Great Langdale is a valley in the Lake District National Park in North West England, the epithet, "Great" distinguishing it from the neighbouring valley of Little Langdale. Langdale is also the name of a valley in the Howgill Fells, elsewhere in Cumbria.

It is a popular location for hikers, climbers, fell-runners, and other outdoor enthusiasts who are attracted by the many fells ringing the head of the valley. Among the best-known features of Great Langdale are the Langdale Pikes, a group of peaks on the northern side of the dale. England's highest mountain, Scafell Pike, can be climbed by a route from Langdale. Langdale has views of, in particular, Dungeon Ghyll Force waterfall, Harrison Stickle, and Pike of Stickle.

Great Langdale was an important site during the Neolithic period for producing stone axes and later, was also one of the centres of the Lakeland slate industry.

History
Great Langdale is known to archaeologists as the source of a particular type of Neolithic polished stone axe head, created on the slopes of the Pike of Stickle and traded all over prehistoric Great Britain and Europe. It also supplied stone for some Bronze Age items, including stone wrist-guards. Neolithic cup and ring marks are found on the Langdale Boulders at Copt Howe.

Geography
The mouth of the valley is located at Skelwith Bridge, which lies about  west of Ambleside.  The Langdale valley contains two villages, Chapel Stile and Elterwater, and a hamlet at High Close. Great Langdale is a U-shaped valley formed by glaciers, while Little Langdale is a hanging valley.

Slate industry
Great Langdale and Elterwater were centres of the Lakeland slate industry. Two slate workings, Elterwater Quarry and Spout Cragg Quarry have been more or less continually working using modern methods. Elterwater is the larger of the two, and like Spout Cragg, is operated by the Burlington Stone company. There are various other local quarries now fallen into disuse, such as Lingmoor, Banks, Thrang Crag and Colt Howe.

Axe industry

Great Langdale had a productive stone axe industry during the Neolithic period. The area has outcrops of fine-grained greenstone suitable for making polished axes which have been found distributed across the British Isles. The rock is an epidotised greenstone quarried or perhaps just collected from the scree slopes in the Langdale Valley on Harrison Stickle and Pike of Stickle.

The Langdale Pikes

Among the best-known features of Great Langdale are the Langdale Pikes, a group of peaks on the northern side of the dale. From below, they appear as a sharp rocky ridge, though they are precipitous only on their southern side; to the north, the land sweeps gently to High Raise, the parent peak of the range. The Pikes themselves include (from west to east) Pike of Stickle, Loft Crag, Harrison Stickle, and Pavey Ark.

Pike of Stickle

Pike of Stickle, also known as Pike o' Stickle, reaches a height of . The rearward slopes show evidence of the Pavey Ark Member, pebbly sandstone and breccia. The Langdale face displays several strata: from the top the Lingmell Formation, Crinkle Member and Bad Step Tuff. These are composed, respectively, of tuff, lapilli-tuff and breccia; rhyolitic tuff and breccia; and rhyolitic lava-like tuff. The altitude places Loft Crag and Gimmer Crag within sightlines to east-southeast while Bowfell is  west-southwest. The Southern Fells and Skiddaw are also potentially visible.

Loft Crag

Loft Crag has a summit elevation of . It lies between Harrison Stickle and Pike o' Stickle and is usually climbed in conjunction with these two peaks. The fell has a small sharp summit, below which rises Gimmer Crag, which is one of the top rock climbing venues in the Lake District. The crag is made of Rhyolite rock and was pioneered in the early 1880s by the father of British rock climbing Walter Parry Haskett Smith.

Harrison Stickle

Harrison Stickle is the high point of the Langdale Pikes and its crags fall south and east from the summit, presenting an arresting view from the valley floor  below, or from further afield. To the north, the main ridge of the central fells passes over Thunacar Knott before climbing to High Raise. The craggy eastern face of this ridge continues north as far as Harrison's near neighbour, Pavey Ark, visually the most impressive face in the area. The southwestern border of Harrison Stickle is formed by the deep ravine of Dungeon Ghyll, which cuts through the parapet of the Langdale Pikes and into the lower hinterland of Harrison Combe. Across the Ghyll westwards are Thorn Crag, Loft Crag, and finally Pike of Stickle. Below the steep eastern face of Harrison Stickle lie Stickle Tarn and its Ghyll, thus ensuring that all drainage from the fell is to Great Langdale. The tarn is a water-filled corrie about  deep, this being enhanced by a dam. The water is used for public consumption in Great Langdale.

Pavey Ark

Pavey Ark is  high. The main face is a little over  across and drops about . To the southwest, it merges into the crags of Harrison Stickle, while the northern end peters out into the valley of Bright Beck. Stickle Tarn is wholly within the territory of the Ark, a corrie tarn which has been dammed to create additional capacity. The stone-faced barrage is low enough not to spoil the character of the pool, and the water is used for public consumption in the hotels and homes below. The tarn has a depth of around .

Other fells

Great Langdale's highest fell is Bow Fell. Other notable Langdale fells are Crinkle Crags, at the head of the Oxendale valley, and Pike o' Blisco on the southern side of the valley.

Dungeon Ghyll
Dungeon Ghyll is a ravine on the north side of the valley, starting on the fell slopes between Harrison Stickle and Loft Crag/Pike o' Stickle. It is narrow, and a No Through Route for walkers. Much more open is Stickle Ghyll, which descends from Stickle Tarn. There is a well–trodden path from the Stickle Ghyll car park opposite the New Dungeon Ghyll hotel up to the tarn, parts of which have been improved with stone slabs to reduce erosion. Another waterfall, known as Dungeon Ghyll Force, is up a path behind the Old Dungeon Ghyll Hotel.

Middle Fell Bridge here is the bridge centring in the plot of the landmark film 1945 Brief Encounter.

Cultural reference

Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration, Langdale Pikes (1832), to a picture by Thomas Allom, ignores the mountains and eulogises on the excellent trout fishing in the river.

Tourism

There are several popular fell walking routes including Bowfell, Crinkle Crags, the Langdale Pikes and England's highest mountain, Scafell Pike. There are also rock-climbing spots on the valley floor, such as Raven Crag, Gimmer Crag, and White Ghyll, providing some of the most spectacular rock routes in the UK. The Langdale Leisure Limited company, consisting of a hotel, timeshare lodges and leisure facilities, operates in the valley.

Old Dungeon Ghyll
The Old Dungeon Ghyll Hotel was originally a farm and inn. It was bought by the historian Professor G.M. Trevelyan who donated it to the National Trust, and who was later buried in Holy Trinity Church in Chapel Stile. The hotel and the Hikers Bar have a long association with climbing and many famous climbers have stayed at the hotel or drunk in the bar. In climbing circles it is known as the "ODG". Further down the valley there is the New Dungeon Ghyll hotel, built in 1862. Campsites in the area include the National Trust site near Dungeon Ghyll and the Baysbrown Farm campsite at Chapel Stile.

References

External links
 Cumbria County History Trust: Langdales (nb: provisional research only – see Talk page)
 360 photos

Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Cumbria
Stone Age sites in England
Valleys of Cumbria
Westmorland
Archaeological sites in Cumbria
National Trust properties in the Lake District
South Lakeland District

Great Langdale


Prince Michał Fryderyk Czartoryski (1696–1775) was a Polish nobleman, the Duke of Klewań and , magnate, and Knight of the Order of the White Eagle (from 1726). He headed Poland's Czartoryski "Familia".

He served as Steward of Lithuania from 1720, Castellan of Vilnius from 1722, Grand Chancellor of Lithuania from 1752, and Starost of Grod, Luck, Uświat, Jurbol, Homel, Kupsk and Pienian.

Biography
Czartoryski was born in 1696 in Klewań, Poland. After an education on the French model, which he completed at Paris, Florence and Rome, he attached himself to the court of Dresden, and through the influence of Count Fleming, the leading minister there, obtained the vice-chancellorship of Lithuania and many other dignities. Czartoryski was one of the many Polish nobles who, when Augustus II was seriously ill at Białystok in 1727, signed the secret declaration guaranteeing the Polish succession to his son; but this did not prevent him from repudiating his obligations when Stanisław Leszczyński was placed upon the throne by the influence of France in 1733. When Stanislaus abdicated in 1735, Czartoryski voted for Augustus III of Saxony, who gladly employed him and his family to counteract the influence of competing factions.

For the next forty years Czartoryski was the leading Polish statesman. In foreign affairs he was the first to favour an alliance with Russia, Austria and England, as opposed to France and Prussia—a system difficult to sustain and not always beneficial to Poland or Saxony. In Poland Czartoryski was at the head of the party of reform. His palace was the place where the most promising young gentlemen of the day were educated and sent abroad that they might return as his coadjutors in his work. His plan aimed at the restoration of the royal prerogative and the abolition of the liberum veto, which made any durable improvement impossible. These patriotic endeavours made the Czartoryskis very unpopular with the szlachta (nobility), but for many years they had the firm and constant support of the Saxon court, especially after Brühl succeeded Fleming.

Czartoryski reached the height of his power in 1752 when he was entrusted with the Great Seal of Lithuania, but after that date the influence of his rival Mniszek began to prevail at Dresden, whereupon Czartoryski sought a reconciliation with his political opponents at home and foreign support both in England and Russia. In 1755 he sent his nephew Stanisław Poniatowski to Saint Petersburg as Saxon minister, a mission which failed completely. Czartoryski's pro-Russian policy had by this time estranged Brühl, but he frustrated all the plans of the Saxon court by dissolving the diets of 1760, 1761 and 1762. In 1763 he went a step further and proposed the dethronement of Augustus III, who however died the same year.

During the ensuing interregnum, the prince chancellor worked at the convocation diet of 1764 to reform the constitution, and it was with displeasure that he saw his nephew Stanisław finally elected king Stanisław II August in 1765. But though disgusted with the weakness of the king and obliged to abandon at last all hope of the amelioration of his country, Czartoryski continued to hold office till the last, and as chancellor of Lithuania he sealed all the partition treaties.

Czartoryski died in the full possession of his faculties and was considered by the Russian minister Repnin "the soundest head in the kingdom." He was not the sole reforming statesman of his day, and despite his services there were occasions when the partisan in him got the better of the statesman. His foreign policy, moreover, was vacillating, and he changed his "system" frequently.

