Lawton Mainor Chiles Jr. (April 3, 1930 – December 12, 1998) was an American politician and military officer. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as a United States senator from Florida from 1971 to 1989 and as the 41st governor of Florida from 1991 until his death in 1998.

A Korean War veteran, Chiles later returned to Florida for law school and eventually opened his own private practice in 1955. Three years later, Chiles entered politics with a successful bid for the Florida House of Representatives in 1958.

By 1966, Chiles left the Florida House to run for the Florida Senate. Despite 12 years in the Florida Legislature, Chiles was relatively unknown when he decided to bid for United States Senate in 1970. He embarked on a 1,003-mile walk from Pensacola to Key West for his campaign, earning him the nickname "Walkin' Lawton". It was successful and Chiles defeated his opponent William C. Cramer by a 53.9%–46.1% margin. Chiles was re-elected with relative ease in 1976 and 1982. He retired from the United States Senate in 1989.

Not long after his retirement, supporters convinced him to run for governor of Florida in 1990 against the unpopular incumbent Bob Martinez, and Chiles defeated Martinez by a 13-point margin (56.5% to 43.5%). During his first term as Governor, Chiles reformed health care and oversaw recovery efforts from Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Chiles faced a tough re-election bid in 1994 against Jeb Bush, a businessman and son of former President George H. W. Bush. Chiles prevailed over Bush by fewer than 64,000 votes. During his second term, Chiles reformed education in Florida. On December 12, 1998, he suffered a heart attack and died at the Florida Governor's Mansion, leaving Lieutenant Governor Buddy MacKay to serve the remaining 24 days of Chiles' unexpired term. Jeb Bush succeeded MacKay. As of to date, Chiles's reelection in 1994 is the last time a Democrat was elected Governor of Florida, with McKay being the most recent Democratic governor.

Early life
Chiles was born in Polk County, Florida near Lakeland, the son of Margaret Kate (née Patterson) and Lawton Mainor Chiles. He attended public school at Lakeland High School, then the University of Florida at Gainesville. At the University of Florida, he was active in student politics. Chiles was a member of Phi Delta Phi International Legal Honor Society Cockrell Inn and was inducted into both the university Hall of Fame (the most prestigious honor a student can receive at UF) and Florida Blue Key.

He was a member of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity. He graduated in 1952. Following his college years, Chiles entered the Korean War, commissioned as an artillery officer in the United States Army. After the war, Chiles returned to the University of Florida for law school, from which he graduated in 1955; he passed the state bar exam that year and went into private practice in Lakeland. He married Rhea Grafton.

Early career
In 1958, Chiles, a Democrat, was elected to the Florida House of Representatives. It was essentially still a one-party state, as most African Americans were disfranchised by a constitution and laws passed since the turn of the century. Chiles served in the House until 1966, when he was elected to a seat in the Florida Senate, which he held until 1970. While in the state senate, Chiles served on the 1968 Florida Law Revision Commission. During his time in the state legislature, Chiles continued to work as a lawyer and developer in Lakeland. He was one of the initial investors in the Red Lobster restaurant chain. He was a member of the Florida Society of the Sons of the American Revolution.

The 1,003-mile walk

In 1970, Chiles decided to run for a seat in the United States Senate. At the time, despite his 12 years in the state legislature, he was largely unknown outside his Lakeland-based district. To generate some media coverage and meet people across the state, Chiles embarked upon a 1,003-mile, 91-day walk across Florida from Pensacola to Key West. The walk earned him the recognition he sought, as well as the nickname that would follow him throughout his political career– "Walkin' Lawton". In his journal Chiles wrote that sometimes he walked alone, while other times he met ordinary Floridians along the way. In later years, Chiles would recall the walk allowed him to see Florida's natural beauty, as well as the state's problems, with fresh eyes. Some Florida reporters said that Chiles enjoyed campaigning much more than governing.

Chiles v. Cramer
In the general election campaign, Chiles faced U.S. Representative William C. Cramer of St. Petersburg, the first Republican to have served in Congress from Florida since Reconstruction. Cramer, a graduate of Harvard Law School, questioned Chiles's votes as a state senator on several matters regarding insurance. One law increased automobile liability rates by 50 percent over two years, and another raised premiums for school bus insurance, at a time that Chiles's insurance agency in Lakeland held the policy on the Polk County School Board, but such "conflict-of-interest" accusations seemed to have little political effect.

The self-made Cramer depicted Chiles as coming from a "silver spoon" background with a then net worth of $300,000, but the media ignored questions about the candidates' personal wealth. Instead, reporters focused on the walk, often termed a "public relations stroke of genius." Prior to the walk,  Chiles was identified by only 5 percent of voters; afterwards, he had widespread positive recognition.

The Tallahassee Democrat forecast correctly that Chiles's "weary feet and comfortable hiking boots" would carry the 40-year-old "slow-country country lawyer" with "boyish amiability", and "back-country common sense and methodical urbane political savvy" to victory. Chiles's "Huck Finn" image was contrasted one night in Miami when he held a fried chicken picnic while the Republicans showcased a black-tie $1,000-a-plate dinner.

Cramer could not match Chiles's public appeal. An observer described Cramer's "charisma" as "a speech in the Congressional Record." A Cramer aide said it was difficult "selling experience. It's not a sexy thing." A Chiles advertisement urged that voters "Vote for yourself. Chiles walked our streets and highways to hear what you have to say. That's why a vote for Chiles is like a vote for yourself." With "shoe leather and a shoestring budget", Chiles presented himself as a "problem solver who doesn't automatically vote 'No' on every issue."

Cramer said that he should have demanded more debates and rebuffed the walking tactic: "I never could get that turned around.  He was walking, and I was running. But the press was enamored with the walk ... Every time he was asked a question about where he stood, he would quote somebody that he met on the campaign trail to state what he was to do when he got to the Senate consistent with what that constituent had said.  The basic approach gave him more credibility to his walk, which had nothing to do with his qualifications for the Senate but gave him free publicity and appealed to the 'little man.'"

With ecology a national concern by 1970, Chiles announced his opposition to the Cross Florida Barge Canal, which had originally been supported by every member of the Florida congressional delegation. The project, one-third completed, was cancelled early in 1971 and is now a protected green belt corridor. Chiles endorsed federal funding to remove waste from the bass-teeming Lake Apopka in central Florida. By contrast, Cramer received little credit from environmentalists although he had drafted the Water Pollution Control Act of 1956 and had sponsored legislation to protect alligators, stop beach erosion, dredge harbors, and remove oil spills. Instead, Cramer's critics accused him of having weakened anti-pollution laws. Cramer questioned Chiles's opposition to a proposed severance tax on phosphate mining, which particularly impacted Tampa Bay. Cramer declared that "Liberal Lawton has protected the phosphate industry -- the state's single largest polluter."

By 1974, a survey showed Floridians favored limits on development, and 60 percent urged more government funding for conservation.

Only three newspapers—in Orlando, Fort Myers, and Pasco County—supported Cramer in the race against Chiles. In the face of media opposition, Cramer failed to pin the "liberal" label on Chiles, who called himself by the rare hybrid term "progressive conservative." Explaining Cramer's inability to make "liberalism" an issue in 1970, The New York Times observed that Chiles and the gubernatorial candidate, Reubin Askew of Pensacola, "convey amiable good ol' boy qualities with moderate-to-liberal aspirations that do not strike fear into the hearts of conservatives."

Chiles relied heavily on his support from the retiring senator and former governor Spessard Holland. He noted that Cramer had expected to face former governor Farris Bryant, who like LeRoy Collins, Gurney's foe in 1968, had ties to the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson. Bryant lost the senatorial primary to Chiles. "I'm not anything Cramer thought he would be running against. So he's reduced to telling lies about me," Chiles quipped. Chiles said that Cramer can bring Nixon, Agnew, Reagan, and anybody else he wants. ... I'll take Holland on my side against all of them."

Cramer said a Republican-majority Senate would lead to the removal of controversial Senator J. William Fulbright of Arkansas, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee who had long opposed the Vietnam War. Chiles, however, retorted that if Republicans controlled the Senate other southern Democrats would also forfeit committee chairmanships earned through their seniority.

U.S. Senator

Chiles was twice re-elected to the U.S. Senate -- 1976 and 1982, both heavily Democratic years. Chiles, never flashy, was considered a moderate lawmaker who rarely made waves. He served as the chairman of the Special Committee on Aging of the 96th Congress (1979–1981), and in the 100th Congress (1987–1989) served as chairman of the influential Senate Budget Committee. While heading the Budget Committee, he played a key role in the 1987 revision of the Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act.

In 1985, Chiles underwent quadruple-bypass heart surgery. After his recovery, he became increasingly frustrated with the slow pace of work in the Senate, complaining that it was too difficult to get anything done. Accordingly, he announced in December 1987 that he would not seek re-election the next year. Chiles was succeeded by Republican Connie Mack.

Governor of Florida

After the surgery, Chiles developed clinical depression, and was treated with Prozac. He retired from the Senate in 1989 and intended to retire from politics entirely. However, several supporters convinced him to enter the 1990 Florida governor's race against Republican incumbent Bob Martinez. During the Democratic Party primary, his opponent Bill Nelson attempted to make an issue of Chiles' age and health, a strategy that backfired badly in a state with a large population of retirees.

Chiles ran a campaign to "reinvent" the state's government, and defeated Martinez to take office in 1991. During his first term as governor, Chiles managed to accomplish very little. Although he developed ambitious health-care and tax reform packages, neither passed in the hostile state legislature. The early years of his term were troubled by a national economic recession that severely damaged Florida's tourism-based economy, and by Hurricane Andrew, which struck near Homestead in August 1992.

Chiles ran for re-election in the 1994 election against Republican Jeb Bush. During the campaign season, Bush ran a television advertisement which featured the mother of a teenage girl who had been abducted and murdered many years before. The mother stated that "Her killer is still on death row, and we're still waiting for justice. We won't get it from Lawton Chiles because he's too liberal on crime. . . Lawton Chiles has let us down. . . I know Jeb Bush.  He'll make criminals serve their sentences and enforce the death penalty. Lawton Chiles won't," referring to Chiles not signing the convicted killer's death warrant. Chiles responded that he did not sign a death warrant because the case was still on appeal. The Democratic governor further claimed a record of support for the death penalty, having presided over 18 executions during his two terms (among them Judy Buenoano, the first Floridian woman executed since 1848). Moreover, after the botched electrocution of Pedro Medina in 1997, and despite significant public criticism, Chiles refused to endorse the use of lethal injection as a lawful form of execution. The new method was introduced under Bush's administration in 1999 after the execution of Allen Lee Davis.

