphone that was designed and marketed by Apple Inc. It is the third generation iPhone and the successor to the iPhone 3G. It was unveiled on June 8, 2009 at the WWDC 2009 which took place at the Moscone Center in San Francisco.

This iPhone is named "3GS" where "S" stood for Speed (Phil Schiller had mentioned it in the launch keynote). Improvements include performance, a 3-megapixel camera with higher resolution and video ability, voice control, and support for 7.2 Mbit/s HSDPA downloading (but remains limited to  uploading as Apple had not implemented the HSUPA protocol). It was released in the United States, Canada, and six European countries on June 19, 2009, in Australia and Japan on June 26, and internationally in July and August 2009.

The iPhone 3GS runs Apple's iOS operating system. It was succeeded as Apple's flagship smartphone by the iPhone 4 on June 24, 2010. At the same time, an 8 GB model of the iPhone 3GS was released, discontinuing the 16 and 32 GB models, the 8 GB 3GS continued in production until September 2012 when the iPhone 5 was announced.

History
The iPhone 3GS was released on June 19, 2009 in the United States, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Within the first weekend of its release, over 1 million iPhone 3GS units were sold. It reached its first million units sold as quickly as its predecessor, the iPhone 3G. After the release of the iPhone 4S, the 3GS was still offered for free on a contract until November 2011, when AT&T raised the price to 59 cents with no explanation. The 99¢ price was only available with a two-year contract on AT&T in the United States and a three-year contract on Telus, Rogers, Bell and Fido Solutions in Canada. This was a departure from Apple's previous trends, in which only two phones were sold.

Features
The new features of the iPhone 3GS are mainly internal changes regarding speed.  The iPhone 3GS was reportedly twice as fast as its predecessor. Though in addition to the upgrades mainly regarding performance, various software features were also introduced exclusively to the iPhone 3GS such as video recording, voice control, and digital compass.

Operating system and software

The  features iOS, Apple's mobile operating system. The user interface of iOS is based on the concept of direct manipulation, using multi-touch gestures. Interface control elements consist of sliders, switches, and buttons. Interaction with the OS includes gestures such as swipe, tap, pinch, and reverse pinch, all of which have specific definitions within the context of the iOS operating system and its multi-touch interface. Internal accelerometers are used by some applications to respond to shaking the device (one common result is the undo command) or rotating it vertically (one common result is switching from portrait to landscape mode).

Hardware
The LCD display on the device was designed by Apple and made by LG. It features a capacitive touchscreen with a pixel density of 163 pixels per inch (ppi) on a  480-by-320 display. Improvements over its predecessor's screen include 24-bit color emulation (18-bit color display plus dithering) for a more color rich display and oleophobic coating to help reduce fingerprints on the display. The capacitive touchscreen is designed for a bare finger, or multiple fingers for multi-touch sensing.

The iPhone 3GS features an improved 3-megapixel camera manufactured by OmniVision. In addition to the higher pixel count, it also features auto-focus, auto white balance and auto macro and is capable of capturing VGA video.

The iPhone 3GS's camera app features a slider which allows users to switch between capturing photos and recording videos, a tap-to-focus feature which allows users to tap on an area of the camera image to auto-focus on, 5x digital zoom (iOS 4 or later), autofocus and auto exposure lock when holding an area down (iOS 5 or later), and gridlines for composition (iOS 5 or later).

The iPhone 3GS is powered by the Samsung APL0298C05 chip, which was designed and manufactured by Samsung. This is the first iPhone with a system-on-a-chip. This system-on-a-chip is composed of an ARM Cortex-A8 CPU core underclocked to 600 MHz (from 833 MHz), integrated with a PowerVR SGX 535 GPU.

It has 256 MB of package on package (PoP) DRAM, twice the amount of the 3G, allowing for increased performance and multi-tasking.

Apple claims the iPhone 3GS is 2x faster than its predecessor, showing demonstrations of various apps loading in half the time its predecessor does.

As on previous models, all data is stored in flash memory and not in the SIM and it does not offer any options to expand storage. Initially, it was only available in 16 and 32 GB though an 8 GB model was later released, with Apple discontinuing the 16 and 32 GB models, forcing those needing more storage to select an iPhone 4, or buy an older model 3GS.