Family
Prince Michał Czartoryski married Countess Elenora Monika Waldstein on 30 October 1726 in Prague. They had four children (three daughters, one son):
 Antonina (1728 - 26 February 1746, Warsaw), who married Jerzy Detloff Flemming on 13 February 1744 in Warsaw.
 Konstancja (1729-1749), second wife of Jerzy Flemming.
 Aleksandra (1730-1798)
 Antoni (1732-1753)

Bibliography
 Władysław Konopczyński, Michał Fryderyk Czartoryski, w: Polski Słownik Biograficzny, t. IV, Kraków 1938 s. 288-294.
 Krystyna Zienkowska, Stanisław August Poniatowski, Wrocław 1998.
 Wojciech Kriegseisen, Sejmiki Rzeczypospolitej Szlacheckiej w XVII i XVIII wieku, Warszawa 1991.
 Marcin Matuszewicz, Diariusz życia mego, tom 1 1714-1757, oprac. B. Królikowski, Warszawa 1986.
 Polska stanisławowska w oczach cudzoziemców, tom I, oprac. W. Zawadzki, Warszawa 1963.
 Polska stanisławowska w oczach cudzoziemców, tom II, oprac. W. Zawadzki, Warszawa 1963.
 Kazimierz Waliszewski, Potoccy i Czartoryscy. Walka stronnictw i programów politycznych. Przed upadkiem Rzeczypospolitej 1734 – 1763, Kraków 1887.
 Emanuel Rostworowski, O polską koronę. Polityka Francji w latach 1725 – 1733, Wrocław 1958.

References

1696 births
1775 deaths
People from Rivne Oblast
Secular senators of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Nobility from Warsaw
18th-century Polish–Lithuanian politicians
Michael Frederick Czartoryski
Grand Chancellors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Deputy Chancellors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)

Michał Fryderyk Czartoryski


A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers have the responsibility of the planning, procurement and execution of a project, in any undertaking that has a defined scope, defined start and a defined finish; regardless of industry. Project managers are first point of contact for any issues or discrepancies arising from within the heads of various departments in an organization before the problem escalates to higher authorities, as project representative.

Project management is the responsibility of a project manager. This individual seldom participates directly in the activities that produce the result, but rather strives to maintain the progress, mutual interaction and tasks of various parties in such a way that reduces the risk of overall failure, maximizes benefits, and minimizes costs.

Overview
A project manager is the person responsible for accomplishing the project objectives. Key project management responsibilities include
 defining and communicating project objectives that are clear, useful and attainable
 procuring the project requirements like workforce, required information, various agreements and material or technology needed to accomplish project objectives
 managing the constraints of the project management triangle, which are cost, time, scope and quality
A project manager is a client representative and has to determine and implement the exact needs of the client, based on knowledge of the organization they are representing. An expertise is required in the domain the project managers are working to efficiently handle all the aspects of the project. The ability to adapt to the various internal procedures of the client and to form close links with the nominated representatives, is essential in ensuring that the key issues of cost, time, quality and above all, client satisfaction, can be realized.

Project management key topics
 to specify the reason why a project is important
 to specify the quality of the deliverables
 resource estimate
 timescale
 investment, corporate agreement and funding
 implementation of management plan on to the project
 team building and motivation
 risk assessments and change in the project
 maintain sustaining project
 monitoring
 stakeholder management
 provider management
 closing the project.

Project tools
The tools, knowledge and techniques for managing projects are often unique to project management.  For example: work breakdown structures, critical path analysis and earned value management. Understanding and applying the tools and techniques which are generally recognized as good practices are not sufficient alone for effective project management. Effective project management requires that the project manager understands and uses the knowledge and skills from at least four areas of expertise. Examples are PMBOK, Application Area Knowledge: standards and regulations set forth by ISO for project management, General Management Skills and Project Environment Management There are also many options for project management software to assist in executing projects for the project manager and his/her team.

Project teams
When recruiting and building an effective team, the manager must consider not only the technical skills of each person, but also the critical roles and chemistry between workers. A project team has mainly three separate components: project manager, core team and contracted team.

Risk
Most of the project management issues that influence a project arise from risk, which in turn arises from uncertainty.  The successful project manager focuses on this as his/her main concern and attempts to reduce risk significantly, often by adhering to a policy of open communication, ensuring that project participants can voice their opinions and concerns.

Responsibilities

The project manager is accountable for ensuring that everyone on the team knows and executes his or her role, feels empowered and supported in the role, knows the roles of the other team members and acts upon the belief that those roles will be performed. The specific responsibilities of the project manager may vary depending on the industry, the company size, the company maturity, and the company culture. However, there are some responsibilities that are common to all project managers, noting:

 Developing the project plans
 Managing the project stakeholders
 Managing communication
 Managing the project team
 Managing the project risks
 Managing the project schedule
Managing the project budget
 Managing the project conflicts
 Managing the project delivery
Contract administration

Types

Architectural project manager
Architectural project manager are project managers in the field of architecture. They have many of the same skills as their counterpart in the construction industry. And will often work closely with the construction project manager in the office of the general contractor (GC), and at the same time, coordinate the work of the design team and numerous consultants who contribute to a construction project, and manage communication with the client. The issues of budget, scheduling, and quality control are the responsibility of the project manager in an architect's office.

Construction manager

Construction managers are primarily involved in the areas of design, bidding, contact management and construction of a project, as well as the in-between phases and post-construction.

Until recently, the American construction industry lacked any level of standardization, with individual States determining the eligibility requirements within their jurisdiction. However, several trade associations based in the United States have made strides in creating a commonly accepted set of qualifications and tests to determine a project manager's competency.

 The Construction Management Association of America (CMAA) maintains the Certified Construction Manager (CCM) designation. The purpose of the CCM is to standardize the education, experience and professional understanding needed to practice construction management at the highest level.
 The Project Management Institute has made some headway into being a standardizing body with its creation of the Project Management Professional (PMP) designation.
 The Constructor Certification Commission of the American Institute of Constructors holds semiannual nationwide tests. Eight American Construction Management programs require that students take these exams before they may receive their Bachelor of Science in construction management degree, and 15 other universities actively encourage their students to consider the exams.
 The Associated Colleges of Construction Education and the Associated Schools of Construction have made considerable progress in developing national standards for construction education programs.

The profession has recently grown to accommodate several dozen construction management Bachelor of Science programs.
Many universities have also begun offering a master's degree in project management.  These programs generally are tailored to working professionals who have project management experience or project related experience; they provide a more intense and in depth education surrounding the knowledge areas within the project management body of knowledge.

The United States Navy construction battalions, nicknamed the SeaBees, puts their command through strenuous training and certifications at every level.  To become a chief petty officer in the SeaBees is equivalent to a BS in construction management with the added benefit of several years of experience to their credit.  See ACE accreditation.

Engineering project manager
In engineering, project management involves seeing a product or device through the developing and manufacturing stages, working with various professionals in different fields of engineering and manufacturing to go from concept to finished product. Optionally, this can include different versions and standards as required by different countries, requiring knowledge of laws, requirements and infrastructure.

Insurance claim project manager
In the insurance industry project managers often oversee and manage the restoration of a client's home/office after a fire, flood, or other disaster, covering the fields from electronics through to the demolition and construction contractors.

IT project manager
IT project management generally falls into two categories, namely software (development) project manager and infrastructure project manager.

Software project manager
A software project manager has many of the same skills as their counterparts in other industries. Beyond the skills normally associated with traditional project management in industries such as construction and manufacturing, a software project manager will typically have an extensive background in software development. Many software project managers hold a degree in computer science, information technology, management of information systems or another related field.

In traditional project management a heavyweight, predictive methodology such as the waterfall model is often employed, but software project managers must also be skilled in more lightweight, adaptive methodologies such as DSDM, Scrum and XP. These project management methodologies are based on the uncertainty of developing a new software system and advocate smaller, incremental development cycles.  These incremental or iterative cycles are time boxed (constrained to a known period of time, typically from one to four weeks) and produce a working subset of the entire system deliverable at the end of each iteration. The increasing adoption of lightweight approaches is due largely to the fact that software requirements are very susceptible to change, and it is extremely difficult to illuminate all the potential requirements in a single project phase before the software development commences.

The software project manager is also expected to be familiar with the software development life cycle (SDLC). This may require in-depth knowledge of requirements solicitation, application development, logical and physical database design and networking. This knowledge is typically the result of the aforementioned education and experience.  There is not a widely accepted certification for software project managers, but many will hold the Project Management Professional (PMP) designation offered by the Project Management Institute, PRINCE2 or an advanced degree in project management, such as a MSPM or other graduate degree in technology management.

IT infrastructure project management
An infrastructure IT PM is concerned with the nuts and bolts of the IT department, including computers, servers, storage, networking, and such aspects of them as backup, business continuity, upgrades, replacement, and growth.  Often, a secondary data center will be constructed in a remote location to help protect the business from outages caused by natural disasters or weather.  Recently, cyber security has become a significant growth area within IT infrastructure management.

The infrastructure PM usually has an undergraduate degree in engineering or computer science, while a master's degree in project management is required for senior-level positions.  Along with the formal education, most senior-level PMs are certified, by the Project Management Institute, as  Project Management professionals.  PMI also has several additional certification options, but PMP is by far the most popular.

Infrastructure PMs are responsible for managing projects that have budgets from a few thousand dollars up to many millions of dollars.  They must understand the business and the business goals of the sponsor and the capabilities of the technology in order to reach the desired goals of the project.  The most difficult part of the infrastructure PM's job maybe this translation of business needs / wants into technical specifications.  Oftentimes, business analysts are engaged to help with this requirement.  The team size of a large infrastructure project may run into several hundred engineers and technicians, many of whom have strong personalities and require strong leadership if the project goals are to be met.

Due to the high operations expense of maintaining a large staff of highly skilled IT engineering talent, many organizations outsource their infrastructure implementations and upgrades to third-party companies.  Many of these companies have strong project management organizations with the ability to not only manage their clients projects, but to also generate high quality revenue at the same time.

See also
 Event planning and production
 Master of Science in Project Management
 Project engineer
 Project management
 Project planning
 Product management
 Construction manager

References

Further reading
 Project Management Institute (PMI), USA
 US DoD (2003). Interpretive Guidance for Project Manager Positions. August 2003.
 Open source handbook for project managers Open source handbook for project managers. July 2006.
 Collection of scholarly articles Project Management Training: Research. Nov 2012.

