Grigor Narekatsi (; anglicized as Gregory of Narek;  – 1003/1011) was an Armenian mystical and lyrical poet, monk, and theologian. He is venerated as a saint in the Armenian Apostolic and Catholic Churches and was declared a Doctor of the Church by Pope Francis in 2015.

The son of a bishop, Gregory was educated, ordained, and later stationed at Narekavank on the southern shores of Lake Van (modern Turkey). Scholars consider Gregory the most beloved and significant theological and literary figure of the Armenian religious tradition.

He is best known for his Book of Lamentations, a significant piece of mystical literature which serves as a confessional prayer book in many Armenian religious households. His works have inspired many Armenian literary figures and influenced Armenian literature in general throughout the ages.

Life and background

Scholars place Gregory's birth and death dates circa 945–951 and 1003 or 1010–11, respectively. He lived in the Kingdom of Vaspurakan, a medieval Armenian kingdom, which is "notable for the high cultural level that it achieved." Vaspurakan, centered around Lake Van, is a region described by Richard Hovannisian as "the cradle of Armenian civilization".

Little is known about his life. He was born in a village on the southern shores of Lake Van, in what is now eastern Turkey, to Khosrov Andzevatsi, a relative of the Artsruni royal family. Khosrov was ordained a bishop after being widowed and was appointed primate of the diocese of Andzevatsik. His father was suspected of pro-Byzantine Chalcedonian beliefs, a doctrine not accepted by the Armenian Apostolic Church, and was eventually excommunicated by Catholicos Anania Mokatsi for undermining the Armenian Church with his interpretation of the rank of Catholicos, the highest rank in Armenian church clergy, as being equivalent to that of a bishop, a lower rank in Christian churches, based on the works of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a fifth-century Greek Christian theologian and mysticist. Grigor and his elder brother Hovhannes were sent to the Narekavank (lit. the monastery of Narek), where he was given religious education by Anania Narekatsi (Ananias of Narek). The latter was his maternal great-uncle, a celebrated scholar and the monastery's founder. Being raised in an intellectual and religious fervor, Grigor was ordained priest in 977 and taught others theology at the monastery school until his death.

Whether Gregory led a secluded life has become a debate among Armenian scholars. Both literary critic Arshag Chobanian and scholar Manuk Abeghian believe he did. In contrast, literary critic  argued that Gregory was very well aware of the secular world and his time, had a deep knowledge of both peasants and princes and the complexities of the world. Tamrazyan believes he could not have lived solely on literary ecstasy.

Gregory was buried inside the walls of the monastery of Narek. A rectangular-shaped chapel-mausoleum was built on his tomb, which survived until the mid-20th century, when the monastery, abandoned in the aftermath of the Armenian genocide, was destroyed by the Turkish authorities, and later replaced with a mosque.

Works

Book of Lamentations (Narek)

The Book of Lamentations (Classical Armenian: , ) is widely considered Gregory's masterpiece. It is often simply called Narek (). Completed towards the end of his life, circa 1002–03, the work has been described as a monologue, a personal lyric and confessional poem, mystical and meditative. It comprises 95 chapters and over 10,000 lines. Almost all chapters (except two) are titled "Words unto God from the Depths of My Heart". The chapters, which are prayers or elegies, vary in length, but all address God. The central theme is the metaphysical and existential conflict between Gregory's desire to be perfect, as taught by Jesus, and his realization that it is impossible and between the divine grace and his sense of one's unworthiness to receive that grace. However, the love and mercy of God's all-embracing, all-forgiving, and amazing grace compensate for man's unworthiness.

The book is considered a masterpiece of Christian spiritual literature. It has been described by Agop Jack Hacikyan et al. as the "most beloved work of Armenian literature." It has been historically kept in Armenian homes. Scholars have described its popularity among Armenians as second to the Bible. For centuries, Armenians have treasured the book as an enchanted treasure and have attributed to it miraculous powers. For instance, one passage has been read to the ill expecting a cure. Malachia Ormanian, scholar and Patriarch of Constantinople, wrote that Narek is "written in a florid and sublime style, is regarded as a potent talisman against all kinds of dangers." In the 21st century, psychiatrist Armen Nersisyan has claimed to have developed a unique type of therapy based on the book, which can cure many diseases, at least partly.

The book's first complete publication was done by Voskan Yerevantsi in Marseille, France, in 1673. While the first complete commentary was published in Constantinople in 1745. The work has been translated into English, Russian, French, Arabic, Persian, Lithuanian, Latvian, Estonian. There are three English translations of the book, with the first one appearing in 1977.

Commentary on the Song of Songs
Gregory's second most known extant work is a commentary on the Song of Songs (, ), written in 977, the year he was ordained a priest. The commentary was written at the behest of prince Gurgen-Khachik Artsruni of Vaspurakan. Gregory makes frequent use of St. Gregory of Nyssa's Letters on the Song of Songs. The commentary contains explicit condemnation of marriage and sexuality practices by Tondrakians, an Armenian Christian sect named as heretics by the Armenian Apostolic Church.  Gregory may have been commissioned to counter these heretical teachings. Armenian author Ara Baliozian describes the commentary as a prose masterpiece.

Other works
There is also a single extant manuscript of a commentary by Gregory on chapters 38 and 39 of the Book of Job. Gregory also wrote hymns, panegyrics on various holy figures, homilies, numerous chants and prayers that are still sung today in Armenian churches.
Scholars have noted that Gregory often departs from the standards of the Armenian and Greek traditions of panegyrics and encomia and innovates in interesting and distinctive ways. Of particular importance are his two recensions of the encomium on the Holy Virgin. In which he affirms the doctrines of Mary's bodily Assumption (), perpetual virginity, and perhaps the immaculate conception.

The encomium on the Holy Virgin was written as part of a triptych requested by the bishop Step'anos of Mokk'. The other two panegyrics forming this set are the History of the Holy Cross of Aparank', which commemorates the donation of a relic of the True Cross to the monastery of Aparank' by the Byzantine emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII, and the Encomium on the Holy Cross. By focusing on the cross, both of these panegyrics counter Tondrakian rejection of veneration of the cross and other material objects. Here again, as in the rest of Gregory's corpus, the saint defends orthodoxy against the Tondrakians and other heretical movements. Gregory also wrote a panegyric on St. Jacob of Nisibis, a fourth-century Syriac bishop who has been and remains today highly esteemed among Armenians. Gregory also has is an encomium on the Holy Apostles.

Gregory also authored around two dozen  (lays or odes), which are the first documented religious poems in Armenian literature, and spiritual songs called , both in verse and prose. Gregory also composed music for his odes, but they are not considered  (chants).

Many of the festal odes and litanies as well as the panegyrics have been translated to English and annotated by Abraham Terian.

Outlook and philosophy
The central idea of Gregory's philosophy is eternal salvation relying solely upon faith and divine grace, and not necessarily upon the institutional church, in which his views are similar to those of the 16th century Protestant Reformation. This interpretation of Gregory as a precursor of Protestantism has more recently been challenged. Gregory may have been suspected of heresy and being sympathetic to the Paulicians and Tondrakians—two major sects in medieval Armenia. He notably wrote a treatise against the Tondrakians in the 980s, possibly to clear himself of accusations of being sympathetic to their movement. In the treatise, he states some of his theological views. Although Gregory does not mention the Tondrakians in the Book of Lamentations, some scholars have interpreted certain chapters as containing anti-Tondrakian elements. Other scholars have pointed out that the Book of Lamentations is dominated by the theme of the centrality of the sacraments, especially baptism, reconciliation, and the Eucharist, and thus directly opposes Tondrakian deprecation of the sacraments. In his struggle against the antinomian Tondrakians, Gregory followed his predecessor at the monastery of Narek—his great-uncle Anania, who was condemned for his alleged Tondrakian beliefs.

According to Ara Baliozian, Gregory broke from Hellenistic thought, which was dominant among the Armenian intellectual elite since the 5th-century golden age. He was instead profoundly influenced by Neoplatonism. In fact, the Narek school was instrumental in instilling Christian Neoplatonism in Armenian theology, particularly concepts such as divinization, the attainment of the power of spiritual vision or discernment through penitential purification of the inner and outer man, and a symbolic exegetical methodology. He may have been influenced by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a pivotal author in Christian Neoplatonism, although this view has been challenged. Vache Nalbandian argued that Gregory's outlook is essentially anti-feudal and humanistic.

The tone of the Book of Lamentations has been compared to that of Confessions by Augustine of Hippo. Some scholars have compared Gregory's worldview, and philosophy to those of later Sufi mystic poets Rumi and Yunus Emre, and 19th century Russian writers Fyodor Dostoevsky and A. K. Tolstoy. Michael Papazian, a scholar of Gregory, opined that he is "what you'd get if you crossed Augustine and James Joyce. But his spirituality is also infused with the simple piety of the Desert Fathers; and, although he lived before him, there's an element of St. Francis in him, too. He's a synthesis of so many strands of Christian tradition."

Recognition

Gregory was the first major Armenian lyrical poet and is considered the most beloved person in Armenian Christianity. Robert W. Thomson described him as the "most significant poet of the whole Armenian religious tradition," while Jos Weitenberg declared him the "most outstanding theological, mystical and literary figure of Armenian culture." James R. Russell lists Gregory as one of the three visionaries of the Armenian tradition, along with Mesrop Mashtots and Yeghishe Charents.

According to Hacikyan et al. Gregory of Narek "deserves to be known as one of the great mystical writers of medieval Christendom." Vrej Nersessian considers him a "poet of world stature" in the "scope and breadth of his intellect and poetic inventiveness, and in the brooding, visionary quality of his language"—on a par with St Augustine, Dante, and Edward Taylor. Levon Zekiyan shares a similar view, describing Gregory as a unique figure not just in Armenian national and ecclesiastical culture, but also that of the entire globe. Nersessian argues that Gregory of Narek ranks with St. Augustine and Thomas à Kempis as "one the three greatest mystic writers in medieval Christendom, his monumental Lamentations joins the former's Confessions, and the latter's Imitation of Christ to form a natural trilogy." Armenian-Russian critic  writes that Gregory's genius makes him comparable with Shakespeare, Miguel de Cervantes, and Dostoevsky.