The iPhone 3GS is powered by an internal 3.7 V 1220 mAh rechargeable lithium-ion polymer battery and is designed to retain up to 80% of its original capacity after 400 full charge and discharge cycles. A battery life indicator in percentage was also exclusive to the iPhone 3GS.

Apple claims that the 3GS can last for up to ten hours of video, nine hours of web browsing on Wi-Fi, twelve hours of 2G talk time, or five on 3G, 30 hours of music, or 300 hours of standby.

A magnetometer is also built-in the iPhone 3GS, which is used to measure the strength and/or direction of the magnetic field in the vicinity of the device. Sometimes certain devices or radio signals can interfere with the magnetometer requiring users to either move away from the interference or re-calibrate by moving the device in a figure 8 motion. The iPhone 3GS also features a Compass app that was unique at the time of release, showing a compass that points in the direction of the magnetic field.

In addition to the iPhone 3G's Tri-band UMTS/HSDPA radio and quad-band GSM/GPRS/EDGE radio, the 3GS also adds support for 7.2 Mbit/s HSDPA allowing faster downlink speeds though upload speeds remain the same as Apple had not implemented the HSUPA protocol. Other updates include the addition of a built-in Nike+iPod sensor which eliminates the need for an external sensor and allows native Nike+iPod support. The Bluetooth server on the iPhone 3GS has also been slightly improved adding support for Bluetooth 2.1 specifications.

Voice Control was introduced as an exclusive feature of the iPhone 3GS and allows for the controlling of the phone and music features of the phone by voice. There are two ways to activate Voice Control: hold the Home button while in the home screen for a few seconds; or, change the effect of what double-clicking the home button does so it will activate Voice Control (only on iOS 3.x; on iOS 4 or later, double-clicking the Home button opens the multitasking bar).

VoiceOver, Color Inversion, and Text Zoom were introduced as exclusive features to the iPhone 3GS. VoiceOver is a feature that dictates music details, system menus, text, and other things that were first introduced on the third generation iPod shuffle. Color inversion reverses the color scheme from black on white to white on black, while Text Zoom allows users to zoom into a text on the screen.

The iPhone 3GS retains the design of the 3G, with a glossy plastic back with tapered edges and metal buttons. The 3GS has reflective silver text on the reverse side which matches the silver Apple logo, replacing the 3G's grey text. The iPhone 3GS was available in white and black for 16 GB and 32 GB, although the 8 GB model was only available in black.

Critical reception
Reviews of the iPhone 3GS have been mixed. Walt Mossberg of The Wall Street Journal described the device packed with "new features that makes a great product even better, but for many users, the software may be enough of a boost to keep them from buying the new model." Engadget also said that "the additions of video recording, a compass, and a speed bump just don't seem that compelling to us."

The device managed to receive numerous favorable reviews. CNET gave the iPhone 3GS 4 out of 5 stars, citing battery life improvements and speed bump. Engadget praised the performance improvements.

The 8 GB version received more favorable reviews mainly because it comes pre-installed with iOS 4. Jason Snell of Macworld praised the iPhone 3GS, saying that "the device's internal changes shines in the iOS 4 update, making the iPhone 3GS a worthwhile upgrade compared to its predecessor although a little too late compared to the iPhone 4." TIPB stated that "aside from hardware-specific features like FaceTime, Retina Display, and gyroscope support, the bottom line is iPhone 3GS users are getting the same software that makes the iPhone 4 great."

Issues
Shortly after the release of the iPhone 3GS, some users reported overheating of the device while in heavy use, and others reported discoloration of the device due to heat (particularly on the white models). The discoloration issues were largely discounted as being as a result of iPhone covers rubbing against the back of the iPhone.

Apple responded to the heat issue reports by warning users against leaving their iPhones in a car on a hot day, leaving it in direct sunlight for extended periods of time, and refraining from heavy usage while in a hot/sunny environment. It is also worth pointing out the temperature specifications in which the iPhone should be operated, which follows safety standards in the countries the 3GS was released.

Continued support

iPhone OS 3
The iPhone 3GS shipped with iPhone OS 3, with features like a Digital Compass and Voice Control.

iOS 4
After the release of the iPhone 4, the iPhone 3GS received an update for iOS 4. Unlike the iPhone 3G, it received support for features like home screen wallpapers, multitasking, and Game Center.

iOS 5
The iPhone 3GS received the iOS 5 update, adding support for on-device setup and over-the-air updates, among other features, but it is incompatible with Siri.

