Charles, Charlie, Charley, or Chuck Wilson may refer to:

Academics
 Charles Edward Wilson (educationalist) (1815–1888), Scottish teacher and educationalist
 Charles Robert Wilson (1863–1904), English academic and historian of British India
 Charles Wilson (political scientist) (1909–2002), Scottish political scientist and university administrator
 Charles Wilson (historian) (1914–1991), English business historian and Cambridge University professor
 Charles Wilson (economist), American economist and academic administrator

Arts and entertainment
 Charles Heath Wilson (1809–1882), Anglo-Scottish painter, art teacher and author
 Charles Wilson (Scottish architect) (1810–1861), Scottish architect
 Charles C. Wilson (architect) (1864–1933), American architect
 Charles J. A. Wilson (1880-1965), Scottish-born American artist, painter, etcher, and illustrator
 Charles C. Wilson (1894–1948), American film actor
 Charles Morrow Wilson (1905–1977), American writer
 Charles Banks Wilson (1918–2013), American artist
 Charles Wilson (composer) (1931–2019), Canadian composer and choral conductor
 Chuck Wilson (jazz musician) (1948–2018), American jazz musician
 Charlie Wilson (singer) (born 1953), American R&B singer; frontman of the Gap Band
 Ricky Wilson (singer) (Charles Richard Wilson, born 1978), lead singer of Kaiser Chiefs and judge on The Voice

Business and industry
 Charles Anthony Corbett Wilson (1827–1923), Australian civil engineer
 Charles Rivers Wilson (1831–1916), British civil servant and financier
 Charles Alfred Wilson (1855-1935), American civil engineer
 Charles Corbett Powell Wilson (c.1857–c.1938), Australian civil engineer
 Charles G. Wilson (fl. 1880s–1890s), American financier and businessman
 Charles Edward Wilson (businessman) (1886–1972), American businessman; CEO of General Electric
 Charles Kemmons Wilson (1913–2003), American hotelier; founder of Holiday Inn chain
 Charles T. Wilson (1879–1974), American businessman; crude rubber importer
 Chuck Wilson (multimedia executive) (born 1968), American entrepreneur

Law and politics

United Kingdom
 Charles Wilson, 1st Baron Nunburnholme (1833–1907), English shipowner, Liberal Member of Parliament (MP)
 Charles Wilson (Conservative politician) (1859–1930), British politician; MP for Leeds Central
 Charles Wilson, 2nd Baron Nunburnholme (1875–1924), British politician; MP for Hull West

United States
 Charles Burnett Wilson (1850–1926), Marshal of the Kingdom of Hawaii
 Charles Erwin Wilson (1890–1961), United States Secretary of Defense (1953–1957) and head of General Motors
 Malcolm Wilson (governor) (Charles Malcolm Wilson, 1914–2000), Governor of New York
 Charles H. Wilson (1917–1984), U.S. Congressman from California and State Assemblyman
 Charlie Wilson (Texas politician) (1933–2010), U.S. Congressman from Texas, 1973–1997; previously State Representative, then State Senator
 Charlie Wilson (Ohio politician) (1943–2013), U.S. Congressman, previously State Representative, then State Senator
 Charles R. Wilson (judge) (born 1954), American federal judge

Elsewhere
 Charles Wilson (Quebec politician) (1808–1877), Canadian politician; senator and member of the Legislative Council of Quebec
 Charles Wilson (British Columbia politician) (1841–1924), Canadian politician
 Charles Wilson (Australian politician) (1842–1926), member of the New South Wales Parliament
 Charles Wilson (librarian) (1857–1932), New Zealand politician; MP and parliamentary librarian
 Charles Wilson (New Zealand Reform Party politician) (1862–1934), New Zealand Member of Parliament

Military
 Charles Wilson (sailor) (1836–?), Union Navy sailor during the American Civil War
 Charles E. Wilson (Medal of Honor) (1840–1915), American Civil War sergeant
 Charles Edward Wilson (rugby union) (1871–1914), British military officer and rugby union player
 Chuck Wilson (pilot) (born 1953), American USAF military officer