The 1994 election was memorable for its series of debates between Bush and Chiles. During the last debate on November 1, Chiles said to Bush, "My momma told me, sticks and stones may break my bones, but names will never hurt me. But let me tell you something about the old liberal. The old he-coon walks just before the light of day." Bush and many others did not understand the reference, but the quote gained significant media attention. After the debate, Chiles remained oblique, saying "It's sort of like saying, "Don't mess with the Lone Ranger.'" The next day, Lt. Governor Buddy MacKay explained that the he-coon was the oldest and wiliest raccoon in the pack, according to Florida cracker folklore. Raccoons were hunted by the light of the moon, and the he-coon would wait all night while the young raccoons ran from the dogs, tiring them out. Then, just before the light of day, the he-coon would leave his lair and walk in the open, safe from the dogs. Chiles was implying that he was the he-coon, and just as the he-coon walked before dawn, he would score a comeback victory against Bush. The quip was a direct appeal to older, rural, ancestral Floridians, whose loyalty to Democratic candidates had waned over the past several decades. Seven days later, as Republicans swept the 1994 Florida elections in almost every respect, Chiles bucked the trend, winning reelection in an upset by about 64,000 votes, 1.52% of the total vote. He is the last Democrat to win a gubernatorial election in Florida. Chiles' "he-coon" quote has become a well-known moment in Florida politics, often recalled and referenced in headlines and Florida political debate.

Chiles' second term as governor was notable as the first time in state history that a Democratic governor had a legislature controlled by the Republican Party. Despite this, he had some successes, including a successful lawsuit he and state attorney general Bob Butterworth filed against the tobacco industry, which resulted in an $11.3 billion settlement for the state. He also won approval for a $2.7 billion statewide school construction program.

In 1995, Chiles sought treatment for a neurological problem that was later diagnosed as a mild stroke after he awoke with nausea, slurred speech and loss of coordination; and it would be determined dehydration might have caused the episode. He recovered fully, which was credited to prompt treatment.

Death

Ineligible to run a third time, Chiles supported the lieutenant governor, his personal friend Buddy MacKay, in the 1998 Florida governor's race against Jeb Bush. Bush, however, scored an easy victory over MacKay. On December 12 that year, just three weeks before his long-awaited retirement was to begin, Chiles suffered from an abnormal heart rhythm while exercising on a cycling machine in the Governor's Mansion gymnasium. He died suddenly shortly afterwards, at the age of 68.

Funeral services were held at Faith Presbyterian Church in Tallahassee on December 16, 1998, following a funeral procession that traced part of his walk from the 1970 Senate campaign from the panhandle town of Century to Tallahassee. Chiles was initially buried in a church cemetery in Tallahassee; however, within a year his wife had the body moved to a  tract  east of Tallahassee, a place they named Jubilee. He was succeeded in office by MacKay, who served until Bush's term began on January 5, 1999.

Legacy

Legislative and executive programs
Chiles was known as a health care and children's advocate throughout his career. He emphasized health coverage for the uninsured and led a campaign to create the National Commission for Prevention of Infant Mortality in the late 1980s. In 1994, he fought for the creation of regional health care alliances throughout the state, which allow small businesses to pool their health care dollars and broaden coverage while saving money. He also created the Florida Department of Elder Affairs.

In 1992, Chiles created the Florida Healthy Start program to provide a comprehensive prenatal and infant care program available to all pregnant women and infants across the state; since the program's inception the state's infant mortality rate has dropped 18%. In 1996, Chiles appointed a Governor's Commission on Education to examine the state's school system. One of the significant recommendations that came from that commission eventually led to the highly controversial 2002 state constitutional amendment restricting Florida's school class sizes.

In 1997, anti-abortion advocacy group Choose Life collected 10,000 signatures and filed the $30,000 fee required under Florida law at the time to submit an application for a new specialty plate. State Senator Tom Lee sponsored a bill in support of the tag's creation. The bill passed both houses of the Florida State Legislature in early 1998, but was vetoed by Chiles, who stated that license plates are not the "proper forum for debate" on political issues.

Judicial appointments
Perhaps his greatest legacy was his impact on the Florida Supreme Court, where his appointments continued to have a major impact on state and national events long after Chiles' death. Chiles appointed Justice Major B. Harding in 1991, Justice Charles T. Wells in 1994, Justice Harry Lee Anstead in 1994, Justice Barbara J. Pariente in 1997, and Justice R. Fred Lewis in 1998. Chiles and incoming Governor Jeb Bush jointly appointed Justice Peggy A. Quince in 1998 just a few days before Chiles' death. Quince was jointly appointed because her term as Justice would begin the exact moment that Bush's first term as governor began, so there was a legal question which governor had the authority to appoint her. Bush and Chiles agreed to make a joint appointment to avoid a lawsuit over the question.

Thus, at one point, Chiles had appointed five of the seven Justices and had jointly appointed the sixth. Chiles' appointments formed the Supreme Court majorities that decided the following major cases:
 In 2006, the Court struck down a law passed by the Florida State Legislature that had created the United States' first statewide education voucher program. The majority in this case consisted of Wells, Anstead, Pariente, Lewis, and Quince. Bush appointees Raoul G. Cantero and Kenneth B. Bell dissented.
 In 2004, the court struck down another piece of legislation from the Florida legislature designed to reverse a lower court decision in the Terri Schiavo case. This decision was unanimous and included Bush appointees Cantero and Bell. By this time, Harding had retired.
 In the 2000 presidential election controversy, the Florida Supreme Court ordered a statewide recount in the disputed election pitting George W. Bush against Al Gore. The United States Supreme Court later reversed that ruling. The Florida Supreme Court majority in this case consisted of Anstead, Pariente, Lewis, and Quince. Dissenting Justices were Wells, Harding, and Leander J. Shaw Jr., an appointee of Governor Bob Graham. Shaw retired in early 2003 and was replaced by Bell.

Relatives
Chiles' niece was former U.S. Senator Kay Hagan of North Carolina, a Democrat elected in 2008. Hagan was the daughter of Chiles' sister Jeannette. Chiles' son, "Bud" Chiles, ran for the position of Governor of Florida without party affiliation in a grassroots campaign. Like his father, Bud embarked on a walking tour of the state, listening and visiting with local communities in Florida. On September 2, 2010, Chiles dropped out of the race citing "continuing down this road could have unintended consequences, dividing those who hold common goals..." Chiles threw his support behind Alex Sink.

Electoral history
Democratic primary for United States Senator from Florida, 1970
 C. Farris Bryant – 240,222 (32.90%)
 Lawton Chiles – 188,300 (25.79%)
 Fred Schultz – 175,745 (24.07%)
 Alcee Hastings – 91,948 (12.59%)
 Joel Daves – 33,939 (4.65%)

Democratic runoff for United States Senator from Florida, 1970
 Lawton Chiles – 474,420 (65.74%)
 C. Farris Bryant – 247,211 (34.26%)

1970 United States Senate election in Florida
 Lawton Chiles (D) – 902,438 (53.87%)
 William C. Cramer (R) – 772,817 (46.13%)

1976 United States Senate election in Florida
 Lawton Chiles (D, Inc.) – 1,799,518 (62.98%)
 John Grady (R) – 1,057,886 (37.02%)

1982 United States Senate election in Florida
 Lawton Chiles (D, Inc.) – 1,637,667 (61.72%)
 Van B. Poole (R) – 1,015,330 (38.27%)

Democratic primary for Governor of Florida, 1990
 Lawton Chiles – 746,325 (69.49%)
 Bill Nelson – 327,731 (30.51%)

1990 Florida gubernatorial election
 Lawton Chiles/Buddy MacKay (D) – 1,995,206 (56.51%)
 Bob Martinez (Inc.)/J. Allison DeFoor (R) – 1,535,068 (43.48%)

Democratic primary for Governor of Florida, 1994
 Lawton Chiles (Inc.) – 603,657 (72.17%)
 Jack Gargan – 232,757 (27.83%)

1994 Florida gubernatorial election
 Lawton Chiles/Buddy MacKay (D, Inc.) – 2,135,008 (50.75%)
 Jeb Bush/Tom Feeney (R) – 2,071,068 (49.23%)

See also
 The Florida Wildlife Corridor Expedition
 Lawton Chiles High School
 Lawton Chiles Legal Information Center

Videos
(1) Funeral Services for Governor Chiles at Christ Presbyterian Church on December 16, 1998

(2) Chiles' 8th & final State of the State Address from March 3, 1998

(3) Opening Plenary of the Winter Meeting of the National Governors Association from February 22, 1998

(4) Tobacco Settlement and Medicaid Funds from December 8, 1997

(5) Health Care Fraud Prevention from March 25, 1997

(6) Chiles' 7th State of the State Address from March 4, 1997

(7) Chiles' 6th State of the State Address from March 5, 1996

(8) Prescription for Disaster from May 11, 1995

(9) Inauguration Address from January 3, 1995

(10) Governor Chiles' victory speech after getting re-elected from November 8, 1994

(11) Florida Gubernatorial Debate from November 1, 1994

(12) Florida Gubernatorial Debate from October 18, 1994

(13) Florida Gubernatorial Debate from October 4, 1994

(14) Chiles' 4th State of the State Address from February 10, 1994

(15) Chiles' 2nd State of the State Address from January 14, 1992

(16) Chiles' 1st State of the State Address from March 5, 1991

(17) Inauguration Address on January 8, 1991

References

External links

 Official Governor's portrait and biography from the State of Florida
 St. Petersburg Times article on the death of Gov. Chiles
 Biographical Directory of the US Congress
 Chiles' electoral results

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1930 births
1998 deaths
Democratic Party governors of Florida
Democratic Party Florida state senators
Democratic Party United States senators from Florida
Democratic Party members of the Florida House of Representatives
Florida lawyers
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
Military personnel from Florida
University of Florida alumni
People from Lakeland, Florida
American Presbyterians
Lakeland High School (Lakeland, Florida) alumni
20th-century American politicians
Fredric G. Levin College of Law alumni
20th-century American lawyers
United States Army officers

Lawton Chiles


Mitchell Frederick Hepburn (August 12, 1896 – January 5, 1953) was the 11th premier of Ontario, from 1934 to 1942. He was the youngest premier in Ontario history, becoming premier at age 37. He was the only Ontario Liberal Party leader in the 20th century to lead his party to two majorities.