Project management
Management occupations
Building engineering
Product lifecycle management
Computer occupations
Managers

Project manager


Dong Zhongshu (; 179–104 BC) was a Chinese philosopher, politician, and writer of the Han dynasty. He is traditionally associated with the promotion of Confucianism as the official ideology of the Chinese imperial state. He apparently favored heaven worship over the tradition of cults celebrating the five elements. Ultimately banished to the Chancellery of Weifang by his adversary Gongsun Hong, Gongsun effectively promoted Dong's partial retirement from political life, and his teachings were transmitted from there. However, he apparently enjoyed great influence in the court in the last decades of his life leading up to that.

Biography
Dong was born in modern Hengshui, Hebei in 179 BC. His birthplace is associated with Wencheng Township (, now located in Jing Country), so in the Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals he is once mentioned as Lord Dong of Wencheng ().

He entered the imperial service during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han and rose to high office under Emperor Wu of Han. His relationship with the emperor was uneasy though. At one point he was thrown into prison and nearly executed for writings that were considered seditious, and may have cosmologically predicted the overthrow of the Han Dynasty and its replacement by a Confucian sage, the first appearance of a theme that would later sweep Wang Mang to the imperial throne.  He appears to have been protected by the Emperor's chief counselor, Gongsun Hong.

Dong Zhongshu's thought integrated Yin Yang cosmology into a Confucian ethical framework. He emphasised the importance of the Spring and Autumn Annals as a source for both political and metaphysical ideas, following the tradition of the Gongyang Commentary in seeking hidden meanings from its text. He is also considered the originator of the doctrine of Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind, which lays down rules for deciding the legitimacy of a monarch as well as providing a set of checks and balances for a reigning monarch.

There are two works that are attributed to Dong Zhongshu, one of which is the Ju Xianliang Duice in three chapters, preserved under the Book of Han. Another of his major works that has survived to the present is the Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals in 82 chapters. The Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals bears many marks of multiple authorship. Whether the work was written by Dong himself has been called into question by several scholars including Zhu Xi, Cheng Yanzuo, Dai Junren, Keimatsu Mitsuo, and Tanaka Masami. Scholars now reject as later additions all the passages that discuss five elements theory, and much of the rest of the work is questionable as well. It seems safest to regard it as a collection of unrelated or loosely related chapters and shorter works, which could be subdivided into five categories. Most are more or less connected to the Gongyang Commentary and its school and written by a number of different persons at different times throughout the Han Dynasty.

Other important sources for Dong Zhongshu's life and thought include his fu The Scholar's Frustration, his biography included in the Book of Han, his Yin Yang and stimulus-response theorizing noted at various places in the Book of Han "Treatise on the Five Elements," and the fragments of his legal discussions.  Dong Zhongshu's theory of 'original qi' (yuanqi or 元氣), the five elements and on the development of history, were later adopted and modified by the late Qing reformer Kang Youwei in order to justify his theories of progress via political reform.  (See Kang Youwei 1987: Kang Youwei Quanji: Volumes one and Two.  Shanghai Guji Chubanshe). It has been questioned, however, how correctly Kang Youwei understood Dong Zhongshu's thought.  (Kuang Bailin 1980: Kang Youwei de zhexue sixiang.  Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe).

References

Citations

Works cited
 Wm. Theodore de Bary and Irene Bloom (ed.) (1999) Sources of Chinese Tradition (2nd edition), Columbia University Press, 292–310.

 David W. Pankenier (1990). "The Scholar's Frustration" Reconsidered: Melancholia or Credo?, Journal of the American Oriental Society 110(3):434-59.
 Arbuckle, G. (1995). Inevitable treason: Dong Zhongshu's theory of historical cycles and the devalidation of the Han mandate, Journal of the American Oriental Society 115(4).
 Sarah A. Queen (1996). From Chronicle to Canon: The Hermeneutics of the Spring and Autumn Annals according to Tung Chung-shu, Cambridge University Press.

179 BC births
104 BC deaths
2nd-century BC Chinese philosophers
Chinese Confucianists
Han dynasty government officials
Philosophers from Hebei
Politicians from Hengshui
Taoist immortals
Writers from Hebei
Chinese reformers
Han dynasty classicists
2nd-century BC Confucianists

Dong Zhongshu


The Legislative Council of Manitoba () was the upper house of the Legislature of Manitoba. Created in 1870 and abolished in 1876, the council was the only provincial upper house in Canada that was not a direct or indirect continuation of a pre-confederation upper house. It was also the first provincial upper house to be abolished.

History
The council was created under the provisions of the Manitoba Act. Even prior to Manitoba's entry into Confederation, the need for an upper house at the provincial level was seen to be questionable by many Canadians. However, the Francophone Métis population wanted to model the government in Manitoba on what had already been created for Quebec. There, the Legislative Council had been retained and was seen as a means to protect the interests of religious and linguistic minorities inside the province. In this, they easily gained the agreement of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald, who firmly believed in the necessity of an unelected upper house.

During its brief existence, members of the Legislative Council were appointed by the lieutenant governor of Manitoba. However, by 1874, the new province's finances were in trouble, and the government had to appeal to Ottawa for aid. By this time, Macdonald had been replaced as prime minister by Alexander Mackenzie. Mackenzie's government agreed to provide aid, but demanded that the Legislative Council be eliminated as a cost-cutting measure. The council initially resisted, rejecting bills to abolish itself in 1874 and 1875. Finally in 1876, following the mediation of Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris who had promised the recalcitrant councillors lucrative government positions elsewhere, the Legislative Council was abolished.

List of legislative councillors

See also
Legislative Council

References

External links
Manitoba's Legislative Council Manitoba Pageant, Manitoba Historical Society

Defunct upper houses in Canada

Legislative Council of Manitoba


Esegels (aka Izgil (), Äsägel, Askel, Askil, Ishkil, Izgil) were an Oghur Turkic dynastic tribe in the Middle Ages who joined and would be assimilated into the Volga Bulgars.

Numerous records about Esegels in sources and works of many languages across the span of the Eurasia left numerous variations of their name. M. Räsänen suggested Uralo-Altai etymology of this word: Es-kil, Es-gil "Old city", Gumilyov initially linked the Izgils to the Sijie (思结) of the Toquz Oghuz; only to later re-identify Izgils with Xijie (奚結), another Tiele tribe. However, Zuev (2002) distinguished Izgil (> Ch. *a-siək-kiet 阿悉結 > Axijie, a Western Tujue tribe according to Chinese sources) from Igil (> Ch. *ɣiei-kiet 奚結 > Xijie, a Tiele tribe) though Zuev controversially links the Igils 奚結 to the Bulgarian clan Uokil and the Indo-European-speaking Augaloi in Transoxania.

Róna-Tas proposes an Iranian origin: Western Old Turkic Askil, Äsägäl < äθägäl < haθyaka arya "the very aliens" (cf. Ossetian æcægælon < æcægæ + ælon). However, Tatár (2012) disagrees that Ossetian æcægælon was cognate with Äskäl, as the expected Hungarian cognate to Ossetian would have been **Æčgæl (Hg. **Ecsgel), not székely, the Székely people's endonym which, in Tatár's opinion, might have developed from Äskil with these sound-changes: loss of first vowel before or after another vowel's appearance between /s/ & /k/, not in Hungarian but in a foreign source language. Tatár reconstructs *Äskil as the Western Turkic tribe's endonym, containing Turkic plural and generalizational suffix -GIl and Iranian tribal name As; she proposes that the As had been originally part of Iranian-speaking Massagetae and joined the Alans in the 1st century CE, yet one group later split from the Iranian-speaking As community, became allies or subjects of the Turks and subsequently Turkicized as Äskils, only to later become enemies of the  Second Turkic Khaganate. Tatár also remarks that if székely had developed from æcægæl (even in a Turkic source language and not Hungarian), "the Volga Bulgarian Äskils and the Székelys must be of different origin because æcægæl is not the source of Askil."

Zuev proposes connections with the Āxījiē of the Nushibi half of the Ten Arrows tribal confederation of the Western Turkic Khaganate, and the Xionite personal name Askil/Askel, as mentioned in the Chronography of Theophanes the Confessor (760–818):

"the same month (July 563) ambassadors of Askil/Askel, the king of Hermihions (Greek Ερμηχιονιονων; Lat. Ermechionorum), a tribe living among barbarians near the ocean, came  to Constantinople".

Zuev (2004) summarized scholarly opinions on the link between Izgils and Turkic-speaking tribes mentioned by sources in Chinese:
Cen Zhongmian (1958) identified Izgils with the Axijie 阿悉結 (a Tiele tribe according to Naito) of the Western Turks, as did Harmatta (1962:140-142) and Klyashtorny (2001:50-51);
Cen additionally identified Izgil with the name Xiezhilue 頡質略 of a Bayïrqu ruler;
Ögel (1945) and Tasağil (1991:57) linked Izgil and Sekel to the Sijie 思結 of the Tiele and later Toquz Oghuz;
Ögel further links the Sijie, Axijie, and Izgil to the Chigils; however, Zuev noted that the Chigils (whom he elsewhere identified with the Chuyue (處月) in Chinese sources) did not belong to the "Ten Arrows" union while Axijie did.

A Chinese annalistic account in New Book of Tang about the Western Turkic Khaganate in 651 CE listed five west tribes collectively as Nushibi (弩失畢) and noted that Kül-Irkin (闕俟斤 Què-sìjīn), the leader of first tribe, Āxījiē (阿悉結), (whom Zuev identifies as Esegels) "was most prosperous and strong, the number of his soldiers reached several tens of thousands".Ouyang Xiu, "Xin Tang shu (History of Tang dynasty", 618–907, New Edition)], Peking, Bo-na, 1958, Ch. 215b, p. 1506, f. 56

Arab ambassador Ibn Fadlan, who visited Itil (Volga) banks in the 921–922, mentioned in his journal the Bulgarian tribe Askel, besides the Bulgars proper, the Suvars (Savan), the Bersula, and the Barandzhar. Persian ethnographer Ahmad ibn Rustah listed three branches of the Volga Bulghars: "the first branch was called Bersula, the second Esegel, and the third Oghuz". The ancient ruins of the city belonging to the Askel tribe are located in Aşlı

Among other writers who mentioned Esegels, the Persian "Geography" of 982 named Ishkils as one of three Bulgarian tribes, who were constantly conflicting among themselves. Gardizi, the author of the composition Zain al-ahbar (mid-11th century), wrote: "Between possessions of Bulgars and possessions of Eskels, who also belong to Bulgars, is a Magyar area. These Magyars are also a Türkic tribe". Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote that endoethnonym of the "Magyar Türks" was Savartoiaskaloi, i.e. Savart (Suvar/Sabir) and Eskel. Zuev summarized that "It is held that Eskels (Esegels) merged with Hungarians (Magyars). Zuev proposes that the ethnographic group Székely'' (also known as Szekler) are Esegels' descendants." However, Róna-Tas rejected identification of Esegels with Székely, as well as the link between the names Esegels and Chigils, on historical and phonological grounds.