New boot ROM and 2011 baseband update
On September 9, 2009, Apple launched an updated model of the iPhone 3GS that patched a segment overflow in the SecureROM of the Device that had allowed loading an unsigned LLB.

After the release of the iPhone 4S, Apple updated baseband hardware from an Infineon Baseband chip to a Toshiba Baseband chip in week 2 production in 2011 which removed the end-user's ability to change basebands. Although the new chip uses the same modem firmware as the Infineon chip, it cannot be updated to iPad baseband 06.15.00 that is still vulnerable to the AT+XAPP exploit.

iOS 6
The 3GS received iOS 6, making it the first iOS device to receive updates for four major iOS releases. Although the 3GS was still supported, some major features of iOS 6 were not supported.
The 3GS had generally positive reviews of smooth performance on iOS 5 (some even claim better performance), making it still a good candidate for iOS 6. On September 12, 2012, Apple announced that they would no longer be selling and supporting the iPhone 3GS and the device did not receive iOS 7, due to hardware limitations. On February 21, 2014, Apple issued iOS 6.1.6 to fix the "goto fail;" SSL security bug.

See also
 List of iPhone models
 History of iPhone
 Comparison of smartphones
 Timeline of iPhone models

Notes

References

External links

Computer-related introductions in 2009
Products and services discontinued in 2010
Products and services discontinued in 2012

Mobile phones introduced in 2009

Discontinued flagship smartphones

IPhone 3GS


Santa's Slay is a 2005 Christmas slasher black comedy film written and directed by David Steiman, a former assistant to Brett Ratner; Ratner served as a producer. The film stars Bill Goldberg, Douglas Smith, Emilie de Ravin, Robert Culp, Saul Rubinek, Dave Thomas, Rebecca Gayheart, Chris Kattan, and Fran Drescher.

Santa's Slay was released in the United States on December 20, 2005, by Media 8 Entertainment. The film received mixed reviews from critics.

Plot
On Christmas Eve in Alberta, Canada, the Mason family is bickering about their wealth and material possessions while eating Christmas dinner when Santa Claus comes down the chimney and kills them all in various graphic displays of Christmas-themed violence, such as drowning the matriarch Virginia in eggnog, using the star atop a Christmas tree as a shuriken, and stabbing the patriarch's hands to the table with silverware and suffocating him by stuffing a leg of turkey in his mouth.

Riding on his sleigh driven by his "hell-deer", a buffalo-like beast, Santa arrives at Hell Township and decimates the locals in various holiday-themed ways. In one of his kills, Santa slaughters the occupants of a local strip club. Pastor Timmons, a crooked minister, manages to survive the massacre. Later, Santa murders the local Jewish delicatessen owner Mr. Green using his own menorah.

Meanwhile, teenager Nicholas Yuleson is living with his grandfather, a crackpot inventor who has built a bunker in their basement to survive Christmas. When Nicholas asks Grandpa why he hates Christmas, he is shown "The Book of Klaus", which reveals the origins of Santa Claus. Apparently, Santa was the result of a virgin birth produced by Satan. Christmas was "The Day of Slaying" for Santa until A.D. 1005, when an angel defeated him in a curling match and sentenced him to deliver presents on Christmas for 1,000 years. This means that Santa is free to kill again in 2005.

Upon arriving at the delicatessen, Nicholas is taken to the police station for questioning about Mr. Green's murder. He is bailed out by his love interest, Mary "Mac" Mackenzie, just before Santa arrives and kills all of the officers. Santa pursues Nicholas and Mac in a police car, but they are able to escape, thanks to a shotgun in Mac's truck. They flee to Mr. Yuleson's bunker, with Santa still in pursuit. Nicholas and Mac manage to escape using Grandpa's snowmobile; but Grandpa is run over by Santa's "hell-deer" and is apparently killed.

The two teens hide in a local high school, hoping that Santa's powers will end once Christmas ends; but they are eventually forced to confront him in the gym. They are almost killed by Santa on a Zamboni but are saved by Grandpa, who is actually the angel who originally defeated and sentenced Santa. With Christmas over and his powers gone, Santa flees; but his "hell-deer" is shot down by Mac's father with a bazooka. Pastor Timmons is found dead in a Santa suit and is presumed to be the killer, while, in fact, the real killer Santa Claus is boarding a flight from Winnipeg to the North Pole under the name "Mr. Šatan." Nicholas notes to Mac that Santa is bound to come back, stating he's finishing what his grandfather started. He and Mac then share a kiss to pursue a relationship.