Early life

Born in St. Thomas, Ontario, Hepburn attended school in Elgin County and hoped to become a lawyer. His formal education ended abruptly, however, when someone threw an apple at a visiting dignitary, Sir Adam Beck, and knocked his silk top hat off his head. Hepburn was accused of the deed and denied it but refused to identify the culprit. Refusing to apologize, he walked out of his high school and obtained a job as a bank clerk at the Canadian Bank of Commerce where he worked from 1913 to 1917. He eventually became an accountant at the bank's Winnipeg branch.

At the outbreak of World War I, Hepburn had already enlisted in the 34th Fort Garry Horse but was unable to obtain his parents' consent to sign up for the Canadian Expeditionary Force. He then became a lieutenant in the 25th Elgin Regiment of the Canadian Militia, and was conscripted to the 1st (Western Ontario) Battalion in 1918. He transferred to the Royal Air Force and was sent to Deseronto for training but suffered injuries in an automobile accident that summer, followed by being bedridden by the influenza in the fall, both of which kept him from active service. He returned to St. Thomas to run his family's onion farm.

Early political career

After the war, Hepburn joined the United Farmers of Ontario (UFO) helping to start its branch in Elgin County, but by the mid-1920s he switched to the Liberal Party. In the 1926 election, he was elected to the House of Commons of Canada as a representative of Elgin West, and was overwhelmingly re-elected in the 1930 election.

Later that year he became leader of the Liberal Party of Ontario. His support of farmers and free trade, and his former membership in the UFO allowed him to attract Harry Nixon's rump of UFO Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) into the Liberal Party (as Liberal-Progressives). This and the Great Depression led to the defeat of the unpopular Conservative premier George Stewart Henry in the 1934 provincial election. His stance against the prohibition of alcohol allowed him to break the Liberal Party from the militant prohibitionist stance that had helped reduce it to a rural, Protestant south western Ontario rump in the 1920s.

Hepburn represented a type of agrarian democracy that detested Toryism and valued oratory. He once saw a pile of manure situated in a village square, and proceeded to jump on top of it to give a speech, apologizing to the crowd for speaking from a Tory platform. He also used the same line when standing on a manure spreader, only to have a heckler shout, "Well, wind 'er up Mitch, because she's never carried a bigger load!"

On his death, the Toronto Star observed:

Premier of Ontario

Hepburn's premiership achieved international attention, which merited his appearance on Time magazine's cover in 1937.

As premier, Hepburn undertook a number of measures that enhanced his reputation as the practitioner of a highly vigorous style. In a public show of austerity, he closed Chorley Park, the residence of the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario, auctioned off the chauffeur driven limousines that had been used by the previous Conservative cabinet, and fired many civil servants. To improve the province's welfare, he gave money to mining industries in Northern Ontario and introduced compulsory milk pasteurization (in so doing, he has been credited with virtually wiping out bovine tuberculosis in the province). Breaking with the temperance stance of previous Liberal governments, Hepburn expanded the availability of liquor by allowing hotels to sell beer and wine.

Industrial labour reform
The Industrial Standards Act, which emulated the US National Industrial Recovery Act, was introduced in 1935 to set minimum wages and working conditions by industry and geographic area. It was described by Labour Minister David Croll as "the most controversial piece of legislation now on the Statute Books of the Province," and it came about after federal efforts that had been instituted under RB Bennett's "New Deal" were declared unconstitutional.

Guardianship of Dionne quintuplets
The government also made international news by making the Dionne quintuplets wards of the provincial Crown in response to public outrage of plans by promoters to exploit the infants by putting them on display at the Chicago World's Fair. The Legislative Assembly passed legislation in that regard and subsequently replaced it in 1944; it was not repealed until 2006.

Tax collection

As Treasurer of Ontario, Hepburn adopted a more aggressive approach in the collection of succession duty on large estates, which resulted in millions of dollars in extra government revenues. He made no apologies for doing so, as he noted in a speech in 1938:

One estate that was of particular focus in this campaign was that of the late John Rudolphus Booth, who had died in 1925. Although succession duties of $4.28 million ($ in current terms) were paid in 1927, Hepburn subsequently claimed more in 1937 and had the Legislative Assembly of Ontario pass the necessary legislation to overcome the legal obstacles. Booth's heirs eventually paid another $3 million ($ in current terms) in 1939.

Cancellation of Hydro contracts
As part of his drive to cut government spending, the Power Commission Act, 1935, was passed to cancel contracts that the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario had signed between 1926 and 1930 for delivery of electricity from power plants in Quebec by declaring them to be "void and unenforceable." The move temporarily shut Ontario out of world bond markets. The Act was declared to be ultra vires by the Ontario Court of Appeal in 1937 as being legislation in derogation of extraprovincial rights (although later jurisprudence has suggested that the Court may have overreached in its rulings). Many such contracts were later renegotiated at lower volumes and prices.

Taking back forests

Hepburn took an aggressive position with respect to timber licences in Northern Ontario that were being held by companies that would (or could) not cut wood on them. In that regard, in 1936 the Forest Resources Regulation Act was passed to grant the government broad powers for mandating minimum production quotas, maximum limits in line with good forestry practice, reduce licensed acreages that were in excess of requirements, and increase stumpage fees on companies "operating or carrying on business in a manner detrimental to the public interest." Great Lakes Paper saw its holdings reduced from  to , and was assessed a $500,000 penalty ($ in current terms) for refusing to participate in a minimum price agreement set up by the Ontario and Quebec governments.

In 1937, the Settlers' Pulpwood Protection Act was passed to govern the supply of pulpwood from private lands, together with fixing quotas and prices to be followed.

The Crown Timber Act'''s provisions, which had been in effect since the time of Arthur Sturgis Hardy and required logs to be manufactured as timber before they could exported from the province, were relaxed by order in council in 1936 to create employment opportunities in the logging industry.

When the Abitibi Power and Paper Company, in receivership since 1932, was ordered into liquidation in 1940, Hepburn appointed a Royal Commission to investigate the matter to determine the best course of resolution. The Legislative Assembly imposed a moratorium on liquidation proceedings in 1941, which was ultimately upheld by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1943. The Commission's recommended plan was accepted by all creditors. It would emerge from receivership in 1946, after one of the longest such receiverships in Canadian history.

Fight with CIO
In later years, Hepburn would form a Liberal–Labour alliance with the Communist Party of Canada, but as premier, he opposed unions and refused to let the CIO form unions in Ontario. On April 8, 1937, the CIO-backed General Motors plant in Oshawa went on strike and demanded an eight-hour workday, a seniority system, and the recognition of its CIO-affiliated United Auto Workers union. The strikers were also supported by the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, which was Canada's main left-wing party. Hepburn, then professing a deep concern about radicals among auto workers, was supported by the owners of the plant and General Motors when he organized a volunteer police force to help him put down the strike after Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King had refused to send the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The force was somewhat derisively known as "Hepburn's Hussars" or the "Sons of Mitches." Cabinet ministers who disagreed with Hepburn over the issue were forced to resign. However, the strike held out, and Hepburn capitulated on April 23, 1937.

Conflict with Mackenzie King

Hepburn remained a bitter opponent of Mackenzie King after the strike and harshly criticized King's war effort in 1940, after the outbreak of World War II had caused a resolution in the legislature to be passed 44-10 to accuse the federal government of mishandling the war effort. The Conservative opposition voted unanimously for the resolution, but the motion split the governing Liberals, with nine members of Hepburn's caucus voting against and others leaving the chamber before the vote. Hepburn, thinking that Canada should be doing more to support the war, helped to organize the military districts in Ontario and encouraged men to volunteer when Mackenzie King chose not to introduce conscription.

Hepburn supported King's opponent, Arthur Meighen, in a by-election in Toronto in 1942, despite Hepburn's later alliance with the Communist Party of Canada. Meighen's unusual source of support did not bring him to success, and he lost the by-election since the Liberals did not run a candidate, and King ordered party resources to be sent to the CCF candidate. However, King was politically much stronger than Hepburn; federal Liberal supporters, as well as those who thought an erratically-driven rift between the provincial and federal parties to be suicidal, called for him to step down. Hepburn ultimately resigned as premier in October 1942 but continued to serve as Treasurer of Ontario and party leader until the following year.

Aftermath
Although Gordon Daniel Conant had become premier, many people continued to think that was in name only. Senior cabinet ministers such as Provincial Secretary Harry Nixon resigned and demanded a leadership convention. Pressure from both provincial and federal Liberals caused one to be held in May 1943. Hepburn finally tendered his resignation as leader (by telegram), and Nixon was elected the new party leader and was appointed as premier.

The Liberals under Nixon were soon routed in the 1943 Ontario election and fell to third-party status, behind the Progressive Conservatives, led by George Drew, and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, led by Ted Jolliffe. Hepburn himself was re-elected in his riding as an Independent Liberal while he was calling for a Liberal-Conservative coalition against the burgeoning CCF. The Liberal caucus unanimously asked Hepburn to resume the party's leadership in 1944.

Now branding Drew's Conservatives as the greatest menace to Canada, he reversed his earlier criticism of Mackenzie King's war effort and campaigned for Liberal candidate General Andrew McNaughton in a 1945 federal by-election. Provincially, his earlier vehement doubts about radicals among auto workers now muted, Hepburn formed a Liberal-Labour alliance with the Communist Party of Canada (then known as the Labor-Progressive Party) for the 1945 Ontario election but lost his own seat in the legislature.

Hepburn retired to his farm in St. Thomas, where he died of a heart attack in 1953. His funeral was attended by five former premiers, and Rev. Harry Scott Rodney observed in his eulogy:

Legacy

Hepburn's personality was complex, as The Globe and Mail'' noted in its obituary for him:

Hepburn was the first Liberal to become Premier since George William Ross, and was the last Liberal Premier to win two successive majority terms until Dalton McGuinty.