Agop Jack Hacikyan et al. note that through his "lively, vibrant, and highly individual style" Gregory shaped, refined, and greatly enriched Classical Armenian through his works. According to Hrachik Mirzoyan, Gregory may have created more than 2,500 new Armenian words, including  '''a portrait or image' and օդաչու,  'a person who flies, pilot'. Many of the words Gregory created are not actively used or have been replaced by other words.

Critique
France-based Western Armenian writer Shahan Shahnour has been Gregory's most prominent critic. Shahnour targeted him in his novel Retreat Without Song (, published in 1929) through one of his characters. The latter describes the Book of Lamentations as "the most immoral, unhealthy, poisonous book, a work that had debilitated the Armenians as a nation. The Armenians remain defeated in trying to emulate Grigor's miserable, maimed soul." Criticizing the book's influence on rooting the notion of fate in Armenian popular belief and for making Armenians "conventional, patient, tolerant, suffocating the freedom-loving spirit in [them]."

Paruyr Sevak opined that the Narek has not been read by Armenians as much as it has been kissed.

Veneration

Armenian Apostolic Church
The Armenian Apostolic Church celebrates his feast on the second Saturday of October, during the Feast of the Holy Translators (, ). Dedicated to him, Mesrop Mashtots, Yeghishe, Movses Khorenatsi, David the Invincible, and Nerses Shnorhali, it was declared a national holiday in Armenia in 2001. The exact date of his canonization by the Armenian Church is unknown, but he was already recognized as a saint by 1173, when Nerses Lambronatsi included, in the earliest extant manuscript of the Book of Lamentations, a biographical section on him entitled "The Life of the Holy Man of God Grigor Narekatsi". His contemporary, historian Ukhtanes (c. 940-1000) called Gregory a "Universal vardapet" ().

In the 15th century, when the Catholicosate of Aghtamar was at the center of efforts to revive Armenian statehood, monks at the Cathedral of Aghtamar sought to construct a tradition that would link the Catholicosate to Gregory of Narek. One such tradition claimed that Gregory himself had founded the Catholicosate. In ritual books commissioned by Zakaria III and Stepanos IV, Gregory is depicted more than just equal-to-the-apostles.

Gregory's relic is preserved at the Treasury Museum of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin. It was brought out to Etchmiadzin Cathedral on the feast in 2012. Several churches built in Armenia in the 21st century have been named after him. The St. Gregory of Narek Armenian Apostolic Church in Richmond Heights, Ohio, near Cleveland, was built in 1964. The Armenian Catholic eparchy of Buenos Aires is called the Eparchy of Saint Gregory of Narek.

Catholic Church

Despite the schism over the Council of Chalcedon there have always been at least some Catholics using the Armenian Rite. For example, even though the Monastery of Narek was founded by Armenian monks fleeing religious persecution in Cappadocia under the Byzantine Emperor Romanus Lecapenus, the monks of Narek, including Gregory himself, were repeatedly accused of involvement in the Tsayt movement. The Tsayts were a school of thought within the Armenian Apostolic Church who accepted the teachings of the Council of Chalcedon while continuing to offer the liturgy in Classical Armenian. To Armenians who viewed the Council of Chalcedon as a contradiction of Cyril of Alexandria and therefore as heresy, the Tsayts were accused of being "Greeks but with an Armenian tongue", and even as "half, insufficient, or inadequate Armenians". Meanwhile, criticisms of the Paulician Tondrakian movement by Gregory of Narek have come down to us, but no similar criticisms of the Council of Chalcedon or of the Tsayts are known to exist by his hand.

This would become important centuries later, when the Mekhitarist Order was founded by Mkhitar Sebastatsi as part of a wider movement within the Armenian Apostolic Church towards acceptance of the Council of Chalcedon and reunification with the Holy See. Encouraged by French Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries in the Ottoman Empire, this movement eventually resulted in both the 1707 martyrdom of Gomidas Keumurdjian and the 1742 formation of the Patriarchate of Cilicia to head the Armenian Catholic Church. For many reasons, Gregory of Narek and Nerses Shnorhali were the only two post-Chalcedon Armenian theologians used by the Mekhitarist monks to preach reunion through their publishing apostolate based at San Lazzaro Island in Venice.

In his 1987 encyclical Redemptoris Mater, Pope John Paul II called him "one of the outstanding glories of Armenia." Article 2678 of Catechism of the Catholic Church, promulgated by John Paul II in 1992, mentions the tradition of prayer in his works. John Paul II referred to him in several addresses, and described Gregory as "one of Our Lady's principal poets" and "the great doctor of the Armenian Church" in his 18 February 2001 Angelus address.

Doctor of the Church
On 4 September 2014, Armenian Catholic Patriarch Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni appointed Archbishop Boghos Levon Zekiyan of the Mekhitarist Order as Postulator, with orders to argue for St. Gregory being named a Doctor of the Church. Proof was demanded from Archbishop Zekiyan that the Armenian Apostolic Church has never been Monophysite and only rejected the Council of Chalcedon due to a misunderstanding over semantics. Archbishop Zekiyan's investigation and arguments were successful and, on 23 February 2015 Pope Francis declared Gregory of Narek a Doctor of the Church. On 12 April 2015, on Divine Mercy Sunday, during a Mass for the centennial of the Armenian genocide at St. Peter's Basilica, Pope Francis officially proclaimed Gregory of Narek as Doctor of the Church in the presence of Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan, Catholicos of All Armenians Karekin II, Catholicos of Cilicia Aram I, and Armenian Catholic Patriarch Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni. During a Mass on 25 June 2016 in Vartanants Square in Gyumri, Francis stated that he had "wished to draw greater attention" to Gregory by making him a Doctor of the Church. In a 2023 address, Pope Francis said of Gregory: "What is most striking about him is the universal solidarity of which he is an interpreter."

Gregory is the 36th and the first Armenian Doctor of the Church. He is also the "second saint coming out of the Eastern Church" to become a Doctor and the only Doctor "who was not in communion with the Catholic Church during his lifetime."

St. Gregory's recognition as a Doctor of the Church was commemorated by the Vatican City state with a postage stamp put into circulation on 2 September 2015. On 5 April 2018 a two-meter-high bronze statue of Gregory, erected by , was unveiled at the Vatican Gardens by Mikael Minasyan, Armenia's Ambassador to the Holy See. The ceremony was also attended by Pope Francis, Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan, and Armenian Apostolic leaders Karekin II and Aram I.

In 2021 the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments established an optional memorial for him on 27 February on the General Roman Calendar.

Legacy
Literary influence
Gregory influenced virtually all Armenian literature that came after him. Manuk Abeghian argued that his mark on Armenian Christian literature was "comparable to Homer for Greek and Dante for Italian." Grigor Magistros Pahlavuni () is considered his direct literary successor. Scholars have noted Gregory's influence on Armenian poets—medieval and modern ones alike. He inspired prominent medieval poets Hovhannes Imastaser (c. 1047–1129), Nerses Shnorhali (1102–1173) and Frik (–1310), and in the modern period, Sayat-Nova (1712–95), Hovhannes Tumanyan (1869–1923), Misak Metsarents (1886–1908), Daniel Varoujan (1884–1915), Siamanto (1878–1915), Yeghishe Charents (1897–1937), and Paruyr Sevak (1924–1971).

Charents lauds the "hallowed brows" of Gregory and Nahapet Kuchak in his 1920 poem "I Love My Armenia" (""). In another poem, entitled "To Armenia" (""), Charents lists Gregory, Nerses Shnorhali and Naghash Hovnatan as geniuses. Sevak describes the Book of Lamentations a "temple of poesy, on which the destructive action of time has had no effect."

Tributes

Narek (Western Armenian: Nareg) is highly popular male first name among Armenians. In 2018 it was the second most common name given to baby boys. It originates from the village and monastery of Narek and owns its popularity to Gregory of Narek and the Book of Lamentations, popularly known as "Narek." The village of Narek in Armenia's Ararat Province was named after Gregory in 1984.

The Narekatsi Professorship of Armenian Language and Culture, established in 1969, is the oldest endowed chair of the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). In Yerevan, a public school (established in 1967 and renamed in 1990) and a medical center (established in 2003) are named after Gregory. Gregory is depicted on a postage stamp issued by Armenia in 2001. The Naregatsi Art Institute (), has its headquarters in Yerevan, Armenia (since 2004) and a center in Shushi, Karabakh (since 2006).

A statue of Gregory was erected in Yerevan's Malatia-Sebastia District in 2002. A large stone resembling an old manuscript with inscribed lines and images from the Book of Lamentations was unveiled in the Narekatsi quarter of Yerevan's Avan district in 2010.

Soviet composer Alfred Schnittke composed music for the Russian translation of the Book of Lamentations'' in 1985 named "Concerto for mixed chorus".

See also

 Doctors of the Church
 Mystical theology
 Exegesis - commentary on religious text
 History of the Armenian literature

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Armenian saints
950s births
11th-century deaths
10th-century Armenian poets
11th-century Christian saints
11th-century Christian mystics
11th-century Christian theologians
Andzevatsi family
Armenian male poets
Armenian Apostolic Christians
Armenian Roman Catholic saints
Christian poets
Doctors of the Church
Eastern Catholic poets
Oriental Orthodox mystics
Poet priests
Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church
Armenian mysticism

Year of birth uncertain

Year of death uncertain

Gregory of Narek


John Preston Maxwell (5 December 1871 – 25 July 1961), son of James Laidlaw Maxwell, was a Presbyterian obstetric missionary to China.

John Preston Maxwell was born on 5 December 1871 in Birmingham, where his father Dr James Laidlaw Maxwell, practised medicine. He attended University College School and University College London, before taking his clinical training at St Bartholomew's Hospital, from which he emerged with a gold medal in obstetrics and went on to work as a resident at St Bartholomew's. Then, following his devout Presbyterian faith, Maxwell became a Medical missionary for the English Presbyterian Church and, in about 1898, went to Fujian in China, where he spent the majority of his professional life. He worked at Yungchun Hospital, Fujian, from 1899 to 1919, and Changpoo, Amoy.