Notes

References

History of Tatarstan
Volga Bulgaria
Nomadic groups in Eurasia
Turkic peoples of Europe

Esegel


Andrew A. Kosove is an American film and television producer who has produced 35 films.  He was nominated for an Academy Award for the film The Blind Side. Alongside his producing partner, Broderick Johnson, he is the co-founder and co-CEO of Alcon Entertainment, a Los Angeles-based wholly independent film and television production and financing company.  In addition to his career in the entertainment industry, Kosove is also an accomplished and avid marathon runner and triathlete.   He finished third in the Ironman Executive Challenge in Ironman Coeur d'Alene in 2010.   He competed and finished the Ironman World Championship in Kona, Hawaii in 2012.

Early life
Kosove graduated from Princeton University in 1992. He became friends with Broderick Johnson in college. He is of Jewish descent.

Career
Kosove and Johnson moved to Los Angeles, California, where they started a film production company with financial capital from Frederick W. Smith, the founder and chairman of FedEx. The company became known as Alcon Entertainment. Their first feature film, Lost & Found, had limited box office returns, but their second film, My Dog Skip, cost only $7M to produce and grossed $34 million domestically. Alcon's other productions include P.S. I Love You, Dude, Where's My Car?, The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants, The Book of Eli, Insomnia (the first studio distributed film for director Christopher Nolan), and Denis Villeneuve's Prisoners.

In 2009, Kosove and Johnson produced Alcon's The Blind Side, which became the highest grossing sports film of all time. The film was nominated for a Best Picture Oscar and earned Sandra Bullock the Academy Award for Best Actress. The following year, Alcon Entertainment produced and financed Dolphin Tale, another modestly budgeted family film that earned an A+ Cinemascore from audiences, and grossed $100M in worldwide box-office.

Kosove was nominated for an Emmy Award as an executive producer on the documentary entitled, Sinatra: All or Nothing At All (directed by Alex Gibney) in 2015.  He is also the Executive Producer of the highly acclaimed Sci-fi series, The Expanse.

Personal life
Kosove lives in Los Angeles and is married to producer Kira Davis. They have two children together.

Filmography

Film

Television
Executive producer
 Hysteria (2014)
 Sinatra: All or Nothing at All (2015) (Documentary)
 Everest (2015)
 The Expanse (2015−22)
 The Defiant Ones (2017) (Documentary)
 Pete the Cat (2017−20)
 Nana (2019) (TV movie)
 Blade Runner: Black Lotus (2021)

References

External links

Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Film people from Los Angeles
Princeton University alumni
Film producers from California
American independent film production company founders

Andrew Kosove


Jesse LeRoy Brown (October 13, 1926 – December 4, 1950) was a United States Navy officer. He was the first African-American aviator to complete the United States Navy's basic flight training program (though not the first African-American Navy aviator), the first African-American naval officer killed in the Korean War, and a recipient of the Distinguished Flying Cross.

Born in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, to an impoverished family, Brown was avidly interested in aircraft from a young age. He graduated as salutatorian of his high school, notwithstanding its racial segregation, and later earned a degree from Ohio State University. Brown enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1946, becoming a midshipman. Brown earned his pilot wings on October 21, 1948, amid a flurry of press coverage. In January 1949 he was assigned to Fighter Squadron 32 (VF-32) aboard the aircraft carrier  based at Naval Air Station Quonset Point.

At the outset of the Korean War, Leyte was ordered to the Korean Peninsula, arriving in October 1950. VF-32 flew F4U-4 Corsair fighters in support of United Nations forces.  Brown, an ensign, had already flown 20 combat missions when his Corsair came under fire and crashed on a remote mountaintop on December 4, 1950, while supporting ground troops at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir. Brown died of his wounds despite the efforts of his wingman, Thomas J. Hudner Jr., who intentionally crashed his own aircraft nearby in a rescue attempt, for which he was awarded the Medal of Honor.

Brown's life in the segregated and desegregated U.S. military has been memorialized in books and film, including the 2022 film Devotion.  The frigate  was named in his honor.

Early life and education
Brown was born on October 13, 1926, in Hattiesburg, Mississippi. He was one of six children born to Julia Lindsey Brown, a schoolteacher, and John Brown, a grocery warehouse worker. He had four brothers, Marvin, William, Fletcher, and Lura, as well as an older sister known as Johnny. Brown's ancestry was African American, Chickasaw, and Choctaw. The family lived in a house without central heating or indoor plumbing so they relied on a fireplace for warmth. As a child, Jesse's brother William fell into this fireplace and was severely burned.

At the beginning of the Great Depression, John Brown lost his job and relocated the family to Palmer's Crossing,  from Hattiesburg, where he worked at a turpentine factory until he was laid off in 1938. John Brown moved the family to Lux, Mississippi, where he worked as a sharecropper on a farm. During this time, Jesse Brown shared a bed with his brothers (as was common among many families) and attended a one-room school  away. His parents were very strict about school attendance and homework, and Jesse Brown walked to school every day. The Browns also were committed Baptists and Jesse, William, and Julia Brown sang in the church choir. In his spare time, Brown also worked in the fields of the farm harvesting corn and cotton.

When Brown was six years old, his father took him to an air show. Brown gained an intense interest in flying from this experience, and afterward, was attracted to a dirt airfield near his home, which he visited frequently in spite of being chased away by a local mechanic.

At the age of thirteen, Brown took a job as a paperboy for the Pittsburgh Courier, a black press paper, and developed a desire to pilot while reading in the newspaper about African-American aviators of the time including C. Alfred Anderson, Eugine Jacques Bullard, and Bessie Coleman. He also became an avid reader of Popular Aviation and the Chicago Defender, which he later said heavily influenced his desire to fly naval aircraft. In his childhood he was described as "serious, witty, unassuming, and very intelligent." In 1937, he wrote a letter to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in which he complained of the injustice of African-American pilots being kept out of the U.S. Army Air Corps, to which the White House responded with a letter saying that it appreciated the viewpoint.

Because the schools closer to his family were of lower quality, in 1939, Brown lived with his aunt and attended the segregated Eureka High School in Hattiesburg. He was a member of the basketball, football, and track and field teams  and he was an excellent student, graduating as the salutatorian in 1944. During this time, Brown met his future wife, Daisy Pearl Nix.

Following graduation, Brown sought to enroll in a college outside of the South. His principal, Nathaniel Burger, advised he attend an all-black college, as his brother Marvin Brown had done. But he enrolled at Ohio State University as his childhood role model, Jesse Owens, had done. Burger told Brown that only seven African Americans had graduated from the university that year, but Brown was determined to enroll, believing that he could compete well with white students.

Brown took several side jobs to save money for college, including waiting tables at the Holmes Club, a saloon for white U.S. Army soldiers. In this job, Brown was frequently the target of racist vitriol and abuse, but he persevered, earning $600 to pay for college. In the autumn of 1944, Brown left Mississippi on a segregated train for Columbus, Ohio, where he started at Ohio State.

Brown moved into an on-campus boarding house at 61 East Eleventh Avenue in the primarily black neighborhood of the University District in Columbus. He majored in architectural engineering. Brown attempted several times to apply to the school's aviation program, but was denied because of his race. Brown joined the track and field team as well as the wrestling team, but soon dropped both for financial reasons. He took a job as a janitor at a local Lazarus department store and was hired by the Pennsylvania Railroad to load boxcars from 15:30 to midnight each day. In spite of this, he maintained top grades in his classes.

Although facing difficulties with academics and the institutional segregation in the city, Brown found that most of his fellow students were friendly toward him. Brown rarely returned to Mississippi during the school year, but in the summers he worked at Barnes Cleaners (dry cleaner) owned by Milton L Barnes Sr. in Hattiesburg to help pay for his classes.

During his second year in college, Brown learned of the V-5 Aviation Cadet Training Program being conducted by the U.S. Navy to commission naval aviation pilots. This program operated at 52 colleges, none of which was a historically black college, so only students such as Brown, who attended integrated colleges, were eligible. In spite of resistance from recruiters, Brown passed the entrance exams.

Brown enlisted in the U.S. Naval Reserve on July 8, 1946  and was admitted to the aviation program, becoming a Seaman Apprentice in the U.S. Navy and a member of the school's Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC) program. A $50 monthly stipend allowed him to quit his jobs and concentrate on his studies; he completed his architectural engineering degree in 1947. At this time, the NROTC was the normal route to a regular Naval commission, but only 14 of the more than 5,600 NROTC students in 1947 were black.

Career
On March 15, 1947, Brown reported to Glenview Naval Air Station in Glenview, Illinois, for Naval Flight Officer training. There, his enlistment ended 15 April and Brown was appointed to the rank of midshipman, becoming the only African American in the program. Although he anticipated antagonism, he found the other cadets were generally friendly and welcoming. He found many of the black cooks and janitors hostile to him, however, possibly due to jealousy. Brown got his first flight time aboard a Stearman N2S trainer aircraft.

In spite of the rigors of the initial training, Brown was encouraged by instructors and completed the first phase of training, transferring to Ottumwa Naval Air Station in Ottumwa, Iowa, for the next phase. The Ottumwa training involved intense physical fitness and technical training, which Brown completed. Thereafter, he was moved to Pensacola Naval Air Station in Pensacola, Florida, to train in aircraft flight.

In Pensacola, Brown and Nix married in secret, as naval cadets were not allowed to marry until their training was complete, under threat of immediate dismissal. Nix took a room in Pensacola, and the two visited one another on weekends. In spite of overt racism from at least one instructor and several classmates at this posting, Brown completed the rigorous training in August 1947.