In 2008, he had a school named after him. Only miles away from his family's farm, Bannockburn Farms, it was officially opened in January 2009.

References

Further reading

External links

 Mitchell F. Hepburn fonds, Archives of Ontario

1896 births
1953 deaths
Premiers of Ontario
Leaders of the Ontario Liberal Party
Finance ministers of Ontario
Canadian military personnel of World War I
Members of the United Church of Canada
People from St. Thomas, Ontario

Mitchell Hepburn


St. Paul Street and Calvert Street are a one-way pair of streets in Downtown Baltimore and areas north. The streets, which are part of Maryland Route 2, are two of Baltimore's best-known streets in the downtown area.

St. Paul Street

St. Paul Street begins off Charles Street just south of Coldspring Lane near Loyola College (now renamed Loyola University Maryland) From this point on, the street runs directly parallel to North Charles Street, exactly one block east of Charles Street. It carries Maryland Route 139 in the southbound direction until intersecting North Avenue (formerly Boundary Avenue with northern city limits of 1818-1888) (U.S. Route 1), where MD 139 ends.

St. Paul Street is two ways until the intersection with 31st Street. Northbound traffic is relegated to a single northbound lane, separated by median, and with metered parallel parking.

St. Paul Street is exit 4 off the Jones Falls Expressway (I-83). Approaching the downtown area moving south between East Centre and Lexington Streets, St. Paul Street is split into two parallel, nearby streets, also being identified as St. Paul Place in this area. The wider eastern thoroughfare was the former narrow alley-like Courtland Street, once flanked by rows of small brick and stone townhouses. While the more westward of the two sides of St. Paul Street/Place intersects with all east-west streets within these blocks, the eastward opposite wider side passes under the Orleans Street Viaduct (US 40). The area between the two St. Paul streets, landscaped into terraced gardens and parks with fountains are known as Preston Gardens, replaced a group of 1820s Georgian, Federal and Greek Revival styled architecture townhouses which had become shabby by the early 20th century along Courtland Street and the original parallel St. Paul Street  and the five square blocks north to south were razed in 1919 as the city's first "urban renewal" project and was landscaped by Thomas Hastings.

Preston Gardens were named for James H. Preston, who was mayor of the City of Baltimore (1911-1919, and a Speaker in 1894 of the Maryland House of Delegates of which he served 1890-1894.

Notable landmarks
Penn Station
Mercy Hospital (now Mercy Medical Center), originally located on parallel eastward Calvert Street at East Saratoga Street since 1870s.

Calvert Street

As St. Paul Street is mostly one-way southbound, Calvert Street, which is directly east of St. Paul, is open to northbound traffic.  North Calvert Street is a name of a portion of the street north of its intersection with East Baltimore Street.  South Calvert Street is a name for the downtown portion running further south and alongside the Inner Harbor waterfront to the east.

Calvert Street begins at Pratt Street near the Inner Harbor and continues through the downtown area and various north Baltimore neighborhoods before terminating in the Guilford neighborhood. of northern Baltimore.

At its railroad and Jones Falls stream crossing near I-83, Calvert Street once had an arch-style steel/iron bridge with lions sculptures at each end, though not as interesting looking as the one on nearby Charles Street or Howard Street running parallel to the west. The present crossing on Calvert Street is ordinary-looking poured concrete construction.

Notable landmarks
 Clarence M. Mitchell, Jr. Courthouse of 1896-1900 (Baltimore City Circuit Courthouse and its opposite Courthouse East (former U.S. Courthouse and Post Office), from 1930-32)
 Battle Monument, 1815-1822, from the Battle of Baltimore of September 1814 in the War of 1812
 Baltimore Sun newspaper building, 1950
 Union Memorial Hospital

Light Street
After passing East Baltimore Street, St. Paul Street changes its name to Light Street. Light Street becomes a large, two-way street with center divider after passing East Pratt Street (which runs along the north shore of the Inner Harbor and municipal piers 1 to 6),  the point where South Calvert Street begins for northbound traffic. Light Street continues through Francis Scott Key Highway (Key Highway), passing through the Federal Hill and old South Baltimore commercial district and tightly packed rowhouse neighborhoods and the Cross Street Market, one of Baltimore's formerly twelve municipal narkethouses (now down to six) until its southern terminus at Wells Street, just east of parallel South Hanover Street (Maryland Route 2), above the north shore of the Middle Branch of the Patapsco River and Baltimore Harbor.
The street ends by the newly planned Port Covington redevelopment. project, for the former site of War of 1812 supporting redoubt battery of Fort Covington from the Battle of Baltimore and later railyards with shipping piers for the old Western Maryland Railway from the late 1890s to early 1980s.

Though quite short in length, Light Street is well known in the area, forming the western boundary of the Inner Harbor tourist area. The formerly narrow cobble-stoned waterfront street clogged with horses and wagons and later early trucks was the site of the western shore piers for East Coast/Chesapeake Bay passenger steamboats such as the Old Bay Line and others in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, the Harborplace shopping pavilions (1980), the glass walled Baltimore Visitors Center (2010) are located here along with the Maryland Science Center, founded 1797 was relocated here on the Light Street waterfront in 1976, and the former McCormick & Company offices and manufacturing plant for spices. flavorings and seasonings between 1889/ rebuilt 1922 to 1989 was located facing Light Street at Conway Street, opposite the Inner Harbor.

Light Street is named for Darby Lux I, an early Baltimore merchant who had a house on the street.

References

External links
Metal Arch Bridges in Maryland, Describes the history of the Calvert Street Bridge

Downtown Baltimore
Streets in Baltimore

St. Paul and Calvert streets


Israil Bercovici (, ; 1921–1988) was a Jewish Romanian dramaturg, playwright, director, biographer, and memoirist, who served the State Jewish Theater of Romania between 1955 and 1982; he also wrote Yiddish-language poetry.

Biography
Bercovici was born into a poor working-class family in Botoşani, Romania, and received a traditional Jewish education. During World War II he served time at hard labor until the arrival of the Soviet Army in Romania.

After the war, he began his career in Yiddish-language newspapers and radio, notably the weekly IKUF-Bleter (1946–1953), and the Revista Cultului Mozaic din R.P.R. (Journal of Jewish Culture in the People's Republic of Romania, also known as Tsaytshrift). The Journal was launched in 1956 and had sections in Romanian, Yiddish and Hebrew. Bercovici edited the Yiddish section from 1970 to 1972.

As a literature student after the war at a secular secondary school in Bucharest, Bercovici published his first Yiddish-language poetry in IKUF-Bleter. Judging by theater reviews he wrote in the early 1950s, he appears to have been an ardent Communist, grateful for his liberation from the labor camp and for the opportunity to receive a secular education, advocating a socialist realist aesthetic for Yiddish-language theater.

His affiliation with the State Jewish Theater began in 1955, initially as "literarischer Sekretär". He continued to be very aware of developments in theater beyond the Yiddish language: he drove the theater toward being a contemporary theater, rather than a mere museum of inherited plays. Elvira Groezinger compares his goals to those of New York City's Arbeter Teater Farband (ARTEF, "Workers' Theatre Society"), goals well-aligned with those of the Communist regime.

Bercovici translated works from world literature: Friedrich Dürrenmatt's Frank V (1964), Karl Gutzkow's Uriel Acosta (1968), and Henrik Ibsen's The Master Builder (1972), and wrote his own Yiddish-language plays, including Der goldener fodem ("The Golden Thread", 1963), about Abraham Goldfaden (who in 1876 founded the world's first Yiddish-language theater, in Iaşi, Romania), and the musical revue A shnirl perl ("A Pearl Necklace", 1967). He also wrote books about Yiddish theater history.

In 1976 he directed a celebration of 100 years of Yiddish theatre in Romania, which included not only performances of his own work but also those of Goldfaden and Sholem Aleichem.

Toward the end of Bercovici's career, in Romania, as elsewhere in Europe, Yiddish was a language in decline. The State Jewish Theater coped, in part, by installing headphones throughout the theater to allow simultaneous translation of the plays into Romanian; the system is still in use when the theater performs Yiddish-language plays today.

Bercovici's 3000-volume Yiddish-language library is now part of the University Library in Potsdam.

Works for theater
The following list is drawn from Bercovici's own history of Yiddish theater in Romania ([Bercovici 1998]). The list may be incomplete; many of Bercovici's works were musical and folkloric revues and some were reworkings of Purim plays. The music for most of Bercovici's plays was composed by Haim Schwartzmann; "The Golden Thread" also uses music by Avram Goldfaden, whom the play is about. Schwartzmann and Eugen Koffler contributed music for A Pearl Necklace and Baraşeum '72; Mangheriada used music by Schwartzmann, Koffler, Dubi Seltzer, Henech Kon, and Simha Schwartz; a 1976 production of "The Golden Thread" credits additional music by Adalbert Winkler.

The list contains Romanian-language titles and Yiddish-language titles with Romanian phonetic transcription. Some works had only a Romanian language title; when titles in both languages are given by Bercovici, the Romanian title precedes the Yiddish. Unless otherwise noted, the date given is that of first performance by the State Jewish Theater.

 Revista revistelor ("Revue of Revues"), December 15, 1958.
 Un cîntec şi o glumă / A lid mit a viţ ("A Song and a Joke"), April 15, 1958.
 O revistă cu Ahaşveroş ("A revue with Ahasuerus"), December 30, 1959.
 Ciri-biri-bom, cowritten with Aurel Storin, Moişe Bălan, Malvina Cohn, December 30, 1960.
 Oaspeţi în Oraş / Ghest in ştot ("Guests in the City"), April 15, 1961.
 O seară de folclor evreiesc / An ovnt fun idişn folklor ("An Evening of Yiddish Folklore"), October 4, 1962.
 Cu cîntec spre stele / Mit a lid ţu di ştern ("With a Song to the Stars"), February 13, 1963.
 Purim-şpil ("Purim play"), March 24, 1963.
 Recital de dansuri, versuri şi cîntece ("Dance, Poetry and Song Show"), April 7, 1963.
 Spectacol de umor şi folclor muzical evreiesc / Idişer humor un musicakişer folklor ("Yiddish Humor and Musical Folklore")
 Firul de aur / Der goldener fodem ("The Golden Thread"), October 25, 1963.
 Un şirag de perle / A şnirl perl ("A String of Pearls"), April 2, 1967.
 Amintiri de revelion / Nai-iur-zihroines ("New Year's Memories"), December 31, 1967.
 Cîntarea cîntărilor ("Song of Songs"), an experimental Romanian-language theater piece, based on Hebrew poetry, March 5, 1968.
 Mangheriada, based on the poems of Itzik Manger, April 6, 1968.
 Baraşeum '72, February 5, 1972. (Baraşeum was the old name of the future State Jewish Theater, honoring Jewish culture promoter, Dr. Iuliu Barasch.)
 Scrisori pe portativ ("Letters on a Musical Staff"), August 16, 1975.