After the credits, Santa is seen looking over his Naughty List, when he looks into the camera and says "Who's Next?"

Cast
 Douglas Smith as Nicholas Yuleson
 Bill Goldberg as Santa Claus / Mr. Shatan
 Emilie de Ravin as Mary "Mac" McKenzie
 Robert Culp as Grandpa Yuleson
 Dave Thomas as Pastor Timmons
 Saul Rubinek as Mr. Green
 James Caan as Darren Mason (uncredited)
 Rebecca Gayheart as Gwen Mason
 Chris Kattan as Jason Mason
 Fran Drescher as Virginia Mason
 Alicia Loren as Beth Mason
 Annie Sorell as Taylor Mason
 Donna Zuk as Mrs. Talbot
 Jeff Hanna as Sean Mackenzie
 Paul Punyi as James Mackenzie
 Tom 'Tiny' Lister as gas station attendant
 Scott Francis Gibson as the S.W.N.D.S.U. place kicker
 Jimmy Herman as Vinny
 Michael David Simms as Captain Caulk
 Rick Ash as Officer Dick Zucker
 Donald Bland as Bouncer
 Christian Fraser as Bartender
 Ron Webber as Bar Patron
 King Lau as Security Guard
 Dwayne Wiley as Valet
 David Cormican as Valet
 Kevin Gillese as Disgruntled youth
 Ronnie as Santa's Helldeer
 Apache as Santa's Helldeer
 Joan Dunham as Random Grandmother
 Joan Dunham as Random Grandmother
 Kendall Garwryluk as Random Father
 Magdalena Maslik as Random Mother
 David Assaly as Twin Boys #1
 Dylan Demas as Twin Boys #2

Release
Santa's Slay was released on DVD in the United States by Lionsgate on December 20, 2005. It was released in Canada that same day by Maple Pictures. Lionsgate later re-released the film on November 10, 2008.

Reception
Randall Colburn from The A.V. Club gave the film a positive review, calling it "simultaneously vulgar and wholesome, stupid and satirical, violent and lighthearted". Todd Martin of HorrorNews.net also liked the film, writing, "It isn't perfect and there are times when it is a little too corny for its own good but overall it is just a fun, brainless movie that has a ton of violence in it." Brett Gallman from Oh, the Horror wrote, "Admittedly, the film doesn't quite keep up the relentless pace the entire time, but it's mostly one hell of a slay ride, full of cheesy dialogue, colorful characters, and plenty of laughs." David Nusair from ReelFilm Reviews gave the film a mixed 2.5 out of 5 stars, commending the film's humor, pacing, and Goldberg's tongue-in-cheek performance while also stating that the film ran out of steam in the third act.

The film was not without its detractors. Jon Condit from Dread Central was highly critical of the film, awarding it 1.5 out of 5 stars. In his review, Condit criticized the film's writing and direction as being "sloppy" and "amateurish", also criticizing the abrupt ending.

References

External links

2005 comedy horror films
2000s Christmas horror films
2005 films
2005 horror films
American black comedy films
Canadian comedy horror films
American comedy horror films
American slasher films
Canadian Christmas horror films
English-language Canadian films
Canadian slasher films
American Christmas horror films
Slasher comedy films
Films set in 2005
Films shot in Edmonton
Lionsgate films
Santa Claus in film
Demons in film
2005 comedy films
Canadian black comedy films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
2000s Canadian films

Santa's Slay


Queen of Heaven () is a title given to the Virgin Mary, by Christians mainly of the Catholic Church and, to a lesser extent, in Anglicanism, Lutheranism, and Eastern Orthodoxy. The title has long been a tradition, included in prayers and devotional literature and seen in Western art in the subject of the Coronation of the Virgin from the High Middle Ages, long before it was given a formal definition status by the Church.

The Catholic teaching on this subject is expressed in the papal encyclical Ad Caeli Reginam, issued by Pope Pius XII in 1954. It states that Mary is called Queen of Heaven because her son, Jesus Christ, is the king of Israel and the heavenly king of the universe; indeed, the Davidic tradition of Israel recognized the mother of the king as the queen mother of Israel.