He specialised in obstetrics and was a leading authority on foetal osteomalacia. He became a Director of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the Union Medical College in Beijing (a teaching hospital funded by the Rockefeller Foundation), President of the Chinese Society of Obstetrics and Gynaecology and worked as secretary to the medical committee of the Lord Mayor's Fund for the Relief of Distress in China. He was awarded the Army and Navy Medal by the Chinese Republic and was made a Fellow of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists in 1929. Maxwell returned to England at some point after 1935 (possibly as a result of the invasion of Beijing by the Japanese in 1937) and lived at Brinkley, Cambridgeshire. He was elected consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist at the nearby Newmarket General Hospital. He married Edith Lilly Isaacson in 1899 (who, as a proficient artist, illustrated some of her husband's research papers) and they had one daughter, Marjorie Gordon Maxwell (later Steen), born in 1908. John Maxwell died suddenly near his home on 25 July 1961, at the age of 89, his wife having predeceased him on 14 October 1954.

A species of Chinese snake, Opisthotropis maxwelli, is named in his honor.

Archives
Papers of John Preston Maxwell are held at the Cadbury Research Library (University of Birmingham) along with papers of his father, James Laidlaw Maxwell.

References

External links
entry of John Preston Maxwell at Mundus
entry of John Preston Maxwell at the National Register of Archives

1871 births
1961 deaths
People from Birmingham, West Midlands
English Presbyterian missionaries
Presbyterian missionaries in China
Christian medical missionaries
People educated at University College School
Alumni of University College London
Alumni of the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital
British expatriates in China

John Preston Maxwell


Mother Mary Odilia Berger, S.S.M., (30 April 1823 – 17 October 1880) was a German-born Religious Sister who founded the Sisters of St. Mary in 1872 in St. Louis, Missouri, which established and still runs hospitals throughout the Midwestern United States. In 1987 they merged with Sisters of St. Francis of Maryville, another congregation which had branched off from them, and together became the Franciscan Sisters of Mary.

Early life
Anna Katharina Berger was born on 30 April 1823 in Regen, in the Kingdom of Bavaria, the elder of twins. In 1858 she joined the Poor Franciscan Sisters of the Holy Family in Pirmasens, founded by the Blessed Paul Joseph Nardini. She was sent to Paris to raise funds for the new religious congregation.

Once in Paris, Berger took part in the charitable works of the Abbé Peter-Victor Braun, who chose her in 1866 to lead the new religious congregation of Sisters Servants of the Sacred Heart he founded to give continuity to their work. She had to flee Paris, however, when the city was besieged during the Franco-Prussian War. Forced to return to her homeland, she tried to start a new community in Elberfeld in the Rhineland but was forbidden to do so by the government during the Kulturkampf, a period when religious communities feared that they would be abolished by the government.  In 1872 she got permission to emigrate to St. Louis, Missouri in the United States through the sponsorship of a family member she had nursed in Elberfield, who had later emigrated to Missouri. She left Germany with four companions from her small religious community.

St. Louis
The women arrived in St. Louis on 16 November of that same year. They were given hospitality at the Ursuline monastery of the city. After two weeks, they were able to rent a second-story attic in a building attached to St. Mary of Victories Church in the center of the city. They quickly began to carry out their mission through visiting the homes of poor to provide nursing care. Berger soon became a familiar sight on the streets of the city, carrying a large basket in which she carried nursing supplies and into which she would slip any donations given to her. It later became of a symbol of the origins for the congregation she founded.

The Sisters had gained nursing experience of the battlefronts of the war with France. This experience was to be of great use as an outbreak of smallpox hit the city a few months after their arrival. They nursed the sick and dying during this plague, even in their own residence. They became known in the area as the "Smallpox Sisters" as a result of their labors.

Foundress
The Sisters organized themselves formally in 1874 as the Sisters of St. Mary, under the Rule of the Franciscan Third Order Regular. They took their name from the church, which shared a door with their living quarters. Mother Odilia was then canonically elected as the Superior General of the new congregation, of which she formally was acknowledged as the foundress.

In 1877 the congregation made the decision to move from home care to institutional nursing. To this end, they borrowed the then-enormous sum of $16,000 to open their first hospital, St. Mary's Infirmary, in St. Louis. The Sisters of St. Mary became the city's primary providers of public health care.

In 1878 Mother Odilia sent thirteen sisters, a third of the congregation, to Canton, Mississippi and Memphis, Tennessee during a Yellow Fever outbreak. Five of the sisters died of the disease; all of them under thirty years of age.

Her congregation was officially recognized by the Archdiocese of St. Louis in October 1880, just days before Mother Odilia's death. She was buried in Calvary Cemetery in St. Louis.

In 1894, a group of seven Sisters were sent to Maryville, Missouri, under the leadership of Mother Mary Augustine Giesen, where they established one of the first hospitals in the region. They chose to separate from their congregation and formed the Sisters of St. Francis of Maryville. That congregation further expanded medical care, establishing the first hospital in the Oklahoma Territory.

Today
In May 1985 the two congregations voted to merge as a new religious institute. This took place in August 1987, with the new congregation taking the name of Franciscan Sisters of Mary.

In 1997, Franciscan Sisters of Mary and four other communities: the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, Society of the Sacred Heart, School Sisters of Notre Dame, and the Sisters of Loretto formed the Sarah Community to address retirement needs and providing long-term care to their members and to the general public.

The congregation, through SSM Health Care, today operates in Illinois, Missouri, Oklahoma and Wisconsin. They administer 23 hospitals, two nursing homes, as well as a rehabilitation center. It also provides home care and a host of additional health-related services.

References

1823 births
1880 deaths
People from Regen (district)
Founders of Catholic religious communities
German emigrants to the United States
19th-century German Roman Catholic nuns
19th-century American Roman Catholic nuns
Third Order Regular Franciscans
Burials at Calvary Cemetery (St. Louis)
German twins

Mary Odilia Berger


The Asa Bates Memorial Chapel, also known as the Ten Lots Chapel, is a historic church and community center at 2 Ten Lots Road in Fairfield, Maine.  The Classical Revival brick building was built in 1916-18 by Milton LaForest Williams, who was raised in the community by his grandfather, Asa Bates, and was one of its major early 20th-century benefactors.  It is the most architecturally imposing building in the small community, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002.

Description and history
The Bates Chapel is a single-story brick building, with an imposing Roman temple front supported by four Doric columns.  They support an entablature that continues around the sides of the building, and which is topped by a modillioned gable pediment with a half-round fan window at its center.  The facade underneath the temple front is three bays wide, separated by marble pilasters.  The entrance, in the central bay, is topped by a square diamond-grilled transom, and framed by a simple marble surround.  The side elevations each have three tall windows, set above small basement windows.  A small gable-roofed brick extension projects from the center of the rear elevation.

The entrance leads into a vestibule area, with a library room to the side, which occupies about one-third of the building.  The rear two-thirds of the building are taken up by an auditorium, separated from the vestibule by sliding mahogany doors.  The interior walls and ceiling are plastered, joined by coved plasterwork in the auditorium.  Stairs lead from the vestibule down to the basement, which houses a large open room, from which a kitchen area is partitioned.

The Ten Lots area was settled in 1774, and is roughly divided between the towns of Fairfield and Oakland.  Milton LaForest Williams was raised in this community by his grandfather, Asa Bates (1794-1878), and he gave this building to the community as a church and community center.  Williams died in 1919, and is interred in Oakland's Lake View Cemetery, which was also a target of his gifts.  It is not known who designed the building.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Somerset County, Maine

References

Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Libraries on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Neoclassical architecture in Maine
Religious buildings and structures completed in 1918
Churches in Somerset County, Maine
Churches in Maine
Libraries in Somerset County, Maine
Buildings and structures in Fairfield, Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Somerset County, Maine
1918 establishments in Maine
Neoclassical church buildings in the United States

Asa Bates Memorial Chapel


A memory management unit (MMU), sometimes called paged memory management unit (PMMU), is a computer hardware unit that examines all memory references on the memory bus, translating these requests, known as virtual memory addresses, into physical addresses in main memory.

In modern systems, programs generally have addresses that access the theoretical maximum memory of the computer architecture, 32 or 64 bits. The MMU maps the addresses from each program into separate areas in physical memory, which is generally much smaller than the theoretical maximum. This is possible because programs rarely use large amounts of memory at any one time.

Most modern operating systems (OS) work in concert with the MMU to provide virtual memory (VM) support. The MMU tracks memory use in fixed-size blocks known as pages, and if a program refers to a location in a page that is not in physical memory, the MMU will cause an interrupt to the operating system. The OS will then select a lesser-used block in memory, write it to backing storage such as a hard drive if it's been modified since it was read in, read the page from backing storage into that block, and set up the MMU to map the block to the originally requested page so the program can use it. This is known as demand paging.

Modern MMUs generally perform additional memory-related tasks as well. Memory protection blocks attempts by a program to access memory it has not previously requested, which prevents a misbehaving program from using up all memory or malicious code from reading data from another program. They also often manage a processor cache, which stores recently accessed data in a very fast memory and thus reduces the need to talk to the slower main memory. In some implementations, they are also responsible for bus arbitration, controlling access to the memory bus among the many parts of the computer that desire access.

Prior to VM systems becoming widespread in the 1990s, earlier MMU designs were more varied. Common among these was paged translation, which was similar to modern demand paging in that it used fixed-size blocks, but had a fixed-size list of pages that divided up memory; this meant that the block size was a function of the number of pages and the installed memory. Another common technique, found mostly on larger machines, was segmented translation, which allowed for variable-size blocks of memory that better mapped onto program requests. This was efficient but did not map as well onto virtual memory. Some early systems, especially 8-bit systems, used very simple MMUs to perform bank switching.

Overview

Modern MMUs typically divide the virtual address space (the range of addresses used by the processor) into pages, each having a size which is a power of 2, usually a few kilobytes, but they may be much larger. Programs reference memory using the natural address size of the machine, typically 32 or 64-bits in modern systems. The bottom bits of the address (the offset within a page) are left unchanged. The upper address bits are the virtual page numbers.