Published works
Bercovici published three major books of Yiddish poetry:

  (1974, "In the Eyes of a Black Coffee") Published in Romanian translation in 1991 as .
  (1978, "Sparks Over Generations")
  (1984, "Flying Letters")

In addition, Bercovici and Nana Cassian translated into Romanian the work of Yiddish-language poet Itzik Manger. A volume of these translations was published in 1983 as  ("Jewish ballads that have gone from gray to blue").

He also published on the history of the Yiddish Theatre in Romania:

  (1973)
  (1976, 100 years of Yiddish Theatre in Romania) Published in Romanian translation in 1982 as .

References

 Dalinger, Brigitte, English-language review of [Groezinger, 2003] from All About Jewish Theatre.
 Bercovici, Israil, O sută de ani de teatru evreiesc în România ("One hundred years of Yiddish/Jewish theater in Romania"), 2nd Romanian-language edition, revised and augmented by Constantin Măciucă. Editura Integral (an imprint of Editurile Universala), Bucharest (1998). . The first Romanian edition was 1982, Editura Kriterion :ro:Editura Kriterion . There also was a 1976 edition, also from Editura Kriterion, in Yiddish: Hundert ior idiş teater in Rumenie. Bercovici did his own translation into Romanian.

External links
 Israil Bercovici books in the Yiddish Book Center collection (in Yiddish)

See also
 List of Jewish Romanians

1921 births
1988 deaths
Yiddish theatre
Yiddish-language poets
Moldavian Jews
Jewish Romanian writers
Jewish socialists
Romanian theatre directors
Romanian dramatists and playwrights
Romanian male poets
Romanian memoirists
Romanian biographers
Male biographers
People from Botoșani
20th-century Romanian poets
20th-century Romanian dramatists and playwrights
Male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Romanian male writers
20th-century memoirists

Israil Bercovici


Todd Williams III (born September 11, 1977) is an American actor best known for his role as Officer Isaac Joiner on the crime drama television series The Chicago Code.

Early life
Born in Queens, New York, Williams began the pursuit of his acting career while attending Talent Unlimited High School in Manhattan. Concerned about having a backup plan, he chose to explore another one of his artistic passions after graduating, and applied himself to the course study of Music Business at New York University. Not satisfied, Williams subsequently left NYU to focus on his acting career goals full-time.

Career
After booking several national commercial and voice-over spots, he made his film debut opposite Kerry Washington in the critically acclaimed feature Lift. Several television appearances followed on shows such as Law & Order: SVU and The Twilight Zone. In 2004, while recurring on Third Watch, Williams booked a role alongside Michael Madsen in the ESPN original series Tilt.

After relocating to Los Angeles in 2005, he secured numerous guest leads on shows such as CSI, CSI: Miami, and the CW's The Game. In addition, he landed another lead role with Anthony Anderson in the indie film, The Last Stand. Williams also portrayed the role of Connor Jordan in season 4 of the CW's The Vampire Diaries In 2010, after spending two seasons on the USA Network series In Plain Sight, he landed a series regular role on the Fox series The Chicago Code which premiered on February 7, 2011.

Filmography

Film and TV movies

Television

Video games

References

External links

Living people
African-American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
Male actors from Queens, New York
Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development alumni
21st-century American male actors
1977 births
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American people

Todd Williams (actor)


"Oenone" or "Œnone" is a poem written by Alfred Tennyson in 1829. The poem describes the Greek mythological character Oenone and her witnessing incidents in the life of her lover, Paris, as he is involved in the events of the Trojan War. "Oenone" was inspired by Tennyson's trip to Spain, where he visited the Pyrenees mountains. It is considered the simplest of Tennyson's dramatic monologues.

Background
Tennyson became friends with Arthur Hallam while at Cambridge. During summer 1829, the two travelled to Spain to help a group of Spanish rebels in northern Spain. While there, Tennyson was able to experience the Pyrenees mountains, which influenced a few of his poems, including "Oenone", "The Lotos-Eaters" and "Mariana in the South". After meeting with the rebels, they travelled to Bordeaux and left for home on 8 September 1829. On that day, Tennyson read to a group of travellers on the boat his newly composed Oenone. Later in 1861, a return to the Spanish mountains and travelling the earlier path would inspire the poem "In the Valley of Cauteretz".

The poem was included in Tennyson's 1832 collection of poems. It was later revised for his 1842 collection of poems. As with other revised poems, Tennyson removed blends of words that he added to his early poems, with "goldensandalled" and "rosehued" as two examples from Oenon.

Poem
The poem begins with a lament by Oenone. Although she describes her feelings, there is no one to hear her because her lover, Paris, is off to be with Helen:
Of Paris, once her playmate on the hills.
Her cheek had lost the rose, and round her neck
Floated her hair or seem'd to float in rest.
She, leaning on a fragment twined with vine,
Sang to the stillness, till the mountain-shade
Sloped downward to her seat from the upper cliff.
"O mother Ida, many-fountain'd Ida,
Dear mother Ida, harken ere I die.
For now the noonday quiet holds the hill:
The grasshopper is silent in the grass:
The lizard, with his shadow on the stone,
Rests like a shadow, and the winds are dead.
The purple flower droops: the golden bee
Is lily-cradled: I alone awake.
My eyes are full of tears, my heart of love,
My heart is breaking, and my eyes are dim,

Oenone is deeply in love with Paris, and she admits that when he is speaking she is unable to act. This is especially true when he reveals to her the Hesperian apple and when he becomes the judge of which goddess is allowed to have the apple as a gift:
He smiled, and opening out his milk-white palm
Disclosed a fruit of pure Hesperian gold,
That smelt ambrosially, and while I look'd
And listen'd, the full-flowing river of speech
Came down upon my heart.
"My own Œnone,
Beautiful-brow'd Œnone, my own soul,
Behold this fruit, whose gleaming rind ingrav'n
"For the most fair," would seem to award it thine,
As lovelier than whatever Oread haunt
The knolls of Ida, loveliest in all grace
Of movement, and the charm of married brows." (lines 64–75)

When Pallas offers her gifts to Paris, he refuses no matter how much Oenone wishes that he would have accepted:
but Pallas where she stood
Somewhat apart, her clear and bared limbs
O'erthwarted with the brazen-headed spear
Upon her pearly shoulder leaning cold,
The while, above, her full and earnest eye
Over her snow-cold breast and angry cheek
Kept watch, waiting decision, made reply.
"Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control,
These three alone lead life to sovereign power.
Yet not for power (power of herself
Would come uncall'd for) but to live by law,
Acting the law we live by without fear;
And, because right is right, to follow right
Were wisdom in the scorn of consequence.'
 * * * * *
Here she ceas'd
And Paris ponder'd, and I cried, "O Paris,
Give it to Pallas!' but he heard me not,
Or hearing would not hear me, woe is me! (lines 136–149, 165–168)

Aphrodite, the love goddess, follows Pallas and offers a gift that competes against Oenone's role as Paris's wife. This causes Oenone to resort to emotionally appealing Paris:
Idalian Aphroditè beautiful,
Fresh as the foam, new-bathed in Paphian wells,
With rosy slender fingers backward drew
From her warm brows and bosom her deep hair
Ambrosial, golden round her lucid throat
And shoulder:
 * * * * *
She with a subtle smile in her mild eyes,
The herald of her triumph, drawing nigh
Half-whisper'd in his ear, "I promise thee
The fairest and most loving wife in Greece."
She spoke and laugh'd: I shut my sight for fear:
 * * * * *
Fairest—why fairest wife? am I not fair?
My love hath told me so a thousand times.
Methinks I must be fair, for yesterday,
When I past by, a wild and wanton pard,
Eyed like the evening star, with playful tail
Crouch'd fawning in the weed. Most loving is she?
Ah me, my mountain shepherd, that my arms
Were wound about thee, and my hot lips prest
Close, close to thine in that quick-falling dew
Of fruitful kisses, thick as Autumn rains
Flash in the pools of whirling Simois! (lines 171–176, 181–185, 193–203)

The poem concludes with Oenone describing contemporaneous events:
I will rise and go
Down into Troy, and ere the stars come forth
Talk with the wild Cassandra, for she says
A fire dances before her, and a sound
Rings ever in her ears of armed men.
What this may be I know not, but I know
That, wheresoe'er I am by night and day,
All earth and air seem only burning fire." (lines 258–266)

Themes
Oenone is the simplest of Tennyson's dramatic monologues. Each of the monologues incorporates an ironic use of rhetoric by the manner in which an individual point of view is incrementally revealed within the poems. The character Oenone laments her fate and is portrayed as a victim to outside circumstances. However, her actions in letting her emotions control her is similar to the actions that Paris, her betrayer, committed; she, like him, is a victimiser to herself. Oenone is similar to other females in Tennyson's poems. In particular, she is a combination of the character Mariana, a quiet woman who suffers like a prisoner as she waits for her lover to return, and Fatima, who loses her mind and submits to her intense passions while losing herself in the material world.

The refrain,  "Dear mother Ida, harken ere I die", reveals Oenone's imprisonment to both the situation she finds herself in and to her emotions. When Paris is offered "self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control" by Pallas, Oenone cries out for him to accept the gifts above the others. When he refuses, she is dominated by her emotions in the same way Paris is dominated by his own. Instead, her actions are closer to those of Aphrodite, the goddess that Oenone competes against for Paris's affection. The jealousy and possessiveness of Oenone is similar to Tennyson's feelings at the time for Hallam's company, as Tennyson believed that he would be separated from his friend by a woman.