By June 1948, Brown had begun training for carrier-based aircraft, and hoped to fly either the F4U Corsair or F6F Hellcat, both of which were fighters. He trained in carrier takeoffs and landings aboard the light carrier , after which he was sent to Jacksonville, Florida, for final flight qualifications. On 21 October 1948, he completed his training and was given his Naval Aviator Badge. This accomplishment was widely publicized, and Brown became known nationally. The Associated Press profiled him and his photograph appeared in Life magazine. Author Theodore Taylor later wrote that through Brown's efforts to become a pilot, he had broken the "color barrier" which had been longstanding at preventing blacks in naval aviation.

Brown was commissioned as an ensign in the U.S. Navy on April 26, 1949. He was assigned to Naval Air Station Quonset Point at Quonset Point, Rhode Island, as a part of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. Brown reported that incidents of racism and discrimination, which had been harsh late in his training, were substantially relieved once he became an officer. Following his commissioning, Brown was assigned to temporary duty at Norfolk Naval Air Station in Norfolk, Virginia. His daughter, Pamela Elise Brown, was born in December. In January 1949, Brown was assigned to Fighter Squadron 32 aboard . Over the next 18 months, the unit conducted numerous training exercises along the East Coast, many of them taking place at Quonset Point. Brown reported here his superiors treated him fairly and held others to equal standards. The unit trained rigorously in aircraft maneuvers.

By the outbreak of the Korean War, he had gained a reputation among the others in the squadron as an experienced pilot and a capable section leader. He was well-liked among other pilots and the black stewards and support staff of the carrier. Brown did not socialize much with the other pilots, however, and was known to spend as much time as possible visiting his wife. He was able to reveal his marriage following his commissioning.

Korean War

On the night of June 25, 1950, ten North Korean and Korean ethnic Chinese  infantry divisions launched a full-scale invasion of the nation's neighbor to the south, the Republic of Korea. The force of 89,000 men moved in six columns, catching the Republic of Korea Army by surprise, resulting in a rout. The smaller South Korean army suffered from widespread lack of organization and equipment, and was unprepared for war. The numerically superior North Korean forces destroyed isolated resistance from the 38,000 South Korean soldiers on the front before it began moving steadily south. Most of South Korea's forces retreated in the face of the invasion. The North Koreans were well on their way to South Korea's capital of Seoul within hours, forcing the government and its shattered army to retreat farther south.

To prevent South Korea's collapse, the United Nations Security Council voted to send military forces. The United States Seventh Fleet dispatched Task Force 77, led by the fleet carrier ; the British Far East Fleet dispatched several ships, including , to provide air and naval support. Although the navies blockaded North Korea and launched aircraft to delay the North Korean forces, these efforts alone did not stop the North Korean Army juggernaut on its southern advance. U.S. President Harry S. Truman ordered ground troops into the country to supplement the air support. All U.S. Navy units, including Leyte, were placed on alert. At the time, the ship was in the Mediterranean Sea and Brown did not expect to be deployed to Korea, but on August 8 a relief carrier arrived in the area and Leyte was ordered to Korea. Commanders felt the pilots on the carrier were better trained, and hence needed in the theater. The ship sailed from the Strait of Gibraltar across the Atlantic Ocean and to Quonset, then through the Panama Canal and to San Diego, California, Hawaii, and Japan before arriving in Korea around October 8.

The ship joined Task Force 77 off the northeast coast of the Korean Peninsula, part of a fleet of 17 ships from the Seventh Fleet, including the aircraft carrier , battleship  and cruiser . Brown flew 20 missions in-country. These missions included attacks on communication lines, troop concentrations, and military installations around Wonsan, Chongpu, Songjim, and Senanju.

Following the entrance of the People's Republic of China into the war in October 1950, Brown and his squadron were dispatched to the Chosin Reservoir, where an intense campaign was being fought between X Corps (United States) and the People's Volunteer Army's 9th Army. Approximately 100,000 Chinese troops had surrounded 15,000 U.S. troops, and Brown and other pilots on Leyte flew dozens of close air support missions every day to prevent the Chinese from overrunning the U.S. troops.

Death

On December 4, 1950, Brown was part of a six-aircraft flight supporting U.S. Marine Corps ground troops trapped by Chinese forces. At 13:38 KST, Brown took off from Leyte with squadron executive officer Lieutenant Commander Dick Cevoli, Lieutenant George Hudson, Lieutenant Junior Grade Bill Koenig, Ensign Ralph E. McQueen, and Lieutenant Junior Grade Thomas J. Hudner Jr., who was Brown's wingman. During this flight, Brown had the call sign "Iroquois 13". The flight traveled  to the Chosin Reservoir, flying 35 to 40 minutes in very harsh wintery conditions to the vicinity of the villages of Yudam-ni and Hagaru-ri. The flight began searching for targets along the west side of the reservoir, decreasing their altitude to . The mission was a three-hour search and destroy flight as well as an attempt to probe Chinese troop strength in the area.

Although the flight spotted no Chinese, at 14:40 Koenig radioed that Brown appeared to be trailing fuel. The damage had likely come by small arms fire from Chinese infantry, who were known to hide in the snow and to ambush passing aircraft by firing in unison. At least one bullet had ruptured a fuel line. Brown, losing fuel pressure and increasingly unable to control the aircraft, dropped his external fuel tanks and rockets and attempted to land the craft in a snow-covered clearing on the side of a mountain. Brown crashed into a bowl-shaped valley at approximately . The aircraft broke up violently upon impact and was destroyed. In the crash, Brown's leg was pinned beneath the fuselage of the aircraft, and he stripped off his helmet and gloves in an attempt to free himself, before waving to the other pilots, who were circling close overhead. The other pilots had thought he had died in the crash. Brown had crash-landed near Somong-ni,  behind Chinese lines in  weather, and the other pilots began a Mayday radio to any heavy transport aircraft in the area as they scanned the mountain for any sign of Chinese ground forces who might threaten Brown. They received a signal that a rescue helicopter would come as soon as possible, but Brown's aircraft was smoking and a fire had started near its internal fuel tanks.

Before it became clear Brown was seriously injured, Hudner attempted in vain to rescue Brown by radioing him instructions for escaping his damaged aircraft. Hudner then intentionally crash-landed his aircraft, ran to Brown's side and attempted to wrestle him free from the wreck. While Brown's condition worsened by the minute, Hudner attempted in vain to put out the aircraft fire using snow and to pull Brown from the aircraft. In great pain, Brown began slipping in and out of consciousness. A rescue helicopter arrived around 15:00; its pilot, Lieutenant Charles Ward, and Hudner were unable to put out the engine fire with a fire extinguisher, and tried unsuccessfully to free Brown with an axe for 45 minutes. They even considered, at Brown's request, amputating his trapped leg. Brown lost consciousness shortly thereafter. His last known words to Hudner were, "Tell Daisy I love her." The helicopter, which was unable to operate in the darkness, was forced to return to base at nightfall with Hudner, leaving Brown behind. Brown is believed to have died shortly thereafter of his injuries and exposure to the extreme cold. No Chinese forces threatened the site, likely owing to the heavy air presence of Brown and Hudner's unit.

Hudner begged superiors to allow him to return to the wreck to help extract Brown, but he was not allowed, as other officers feared an ambush of the vulnerable helicopters resulting in casualties. To prevent the body and the aircraft from falling into Chinese or North Korean hands, the U.S. Navy bombed the aircraft with napalm two days later, with pilots reportedly reciting the Lord's Prayer over the radio as they watched Brown's body be consumed by flames. The pilots observed that Brown's body was still stuck in the aircraft, but his clothes were gone. The remains of both Brown and the aircraft were never recovered. Brown was the first African-American U.S. Navy officer killed in the war.

Legacy

For his actions in Korea leading up to his death, Brown was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Purple Heart Medal, and the Air Medal. For the failed rescue attempt, Hudner received the Medal of Honor, the highest valor award presented by the U.S. military.

Brown's shipmates memorialized him in a shipwide newspaper as "a Christian soldier, a gentleman, a shipmate, and friend ... His courage and faith ... shone like a beacon for all to see." As word of his death spread, Brown inspired numerous other African Americans to become pilots, notably Seaman Apprentice Frank E. Petersen. Petersen would become the first African-American Marine Corps aviator and the first African-American Marine Corps general, graduating from the Naval Aviation Training Program in 1952 and retiring from the military after 38 years in 1988 with the rank of lieutenant general.

On 17 February 1973, the Navy commissioned the  , the third U.S. ship named in honor of an African American. Present at the commissioning ceremony in Boston, Massachusetts, were Daisy Brown Thorne (who had remarried), Pamela Brown, and Hudner, who gave a dedication. The ship was decommissioned on 27 July 1994 and renamed Damiyat after being commissioned with the Egyptian Navy.

In July 2013, Hudner visited Pyongyang in an attempt to recover Brown's remains from the crash site. He was told by North Korean authorities to return in September when the weather would be more predictable.

While Brown is often cited as the first African-American Naval Aviator, Lieutenant (junior grade) Oscar W. Holmes preceded him, earning the designation of Naval Aviator in 1943, because the Navy did not initially realize he was an African American.

Biographies
In 1998, Theodore Taylor wrote a biography titled Flight of Jesse Leroy Brown, interviewing Brown's acquaintances and with reference to his personal letters. In 2011 a traveling exhibit, "A Pilot Lights the Way" was featured in the 100th Anniversary of Naval Aviation exhibit at the National Museum of Naval Aviation, the curator was author and poet, Valada Flewellyn. The "A Pilot Light the Way" exhibit opened at the University of Central Florida (UCF) and traveled to Hattiesburg, Mississippi, and other locations.
In 2015, Brown was the subject of the biography Devotion: An Epic Story of Heroism, Friendship, and Sacrifice, by Adam Makos.

Brown is portrayed in the 2022 film Devotion by Jonathan Majors.