Most MMUs use an in-memory table of items called a page table, containing one page table entry (PTE) per page, to map virtual page numbers to physical page numbers in main memory.  An associative cache of PTEs is called a translation lookaside buffer (TLB) and is used to avoid the necessity of accessing the main memory every time a virtual address is mapped.

Other MMUs may have a private array of memory, registers, or static RAM that holds a set of mapping information.

The virtual page number may be directly used as an index into the page table or other mapping information, or it may be further divided, with bits at a given level used as an index into a table of lower-level tables into which bits at the next level down are used as an index, with two or more levels of indexing.

The physical page number is combined with the page offset to give the complete physical address.

A page table entry or other per-page information may also include information about whether the page has been written to (the dirty bit), when it was last used (the accessed bit, for a least recently used (LRU) page replacement algorithm), what kind of processes (user mode or supervisor mode) may read and write it, and whether it should be cached.

Sometimes, a page table entry or other per-page information prohibits access to a particular virtual page, perhaps because no physical random-access memory (RAM) has been allocated to that virtual page.  In this case, the MMU signals a page fault to the CPU. The operating system (OS) then handles the situation, perhaps by trying to find a spare frame of RAM and set up the page map to map it to the requested virtual address.  If no RAM is free, it may be necessary to choose an existing page (known as a victim), using some replacement algorithm, and save it to disk (a process called paging). With some MMUs, there can also be a shortage of PTEs, in which case the OS will have to free one for the new mapping.

The MMU may also generate illegal access error conditions or invalid page faults upon illegal or non-existing memory accesses, respectively, leading to segmentation fault or bus error conditions when handled by the operating system.

Benefits

In some cases, a page fault may indicate a software bug, which can be prevented by using memory protection as one of key benefits of an MMU: an operating system can use it to protect against errant programs by disallowing access to memory that a particular program should not have access to. Typically, an operating system assigns each program its own virtual address space.

An paged MMU also mitigates the problem of external fragmentation of memory.  After blocks of memory have been allocated and freed, the free memory may become fragmented (discontinuous) so that the largest contiguous block of free memory may be much smaller than the total amount.  With virtual memory, a contiguous range of virtual addresses can be mapped to several non-contiguous blocks of physical memory; this non-contiguous allocation is one of the benefits of paging.

However, paged mapping causes another problem, internal fragmentation. This occurs when a program requests a block of memory that does not cleanly map into a page, for instance, if a program requests a 1 KB buffer to perform file work. In this case, the request results in an entire page being set aside even though only 1 KB of the page will ever be used; if pages are larger than 1 KB, the remainder of the page is wasted. If many small allocations of this sort are made, memory can be used up even though much of it remains empty.

In some early microprocessor designs, memory management was performed by a separate integrated circuit such as the VLSI Technology VI475 (1986), the Motorola 68851 (1984) used with the Motorola 68020 CPU in the Macintosh II, or the Z8010 and Z8015 (1985) used with the Zilog Z8000 family of processors.  Later microprocessors (such as the Motorola 68030 and the Zilog Z280) placed the MMU together with the CPU on the same integrated circuit, as did the Intel 80286 and later x86 microprocessors.

Older concepts
While this article concentrates on modern MMUs, commonly based on demand paging, early systems used base and bounds addressing that further developed into segmentation, or used a fixed set of blocks instead of loading them on demand. The difference between these two approaches is the size of the contiguous block of memory; paged systems break up main memory into a series of equal sized blocks, while segmented systems generally allow for variable sizes.

Segmented translation
Early memory management systems, often implemented in software, set aside a portion of memory to hold a series of mappings. These consisted of pairs of values, the base and limit, although many other terms have been used. When the operating system requested memory to load a program, or a program requested more memory to hold data from a file for instance, it would call the memory handling library. This examined the mappings to look for an area in main memory large enough to hold the request. If such a block was found, a new entry was entered into the table. From then on, when that program accessed memory, all of its addresses were offset by the base value. When the program is done with the memory it requested and releases, or the program exits, the entries associated with it are released.

This style of access, over time, became common in the mainframe market and was known as segmented translation, although a variety of terms are used here as well. This style has the advantage of simplicity; the memory blocks are continuous and thus only the two values, base and limit, need to be stored. Each entry corresponds to a block of memory used by a single program, and the translation is invisible to the program, which sees main memory starting at address zero and extending to some fixed value.

The disadvantage of this approach is that it leads to an effect known as external fragmentation. This occurs when memory allocations are released but are non-contiguous. In this case, enough memory may be available to handle a request, but this is spread out and cannot be allocated. On systems where programs start and stop over time, this can eventually lead to memory being highly fragmented and no large blocks remaining. A number of algorithms were developed to address this problem.

Segmenting was widely used on microcomputer platforms of the 1980s. Among the MMUs that used this concept were the Motorola 68451 and Signetics 68905, but many other examples exist. It was also supported in software implementations; one example is Apple's MultiFinder, released in 1987 for the Macintosh platform. Each program was allocated an amount of memory that was pre-selected in the Finder and translation from virtual to physical was accomplished within the programs using handles.

A more common example is the Intel 8088 used in the IBM PC. This implemented a very simple MMU inside the CPU, with four processor registers holding base values accessed directly by the program. These mapped only the upper 4 bits of the 20-bit address, and there was no equivalent of a limit, which was simply the lower 16-bits of the address and thus a fixed 64 kB. Later entries in the x86 architecture series used different approaches.

Segmentation plus paging
Some systems, such as the GE 645 and its successors, used both segmentation and paging.  The table of segments, instead of containing per-segment entries giving the physical base address and length of the segment, contains entries giving the physical base address of a page table for the segment, in addition to the length of the segment.  Physical memory is divided into fixed-size pages, and the same techniques used for purely page-based demand paging are used for segment-and-page-based demand paging.

Paged translation
Another approach to memory handling is to break up main memory into a contiguous series of fixed-sized blocks. This is similar to the modern demand paging system in that the result is a series of pages, but in these earlier systems the list of pages is fixed in size and normally stored in some form of fast memory like static RAM to improve performance. In this case, the two parts of the address stored by the MMU are known as the segment number and page index.

Consider a processor design with 24-bit addressing, like the original Motorola 68000. In such a system, the MMU splits the virtual address into parts, for instance, the 13 least-significant bits for the page index and the remaining 11 most-significant bits as the segment number. This results a list of 2048 pages of 8 kB each. In this approach, memory requests result in one or more pages being granted to that program, which may not be contiguous in main memory. The MMU maintains a list of page number originally expressed by the program and the actual page number in main memory. When it attempts to access memory, the MMU reads the segment number from the processor's memory bus, finds the corresponding entry for that program in its internal memory, and expresses the mapped version of the value on the memory's bus while the lower bits of the original address are passed through unchanged. Like the segmented case, programs see its memory as a single contiguous block.

There are two disadvantages to this approach. The first is that as the virtual address space expands, the amount of memory needed to hold the mapping increases as well. For instance, in the 68020 the addresses are 32-bits wide, meaning the segment number for the same 8 kB page size is now the upper 19 bits and the mapping table expands to 512 kB in size, far beyond what could be implemented in hardware for reasonable cost in the 1980s. This problem can be reduced by making the pages larger, say 64 kB instead of 8. Now the page index uses 16 bits and the resulting page table is 64 kB, which is more tractable. Moving to a larger page size leads to the second problem, increased internal fragmentation. A program that generates a series of requests for small block will be assigned large blocks and thereby waste large amounts of memory.

The paged translation approach was widely used by microprocessor MMUs in the 1970s and early 80s, including the Signetics 68905 (which could operate in either mode). Both Signetics and Philips produced their a version of the 68000 that combined the 68905 on the same physical chip, the 68070.

Another use of this technique is to expand the size of the physical address when the virtual address is too small. For instance, the PDP-11 originally had a 16-bit address that made it too small as memory sizes increased in the 1970s. This was addressed by expanding the physical memory bus to 18-bits, and using an MMU to add two more bits based on other pins on the processor bus to indicate which program was accessing memory.

Another use of this same technique, although not referred to as paging but bank switching, was widely used by early 8-bit microprocessors like the MOS 6502. For instance, the Atari MMU would express additional bits on the address bus to select among several banks of DRAM memory based on which of the chips was currently active, normally the CPU or ANTIC. This was used to expand the available memory on the Atari 130XE to 128 kB. The Commodore 128 used a similar approach.

Examples
Most modern systems divide memory into pages that are  in size, often with the capability to use so called huge pages of  or  in size (often both variants are possible).  Page translations are cached in a translation lookaside buffer (TLB).  Some systems, mainly older RISC designs, trap into the OS when a page translation is not found in the TLB.  Most systems use a hardware-based tree walker.  Most systems allow the MMU to be disabled, but some disable the MMU when trapping into OS code.

IBM System/360 Model 67, IBM System/370, and successors
The IBM System/360 Model 67, which was introduced August, 1965, included an MMU called a dynamic address translation (DAT) box.  It has the unusual feature of storing accessed and dirty bits outside of the page table (along with the four bit protection key for all S/360 processors).  They refer to physical memory rather than virtual memory, and are accessed by special-purpose instructions.  This reduces overhead for the OS, which would otherwise need to propagate accessed and dirty bits from the page tables to a more physically oriented data structure.  This makes OS-level virtualization, later called paravirtualization, easier.

Starting in August, 1972, the IBM System/370 has a similar MMU, although it initially supported only a 24-bit virtual address space rather than the 32-bit virtual address space of the System/360 Model 67.  It also stores the accessed and dirty bits outside the page table.  In early 1983, the System/370-XA architecture expanded the virtual address space to 31 bits, and in 2000, the 64-bit z/Architecture was introduced, with the address space expanded to 64 bits; those continue to store the accessed and dirty bits outside the page table.