Theological basis
Queen of Heaven () is one of many Queen titles used of Mary, mother of Jesus. The title derived in part from the ancient Catholic teaching that Mary, at the end of her earthly life, was bodily and spiritually assumed into heaven, and that she is there honored as Queen.

Pius XII explained the theological reasons for her title of Queen in a radio message to Fatima of May 13, 1946, Bendito seja:

He, the Son of God, reflects on His heavenly Mother the glory, the majesty and the dominion of His kingship, for, having been associated to the King of Martyrs in the ... work of human Redemption as Mother and cooperator, she remains forever associated to Him, with a practically unlimited power, in the distribution of the graces which flow from the Redemption. Jesus is King throughout all eternity by nature and by right of conquest: through Him, with Him, and subordinate to Him, Mary is Queen by grace, by divine relationship, by right of conquest, and by singular choice [of the Father].

In his 1954 encyclical Ad caeli reginam ("To the Queen of Heaven"), Pius XII asserts that Mary deserves the title because she is Mother of God, because she is closely associated as the New Eve with Jesus' redemptive work, because of her preeminent perfection and because of her intercessory power. Ad caeli reginam states that the main principle on which the royal dignity of Mary rests is her Divine Motherhood ... So with complete justice St. John Damascene could write: "When she became Mother of the Creator, she truly became Queen of every creature."

Biblical basis

In the Hebrew Bible some Davidic kings had in their court a gebirah ("Great Lady") who was often their mother, and held great power as his advisor and an advocate to him. In 1 Kings 2:20, Solomon said to his mother Bathsheba, seated on a throne at his right, "Make your request, Mother, for I will not refuse you." William G. Most sees here a sort of type of Mary.

In the New Testament, the title has several biblical sources. At the Annunciation, the archangel Gabriel announces that [Jesus] "... will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High; and the Lord God will give to him the throne of his father David. He will rule over the house of Jacob forever and his reign will be without end."(Luke 1:32) The biblical precedent in ancient Israel is that the mother of the king becomes the queen mother.  Mary's queenship is a share in Jesus' kingship.

Historical practice

The Catholic Church from the earliest times venerated the Queen of Heaven, according to Pius XII:

In the first three centuries of Christianity, Mary's queenship was popularized by the Transitus literature, that, according to Stephen Shoemaker, has its origins before the Council of Nicaea. Origen of Alexandria called Mary "my Lady", in his Hom VII in Lucam (PG 13:1902D), wich is a royal title.

In the fourth century, Ephrem the Syrian called Mary "Lady" and "Queen". Later Church fathers and doctors continued to use the title. Similarly, Gregory of Nyssa in his Sermo de Annuntiatione (PG 62: 766) called her "Lady" (δέσποιναν). This title also appears in many other early writers, e.g., Jerome, and Peter Chrysologus. The first Mariological definition and basis for the title of Mary Queen of Heaven developed at the Council of Ephesus, where Mary was defined to be the Mother of God. The members of the Council specifically approved this version against the opinion, that Mary is "only" the mother of Jesus. Nobody, they ruled, had participated in the life of her son more, than Mary, who gave birth to the Son of God.

The word "Queen" is common during and after the sixth century. Hymns of the 11th to 13th centuries address Mary as queen: "Hail, Holy Queen," "Hail, Queen of Heaven," "Queen of Heaven". The Dominican rosary and the Franciscan crown, as well as numerous invocations in Mary's litany, celebrate her queenship.  For centuries she has been invoked as the Queen of Heaven.

During the English Reformation, the title "Queen of Heaven", while eliminated from state-approved liturgy, became a symbol of resistance.

Litany of Loreto

She is invoked in the Litany of Loreto as:

 Queen of the Angels
 Queen of Patriarchs
 Queen of Prophets
 Queen of Apostles
 Queen of Martyrs
 Queen of Confessors
 Queen of Virgins
 Queen of all Saints
 Queen of Families
 Queen conceived without original sin
 Queen assumed into Heaven
 Queen of the Most Holy Rosary
 Queen of Peace

Other titles

The Second Vatican Council in 1964 referred to Mary as Queen of the Universe.

Liturgy of the Hours

Three of the four ancient Marian antiphons of the Liturgy of the Hours (the Salve Regina, the Ave Regina caelorum, the Alma Redemptoris Mater, and the Regina Caeli), address Mary as queen. These are prayed at different times of the year, at the end of Compline.