Oenone's song is similar to the events described in the poem. The city of Troy was created in song and ends with its eminent destruction. In a similar manner, Oenone's song comes from the destruction left by Paris. She also shifts from the Mariana-like prisoner type of character to the Fatima-like self-destructive character as the poem          progresses. Changes between the 1832 and 1842 edition of the poems reflect changes in Tennyson's role as the poet creating a song and, thus, his similarity to Oenone as a character.

Critical response
Tennyson's 1832 collection of poems was savaged  by John Wilson Croker in a Quarterly Review article of April 1833. The review was based on a close reading of the various poems followed by attacks on the content. Of the various poems attacked, 'Oenone' was the truest hit, as Croker focused on how the poem was filled with unclear descriptions.

Notes

References
 Hughes, Linda. The Manyfacèd Glass. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1988.
 Kincaid, James. Tennyson's Major Poems. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975.
 Thorn, Michael. Tennyson. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992.

1829 poems
1832 poems
Narrative poems
Poetry by Alfred, Lord Tennyson

Oenone (poem)


Ronald Hilton (July 31, 1911, Torquay, England – February 20, 2007, Palo Alto, California) was a British-American academic, reporter and think-tank specialist, specializing in Latin America and, in particular, Fidel Castro's Cuba. Ronald Hilton was educated at Oxford University and at the University of California at Berkeley and became a US citizen in 1946. He launched the Hispanic American Report in 1948.  He spent most of his long working life at Stanford University.

Early Years
"[A]s a child I wandered around the shores on its beautiful bay during World War 1. Navy vessels came and went and I clearly remember arrival of a destroyer different from the ones I was used to; it was American. The United States had just entered the war, and I became conscious of the existence of that distant land, never dreaming that I would make my home there. Some wives of interned Germans were billeted with us; they were kind people, and we became very fond of them. At the same time I saw young English soldiers going off to fight the Hun; I recall how one kindly helped me across a busy street. Then, at the railway station, I would see Red Cross trains arrive, full of young English soldiers with all kinds of ugly wounds. I became aware of the tragic absurdity of such international 'relations.'... My family moved to Winchester, where I haunted the great cathedral where Philip II of Spain, the Devil of the South, married bloody Mary Tudor. The chantry of Bishop Gardiner, in the gaunt counter-reformation style of El Escorial, contrasted with the more lovely ones of earlier bishops, notably that of William of Wykham. One of my first publications was a detailed account of the marriage, based on the conflicting versions of chronicles and historians. I realized that history comes in different colors and shades."

He was attached to Oxford university from 1929 to 1937, first to Christ Church (1929–36), then to Magdalen (1937) majoring in French and minored in Spanish.  It was through Salvador de Madariaga that Hilton earned the de Osma scholarship at the Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan and went to Madrid in late March, 1931.

Spain 1930s
"I went to Spain by train, changing at Irun because, while France had standard-gauge track, Spain's was broad-gauge. My first shock came when I entered the station men's room. Scrawled in black on the wall was "¡Muera el rey!" (Death to the King!)." His first stop was San Sebastian where there was an active nationals movement. The adventure continued to Alava and Burgos by train that was patrolled by armed Civil Guards. At Avila, huddled by a coal fire in the station waiting room waiting for dawn, hungrily Hilton tried churros that tasted like ambrosia. At Madrid he met the family he would stay with in a modest apartment.

Hilton's Madrid experience was dominated by the fall of the monarchy. He observed that any Spaniards, especially the Basques and Catalans, resented Alfonso XIII rule, while the intellectuals were especially resentful because the king scorned them. The army was much in evidence. Many churches and other old buildings had been turned into barracks. When the king left the country, in Madrid the public mood was one of rejoicing. Crowds strolled happily through the sunny streets. The Republicans claimed that they were restoring ancient liberties and that the blue in an old flag symbolized those liberties. The old red-yellow-red striped flag lost one red stripe, replaced by a deep blue one. It happened that the capes of the police had a deep blue lining, so they draped the cape over their shoulders to show their republican sympathies. The crowds appreciated the symbolism and applauded. He returned to England and later recorded that no one realized that a civil war was in the making.

"British interest in Catalonia derived from the historic trade ties between England and Barcelona, and also from dim memories of the War of the Spanish Succession, when Catalonia sided with Britain. So I decided in 1932 to go to Barcelona." At the Institute of Catalan Studies, Hilton took courses on Catalan medieval history and literature. He saw the complex character of Catalan nationalism where the revolutionary spirit was expressed in the repeated playing of "Els Segadors" ("The Harvesters"), the song of the anti-Spanish country people, just as in Madrid he heard constantly the music of the Hymn of Riego. The refrain of "The harvesters" was "Bom colp de fals," a good blow with a scythe to cut the Spaniards' heads off.

Hilton graduated from Oxford in 1933 deeply dissatisfied with the idea of exclusive study of old book he began a cycling through Europe with his first stop at Strasbourg where he encountered Nazi government for the first time. From there he crossed the Alps to Venice then back to France via through Switzerland. He spent the 1934-35 studying at the Sorbonne to prepare a doctorat d'état. While in Paris he took up studying Russian at the Institute of Oriental Languages which made his World Affairs Report possible. In the spring of 1934 he set off to Madrid by bicycle by way of Spain's north coast then through Portugal. At Madrid the atmosphere was very political and politics the major theme of conversation on every level of society. The theme in cafes were 'We have our republic, now we want our revolution! From this moment on there would be no peace in Spain'

Bay Of Pigs
He was an academic expert on Latin America who helped to uncover the CIA's clandestine preparations for the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in April 1961. During a research trip to Guatemala in 1960, he learned that a group of Cuban exiles were training at a secret camp (which everybody there seemed to know about) for their ill-fated attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro's regime. Hilton was the main source when the left-wing weekly The Nation broke the story in November 1960. The invasion went ahead anyway a few months later, after the Kennedy administration succeeded in persuading the New York Times (NYT), that had decided to follow up the Nation story, to delay publishing its own investigations.  Hilton later published a series of articles about Castro's (1959) revolution in the Hispanic American Report that were written by Herbert Matthews and which the NYT had declined to publish because it felt that Matthews had grown too close to the Cuban leader. He founded the World Association of International Studies (WAIS) in 1965 (originally known as California Institute of International Studies (CIIS)), a global political, economic and religious forum, after resigning as the Director of the Institute of Hispanic American and Luso-Brazilian Studies (Bolivar House), which he had founded earlier at Stanford University. Hilton continued in his post as the Professor of Romanic Languages at the Stanford University until he retired at the mandatory age of 65.

In 1970, he launched the World Affairs Report (WAR), that continued publication until 1990 and became an on-line publication afterward through DIALOG. The main feature of WAR was "International Report: The World as Seen from Moscow. It analyzed the Soviet version developments, based on Soviet as well as non-Soviet sources." He became a Visiting Fellow of the Hoover Institution at Stanford in 1987. He died in 2007 from cancer, aged 95.

Family
In 1939, he married a fellow student, Mary Bowie, while both were enrolled in graduate studies at Berkeley. Mary Bowie Hilton died in 2007. A daughter survives them.

References

External links
Hilton obituary in The Times
Stanford News Release
World Association of International Studies (WAIS)
 Ronald Hilton Papers

1911 births
2007 deaths
Alumni of the University of Oxford
American male journalists
American reporters and correspondents
British emigrants to the United States
Harkness Fellows
Writers from Torquay
Stanford University faculty
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Deaths from cancer in California

Ronald Hilton


Claude Moët (1683–1760) was a Dutch vintner and wine merchant who founded the Champagne house that later became Moët et Chandon. Moët was the first winemaker in Champagne to exclusively produce sparkling wine.

An expert salesman, Moët advocated the importance of personal contact with customers. During the 1730s, he networked extensively within the royal circles of Versailles and soon became one of few merchants accredited to serve the royal court. One of his most loyal customers was Madame de Pompadour. Following his death, the champagne house went to the control of his grandson Jean-Rémy Moët.

Family history
For the American journalists Don and Petie Kladstrup, the Moët family can trace its origins to a Dutch soldier named LeClerc who fought alongside Joan of Arc in fending off English attempts at preventing the crowning of Charles VII. As a reward for his service, the king changed his name to Moët.
This story is far-fetched, although indeed Moët originates from a nickname. From 1351, we find in Reims the trace of three échevins succeeding one another from father to son: Colart, then Pierrat and finally Jean Le Clerc, known as Moët (Joannes, dictus Le Clerc alias Moët) (register of the deliberations of the Reims metropolitan chapter, 1402).
In the fourteenth century the family was called Le Clerc, and was nicknamed "LeMoët or Mouet" because of a pout that the first of the three échevins "was in the habit of doing". The word comes from old French moe, that is to say "mouth", then by extension "pout". It was not uncommon at this time for surnames to be nicknames characterizing and differentiating people.

See also
List of wine personalities

References

Wine merchants
1683 births
1760 deaths
French people of Dutch descent

Claude Moët


Oxford Parkway railway station is a railway station  at Water Eaton, Oxfordshire, on the Oxford–Bicester line. Full regular weekday service began on Monday 26 October 2015, although the first passengers travelled the previous day on a Sunday timetable.

The station, whose name was changed in September 2013 from the provisional "Water Eaton Parkway", lies between Kidlington and Oxford beside the existing Water Eaton park-and-ride site. It serves Kidlington, north Oxford and nearby villages. The station forms part of a multi-modal transport interchange node, connecting travellers by bus, cycle, on foot and by car with rail transport.  It is also intended to attract park-and-ride traffic from the busy A34, A40 and A44 roads.

Services to Oxford started on 11 December 2016.

Description
The station is part of Project Evergreen 3, funded and managed by Chiltern Railways. It is served every half-hour by trains from London . Chiltern Railways opened the station in October 2015 for trains towards Bicester and London Marylebone, with services to Oxford railway station beginning in December 2016, delayed from Spring 2016 as locals objected to the extra noise that would be caused. The journey time to London is about an hour.  Network Rail completed the final track upgrades on this portion of the route in September 2016 allowing driver training runs on the line ahead of the inauguration of new services on 11 December.

The East West Rail Consortium's planned rail service between Oxford and  and  Midland will also serve Oxford Parkway.

The station is on the site of the Buckinghamshire Railway's temporary Oxford Banbury Road terminus (1850–51), and north-east of the site of the former  (1905–26). In 1942 a Government grain silo was built next to the site as part of a Second World War network to concentrate scarce food and distribute it by rail. It was in use until the late 1980s. In October 2013 Chiltern Railways had it demolished as part of site preparation for the new station and car park.