VAX
VAX pages are 512 bytes, which is very small. An OS may treat multiple pages as if they were a single larger page. For example, Linux on VAX groups eight pages together. Thus, the system is viewed as having  pages. The VAX divides memory into four fixed-purpose regions, each  in size. They are:
P0 space Used for general-purpose per-process memory such as heaps.
P1 space (Or control space) which is also per-process and is typically used for supervisor, executive, kernel, user stacks and other per-process control structures managed by the operating system.
S0 space (Or system space) which is global to all processes and stores operating system code and data, whether paged or not, including pagetables.
S1 space Which is unused and "Reserved to Digital".

Page tables are big linear arrays. Normally, this would be very wasteful when addresses are used at both ends of the possible range, but the page tables for P0 and P1 space are stored in the paged S0 space. Thus, there is effectively a two-level tree, allowing applications to have sparse memory layout without wasting a lot of space on unused page table entries. Unlike page table entries in most MMUs, page table entries in the VAX MMU lack an accessed bit. OSes which implement paging must find some way to emulate the accessed bit if they are to operate efficiently. Typically, the OS will periodically unmap pages so that page-not-present faults can be used to let the OS set an accessed bit.

ARM
ARM architecture-based application processors implement an MMU defined by ARM's virtual memory system architecture.  The current architecture defines PTEs for describing  and  pages,  sections and  super-sections; legacy versions also defined a  tiny page.  ARM uses a two-level page table if using  and  pages, or just a one-level page table for  sections and  sections.

TLB updates are performed automatically by page table walking hardware.  PTEs include read/write access permission based on privilege, cacheability information, an NX bit, and a non-secure bit.

DEC Alpha
DEC Alpha processors divide memory into , , , or ; the page size is dependent on the processor. pages.  After a TLB miss, low-level firmware machine code (here called PALcode) walks a page table.

The OpenVMS AXP PALcode and DEC OSF/1 PALcode walk a three-level tree-structured page table.  Addresses are broken down into an unused set of bits (containing the same value as the uppermost bit of the index into the root level of the tree), a set of bits to index the root level of the tree, a set of bits to index the middle level of the tree, a set of bits to index the leaf level of the tree, and remaining bits that pass through to the physical address without modification, indexing a byte within the page.  The sizes of the fields are dependent on the page size; all three tree index fields are the same size. The OpenVMS AXP PALcode supports full read and write permission bits for user, supervisor, executive, and kernel modes, and also supports fault on read/write/execute bits are also supported. The DEC OSF/1 PALcode supports full read and write permission bits for user and kernel modes, and also supports fault on read/write/execute bits are also supported.

The Windows NT AXP PALcode can either walk a single-level page table in a virtual address space or a two-level page table in physical address space.  The upper 32 bits of an address are ignored.  For a single-level page table, addresses are broken down into a set of bits to index the page table and remaining bits that pass through to the physical address without modification, indexing a byte within the page. For a two-level page table, addresses are borken down into a set of bits to index the root level of the tree, a set of bits to index the top level of the tree, a set of bits to index the leaf level of the tree, and remaining bits that pass through to the physical address without modification, indexing a byte within the page.  The sizes of the fields are dependent on the page size. The Windows NT AXP PALcode supports a page being accessible only from kernel mode or being accessible from user and kernel mode, and also supports a fault on write bit.

MIPS

The MIPS architecture supports one to 64 entries in the TLB.  The number of TLB entries is configurable at CPU configuration before synthesis.  TLB entries are dual.  Each TLB entry maps a virtual page number (VPN2) to either one of two page frame numbers (PFN0 or PFN1), depending on the least significant bit of the virtual address that is not part of the page mask.  This bit and the page mask bits are not stored in the VPN2.  Each TLB entry has its own page size, which can be any value from  to  in multiples of four.  Each PFN in a TLB entry has a caching attribute, a dirty and a valid status bit.  A VPN2 has a global status bit and an OS assigned ID which participates in the virtual address TLB entry match, if the global status bit is set to zero.  A PFN stores the physical address without the page mask bits.

A TLB refill exception is generated when there are no entries in the TLB that match the mapped virtual address.  A TLB invalid exception is generated when there is a match but the entry is marked invalid.  A TLB modified exception is generated when a store instruction references a mapped address and the matching entry's dirty status is not set.  If a TLB exception occurs when processing a TLB exception, a double fault TLB exception, it is dispatched to its own exception handler.

MIPS32 and MIPS32r2 support 32 bits of virtual address space and up to 36 bits of physical address space.  MIPS64 supports up to 64 bits of virtual address space and up to 59 bits of physical address space.

Sun MMU
The original Sun-1 is a single-board computer built around the Motorola 68000 microprocessor and introduced in 1982. It includes the original Sun 1 memory management unit that provides address translation, memory protection, memory sharing and memory allocation for multiple processes running on the CPU.  All access of the CPU to private on-board RAM, external Multibus memory, on-board I/O and the Multibus I/O runs through the MMU, where address translation and protection are done in a uniform fashion. The MMU is implemented in hardware on the CPU board.

The MMU consists of a context register, a segment map and a page map.  Virtual addresses from the CPU are translated into intermediate addresses by the segment map, which in turn are translated into physical addresses by the page map.  The page size is  and the segment size is  which gives 16 pages per segment.  Up to 16 contexts can be mapped concurrently.  The maximum logical address space for a context is  or   The maximum physical address that can be mapped simultaneously is also

The context register is important in a multitasking operating system because it allows the CPU to switch between processes without reloading all the translation state information.  The 4-bit context register can switch between 16 sections of the segment map under supervisor control, which allows 16 contexts to be mapped concurrently.  Each context has its own virtual address space.  Sharing of virtual address space and inter-context communications can be provided by writing the same values in to the segment or page maps of different contexts.  Additional contexts can be handled by treating the segment map as a context cache and replacing out-of-date contexts on a least-recently used basis.

The context register makes no distinction between user and supervisor states.  Interrupts and traps do not switch contexts, which requires that all valid interrupt vectors always be mapped in page 0 of context, as well as the valid supervisor stack.

The Sun-2 workstations are similar; they are built around the Motorola 68010 microprocessor and have a similar memory management unit, with  pages and  segments.  The context register has a 3-bit system context used in supervisor state and a 3-bit user context used in user state.

The Sun-3 workstations, except for the Sun-3/80, Sun-3/460, Sun-3/470, and Sun-3/480, are built around the Motorola 68020, and have a similar memory management unit.  The page size is increased to .  (The later models are built around the Motorola 68030 and use the 68030's on-chip MMU.)

The Sun-4 workstations are build around various SPARC microprocessors, and have a memory management unit similar to that of the Sun-3 workstations.

PowerPC

In PowerPC G1, G2, G3, and G4 pages are normally   After a TLB miss, the standard PowerPC MMU begins two simultaneous lookups.  One lookup attempts to match the address with one of four or eight data block address translation (DBAT) registers, or four or eight instruction block address translation registers (IBAT), as appropriate.  The BAT registers can map linear chunks of memory as large as  and are normally used by an OS to map large portions of the address space for the OS kernel's own use.  If the BAT lookup succeeds, the other lookup is halted and ignored.

The other lookup, not directly supported by all processors in this family, is via a so-called inverted page table, which acts as a hashed off-chip extension of the TLB. First, the top four bits of the address are used to select one of 16 segment registers. Then 24 bits from the segment register replace those four bits, producing a 52-bit address.  The use of segment registers allows multiple processes to share the same hash table.

The 52-bit address is hashed, then used as an index into the off-chip table. There, a group of eight-page table entries is scanned for one that matches. If none match due to excessive hash collisions, the processor tries again with a slightly different hash function. If this, too, fails, the CPU traps into OS (with MMU disabled) so that the problem may be resolved. The OS needs to discard an entry from the hash table to make space for a new entry.  The OS may generate the new entry from a more-normal tree-like page table or from per-mapping data structures which are likely to be slower and more space-efficient.  Support for no-execute control is in the segment registers, leading to  granularity.

A major problem with this design is poor cache locality caused by the hash function.  Tree-based designs avoid this by placing the page table entries for adjacent pages in adjacent locations.  An operating system running on the PowerPC may minimize the size of the hash table to reduce this problem.

It is also somewhat slow to remove the page table entries of a process.  The OS may avoid reusing segment values to delay facing this, or it may elect to suffer the waste of memory associated with per-process hash tables.  G1 chips do not search for page table entries, but they do generate the hash, with the expectation that an OS will search the standard hash table via software.  The OS can write to the TLB.  G2, G3, and early G4 chips use hardware to search the hash table.  The latest chips allow the OS to choose either method.  On chips that make this optional or do not support it at all, the OS may choose to use a tree-based page table exclusively.

IA-32 / x86

The x86 architecture has evolved over a very long time while maintaining full software compatibility, even for OS code. Thus, the MMU is extremely complex, with many different possible operating modes.  Normal operation of the traditional 80386 CPU and its successors (IA-32) is described here.

The CPU primarily divides memory into  pages.  Segment registers, fundamental to the older 8088 and 80286 MMU designs, are not used in modern OSes, with one major exception: access to thread-specific data for applications or CPU-specific data for OS kernels, which is done with explicit use of the FS and GS segment registers. All memory access involves a segment register, chosen according to the code being executed. The segment register acts as an index into a table, which provides an offset to be added to the virtual address. Except when using FS or GS, the OS ensures that the offset will be zero.

After the offset is added, the address is masked to be no larger than 32 bits.  The result may be looked up via a tree-structured page table, with the bits of the address being split as follows: 10 bits for the branch of the tree, 10 bits for the leaves of the branch, and the 12 lowest bits being directly copied to the result.  Some operating systems, such as OpenBSD with its W^X feature, and Linux with the Exec Shield or PaX patches, may also limit the length of the code segment, as specified by the CS register, to disallow execution of code in modifiable regions of the address space.

Minor revisions of the MMU introduced with the Pentium have allowed very large  pages by skipping the bottom level of the tree (this leaves 10 bits for indexing the first level of page hierarchy with the remaining 10+12 bits being directly copied to the result).  Minor revisions of the MMU introduced with the Pentium Pro introduced the physical address extension (PAE) feature, enabling 36-bit physical addresses with 2+9+9 bits for three-level page tables and 12 lowest bits being directly copied to the result.  Large pages () are also available by skipping the bottom level of the tree (resulting in 2+9 bits for two-level table hierarchy and the remaining 9+12 lowest bits copied directly). In addition, the page attribute table allowed specification of cacheability by looking up a few high bits in a small on-CPU table.