Awards and decorations

Brown's military decorations and awards included the following:

His Distinguished Flying Cross citation reads:

In film and literature
 Film: Devotion (2022)
 Book: Devotion: An Epic Story of Heroism, Friendship, and Sacrifice (2015)

See also
 List of African-American firsts

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

Online sources

External links

 Online Library of Selected Images: Ensign Jesse LeRoy Brown, USN, (1926–1950)
 Online Library of Selected Images: USS Leyte (1946–1970)

1926 births
1950 deaths
African-American United States Navy personnel
American Korean War pilots
United States Navy personnel of the Korean War
American military personnel killed in the Korean War
Aviators killed by being shot down
Native American military personnel
Ohio State University College of Engineering alumni
People from Hattiesburg, Mississippi
Recipients of the Air Medal
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
United States Naval Aviators
United States Navy officers
Military personnel from Mississippi
American people of Chickasaw descent
American people who self-identify as being of Choctaw descent
African-American aviators
United States Navy reservists
African Americans in the Korean War

Jesse L. Brown


Tyrone William Griffin Jr. (born April 13, 1982), better known as Ty Dolla Sign (stylized as Ty Dolla $ign or Ty$), is an American singer, songwriter, and record producer.  He first gained major recognition in 2010 for his guest feature on YG's "Toot It and Boot It", which he had written and produced for Def Jam Recordings. In the summer of 2013, he signed a record deal with Wiz Khalifa's Taylor Gang Records. In November 2015, he released his first studio album, Free TC, which peaked at number 14 on the Billboard 200.

Ty Dolla Sign is known for his songs "Paranoid", "Or Nah", and "Blasé", as well as his writing contributions to "Loyal", "Post to Be", "FourFiveSeconds", and "Psycho", which was his first track to hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100. Aside from his solo music career, Ty Dolla Sign is also a member of production team D.R.U.G.S., alongside Chordz 3D, Buddah Shampoo, Nate 3D, James Koo, Fuego, and DJ Dahi.

References

Other websites

1982 births
Living people
Atlantic Records artists
African-American singers
Singers from Los Angeles

Ty Dolla Sign


The hackle is a clipped plume or short spray of coloured feathers that is attached to a military headdress, with different colours being associated with particular regiments.

In the British Army and the armies of some Commonwealth countries, the hackle is worn by some infantry regiments, especially those designated as fusilier regiments and those with Scottish and Northern Irish origins.

The modern hackle has its origins in a much longer plume, originally referred to by its Scots name, heckle, which was commonly attached to the feather bonnet worn by Highland regiments (now usually only worn by drummers, pipers and bandsmen). The smaller version originated in a regimental emblem adopted by the 42nd Royal Highland Regiment, to be worn in the sun helmet issued in hot-weather postings from the 1870s.

British Army

Hackle colours in British fusilier regiments

Modern fusiliers

In the modern British Army, there is a single regiment of fusiliers, plus a battalion of a large regiment. Hackle colours are:

 Royal Regiment of Fusiliers: Red over white
 Royal Highland Fusiliers (a battalion of the Royal Regiment of Scotland): White
Other ranks of the Royal Welsh, the regiment that was formed by the amalgamation of the Royal Welch Fusiliers and Royal Regiment of Wales, continue to wear the white hackle of the Royal Welch Fusiliers.

Historic fusilier regiments
There were several other fusilier regiments which have been amalgamated and no longer exist. The hackle colours worn were as follows:

 Lancashire Fusiliers: Primrose yellow
 Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment): White
 Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers: Grey
 Royal Irish Fusiliers: Green
 Royal Northumberland Fusiliers: Red over white
 Royal Scots Fusiliers: White
 Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers: Blue over old gold (orange)
 Royal Welch Fusiliers: White
 Royal Munster Fusiliers: White over green
 Royal Dublin Fusiliers: Green over blue

Non-fusilier regiments

Non-fusilier regiments which wear the hackle are:

 Coldstream Guards (bearskin only): Red
 Grenadier Guards (bearskin only): White
 Irish Guards (pipers on caubeen only): St Patrick's blue [Also worn on bearskin]
 Liverpool Scottish (now a platoon of A (Ladysmith) Company, 4th Bn Duke of Lancaster's Regiment): Royal blue
 Liverpool Irish (now A Troop of 208 Battery, 103rd Regiment Royal Artillery): Blue over red
 London Irish Rifles (now D (London Irish Rifles) Company, London Regiment): Green [Pipers wear St Patrick's blue]
 Royal Irish Regiment (as the direct descendant of two regiments of fusiliers): Green
 Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (on pipers' feather bonnet in Full Dress, pipers' / drummers' glengarry /atholl bonnet in No.1 and No.2 dress): White
 Royal Welsh (Other Ranks only): White
 Scots Guards (pipers on feather bonnet only): Blue over red
 The Queen's University Officers' Training Corps: St Patrick's Blue (A Coy Caubeen Only)
 Royal Air Force (pipe band only): Blue
 Welsh Guards (bearskin only): White-green-white

Royal Regiment of Scotland
Following the amalgamation of the regiments of the Scottish Division to form The Royal Regiment of Scotland on 28 March 2006, the following hackles are being worn by the regiment's constituent battalions:

 Royal Scots Borderers (1 SCOTS): Black
 Royal Highland Fusiliers (2 SCOTS): White
 Black Watch (3 SCOTS): Red
 The Highlanders (4 SCOTS): Blue
 Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (5 SCOTS): Green
 52nd Lowland Volunteers (6 SCOTS): Grey
 51st Highland Volunteers (7 SCOTS): Purple

Whilst the white hackle of 2 SCOTS, red hackle of 3 SCOTS and blue hackle of 4 SCOTS have a known ancestry, the origin of 1 SCOTS black hackle and 5 SCOTS green hackle are not clear and have no apparent precedent. It may be that the black hackle of 1 SCOTS simulates the black-cock tail feathers originally worn in the 1904 pattern Kilmarnock Bonnet and latterly in the regimental Glengarry Cap by the Royal Scots and King's Own Scottish Borderers, who merged in August 2006 to form 1 SCOTS. Alternatively, it may be a sympathetic gesture to a former Lowland regiment, the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles), who went into 'suspended animation' in 1968 (and later disbanded), who wore a black hackle in their rifle green dress Balmoral. The adoption of the green hackle now being worn by the Argylls battalion (5 SCOTS) is no doubt a continuation of that regiment's association with the colour green, most prominent in the hue of their regimental kilts and stripes on their regimental association ties. (It is, however, worthy of note that in the 19th Century, all line regiments of the British Army used to designate their "light company" with a green hackle.) The Regimental Band of the Royal Regiment of Scotland does not wear the hackle. However, the Highland Band of the Royal Regiment of Scotland (Territorial Army) continues to wear the red hackle with the Tam o' Shanter. Tradition holds that the black hackle originated as a Scottish tradition of wearing a black feather in your hat to signify you have an ongoing quarrel with someone.

Other regiments
Former non-fusilier regiments, now amalgamated, which also wore the hackle were:

 40 (Ulster) Regiment, Royal Corps of Signals: Navy blue, sky blue and green.
 Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders: (feather bonnet only - drummers and drum major): White
 Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders: (Pipers only) Black cock feather
 Black Watch: Red
 The Cameronians (Scottish Rifles): Black
 Gordon Highlanders: Feather bonnet only - Drummers and drum major: White, Bandsmen: Red and white
 Gordon Highlanders: (Pipers only) black cock feather
 Highland Light Infantry: White over red
 The Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons): Royal blue
 The Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons): (feather bonnet only - drummers and drum major) White
 The Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons): (Pipers only) Eagle feather
 Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders: Royal blue
 Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders: (feather bonnet only - drummers and drum major) White
 Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders: (Pipers only) Eagle feather
 Queen's Own Highlanders (Seaforth and Camerons): Royal blue
 Queen's Own Highlanders (Seaforth and Camerons): (feather bonnet only - drummers and drum major) White
 Queen's Own Highlanders (Seaforth and Camerons): (Pipers only) Eagle feather
 Queen's Royal Irish Hussars (pipers on caubeen only): White over red
 Queen's Royal Hussars (pipers on caubeen only): White over red
 Royal Irish Rangers: Green
 Royal Corps of Transport (pipers on feather bonnet only): Red over white over blue
 Royal Ulster Rifles: Black
 Seaforth Highlanders (feather bonnet only - drummers and drum major): White
 Seaforth Highlanders (Pipers only) Black cock feather
 No. 9 Commando and No. 11 (Scottish) Commando: Black

Other armies

Australian Army
There are five Army Reserve Regiments with Highland Companies in the Australian Army which wear the hackle:

 2nd/17th Battalion, The Royal New South Wales Regiment
 41st Battalion, The Royal New South Wales Regiment
 5th/6th Battalion, The Royal Victoria Regiment
 10th/27th Regiment, The Royal South Australia Regiment
 16th Battalion, The Royal Western Australia Regiment

Canadian Army

There are several fusilier regiments in the Canadian Army which wear the hackle (the French-speaking fusilier regiments do not appear to do so):

 The Princess Louise Fusiliers: French grey
 The Royal Highland Fusiliers of Canada: White
 Royal 22e Régiment: Red (not otherwise considered a fusilier regiment, they wear fusilier full dress because of their alliance with the Royal Welch Fusiliers)

Scottish-influenced non-fusilier regiments which wear the hackle include:

 48th Highlanders of Canada (feather bonnet only): White
 The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada (Princess Louise's) (drummers on feather bonnet only): White
 The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada: Red
 The Calgary Highlanders (drummers on feather bonnet only): White
 The Cameron Highlanders of Ottawa (Duke of Edinburgh's Own): Royal blue
 The Canadian Scottish Regiment (Princess Mary's) (drummers on feather bonnet only): White
 The Essex and Kent Scottish (feather bonnet only): White
 The Lorne Scots (Peel, Dufferin and Halton Regiment): Primrose yellow
 The Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders of Canada: Royal blue (except pipers in full dress, who wear an eagle feather instead).
 The Seaforth Highlanders of Canada (drummers on feather bonnet only): White

Irish-influenced non-fusilier regiments which wear the hackle (on the caubeen):

 2nd Battalion, Irish Regiment of Canada: Green (light blue for senior NCOs and officers)

Other regiments which wear the hackle in the bearskin include:

 The Governor General's Foot Guards: Red
 The Canadian Grenadier Guards: White
 Les Fusiliers du St-Laurent: White
 Les Fusiliers Mont-Royal: White
 Les Fusiliers de Sherbrooke: White

Dutch Army
A few infantry regiments in the Dutch Army wear the hackle:

 Regiment Stoottroepen Prins Bernhard: Black
 Korps Commandotroepen: Black
 Regiment Limburgse Jagers: Red
 Regiment Infanterie Oranje Gelderland: Red
 Korps Luchtdoelartillerie Black over red

Indian Army
In the Indian Army, a few selected infantry regiments wear the hackle:

 Brigade of the Guards: Red over yellow
 The Grenadiers: White
 Kumaon Regiment: Green
 Mahar Regiment: Dull cherry
 Maratha Light Infantry: Red over green
 Naga Regiment: Orange
 Rajput Regiment: Maroon over red
 National Cadet Corps: Red

Malaysian Army
 Royal Military College: Red (to be worn on Annual Passing Out parade only)
 Royal Ranger Regiment: Black

New Zealand Army
 Canterbury, and Nelson-Marlborough and West Coast Regiment: Green

Pakistan Army
 The Punjab Regiment: Green
 The Sindh Regiment: Red
 Northern Light Infantry: White with ceremonial headgear only
 Cadets at Pakistan Military Academy: Red over green
 9th Battalion, Azad Kashmir Regiment: Red (commemorates the action in the Leepa Valley,  Kashmir in 1972)

Sri Lanka Army
 Sri Lanka Armoured Corps: White and red
 Sri Lanka Light Infantry: White
 Sri Lanka Sinha Regiment: Black, yellow and green
 Gemunu Watch: Red
 Gajaba Regiment: Yellow
 Vijayabahu Infantry Regiment: Maroon, green and yellow
 Mechanized Infantry Regiment: Black and maroon
 Special Forces Regiment: Black and red
 Military Intelligence Corps: Dark blue, yellow, and dark green
 Sri Lanka Army Service Corps: Blue, white and yellow
 Sri Lanka Army Medical Corps: Hackle yellow, blue and dull cherry red
 Sri Lanka Army Ordnance Corps: Red, yellow and blue
 Sri Lanka Electrical and Mechanical Engineers: Oxford blue, golden yellow and signal red
 Sri Lanka Army General Service Corps: Blue and saffron
 Sri Lanka Army Women's Corps: Beach brown
 Sri Lanka Rifle Corps: Green and yellow
 Sri Lanka Army Pioneer Corps: Green and red
 Sri Lanka National Guard: Red, white and blue

South African Army
Scottish- and Irish-influenced regiments which wear the hackle include:

 South African Irish Regiment: Green
 Transvaal Scottish Regiment: Red
 Witwatersrand Rifles: Black

Swedish Army
 Life Guards: Grenadiers wear white hackles on their bearskins.

United States Army
 United States Military Academy: Cadet Officers wear black hackles on their shakos for parades.

References

Headgear
Military uniforms

fr:Plume#Utilisation ornementale

Hackle


Skia is a humanist sans-serif typeface designed by Matthew Carter for Apple Computer in 1994. Skia is Greek for "shadow", and the letterforms take inspiration from stone-carved 1st century BC Greek writing. The typeface was the first QuickDraw GX font, and has been pre-installed in Mac operating systems since System 7.5 (1994), and is in the current Mac OS.

Skia includes "GX variations" technology that – if an application offers the UI – allows its weight to be adjusted smoothly between thin and bold, and its width between narrow and extended. (Adobe's "multiple master" technology was similar.) In 2016 it was announced that several technology companies, including Google, Microsoft and Adobe, are adopting Apple's GX variations as the basis of the variations specification inside OpenType 1.8, and since that announcement Skia has been much used to demonstrate the capabilities of the technology.

References

External links

 Skia at myfonts.com
 TrueType GX Variations — Skia by Matthew Carter (a video showing the variations axes being adjusted)

Humanist sans-serif typefaces
Incised typefaces
Apple Inc. typefaces
Typefaces and fonts introduced in 1994
Typefaces designed by Matthew Carter

Skia (typeface)


Weirless or Radio is a communications invention uisin electromagnetic waws for tae get electronic information frae ae place tae anither athoot weirs. A transmitter sends the seegnals that's turnt intae soonds bi a receiver. The device is aften cried a "radio". It wis oreeginally uised for tae communicate atween twa fowks, but they nou uise it for tae listen tae muisic, news an collogue.

Radio programmes is transmittit ower fower frequencies: AM, FM, short waw and langwaw an aiblins ithers forby.

Italy's Guglielmo Marconi inventit the radio in the 1890s.

Radio programmes is aften transmittit throu stations.

A speicial type o radio braidcastin is satellite radio; examples o sic stations includes XM an Sirius.

The auld wey o braidcastin haes syne been renamed terrestrial radio.

Fremmit airtins
XM
Yahoo! Radio

Breetish inventions

Radio


Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein is a 1948 American horror comedy movie directed by Charles Barton and starring Bud Abbott, Lou Costello, Lon Chaney Jr., Bela Lugosi, Glenn Strange. It was distributed by Universal Pictures.

Other websites

1948 movies
1940s horror movies
1940s science fiction movies
1940s fantasy movies
1948 comedy movies
American fantasy-comedy movies
American monster movies
American parody movies
American sequel movies
American science fiction movies
American buddy movies
Comedy horror movies
English-language movies
Movies set in Florida
Movies set in London
Universal Pictures movies
Movies directed by Charles Barton

Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein


Anna Karenina is a ballet choreographed by Boris Eifman, based on the 1877 novel Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy. The première took place in Saint Petersburg on Saturday, 2 April 2005. The music is by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and includes excerpts from:

 Symphony No. 2 in C minor Little Russian, Op. 17
 The Tempest symphonic fantasy, Op. 18
 Francesca da Rimini symphonic fantasy, Op. 32
 Souvenir d'un lieu cher, Op. 42
Scherzo. Presto giocoso
  Suite No. 1 in D major, Op. 43
Andante sostenuto, moderato e con anima
Intermezzo: part 3. Andante semplice
 Serenade for Strings in C, Op. 48
Andante non troppo. Allegro moderato
 Suite No. 3 in G, Op. 55
 Manfred Symphony in B minor, Op. 58
 Hamlet, overture-fantasy, Op. 67a
 Souvenir de Florence, string sextet in D minor, Op. 70
Adagio cantabile e con moto
 Symphony No. 6 in B minor Pathetique, Op. 74
 The Voyevoda symphonic ballad, Op. 78
 Romeo and Juliet fantasy-overture

See also
 List of ballets by title

References
 The Social Affairs Unit
 Anna Karenina: Music by Tchaikovsky

Ballets by Boris Eifman
Ballets to the music of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
2005 ballet premieres
Works based on Anna Karenina

Anna Karenina (Eifman ballet)


Kanatzhan "Kanat" Alibekov (; ; born 1950), known as Kenneth "Ken" Alibek since 1992, is a Kazakh-American microbiologist, bioweaponeer, and biological warfare  administrative management expert.

He rose through the ranks of the Soviet Army to become the first deputy director of Biopreparat with a rank of Colonel, during which time he claimed to oversee a vast program of 40 biological warfare facilities with 32,000 employees.

During his career in Soviet bioweaponry development in the late 1970s and 1980s, Alibekov managed projects that included weaponizing glanders and Marburg hemorrhagic fever, and created Russia's first tularemia bomb. His most prominent accomplishment was the creation of a new "battle strain" of anthrax, known as "Strain 836", later described by the Los Angeles Times as "the most virulent and vicious strain of anthrax known to man".

In 1992, he defected to the United States; he has since become an American citizen and made his living as a biodefense consultant, speaker, and entrepreneur. He had actively participated in the development of biodefense strategy for the U.S. government, and between 1998 and 2005 he testified several times before the U.S. Congress and other governments on biotechnology issues, saying he was "convinced that Russia's biological weapons program has not been completely dismantled".

In 2002, Alibek told United Press International that there is concern that monkeypox could be engineered into a biological weapon.

Ohio-based Locus Fermentation Solutions hired Alibek in 2014 as executive vice president for research and development.

Biography

Early life and education
Alibek was born Kanat Alibekov in Kauchuk, in the Kazakh SSR of the Soviet Union (present-day Kazakhstan), to a Kazakh family. He grew up in Almaty, the republic's former capital.

Career
Alibek's academic performance while studying military medicine at the Tomsk Medical Institute and his family's noted patriotism led to his selection to work for Biopreparat, the secret biological weapons program overseen by the Soviet Union's Council of Ministers. His first assignment in 1975 was to the Eastern European Branch of the Institute of Applied Biochemistry (IAB) near Omutninsk, a combined pesticide production facility and reserve biological weapons production plant intended for activation in a time of war. At Omutninsk, Alibek mastered the art and science of formulating and evaluating nutrient media and cultivation conditions for the optimization of microbial growth. While there, he expanded his medical school laboratory skills into the complex skill set required for industrial-level production of microorganisms and their toxins.

After a year at Omutninsk, Alibek was transferred to the Siberian Branch of the IAB near Berdsk (another name of the branch was the Berdsk scientific and production base). With the assistance of a colleague, he designed and constructed a microbiology research and development laboratory that worked on techniques to optimize the production of biological formulations.

After several promotions, Alibek was transferred back to Omutninsk, where he rose to the position of deputy director. He was soon transferred to the Kazakhstan Scientific and Production Base in Stepnogorsk (another reserve BW facility) to become the new director of that facility. Officially, he was deputy director of the Progress Scientific and Production Association, a manufacturer of fertilizer and pesticide.

At Stepnogorsk, Alibek created an efficient industrial scale assembly line for biological formulations. In a time of war, the assembly line could be used to produce weaponized anthrax. Continued successes in science and biotechnology led to more promotions, which resulted in a transfer to Moscow.

Biopreparat
In Moscow, Alibek began his service as deputy chief of the biosafety directorate at Biopreparat. He was promoted in 1988 to first deputy director of Biopreparat, where he not only oversaw the biological weapons facilities but also the significant number of pharmaceutical facilities that produced antibiotics, vaccines, sera, and interferon for the public.

In response to a Spring 1990 announcement that the Ministry of Medical and Microbiological Industry was to be reorganized, Alibek drafted and forwarded a memo to then General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev proposing the cessation of Biopreparat's biological weapons work. Gorbachev approved the proposal, but an additional paragraph was secretly inserted into Alibek's draft, resulting in a presidential decree that ordered the end of Biopreparat's biological weapons work but also required them to remain prepared for future bioweapons production.