Water Eaton Park-and-Ride is immediately adjacent, with bus services to central Oxford, London Oxford Airport and to the Headington hospitals (Monday to Friday only).

The station lies on National Cycle Route 51, which links Oxford to Bicester and further East.  Oxford Parkway has covered two-level parking for 152 pedal cycles adjacent to the entrance, additional to the existing cycle parking at the nearby Park & Ride.  It has CCTV surveillance.

The car park has 815 standard spaces, plus 41 spaces for passengers with reduced mobility. There is realtime information about remaining available spaces.  There is a fee to park a car but the first hour is free.  There are also spaces for 30 motorcycles.

Purchase of rail travel tickets is by machine; there is no ticket office at the station, but there is an information desk. Toilet and refreshment facilities are also present.

Grain silo
Prior to the station's construction, the site was occupied by a large grain silo. This followed a standard pattern common to other wartime silos, taking the form of two banks of ten seven-storey high cylindrical reinforced concrete silos side by side with the space between them filled by a brick access shaft. In the shaft there were associated grain handling machinery and two enormous grain driers which extended the full height of the building. It was built in the early 1940s and closed in the late 1980s, after which the yard surrounding it was used by several local businesses including a pet food supplier and a car breaker.

Construction

Building of the station began in late October 2014 and was sufficiently advanced for services to begin 12 months later.

Services
All services at Oxford Parkway are operated by Chiltern Railways. The current off-peak service in trains per hour is:
 2 tph to London Marylebone
 2 tph to

References

External links

Chiltern Railways official home page
Evergreen 3 Project

Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 2015
Railway stations in Oxfordshire
Railway stations opened by Network Rail
Railway stations served by Chiltern Railways
East West Rail

Oxford Parkway railway station


A barcarolle (; from French, also barcarole; originally, Italian barcarola or barcaruola, from barca 'boat') is a traditional folk song sung by Venetian gondoliers, or a piece of music composed in that style.  In classical music, two of the most famous barcarolles are Jacques Offenbach's "Belle nuit, ô nuit d'amour", from his opera The Tales of Hoffmann; and Frédéric Chopin's Barcarolle in F-sharp major for solo piano.

Description

A barcarolle is characterized by a rhythm reminiscent of the gondolier's stroke, almost invariably in 6/8 meter at a moderate tempo.

While the most-famous barcarolles are from the Romantic period, the genre was known well enough in the 18th century for Burney to mention, in The Present State of Music in France and Italy (1771), that it was a celebrated form cherished by "collectors of good taste".

Notable examples

The barcarolle was a popular form in opera, where the apparently artless sentimental style of the folklike song could be put to good use. In addition to the Offenbach example: Paisiello, Weber, and Rossini wrote arias that were barcarolles; Donizetti set the Venetian scene at the opening of Marino Faliero (1835) with a barcarolle for a gondolier and chorus; and Verdi included a barcarolle in Un ballo in maschera (i.e., Richard's atmospheric "Di' tu se fidele il flutto m'aspetta" in Act I). The traditional Neapolitan barcarolle "Santa Lucia" was published in 1849. The 32nd Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Abdulaziz (1830-1876), also composed a barcarolle, entitled "La Gondole Barcarolle".

Arthur Sullivan set the entry of Sir Joseph Porter's barge (also bearing his sisters, cousins and aunts) in H.M.S. Pinafore to a barcarolle, as well as the Trio "My well-loved lord and guardian dear" among Phyllis, Earl Tolloller and the Earl of Mountararat in Act I of Iolanthe. Schubert, while not using the name specifically, used a style reminiscent of the barcarolle in some of his most-famous songs, including especially his haunting "Auf dem Wasser zu singen" ("To be sung on the water"), D.774.

Other notable barcarolles include: the three "Venetian Gondola Songs" from Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, Opp. 19, 30 and 62; the "June" barcarolle from Tchaikovsky's The Seasons; Charles-Valentin Alkan's "Barcarolle" from the Op. 65 Troisième recueil de chants; Camille Saint-Saëns's Barcarolle for violin, cello, harmonium (or organ) and piano; Béla Bartók's "Barcarolla" from Out of Doors; Barcarolle, Op. 27, no. 1, by Moritz Moszkowski, and several examples by Anton Rubinstein, Mily Balakirev, Alexander Glazunov, Edward MacDowell, Mel Bonis, Ethelbert Nevin; and a series of thirteen for solo piano by Gabriel Fauré.

In the 20th century, further examples include: Agustín Barrios's Julia Florida; the second movement of Villa-Lobos's Trio No. 2 (1915) (which contains a Berceuse-Barcarolla); the first movement of Francis Poulenc's Napoli suite for solo piano (1925); George Gershwin's Dance of the Waves (1937, unpublished); Ned Rorem's three Barcarolles for piano, composed in Morocco (1949); the Barcarolle from Gian-Carlo Menotti's ballet Sebastian; the first movement of Nikolai Myaskovsky's Piano Sonata no. 8, op. 83 (1949); "Hello Young Lovers" from Richard Rodgers' The King and I (1951); "The Kings' Barcarolle" from Leonard Bernstein's Candide (1956); and Juan María Solare's neoclassical Barcarola for piano (recording included in the album Sombras blancas). Dominick Argento's 25-minute choral cycle Walden Pond (1996) is subtitled "Nocturnes and Barcarolles for Mixed Chorus"; the five-movement work makes extensive use of 6/8 meter. The penultimate movement of Arnold Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire, Heimfahrt, is also labelled a barcarolle.

Bob Dylan's song "I've Made Up My Mind to Give Myself to You" from his 2020 album Rough and Rowdy Ways uses Offenbach's "Barcarolle" as a riff.

Notes

18th-century music genres
19th-century music genres
20th-century music genres
Italian folk music
Music in Venice
Musical terminology
Song forms

Barcarolle


Landskron Castle (, ) is a medieval hill castle northeast of Villach in the state of Carinthia, Austria. Dating to the early 14th century, the castle ruins are located on a rock cone of the Ossiach Tauern range, at an elevation of  above sea level. Today Landskron Castle, its falconry centre conducting regular flying demonstrations, and the nearby macaque enclosure are major tourist destinations.

History
Settled since the Hallstatt era, the estates around Lake Ossiach were first mentioned in an 878 deed issued by the East Frankish king Carloman of Bavaria, who granted them to the monastery of Altötting he had established shortly before. About 1024 the area was among the Carinthian possessions of one Count Ozi of the Chiemgau, probably a scion of the Otakar dynasty, who founded Ossiach Abbey nearby. A castle already existed, when in 1330 the estates were acquired by the Counts of Ortenburg.

Landskron itself was first mentioned in 1351, when the Habsburg duke Albert II of Austria, also Carinthian duke since 1335, purchased the fortress and had it rebuilt as an important stronghold within the Carinthian possessions of the Bamberg prince-bishops. Later, the Habsburg rulers temporarily gave it in pawn to Count Hermann II of Celje, heir of the Ortenburg dynasty in 1418, and the Lords of Stubenberg. In 1423 Andreas von Graben zu Sommeregg was named as celjenian Burgrave of Landskron. In 1511 Emperor Maximilian bestowed the estate to the Knightly Order of Saint George at Millstatt, while the fortress decayed.

In 1542 Emperor Ferdinand I finally sold Landskron Castle to the Ortenburg castellan Christoph Khevenhüller, who made the castle his main residence and had it rebuilt in a lavish Renaissance style. In 1552 Khevenhüller even received the visit of Emperor Charles V, who, on the run from the Protestant troops of Elector Maurice of Saxony, had fled to Carinthia. Nevertheless, the Khevenhüllers, themselves Protestant, were stripped of Landskron Castle during the Thirty Years' War, by order of Emperor Ferdinand II in 1628.

In 1639 the castle passed to the Dietrichstein comital dynasty. After the 1648 Peace of Westphalia the Khevenhüllers claimed it back and began a decades-long lawsuit, though without any success. While the Dietrichstein owners mostly resided at their Nikolsburg (Mikulov) estates in Moravia, the castle decayed. In 1812 a blaze caused by lightning finally devastated Landskron, which was not rebuilt and fell into ruins. From 1953 onwards, its remains were conserved and a restaurant was opened within its walls.

See also
List of castles in Austria

References

External links

Castle website

Castles in Carinthia (state)
Tourist attractions in Carinthia (state)
Ruined castles in Austria

Landskron Castle (Carinthia)


Uphill Battle was an American metalcore band with elements of grindcore, based out of Santa Barbara, California, United States.

History
Uphill Battle got some recognition releasing their self-titled record on Relapse Records. Combining grindcores speed with a hardcore sense of tension, Uphill Battle's hectic riffing, strafing percussive assault and tortured vocals bled conviction and proved the band to be one of the scene's brightest hopefuls. A tour slot as part of the 2003 Relapse Records Contamination Tour alongside label-mates Mastodon, Cephalic Carnage and Dysrhythmia immediately followed, exposing the band to entirely new audiences.

Uphill Battle released their second full-length, Wreck of Nerves in 2004. In 2005, Uphill Battle disbanded, leaving behind Blurred, a collection of their pre-Relapse rarities including demo and compilation tracks.

Members
Adi Tejada - Guitars, lead vocals
Danny Walker - Drums
Jeff Capra - Guitars
Casey Shropshire - Bass and vocals

Discography

Albums
Uphill Battle - (2002)
Wreck of Nerves - (2004)

Compilation albums
Blurred - (2006)

Related bands
Intronaut - Drummer Danny Walker's band
Sutratma - Singer/Guitarist Adi Tejada's band
Rival Cults - Guitar/Lead Vocals Adi Tejada's and Bass/Vocals Casey Shropshire's band

References

External links
 Official Uphill Battle Web site
 Relapse Records

Musical groups established in 1999
Musical groups disestablished in 2005
Heavy metal musical groups from California
Metalcore musical groups from California
Relapse Records artists
1999 establishments in California

Uphill Battle


In the 2011 Egyptian revolution, many demonstrations and riots were held in Egypt. It is also called The Day of Anger and The Day of Revolt. It started on January 25, 2011.