No-execute support was originally only provided on a per-segment basis, making it very awkward to use.  More recent x86 chips provide a per-page no-execute bit in the PAE mode.  The W^X, Exec Shield, and PaX mechanisms described above emulate per-page non-execute support on machines x86 processors lacking the NX bit by setting the length of the code segment, with a performance loss and a reduction in the available address space.

x86-64

x86-64 is a 64-bit extension of x86 that almost entirely removes segmentation in favor of the flat memory model used by almost all operating systems for the 386 or newer processors.  In long mode, all segment offsets are ignored, except for the FS and GS segments.  When used with  pages, the page table tree has four levels instead of three.

The virtual addresses are divided as follows: 16 bits unused, nine bits each for four tree levels (for a total of 36 bits), and the 12 lowest bits directly copied to the result.  With  pages, there are only three levels of page table, for a total of 27 bits used in paging and 21 bits of offset.  Some newer CPUs also support a  page with two levels of paging and  of offset.

CPUID can be used to determine if  pages are supported.  In all three cases, the  bits are required to be equal to the 48th bit, or in other words, the low  are sign extended to the higher bits. This is done to allow a future expansion of the addressable range, without compromising backwards compatibility.  In all levels of the page table, the page table entry includes a no-execute bit.

Alternatives

Burroughs B5000 series, B6500/Unisys MCP systems

The Burroughs B5000 from 1961 was the first commercial system to support virtual memory (after the Atlas), even though it has no MMU. It, its successors, and the Burroughs B6500 and its successors provide the two functions of an MMU - virtual memory addresses and memory protection - with a different architectural approach.

First, in the mapping of virtual memory addresses, instead of needing an MMU, those machines are descriptor-based.  The uppermost bit of a 48-bit memory word in the Burroughs B5000/B5500/B5700 systems indicates whether the word is an operand (numeric or logical value) or is a descriptor/control word; descriptors are read-only to user processes and may only be updated by the system (hardware or operating system). Memory words in the Burroughs B6500 system and its successors have 48 data bits and 3 tag bits; words whose tag is an odd number are read-only to user processes - descriptors have a tag of 5 and code words have a tag of 3.

Each allocated memory block is given a master descriptor with the properties of the block (i.e., its physical address, its size, and whether it is present in memory).  All references to code and data are made using a descriptor; when a request is made to access the block for reading or writing, the hardware checks its presence via the presence bit (pbit) in the descriptor.

A pbit of 1 indicates the presence of the block.  In this case, the block can be accessed via the physical address in the descriptor.  If the pbit is zero, an interrupt is generated for the MCP (operating system) to make the block present.  If the address field is zero, this is the first access to this block, and it is allocated (an init pbit).  If the address field is non-zero, it is a disk address of the block, which has previously been rolled out, so the block is fetched from disk and the pbit is set to one and the physical memory address updated to point to the block in memory (another pbit).  This makes descriptors equivalent to a page-table entry in an MMU system. System performance can be monitored through the number of pbits.  Init pbits indicate initial allocations, but a high level of other pbits indicate that the system may be thrashing.

All memory allocation is therefore completely automatic (one of the features of modern systems) and there is no way to allocate blocks other than this mechanism.  There are no such calls as malloc or dealloc, since memory blocks are also automatically discarded.  The scheme is also lazy, since a block will not be allocated until it is actually referenced.  When memory is nearly full, the MCP examines the working set, trying compaction (since the system is segmented, not paged), deallocating read-only segments (such as code-segments which can be restored from their original copy) and, as a last resort, rolling dirty data segments out to disk.

Another way these systems provide a function of a MMU is in protection.  Since all accesses are via the descriptor, the hardware can check that all accesses are within bounds and, in the case of a write, that the process has write permission.  The MCP system is inherently secure and thus has no need of an MMU to provide this level of memory protection.

Blocks can be shared between processes via copy descriptors in the process stack.  Thus, some processes may have write permission, whereas others do not.  A code segment is read-only, thus reentrant and shared between processes.  Copy descriptors contain a 20-bit address field giving index of the master descriptor in the master descriptor array.  This also implements a very efficient and secure IPC mechanism.  Blocks can easily be relocated, since only the master descriptor needs update when a block's status changes.

The only other aspect is performance do MMU-based or non-MMU-based systems provide better performance?  MCP systems may be implemented on top of standard hardware that does have an MMU (for example, a standard PC).  Even if the system implementation uses the MMU in some way, this will not be at all visible at the MCP level.

See also
 Memory controller
 Burroughs large systems descriptors

References

Central processing unit
Digital circuits
Memory management
Virtual memory

Memory management unit


Jymie Merritt (May 3, 1926 – April 10, 2020) was an American jazz double-bassist, electric-bass and bass guitar pioneer, band leader and composer. Merritt was a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers group from 1957 until 1962. The same year he left Blakey's band, Merritt formed his own group, The Forerunners, which he led sporadically until his death in 2020. Merritt also worked as a sideman for blues and jazz musicians such as Bull Moose Jackson, B.B. King, Chet Baker, Max Roach, Dizzy Gillespie, and Lee Morgan.

Early life
Raised in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Jymie, born James Raleigh Merritt, was the son of Agnes Merritt (née Robinson), a choral director, voice and piano teacher, and Raleigh Howard "RH" Merritt, a businessman and author. After serving in the U.S. Army during World War II from 1944 to 1946 Jymie returned home to work for a short time in his father's real estate business, and after a brief flirtation with the clarinet he was inspired by a Duke Ellington recording featuring bassist Jimmy Blanton. Encouraged by his mother he studied with Carl Torello, double bassist for the Philadelphia Orchestra, and at the Ornstein School of Music in Philadelphia.

Career highlights
Jymie Merritt worked in jazz, R&B, and blues. In the early 1950s he toured with rock and roll musicians Bullmoose Jackson and Chris Powell moving on to work with bluesman BB King from 1955 to 1957.

In 1957, Merritt moved to Manhattan, New York, to work with Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers. The Messenger ensemble Merritt joined featured his friend Benny Golson as well as Bobby Timmons and Lee Morgan. Merritt's touring and recording with Blakey extended until 1962, when an unknown ailment forced him to stop touring.

By 1964, Merritt was back, working with the trumpeter and vocalist Chet Baker, and is featured prominently in Baker's unfinished autobiography published under the title As Though I Had Wings: The Lost Memoir.

From 1965 to 1968, Merritt worked with the drummer, composer and activist Max Roach, not only in the rhythm section but as a composer, recording "Nommo" on Roach's Atlantic album Drums Unlimited (1966). "Nommo" would earn Merritt a nomination for Best Jazz Composer in DownBeat magazine's Critics Poll.

Merritt left Max Roach in the late 1960s to work with trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie, appearing with Gillespie's band on The Dick Cavett Show.

One of Jymie Merritt's most productive showcases as a composer was when he reunited with his former Jazz Messenger Lee Morgan. Morgan's Blue Note album Live at the Lighthouse (1970) featuring Merritt's composition "Absolutions" (recorded earlier by Max Roach).

In 1962, Jymie Merritt formed and fronted the Forerunners in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The band, which evolved into a music cooperative exploring Merritt's own system of chord inversions, harmonics, and unique approaches to composition and rehearsals, produced a lexicon of its own known as the "Forerunner system" or concept. The Forerunner concept in its early days culminated in Merritt's expansive composition "Visions of the Ghost Dance".

Among the original members of the Forerunner band were Odean Pope, Kenny Lowe, Donald Bailey, and September Wrice. This group performed regularly in and around Philadelphia for five years, until Merritt joined Max Roach's band. Pope  also joined Roach's band, playing with him into the 1970s. Forerunner was on and off periodically from the 1960s through the 1980s, depending on what band Merritt was playing with at the time as well as how his health was. Saxophonist Bobby Zankel was a member of the second incarnation of the band when he joined in 1982, which also included Alan Nelson, Odean Pope, Julian Pressley, Colmore Duncan, and Warren McLendon. Zankel is primarily known as an alto saxophonist, but played baritone sax with the band, and described the role of the sax section over solos as taking on an accompanying role, where they would always play under the soloist, comparing it to the typical role of the bassist but in the sax section." Approaching his 90th birthday Merritt continued to rehearse and perform with the current incarnation of The Forerunners, some of whom had been with the ensemble from its inception.

Pioneer of the electric bass
Merritt joined the Bull Moose Jackson band in 1949, and was an early adopter of the Ampeg bass (a hybrid acoustic-electric instrument).
Merritt recalls when he first bought a  Fender bass guitar:

"Now all this time, I had been playing electric bass, from about the first year of service with the Bull Moose band. We were out in Oklahoma somewhere, when Benny Golson saw this Western band, what you call a hillbilly band, with a fellow
playing what looked like a guitar and sounded like a bass. Benny got me over to hear this and we later saw one in a music store. Benny went in for some reeds or something, so I tried a Fender electric bass and that night I took it to work. The
owner let me take it and I tried it out working and nobody raised any objection. I had been having trouble with my own bass, one of the assembly line types, so I was in the market for a new bass. Anyway, I got curious and bought the thing and
played it for the next seven years or so. I guess at the time I was the only one in jazz playing an electric bass. Certainly, I'm pretty sure Monk Montgomery wasn't playing one because we used to see him in Minneapolis and he was always
interested to see the instrument."

Awards and honors

In November 2013, along with friend and fellow bassist Reggie Workman, Jymie Merritt received the Clef Club of Philadelphia's Living Legend, Jazz Award.

At the 2009 Philadelphia Jazz Fair, produced by musician and professor Don Glanden, Philadelphia's University of the Arts and the Jazz Heritage Project honored Jymie Merritt and the jazz organist  Trudy Pitts with the Jazz Heritage Award. Merritt's award was presented to him by another great Philadelphia bassist, the late Charles Fambrough.