Salve Regina

Mary as Queen of Heaven is praised in the Salve Regina ("Hail Queen"), which is sung in the time from Trinity Sunday until the Saturday before the first Sunday of Advent. It is attributed to a German Benedictine monk, Hermann of Reichenau (1013–1054). Traditionally it has been sung in Latin, though many translations exist. In the Middle Ages, Salve Regina offices were held every Saturday. In the 13th century, the custom developed to greet the Queen of Heaven with the Salve Regina, which is considered the oldest of the four Marian antiphons. As a part of the Catholic Reformation, the Salve Regina was prayed every Saturday by members of the Sodality of Our Lady, a Jesuit Marian association. The Hail Holy Queen is also the final prayer of the Rosary.

Ave Regina caelorum

The Ave Regina caelorum ("Hail, Queen of Heaven") is an early Marian antiphon, praising Mary, the Queen of Heaven. It is traditionally said or sung after each of the canonical hours of the Liturgy of the Hours. The prayer was once used after Compline, the final canonical hour of prayer before going to sleep, from the Feast of the Presentation (February 2) through the Wednesday of Holy Week. It is now used in the Liturgy of the Hours on the feast of the Assumption of Mary. The Ave Regina caelorum dates back in a different musical intonation to the 12th century. Today's version is slightly different from a 12th-century intonation. The Ave Regina caelorum has four parts: Ave, Salve, Gaude and Vale (in English: hail, rejoice, farewell). It was used for processions in honour of the Queen of Heaven. The Ave Regina caelorum received numerous musical versions, a famous one of which was composed in 1773 by Joseph Haydn.

Regina Caeli

The Regina Caeli ("Queen of Heaven") is an anthem of the Catholic Church which replaces the Angelus during Eastertide, the fifty days from Easter Sunday to Pentecost Sunday. It is named for its opening words in Latin. Of unknown authorship, the anthem has been traced back to the twelfth century. It was in Franciscan use, after Compline, in the first half of the thirteenth century.

Different musical settings of the words were composed throughout the centuries by known and unknown composers. Not all attributions are correct, as an often quoted Regina Caeli by Joseph Haydn was not by him.

Veneration
The small and simple young girl of Nazareth became Queen of the world! This is one of the marvels that reveal God's Heart. Of course, Mary's queenship is totally relative to Christ's kingship. He is the Lord whom after the humiliation of death on the Cross the Father exalted above any other creature in Heaven and on earth and under the earth (cf. Phil 2: 9-11). Through a design of grace, the Immaculate Mother was fully associated with the mystery of the Son: in his Incarnation; in his earthly life, at first hidden at Nazareth and then manifested in the messianic ministry; in his Passion and death; and finally, in the glory of his Resurrection and Ascension into Heaven ... Benedict XVI.

The Queenship of Mary is commemorated in the last of the Glorious Mysteries of the Holy Rosary—the Coronation of the Virgin as Queen of Heaven and Earth.

Parishes and private groups often process and crown an image of Mary with flowers. This often is referred to as a "May Crowning". This rite may be done on solemnities and feasts of the Blessed Virgin Mary, or other festive days, and offers the Church a chance to reflect on Mary's role in the history of salvation.

The Virgin has been called "Queen of France" since 1638 when, partly in thanksgiving for a victory over the Huguenots and also in hope of the birth of an heir after years of childless marriage, Louis XIII officially gave her that title. Siena, Tuscany, hails the Virgin as Queen of Siena, and annually observes the race and pageant called the "palio" in her honor.

Mary was declared "Queen of Poland" by king John II Casimir during the Lwów Oath in the 17th century. Since then she is believed to save the country miraculously during Deluge, Partitions of Poland, Polish-Soviet War, World War II and the Polish People's Republic. The solemnity of Our Lady Queen of Poland is celebrated on 3 May.

Feast of Queenship of Mary

Queenship of Mary is a Marian feast day in the liturgical calendar of the Catholic Church, created by Pope Pius XII. On 11 October 1954, the pontiff pronounced the new feast in his encyclical Ad caeli reginam. The feast was celebrated on May 31, the last day of the Marian month. The initial ceremony for this feast involved the crowning of the Salus Populi Romani icon of Mary in Rome by Pius XII as part of a procession in Rome.<ref>"Religion: The Queenship of Mary". Time, November 8, 1954.</ref>

In 1969, Pope Paul VI moved the feast day to August 22, the former Octave day of the Assumption in order to emphasize the close bond between Mary's queenship and her glorification in body and soul next to her Son. The Second Vatican Council's Constitution on the Church states that "Mary was taken up body and soul into heavenly glory, and exalted by the Lord as Queen of the universe, that she might be the more fully conformed to her Son" (Lumen gentium, 59).