Science and medicine
 Charles William Wilson (1836–1905), English archaeologist
 Charles Branch Wilson (1861–1941), American marine biologist
 Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (1869–1959), Scottish physicist awarded the Nobel Prize
 Charles Wilson, 1st Baron Moran (1882–1977), British physician; personal doctor to Winston Churchill
 Charles Byron Wilson (1929–2018), American neurosurgeon

Sports

Association football (soccer)
 Charles Plumpton Wilson (1859–1938), English footballer
 Charlie Wilson (footballer, born 1877) (1877–?), English footballer for Liverpool and Stockport County
 Charlie Wilson (footballer, born 1895) (1895–1971), English footballer for Spurs, Huddersfield Town and Stoke City
 Charlie Wilson (footballer, born 1904) (1904–1994), English footballer for Grimsby Town
 Charlie Wilson (footballer, born 1905) (1905–1985), English footballer for West Bromwich Albion, Sheffield Wednesday
 Charlie Wilson (Burnley footballer) (fl. 1940s), English footballer for Burnley

Baseball
 Charley Wilson (1895–1965), American Negro leagues baseball player
 Charlie Wilson (baseball) (1905–1970), American baseball player for the Boston Braves and St. Louis Cardinals
 Chuck Wilson (baseball) (1929–1983), American Negro leagues baseball player

Other sports
 Charles Wilson (fencer) (1865–1950), British Olympic fencer
 Charles Wilson (cricketer) (1869–1952), Australian cricketer who played mainly in New Zealand
 Chilla Wilson (Charles Roy Wilson, 1931–2016), Australian rugby union player and manager
 Chuck Wilson (sports journalist) (born 1954), American sports journalist
 Charles Wilson (American football) (born 1968), American football wide receiver
 Chuck Wilson (sprinter) (born 1968), American sprinter

Others
 Charlie Wilson (criminal) (1932–1990), English career criminal, one of the Great Train Robbery gang
 Charles Wilson (journalist) (1935–2022), Scottish-born newspaper editor

Other uses
 Charles E. Wilson (1973 ship), a ship launched in 1973 named for Charles E. Wilson

See also
 Charles-Avila Wilson (1869–1936), Canadian lawyer, politician, and judge
 Charles Wilsonn (1752–1829), Member of Parliament for Bewdley, 1814–1818

Charles Wilson


The Angles were Germanic peoples from Northern Germany and Denmark who invaded Britain from around 410 CE.  Their name seems to be connected with Angeln, a modern district in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.  The Angles, together with the Jutes, Saxons and Frisians, were among the tribes who sailed across the North Sea in the 5th century to invade Britain.  The various tribes were later called "Anglo-Saxon"..

References

Other websites
 English and Welsh are races apart; BBC; 30 June, 2002.

Germanic tribes

Schleswig-Holstein

Angles


A pharmaceutical capsule is an easy way to take medication. Capsules may contain powder, liquid or oil. The outer shell is made of hard or soft gelatin. Capsules come in different shapes and colors to identify dose or what company made them. They are also available as timed release which work over a period of time. Capsules should usually be taken whole. Capsules should also not be crushed without first checking to see if it is safe.

Soft gelatin capsules
Soft gelatin capsules are airtight-sealed one-piece capsules containing a liquid or a semisolid fill without a bubble of air or gas. They are made from a more flexible, gelatin film plasticized by the addition of glycerine, sorbital, etc.

As with hard gelatin capsules, soft gelatin capsules are mostly given orally. Some can be formulated and manufactured to produce a number of different drug delivery systems such as
Chewable softgels where a highly-flavoured shell is chewed to release the drug liquid.

Suckable softgels which consist of a gelatin shell containing the flavoured medicament to be sucked

Twist-off softgels which are designed with a tag to be twisted or snipped off, thereby allowing access to the drug.