In addition, Jymie Merritt was honored with the Don Redman Heritage Award in June 2008 at a ceremony and concert in Harper's Ferry, West Virginia at the annual event sponsored by the Harpers Ferry Historical Association and the Jefferson County NAACP in cooperation with the Don Redman Heritage Society of Piedmont, West Virginia.

Personal life
Merritt's marriage to Dorothy Viola Small (d. 2008) produced five children: Mharlyn Merritt, a writer and vocalist who received a National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship for Jazz Performance in 1988; Marlon Merritt, an accomplished guitarist and retired career Army veteran of the Iraqi War; Martyn Merritt (deceased), world traveler, bon vivant and classical pianist who studied with internationally acclaimed pianist Leon Bates; Marvon Merritt, percussionist and drummer, and Mike Merritt, a renowned bassist in his own right who has performed and recorded with Levon Helm, Phoebe Snow, Johnny Copeland, BB King and many other world-class musicians. Mike is best known as the bassist for the Basic Cable Band on Conan O'Brien's  TBS talk-show. Continuing the family's musical heritage in 2005 Mike co-produced along with his sister Mharlyn an independent CD on the EMerrittus label featuring brother Marlon on guitar, Uri Caine, Al Kooper, Lew Soloff and the Vivino Brothers entitled "Alone Together".

Merritt had a younger brother, LeRoy Merritt, an amateur artist and arts and crafts enthusiast who lived in West Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Merritt lived in Center City, Philadelphia, with his wife Ave and his cat Jazzie. He died on April 10, 2020, of liver cancer in Philadelphia, aged 93.

Discography

As sideman
With Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers
 Moanin' (Blue Note, 1958)
1958 - Paris Olympia (Fontana, 1958)
Des Femmes Disparaissent (Soundtrack) (Fontana, 1958)
At the Jazz Corner of the World (Blue Note, 1959)
Just Coolin (Blue Note, 1959)
Les Liaisons Dangereuses 1960 (Fontana, 1959) - Original Soundtrack with Barney Wilen
Africaine (Blue Note, 1959)
Paris Jam Session (1959)
The Big Beat (Blue Note, 1960)
Like Someone in Love (Blue Note, 1960)
A Night In Tunisia (Blue Note, 1960)
Mosaic (Blue Note, 1961)
A Day with Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers (1961)
Pisces (1961)
The Freedom Rider (1961)
Roots & Herbs (1961)
Three Blind Mice (1962)
Buhaina's Delight (1963)
With Chet Baker
The Most Important Jazz Album of 1964/65 (Colpix, 1964)
With Sonny Clark
Standards (Blue Note, 1959)
With Curtis Fuller
South American Cookin' (Epic, 1961)
Soul Trombone (Impulse!, 1961)
With Benny Golson
The Other Side of Benny Golson (Riverside, 1958)
With Lee Morgan
Live at the Lighthouse (Blue Note, 1969)
The Last Session (Blue Note, 1972)
With Max Roach
Drums Unlimited (Atlantic, 1965)
Members, Don't Git Weary (Atlantic, 1968)
With Jimmy Witherspoon
 The Blues Is Now (1967)
With Wayne Shorter
 Wayning Moments (1962)

References

External links

1926 births
2020 deaths
American jazz double-bassists
Male double-bassists
Hard bop double-bassists
The Jazz Messengers members
Military personnel from Philadelphia
Jazz musicians from Philadelphia
21st-century double-bassists
American male jazz musicians

Jymie Merritt


王侯用詩形(おうこうようしけい、chant royal)は、詩の形式の一種。

構造
「a-b-a-b-c-c-d-d-e-d-E」という押韻構成を持つ11行から成る5つのスタンザ(五連11行)と、「d-d-e-d-E」という押韻構成の5行のアンヴォワもしくは「c-c-d-d-e-d-E」という押韻構成の7行のアンヴォワから構成される。

歴史
14世紀、クリスティーヌ・ド・ピザン(:en:Christine de Pizan)とオルレアン公シャルル・ド・ヴァロワがフランスの詩に導入したのがはじまりで、イングランドには19世紀末、フランス詩への関心が一般に高まった時に導入された。

例
He is the despots' Despot. All must bide, - (a)
Later or soon, the message of his might; - (b)
Princes and potentates their heads must hide, - (a)
Touched by the awful sigil of his right; - (b)
Beside the Kaiser he at eve doth wait - (c)
And pours a potion in his cup of state; - (c)
The stately Queen his bidding must obey; - (d)
No keen-eyed Cardinal shall him affray; - (d)
And to the Dame that wantoneth he saith-- - (e)
"Let be, Sweet-heart, to junket and to play." - (d)
There is no King more terrible than Death. - (E)

The lusty Lord, rejoicing in his pride,
He draweth down; before the armed Knight
With jingling bridle-rein he still doth ride;
He crosseth the strong Captain in the fight;
The Burgher grave he beckons from debate;
He hales the Abbot by his shaven pate,
Nor for the Abbess' wailing will delay;
No bawling Mendicant shall say him nay;
E'en to the pyx the Priest he followeth,
Nor can the Leech* his chilling finger stay . . . [doctor]
There is no King more terrible than Death.

All things must bow to him. And woe betide
The Wine-bibber,--the Roisterer by night;
Him the feast-master, many bouts defied,
Him 'twixt the pledging and the cup shall smite;
Woe to the Lender at usurious rate,
The hard Rich Man, the hireling Advocate;
Woe to the Judge that selleth Law for pay;
Woe to the Thief that like a beast of prey
With creeping tread the traveller harryeth:--
These, in their sin, the sudden sword shall slay . . .
There is no King more terrible than Death.

He hath no pity, -- nor will be denied.
When the low hearth is garnished and bright,
Grimly he flingeth the dim portal wide,
And steals the Infant in the Mother's sight;
He hath no pity for the scorned of fate:--
He spares not Lazarus lying at the gate,
Nay, nor the Blind that stumbleth as he may;
Nay, the tired Ploughman,--at the sinking ray,--
In the last furrow,--feels an icy breath,
And knows a hand hath turned the team astray . . .
There is no King more terrible than Death.

He hath no pity. For the new-made Bride,
Blithe with the promise of her life's delight,
That wanders gladly by her Husband's side,
He with the clatter of his drum doth fright.
He scares the Virgin at the convent grate;
The Maid half-won, the Lover passionate;
He hath no grace for weakness and decay:
The tender Wife, the Widow bent and gray,
The feeble Sire whose footstep faltereth,--
All these he leadeth by the lonely way . . .
There is no King more terrible than Death.

(アンヴォワ)
Youth, for whose ear and monishing of late, - (c)
I sang of Prodigals and lost estate, - (c)
Have thou thy joy of living and be gay; - (d)
But know not less that there must come a day,-- - (d)
Aye, and perchance e'en now it hasteneth,-- - (e)
When thine own heart shall speak to thee and say,-- - (d)
There is no King more terrible than Death. - (E)

 -- ヘンリー・オースティン・ドブソン(:en:Henry Austin Dobson)『The Dance of Death』

詩形
フランスの詩

王侯用詩形


Freedom is a census-designated place (CDP) in Santa Cruz County, California, United States. The population was 3,070 at the 2010 census.

Geography
Freedom is located at  (36.940452, -121.789376). According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , all of it land. It is adjacent to and blends with the incorporated city of Watsonville.

Demographics

2010
The 2010 United States Census reported that Freedom had a population of 3,070. The population density was . The racial makeup of Freedom was 1,452 (47.3%) White, 44 (1.4%) African American, 31 (1.0%) Native American, 100 (3.3%) Asian,  1,285 (41.9%) from other races, and 158 (5.1%) from two or more races.  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2,170 persons (70.7%).

The Census reported that 99.8% of the population lived in households and 0.2% were institutionalized.

There were 776 households, out of which 394 (50.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 445 (57.3%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 124 (16.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 73 (9.4%) had a male householder with no wife present.  There were 63 (8.1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 11 (1.4%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 102 households (13.1%) were made up of individuals, and 44 (5.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.95.  There were 642 families (82.7% of all households); the average family size was 4.12.

The population was spread out, with 904 people (29.4%) under the age of 18, 347 people (11.3%) aged 18 to 24, 891 people (29.0%) aged 25 to 44, 655 people (21.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 273 people (8.9%) who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 30.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.0 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.7 males.

There were 806 housing units at an average density of , of which 65.6% were owner-occupied and 34.4% were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.4%; the rental vacancy rate was 2.2%. 60.9% of the population lived in owner-occupied housing units and 38.9% lived in rental housing units.

2000
As of the census of 2000, there were 6,000 people, 1,596 households, and 1,182 families residing in the CDP.  The population density was .  There were 1,619 housing units at an average density of .  The racial makeup of the CDP was 44.42% White, 0.48% African American, 1.87% Native American, 3.35% Asian, 0.22% Pacific Islander, 43.72% from other races, and 5.95% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 69.42% of the population.

There were 1,596 households, out of which 41.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.8% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.9% were non-families. 21.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 3.75 and the average family size was 4.23.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 30.8% under the age of 18, 11.5% from 18 to 24, 29.8% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.4 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.3 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $40,600, and the median income for a family was $43,056. Males had a median income of $27,083 versus $23,056 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $13,690.  About 12.9% of families and 17.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.3% of those under age 18 and 8.2% of those age 65 or over.

Government
In the California State Legislature, Freedom is in , and in .

In the United States House of Representatives, Freedom is in .

See also

 List of census-designated places in California
 KPIG-FM

References

External links

Census-designated places in Santa Cruz County, California
Census-designated places in California

Freedom, California


The Prince of Wales Stakes is a Canadian Thoroughbred horse race run annually at Fort Erie Race Track in Fort Erie, Ontario. Restricted to only three-year-old horses bred in Canada, it is contested on dirt over a distance of  miles (1.9 km;  furlongs). In 1959, the Prince of Wales Stakes became the second race in the Canadian Triple Crown series. It follows the August running of the King's Plate and precedes the Breeders' Stakes in October.

The race was inaugurated in 1929 at the now defunct Thorncliffe Park Raceway in today's Thorncliffe Park neighbourhood of central east Toronto.