The movement to officially recognise the Queenship of Mary was initially promoted by several Catholic Mariological congresses in Lyon, France; Freiburg, Germany; and Einsiedeln, Switzerland. Gabriel Roschini founded in Rome, Italy, an international society to promote the Queenship of Mary, Pro Regalitate Mariae. Several popes had described Mary as Queen and Queen of Heaven, which was documented by Roschini. Pope Pius XII repeated the title in numerous encyclicals and apostolic letters, especially during World War II.AAS 1942 315,AAS 1943 38,AAS 1950, 763,

Marian processions

In Los Angeles, California, a Marian procession took place annually for roughly the first 100 years following the founding of the city. In an attempt to revive the custom of religious processions, in September 2011 the Queen of Angels Foundation, founded by Mark Anchor Albert, inaugurated an annual "Grand Marian Procession" in the heart of Downtown Los Angeles' historic core. This yearly procession, intended to coincide with the anniversary of the founding of the City of Los Angeles, begins outside of the parish of La Iglesia de Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles which is part of the Los Angeles Plaza Historic District, better known as "La Placita". By way of city streets, the procession eventually terminates at the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels where a public Rosary and Mass in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary are offered. Subsequent years have seen the involvement and participation of numerous chivalric, fraternal, and religious orders, parishes, lay groups, political figures, as well as other religious and civic organizations.

 Art

Early Christian art shows Mary in an elevated position. She carries her divine son in her hands, or holds him. The earliest known Roman depiction of Santa Maria Regina depicting Mary as a queen dates to the 6th century and is found in the modest church of Santa Maria Antiqua built in the 5th century in the Forum Romanum. Here Mary is unequivocally depicted as an empress.Bissera V. Pentcheva, 2006 Icons and power: the Mother of God in Byzantium  page 21 As one of the earliest Roman Catholic Marian churches, this church was used by Pope John VII in the early 8th century as the see of the bishop of Rome. Also in the 8th century, the Second Council of Nicaea decreed that such pictures of Mary should be venerated.

In the early 16th century, Protestant reformers began to discourage Marian art, and some like John Calvin or Zwingli even encouraged its destruction. But after the Council of Trent in the mid-16th century confirmed the veneration of Marian paintings for Catholics, Mary was often painted as a Madonna with crown, surrounded by stars, standing on top of the world or the partly visible moon. After the victory against the Turks at Lepanto, Mary is depicted as the Queen of Victory, sometimes wearing the crown of the Habsburg empire. National interpretations existed in France as well, where Jean Fouquet painted the Queen of Heaven in 1450 with the face of the mistress of King Charles VII. Statues and pictures of Mary were crowned by kings in Poland, France, Bavaria, Hungary and Austria, sometimes apparently using crowns previously worn by earthly monarchs. A surviving small crown presented by Margaret of York seems to have been that worn by her at her wedding to Charles the Bold in 1463. A recent coronation was that of the picture of the Salus Populi Romani'' in 1954 by Pius XII. The veneration of Mary as queen continues into the 21st century, but artistic expressions do not have the leading role as in previous times.

Artworks, including paintings, mosaics and carvings of the coronation of Mary as Queen of Heaven, became increasingly popular from the 13th century onward. Works follow a set pattern, showing Mary kneeling in the heavenly court, and being crowned either by Jesus alone, or else by Jesus and God the Father together, with the Holy Spirit, usually in the form of a dove, completing the Trinity. The Coronation of Mary is almost entirely a theme of Western art. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, although Mary is often shown wearing a crown, the coronation itself never became an accepted artistic subject.

Gallery of art

Paintings

Statues

Frescoes

Altars

See also
 Mother of the Church
 Seat of Wisdom

References

Sources

External links

 Pope Pius XII. Ad Caeli Reginam
 Pope Benedict XVI. "On the Queenship of Mary", General Audience, August 22, 2012

Anglican Mariology
Biblical phrases
Queen of Heaven
Catholic Mariology
Christian terminology
Heaven in Christianity
Pope Pius XII Mariology
Protestant views on Mary
Titles of Mary

Queen of Heaven