Before the demonstrations began, there was an uprising in Tunisia. In the weeks after that, demonstrations and riots began in Egypt. The people who started these protests hoped that people would be encouraged to mobilize (or start working together to protest) because of the Tunisian uprising. Protests happened in Cairo, Alexandria, Suez and Ismailiya.

On the first day of the protests, the Egyptian government censored most of the media (like newspapers and news stations) inside Egypt. The government also tried to block most social media websites, which the protesters had used to spread news about the events. On January 28, an Internet and cell phone "blackout" began across Egypt. However, before dawn the next morning, the blackout for cell phones was ended.

By January 29, about 1,000 people had been arrested. Also, at least 1,030 protestors had been hurt, and at least 53 deaths had been reported.

People demonstrated and protested about many different things. Some of these things were police brutality, state of emergency laws, not having free elections, corruption, limits on freedom of speech, high unemployment, low minimum wages, not having enough housing, food price inflation, and poor living conditions.

Mohamed ElBaradei said that one of the revolution's goals could be to force Hosni Mubarak to quit. ElBaradei was seen as someone who would probably be a leader in a new government.

Before 2011, protests were common, but they were always local; they did not spread to different parts of the country. However, on January 25, 2011, major protests and riots broke out all over the country. January 25 became the "Day of Anger". Egyptian opposition groups (groups working for change) and other activists had picked this date for a major demonstration. The 2011 protests have been called "unprecedented" for Egypt. This means that nothing like the protests had ever happened before. The protests have also been called "the largest display of popular dissatisfaction in recent memory".  These were the largest demonstrations seen in Egypt since the 1977 Egyptian Bread Riots. For the first time, Egyptians from different social backgrounds, economic backgrounds, and faiths joined together to protest.

During the protests, the capitol city of Cairo was described as "a war zone". In the port city of Suez, there were many violent clashes. The Egyptian government used different methods to try to break up and limit protests. Anti-riot police groups used shields, rubber bullets, batons, water cannons, and tear gas. At times, they also used live ammunition. Most of the police response to the protests was non-lethal. However, some people were killed. The government turned off internet access and set a curfew. The government argued that they needed to make sure there was as little disruption from the protests as possible. They said this was needed to keep order and to keep Islamic fundamentalist groups from rising up.

Many people across the world became interested in the protests in Egypt. This was partly because of things like Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube. Activists, and people interested in the protests, were able to use these social media platforms, and others. They used these platforms to talk to each other, work together, and keep records of what was happening. As the protests got more publicity, the Egyptian government tried harder to limit people's access to the Internet, especially social media.

On February 11, 2011, Mubarak resigned from the presidency. On 24 May, he was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters. He was acquitted.

Written about the revolution
 The Egyptian revolution, the Political writer Ahmed Ghanem.

 book in French about the revolution, it's name "La révolution égyptienne" written by Ahmed Ghanem

Political activists
 Ahmed Ghanem
 Asmaa Mahfouz
 Israa Abdel-Fattah

References

2011 in Africa
2010s in Egypt
Revolutions
2010s riots

2011 Egyptian revolution


Wang Xianzhi (died 878) was a Chinese military general and rebel. He was a major agrarian rebel during the reign of Emperor Xizong of Tang, whose rebellion, while failing, along with those of his one-time ally Huang Chao, began a series of rebellions that led to the Tang dynasty's disintegration.

Life

Early life
Wang Xianzhi was from Pu Prefecture (濮州, in modern Puyang, Henan), and like his eventual ally Huang Chao was a salt bootlegger (i.e., selling salt that was not part of the Tang state monopoly).

Rebellion
He started his rebellion in 874 at Changyuan (長垣, in modern Xinxiang, Henan), in the midst of serious natural disasters—alternate floods and droughts—that severely affected the part of the empire east of the Hangu Pass (i.e., modern Henan, Hebei, and Shandong) that the imperial government was taking little action to relieve the people from the effects of. His rebellion began with a thousand men, but quickly, after he and his ally Shang Junzhang () captured Pu and Cao (曹州, in modern Heze, Shandong), their forces increased to tens of thousands, and when the military governor (jiedushi) of Tianping Circuit (天平, headquartered in modern Tai'an, Shandong), Xue Chong (), tried to intercept Wang's forces, Wang defeated him. Meanwhile, Huang, who was from Yuanqu (also within modern Heze), also started a rebellion, and they were loosely aligned at this point with each other. Late in 875, Wang attacked Yi Prefecture (沂州, in modern Linyi, Shandong). Song Wei () the military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern Weifang, Shandong) then volunteered to attack Wang. Then-reigning Emperor Xizong approved the suggestion, and put Song in overall command of the operation, putting Song in command of not only troops from his own circuit but troops from many others.

In summer 876, Song attacked Wang at Yi Prefecture and defeated Wang. Song submitted a report claiming that Wang had been killed in battle. In response, Emperor Xizong demobilized the troops and allowed them to go home. However, several days later, reports arrived that Wang was not killed, and the troops were again mobilized, much to the soldiers' distress and anger. Wang then headed toward Ru Prefecture (汝州, in modern Zhumadian, Henan). Emperor Xizong ordered the generals Cui Anqian, Zeng Yuanyu (), Cao Xiang (), and Li Fu () to intercept Wang, but Wang quickly captured Ru Prefecture and took its prefect Wang Liao (), a younger brother of then lead-chancellor Wang Duo, prisoner. Wang Liao's being captured greatly shocked the people, and people were fleeing the eastern capital Luoyang in droves. Emperor Xizong tried to placate Wang and Shang by offering them imperial commissions, but they did not respond at this point. They attacked Zheng Prefecture (鄭州, in modern Zhengzhou, Henan), but after being repelled by the eunuch monitor Lei Yinfu (), headed south and attacked Tang (唐州, in modern Zhumadian) and Deng (鄧州, in modern Nanyang, Henan) Prefectures. He then raided the various prefectures of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern Xiangfan, Hubei) and Huainan Circuit (淮南, headquartered in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu).

Negotiations
Around the new year 877, Wang Xianzhi attacked Qi Prefecture (蘄州, in modern Huanggang, Hubei). During the attack, Wang Liao wrote letters on Wang Xianzhi's behalf to Pei Wo () the prefect of Qi, who had a relationship with Wang Duo as well based on Wang Duo's having selected him as a successful imperial examinee; as a result, Wang Xianzhi and Pei negotiated a temporary armistice, and Pei tried to persuade Wang Xianzhi to submit to the Tang imperial government under promise that he would be pardoned and would receive a commission. He further invited Wang Xianzhi, Huang Chao, and some 30 of Wang Xianzhi's followers into the city, treating them to feasts. Pei then submitted petitions to Emperor Xizong, requesting that a commission be given to Wang Xianzhi.

When Pei's petition arrived at the imperial government, most of the chancellors opposed, arguing that several years prior, Emperor Xizong's father Emperor Yizong had refused to pardon the rebel Pang Xun and had been able to defeat Pang, and that pardoning Wang Xianzhi would encourage further rebellions. Wang Duo, however, persisted in requesting the acceptance of the proposal. Emperor Xizong thus agreed, issuing Wang commissions as an officer of the Left Shence Army () as well as imperial censor. When a eunuch emissary arrived at Qi Prefecture announcing the commissions, Wang Xianzhi was initially very pleased, and both Wang Liao and Pei congratulated him. However, upon hearing of the commissions, Huang was angry that he did not receive any commissions. He yelled at Wang Xianzhi and pronounced that if Wang Xianzhi accepted the commissions, he would be betraying his army, and he battered Wang Xianzhi, injuring Wang Xianzhi's forehead. Their other followers were also clamoring. Wang Xianzhi, in fear, refused to accept, and further had his army pillage Qi Prefecture, capturing half of the people and killing the other half. Pei and the eunuch fled, while Wang Liao was again captured. After this incident, however, Wang Xianzhi parted ways with Huang briefly.

In spring 877, Wang Xianzhi captured E Prefecture (鄂州, in modern Wuhan, Hubei). He then returned north, joining forces with Huang again, and they surrounded Song Wei at Song Prefecture (宋州, in modern Shangqiu, Henan). Only after the imperial general Zhang Zimian () came to Song Wei's aid did the agrarian rebels release their hold on Song Wei. Wang Xianzhi then headed south, successively capturing An Prefecture (安州, in modern Xiaogan, Hubei) and Sui Prefecture (隨州, in modern Suizhou, Hubei), before further raiding Fu (復州, in modern Tianmen, Hubei) and Ying (郢州, in modern Jingmen, Hubei).

However, negotiations between Wang Xianzhi and the imperial forces soon resumed, as the eunuch monitor of Zeng Yuanyu's army, Yang Fuguang, again offered to seek an imperial commission for Wang Xianzhi if he submitted. The negotiations reached such a stage that Wang Xianzhi sent Shang Junzhang to personally meet with Yang to settle on details. When Shang was on the way to Yang's camp, however, Song ambushed Shang and captured him, and then submitted a report claiming to have captured Shang in battle. Despite Yang's report explaining that Shang was negotiating Wang Xianzhi's submission and had not been captured by Song, Shang was executed, ending the negotiations between the imperial government and Wang Xianzhi.

Defeat
Late in 877, Wang Xianzhi marched south and put Jiangling, the capital of Jingnan Circuit () under siege. He caught the military governor of Jingnan, Yang Zhiwen (), surprised, and nearly captured the city. Li Fu, then the military governor of nearby Shannan East Circuit, however, sent forces to aid Yang, and Wang abandoned the siege on Jiangling.

Soon thereafter, Zeng Yuanyu had a major victory over Wang just east of Shen Prefecture (申州, in modern Xinyang, Henan), a victory that apparently convinced the imperial government to relieve Song Wei of his post as the commander of the operations and confer the post on Zeng instead, with Zhang Jimian serving as Zeng's deputy. Later in spring 878, Zeng again defeated Wang at Huangmei (黃梅, in modern Huanggang), and he killed Wang in battle. Wang's head was delivered to Chang'an and presented to Emperor Xizong. Wang's follower Shang Rang (Shang Junzhang's brother) took the remainder of Wang's followers and joined Huang Chao.

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography
 Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 252, 253.

878 deaths
9th-century births
Generals from Henan
People from Puyang
Tang dynasty rebels

Wang Xianzhi (rebel)