Historical notes
In 1959, the E.P. Taylor colt New Providence emerged as a Triple Crown champion in its first year of existence. In the ensuing years, six more three-year-olds have equaled the feat. In 2014, it was decided to grandfather the five horses who had won the series prior to 1959 as well.

According to the racetrack's website, for fans, the most popular winner of the race was the Canadian and American Hall of Fame filly Dance Smartly who went on to win the 1991 Triple Crown.

In 1995 Barbara J. Minshall became the first woman to train the winner of a Canadian Triple Crown race when the Minshall Farms colt Kiridashi won. To date, no female jockey has won  the Prince of Wales Stakes, although Francine Villeneuve and Autumn Snow lost the 2005 running by a nose to Ablo.

Uniquely, the 2003 edition featured the first "father vs. daughter" match up in a Canadian Triple Crown race, when jockeys David Clark and Cory Clark competed against one another. He finished third aboard Shoal Water, while she brought her horse, Sonofawac, home in sixth position.

From 1959 through 1987 the Prince of Wales Stakes was run on turf. Since inception, it has been contested at four different Ontario racetracks and at various distances:
  miles : 1929–1930 at Thorncliffe Park Raceway, 1957–1958 at Woodbine Racetrack
  miles : 1932–1942 and  1947–1952 at Thorncliffe Park Raceway, 1944–1945 and 1953–1955 at Old Woodbine Racetrack, 1956 at Woodbine Racetrack
  miles : 1959–1975 at Fort Erie Racetrack
  miles : 1976–1987 at Fort Erie Racetrack
  miles : 1988–present at Fort Erie Racetrack

Records
Speed record: (at current distance of  miles)
 1:53.80 – Bruce's Mill (1994)

Most wins by a jockey:
 5 – Hugo Dittfach (1960, 1962, 1963, 1966, 1967)

Most wins by a trainer:
 7 – Gordon J. McCann (1951, 1952, 1954, 1959, 1961, 1963, 1967)

Most wins by an owner:
 9 – E. P. Taylor and/or Windfields Farm (1951, 1952, 1954, 1959, 1961, 1963, 1967, 1972, 1988)

Winners

A † designates a Triple Crown winner.

Broadcasting
TSN owns broadcast rights to the event. It has carried the race intermittently due to the lack of consistent sponsorship; the race will air on TSN in 2018 through a sponsorship with the Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation.

References

 Toronto Star article on the 2009 Prince of Wales Stakes

External links

Restricted stakes races in Canada
Fort Erie Race Track
Flat horse races for three-year-olds
Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing
Recurring sporting events established in 1929
1929 establishments in Ontario
Summer events in Canada

Prince of Wales Stakes


12 in a Box is a 2007 British independent comedy film written and directed by John McKenzie. The film premiered at the 2007 Zurich Film Festival.

Plot

12 in a Box sees twelve people attend what they think is a school reunion lunch but when they get there they discover that, as part of the last wish of a dead classmate, they will inherit £1,000,000 each if they can all stay together in the house for 96 hours. With one of the participants due to be married and another dropping stone dead on the first day, they have their work cut out to go the distance.

Release
The film was given a limited European release in 2007 and had its US premiere in Boston in 2009. Despite being a British film with some notable names in the cast, it was not released in the UK until March 2013.

Critical response

The film received the Audience Award at the 2007 Zurich Film Festival, Indie Spirit Best Storyline Award at the 2009 Boston International Film Festival and the Best Film Award at the 2009 LA British Film Festival. The LA Campus Circle graded the film A− and called it "smart, funny and surprising without being pretentious or hackneyed. There are few dull moments, and it actually succeeds in pulling off the twists."  The film was also praised by The Film Review and CineVue. The Guardian, however, gave it a poor review, as did the Radio Times and the Daily Express.

Criticism

The DVD was released in 2013  marketed under Miranda Hart's name due to her fame; Hart only makes a brief appearance, however, and her screen time is only 5 minutes.

References

External links

British comedy films
2007 comedy films
2007 films
2000s English-language films
2000s British films

12 in a Box


ត្រីតុកកែជ្រូក (humpback grouper ឬ panther grouper) (Chromileptes altivelis), in Australia more commonly known as the barramundi cod, is a species of fish in the Serranidae family. It is found in Australia, China, Guam, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Malaysia, New Caledonia, Northern Mariana Islands, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Pitcairn, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, possibly Mozambique, and possibly Vanuatu. Its natural habitats are coral reefs and coastal saline lagoons. It is threatened by habitat loss.

In the aquarium
The panther grouper is commonly kept in marine aquariums. Great care must be taken when purchasing this fish, as it will reach a size of 50 cm (20 in) and is a very fast-growing fish. As this fish is typically sold while only a few inches in length, it is often purchased while small only to outgrow the aquarium within months. Its large adult size and fast growth rate means it should only be kept in a 300-gallon aquarium or larger. It also must not be kept with fish such as damselfish, which will be almost certainly eaten.

If kept in the proper conditions this is a very hardy, and long-lived fish.

References
liveaquaria.com Page on Panther Grouper
 Samoilys, M. & Pollard, D. 2000.  Chromileptes altivelis.   2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.   Downloaded on 4 August 2007.

ត្រីតុកកែជ្រូក


John Albert Riley Jr. (December 30, 1935 – August 19, 2016) was an American actor, comedian and writer. He was known for playing Elliot Carlin, a chronic psychology client of the main character on The Bob Newhart Show, and for voicing Stu Pickles, one of the parents in the animated Rugrats franchise.

Early life
Riley was born in Cleveland, Ohio, the son of Agnes C. Riley (née Corrigan) and John Albert Riley. After attending Saint Ignatius High School and John Carroll University, he served in the U.S. Army.

After being discharged, Riley became a popular radio personality in Cleveland, along with his radio partner and "straight man" Jeff Baxter; The Baxter & Riley Show on WERE (1300 AM) featured not only music but comedy sketches and a slew of offbeat characters that Riley and Baxter voiced. Riley gave up the radio show in the mid-1960s and moved to Los Angeles, where his Cleveland friend Tim Conway helped him obtain work writing comedy sketches, which later led to acting opportunities.

Career
First a semi-regular in the cast of the 1960s sitcom Occasional Wife, a short-lived show on NBC in which he played Wally Frick, Riley was perhaps most famous for playing Elliot Carlin, the neurotic, sour, and selfish patient on The Bob Newhart Show 1972–1978. In 1973, he was cast as Gomez Addams in The Addams Family Fun-House, then in 1979, he starred in ABC's holiday telefilm The Halloween That Almost Wasn't (a.k.a. The Night Dracula Saved The World) as Warren the Werewolf (Wolf Man) of Budapest. Riley then, in 1980, appeared in a comedy special for HBO called The Wild Wacky Wonderful World of Winter. He was a regular cast member in The Tim Conway Show, a comedy-variety show that aired on CBS from March 1980 through late summer 1981, acting in sketch comedy in each episode. In 1985, he reprised his Bob Newhart Show role of Elliot Carlin on St. Elsewhere, and did so again in a 1987 episode of ALF.

Among his other TV credits are multiple appearances on such shows as Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In (parodying Lyndon Johnson), M*A*S*H, Barney Miller, Hogan's Heroes, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, One Day at a Time, Gomer Pyle, Diff'rent Strokes, and Night Court. He was also a favorite of Mel Brooks, appearing in several of his films: High Anxiety (1977), History of the World: Part I (1981), To Be or Not to Be (1983), and (cameo only) Spaceballs (1987).

Riley often provided voiceovers for television and radio commercials, most notably in spots for Country Crock margarine. He also voiced the character "P.C. Modem, the computer genius" in radio commercials for CompUSA that aired in the 1990s. In the 1990s and early 2000s, Riley was known for voicing Stu Pickles (father of the main protagonist Tommy) in the animated series Rugrats. The franchise consisted of the TV series, the spin-off All Grown Up! and the film trilogy.

He continued to make guest appearances during the 1990s in popular sitcoms, showing up in episodes of Seinfeld, Son of the Beach, Friends, Coach, The Drew Carey Show, That '70s Show, and, in a gag appearance, as an unnamed but obvious Mr. Carlin in a 1988 episode of Newhart. He made a cameo appearance on the November 23, 2013, episode of Saturday Night Live, as a subway passenger during the sketch "Matchbox 3". That episode would be his final acting role.

Personal life
Riley married Ginger Lawrence on January 3, 1970 and they had two children.

Death
Riley died on August 19, 2016, at age 80 in Los Angeles, due to pneumonia.

Filmography

Film

Television

Video games

Crew work
The Don Rickles Show (1968, 1 episode) - Writer
The Many Sides of Don Rickles (1970) - Writer
The Addams Family Fun House (1973) - Writer

References

External links

1935 births
2016 deaths
American male film actors
20th-century American male actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American male comedians
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
John Carroll University alumni
Male actors from Cleveland
Saint Ignatius High School (Cleveland) alumni
Deaths from pneumonia in California

Jack Riley (actor)


Bethnal Green is an underground station in London. It is in Travelcard Zone 2 on the Central Line.  The station lies between Liverpool Street and Mile End Stations.  The stations are open for 24 hours on a Friday and Saturday as part of the Night Tube Service.  The station was opened as part of the planned Central Line eastern expansion on 4th December 1946.  The station had been used as an air-raid shelter.

History

Development

The 1935 - 1940 London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) New Works Programme included the new deep level station at Bethnal Green as park of the Central Line extension from Liverpool Street to Ongar and Woodford.

Wartime disaster

On the 3rd March 1943, British Media reported a heavy RAF Raid on Berlin the night of 1/2 March 1943.  The Civil air-raid siren sound at 8.17pm, when then started a large orderly flow of people went down the stairs into Bethnal Green Station.  How-ever a middle-aged woman and a child fell down the last three steps from the bottom of the stairs which caused people to fall around them.  In the end 173 people mostly women and children died due to asphyxiation.

Memorials

In 1993, a plaque commemorating the 50th anniversary of the 1943 disaster was put up on the south-eastern staircase where the incident took place.  It bears the coat of Arms of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets and its records the event as "the worst civilian disaster of the Second World War.

Railway stations in London
Bethnal Green

Bethnal Green tube station