Alibek used his position at Biopreparat and the authority granted to him by the first part of the decree to begin the destruction of the biological weapons to dismantle biological weapons production and testing capabilities at a number of research and development facilities, including Stepnogorsk, Kol'tsovo, Obolensk, and others. He also negotiated a concurrent appointment to a Biopreparat facility called Biomash. Biomash designed and produced technical equipment for microbial cultivation and testing. He planned to increase the proportion of its products sent to hospitals and civilian medical laboratories beyond the 40% allocated at the time.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, Alibek was subsequently placed in charge of intensive preparations for inspections of Soviet biological facilities by a joint American and British delegation. But when he participated in the subsequent Soviet inspection of American facilities, his suspicion that the U.S. did not have an offensive bioweapons program was confirmed before his return to Russia. In January 1992, not long after his return from the U.S., Alibek, protested against Russia's continuation of bioweapons work, and resigned from both the Russian Army and Biopreparat.

Emigration to the United States
In October 1992, Alibek and his family emigrated to the United States. After moving to the U.S., Alibekov provided the government with a detailed accounting of the former Soviet biological weapons program. During a CIA debriefing, Alibek described the Soviet efforts to weaponize a particularly virulent smallpox strain, producing hundreds of tons of the virus that could be disseminated with bombs or ballistic missiles. Information about the Soviet biological weapons program had already been provided in 1989 by the defected scientist Vladimir Pasechnik.

Alibekov has testified before the U.S. Congress several times and has provided guidance to U.S. intelligence, policy, national security, and medical communities.

He was the impetus behind the creation of a biodefense graduate program at the Schar School of Policy and Government at George Mason University, serving as Distinguished Professor of Medical Microbiology and the program's Director of Education. He also developed the plans for the university's biosafety level three (BSL-3) research facility and secured $40 million of grants from the federal and state governments for its construction.

In 1999, Alibek published an autobiographical account of his work in the Soviet Union and his defection.

Reporting the prospect of Iraq gaining the ability to get hold of smallpox or anthrax, Alibek said, "there is no doubt that Saddam Hussein has weapons of mass destruction." However, no biological weapons were later found in Iraq.

Entrepreneur and research administrator
Alibek was president, chief scientific officer, and chief executive officer at AFG Biosolutions, Inc in Gaithersburg, Maryland, where he and his scientific team continued their development of advanced solutions for antimicrobial immunity. Motivated by the lack of affordable anti-cancer therapies available in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, AFG was using Alibek's biotechnology experience to plan, build, and manage a new pharmaceutical production facility designed specifically to address this problem.

Alibek created a new pharmaceutical production company, MaxWell Biocorporation (MWB), in 2006 and served as its chief executive officer and president. Based in Washington, D.C., with several subsidiaries and affiliates in the U.S. and Ukraine, MWB's main stated goal is create a new, large-scale, high-technology, ultra-modern pharmaceutical fill-and-finish facility in Ukraine. Off-patent generic pharmaceuticals produced at this site are intended to target severe oncological, cardiological, immunological, and chronic infectious diseases.

Construction of the Boryspil facility began in April 2007 and was completed in March 2008; initial production was scheduled to begin in 2008. The stated intention was that high-quality pharmaceuticals would be produced and become an affordable source of therapy for millions of underprivileged who currently have no therapeutic options. Abilek stepped down as President of MWB in the summer of 2008 shortly after the facility opened.

Alibek's main research focus was developing novel forms of therapy for late-stage oncological diseases and other chronic degenerative pathologies and disorders. He focuses on the role of chronic viral and bacterial infections in causing age-related diseases and premature aging. Additionally, he develops and implements novel systemic immunotherapy methods for late-stage cancer patients.

Work in Kazakhstan
In 2010, Alibek was invited to begin working in Kazakhstan as a head of the Department of Chemistry and Biology at the School of Science and Technology of Nazarbayev University in Astana, where he was engaged in the development of anti-cancer drugs and life-prolonging drugs, and was chairman of the board of the Republican Scientific Center for Emergency Medical Care and headed the National Scientific Center for Oncology and Transplantation. During his stay, he published a number of articles in research journals and taught various courses in various fields of biology and medicine. He focused on a possible role of chronic infections, metabolic disorders, and immunosuppression on cancer development. In 2011, he was awarded a prize from the Deputy Prime Minister for his contribution to the development of the educational system in Kazakhstan. In 2014, he was awarded a medal by the Minister of Education and Science of Kazakhstan for his contribution to research in Kazakhstan. He continues his work as an administrative manager of a research and medicine and education professor.

However, after seven years, no significant scientific results from Alibek's work developed. During these seven years, Alibek received more than 1 billion Tenge from the budget for  "New Systemic Therapy for Cancer Tumors" project he tried to implement. The promising Swedish technique has remained a common concept, a panacea for cancer treatment has not appeared. Three submitted Alibekov patent applications for registration were rejected by the National Institute of Intellectual Property of the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan since there was no novelty. After Kazakhstan realized that, under the guise of super-progressive technologies, Alibekov was promoting long-known foreign methods, and  Alibek was not a qualified specialist in oncology, medicine, or science, he terminated the contract and returned to the U.S.

In 2016, Alibek was chosen as one of the nominees in the "Science" category of the national project El Tulgasy, which was designed to select the most significant citizens of Kazakhstan who are associated with national achievements. More than 350,000 people voted in this project, and Alibek was voted 10th place in his category.

Autism research
Starting in 2007, Alibek began researching autism. He supports the idea that the disorder is the result of prenatal viral and bacterial infections. Despite the lack of formal physician experience, a legal physician license to practice medicine, and professional qualification to work with autistic children as either a scientist or physician, Alibek considers himself a scientist and a doctor and treats autistic children using antiviral, antibacterial, and immunomodulatory approaches. His patients are located predominantly in nations in the former Soviet Union, and he consults mainly using free telemedicine services. Although Alibek claims to treat autism, there is no objectively evaluated and published data on the effectiveness of his approach.

Criticism
In a September 2003 news release, Alibek and another professor suggested, based on their laboratory research, that the smallpox vaccination might increase a person's resistance to HIV. The work was rejected after peer review by the Journal of the American Medical Association and The Lancet and is no longer being pursued. According to smallpox expert and former White House science advisor Donald Henderson, "This is a theory that... does not hold up at all, and it does not make any sense from a biologic point of view...This idea...was straight off the wall. I would put no credence in it at all." In 2010, an article coauthored by Alibek appeared in Biomed Central - Immunology, a scientific journal, that outlined the results of their research showing that prior immunization with the vaccine Dryvax may confer resistance to HIV replication.

Alibek also has promoted "Dr. Ken Alibek's Immune System Support Formula," a dietary supplement sold over the Internet. It contains vitamins, minerals, and a proprietary bacterial mix that will purportedly "bolster the immune system".

Personal life
Alibek has a wife and five children (two sons and three daughters); one of his daughters is autistic.

Publications
 Books

Alibek, Ken and Steven Handelman (1999), Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World – Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It, Random House, .
"The Anthrax Vaccine: Is It safe? Does it Work?" (2002), Reviewer. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., Institute of Medicine.
Biological Threats and Terrorism: Assessing the Science and Response Capabilities (2002), Workshop Summary, Contributor. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., Institute of Medicine.
Weinstein, R.S. and K. Alibek (2003), Biological and Chemical Terrorism: A Guide for Healthcare Providers and First Responders, Thieme Medical Publishing, New York.
Alibek, K., et al. (2003), Biological Weapons, Bio-Prep, Louisiana.
Fong, I. and K. Alibek (2005), Bioterrorism and Infectious Agents: A New Dilemma for the 21st Century, Springer.
Fong, I. and K. Alibek (2006), New and Evolving Infections of the 21st Century, Springer.

 Book chapters
"Firepower in the Lab: Automation in the Fight Against Infectious Diseases and Bioterrorism" (2001), Chapter 15 of Biological Weapons: Past, Present, and Future, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., Institute of Medicine.
Jane's Chem-Bio Handbook (2002), Second Edition, F. R. Sidell, W. C. Patrick, T. R. Dashiell, K. Alibek, Jane's Information Group, Alexandria, VA.
K. Alibek, C. Lobanova, "Modulation of Innate Immunity to Protect Against Biological Weapon Threat" (2006). In: Microorganisms and Bioterrorism, Springer.

Op-Eds
The New York Times
"Russia's Deadly Expertise", March 27, 1998.
"Smallpox Could Still Be a Danger", May 24, 1999.
The Wall Street Journal
"Russia Retains Biological Weapons Capability", February, 2000.
"Bioterror: A Very Real Threat", October, 2001.
The Washington Post
"Anthrax under the Microscope", with Matthew Meselson, November 5, 2002.

 Selected Congressional Testimony
Testimony before the Joint Economic Committee, May 1998: "Terrorist and Intelligence Operations: Potential Impact on the US Economy"
Testimony before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, June, 1999
Testimony before the House Armed Services Committee, October, 1999
Testimony before the House Armed Services Committee, May, 2000
Testimony before the House Subcommittee on National Security, Veterans Affairs, and International Relations of the Committee on Government Reform, October 12, 2001: "Combating Terrorism: Assessing the Threat of a Biological Weapons Attack", House Serial No. 107-103
Testimony before the House Committee on International Relations, December, 2001: "Russia, Iraq, and Other Potential Sources of Anthrax, Smallpox, and Other Bioterrorist Weapons"
Testimony before the Senate Subcommittee on Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies of the Committee on Appropriations, November, 2001
Testimony before the Subcommittee on Prevention of Nuclear and Biological Attack, Committee on Homeland Security, US House of Representatives, July 28, 2005: "Implementing a National Biodefense Strategy"
House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, March 1999 Biological Warfare Threats
Testimony before the House Subcommittee on Prevention of Nuclear and Biological Attack, July 13, 2005: "Engineering Bio-terror Agents: Lessons Learned from the Offensive US and Russian Biological Weapons Programs"

References

Further reading
 "Interview Dr. Ken Alibek", Journal of Homeland Security, September 18, 2000

External links

1950 births
Living people
20th-century biologists
2001 anthrax attacks
American people of Kazakhstani descent
Kazakhstani emigrants to the United States
Kazakhstani scientists
People from Almaty Region
People related to biological warfare
Siberian State Medical University alumni
Soviet biological weapons program
Soviet microbiologists
Soviet military doctors
The Heritage Foundation

Ken Alibek