References

Sources
Allen L. and Ansel H. (2014). Ansel's Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems. Philadelphia: Lipincott Williams and Wilkins.
Augsburger, L and Hoag, S. (2018). Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms: Capsules. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Aulton, M. and Taylor, K. (2013). Aulton's Pharmaceutics: The Design and Manufacture of Medicines, (4th ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
Dash, A., Singh, S. and Tolman, J. (2014). Pharmaceutics – Basic Principles and Application to Pharmacy Practice. USA: Academic Press.
Felton, L. (2012). Remington Essentials of Pharmaceutics. UK: Pharmaceutical press.
Ghosh, T. and Jasti, B. (2005). Theory and Practice of Contemporary Pharmaceutics. USA: CRC Press LLC.
Gibson, M. (2009). Pharmaceutical Preformulation and Formulation: A Practical Guide from Candidate Drug Selection to Commercial Dosage Form. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Hoag, S. (2017). Capsules Dosage Form: Formulation and Manufacturing Considerations. In Y. Qui, Y. Chen, G. Zhang, L. Yu, and R. Mantri (Eds.), Developing Solid Oral Dosage Forms – Pharmaceutical Theory and Practice, (2nd ed.) (pp. 723-747). UK: Elsevier Inc.
Jones D. (2008). Fasttrack Pharmaceutics – Dosage Form and Design. London: Pharmaceutical Press.
Lachman, L., Lieberman, H. and Kangi, J. (1990). The Theory and Practice of Industrial Pharmacy (3rd ed.). USA: Lea & Febiger.
Liu, R. (2018). Water-Insoluble Drug Formulation (3rd ed.). New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Mahato, R. and Narang, A. (2018). Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery (3rd ed.). New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Ofoefule, S. (2002). Textbook of Pharmaceutical Technology and Industrial Pharmacy. Nigeria: Samakin (Nig) Enterprise.

Drug delivery devices

Capsule


Ingerslevsgade is a street in the  Vesterbro district of Copenhagen, Denmark. It begins on the rear side of Copenhagen Central Station and follows the northwest side of the railway tracks to Enghave station. It also passes the Dybbølsbro station where Dybbøl Bridge connects it to Kalvebod Brygge and Havneholmen, Copenhagen on the other side of the railway tracks. The street is named after the politician Hans Peter Ingerslev, who was involved in the construction of the Free Port of Copenhagen.

Notable buildings
The first part of the street, from the Central Station to Dybbøl Bridge, passes the DGI-byen sports and conference centre and the White Meat District. The rest of the street is lined by apartment blocks from about 1900.

Long-distance buses
Most national and international buses that run through Copenhagen have their main stop in Copenhagen at Ingerslevsgade, adjacent to the DGI-byen complex near Copenhagen Central Station.  These include buses for Nettbuss express, Swebus Express and Eurolines. The street has no proper facilities for a bus station, just a few simple rain and wind shelters. Passengers board the buses from the bicycle path.

The bus area is located near track 12 of the Central Station (west side), just south of the Tietgensgade bridge which goes over the tracks.

References

External links

Streets in Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave
Bus stations in Europe

Ingerslevsgade


Marzhausen is an Ortsgemeinde – a community belonging to a Verbandsgemeinde – in the Westerwaldkreis in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The community, first documented in 1346, lies between Hachenburg and Altenkirchen on the edge of the Kroppach Switzerland (Kroppacher Schweiz) and is characterized by agriculture. Marzhausen belongs to the Verbandsgemeinde of Hachenburg, a kind of collective municipality, governed by a community council of 7 council members, including the extraofficial mayor (Bürgermeister), who are elected.

Marzhausen is linked to the long-distance highway network through Bundesstraße 414. The Autobahn interchanges Mogendorf and Dierdorf on the A 3 (Cologne–Frankfurt) can me reached over Bundesstraßen 8 and 413.

References

External links
Marzhausen in the collective municipality's Web pages

Municipalities in Rhineland-Palatinate
Westerwaldkreis

Marzhausen


Špindlerův Mlýn (; , formerly also Spindelmühle) is a town in Trutnov District in the Hradec Králové Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 1,100 inhabitants. It lies in the Giant Mountains and it is one of the most frequented ski resorts in the country.

Administrative parts
Villages of Bedřichov, Labská and Přední Labská are administrative parts of Špindlerův Mlýn.

Etymology
Špindlerův Mlýn, literally meaning "Špindler's Mill",  received its name after a mill belonging to the Špindler family, which was moved between the surrounding settlements Bedřichov, Labská and Svatý Petr in 1765. The municipality which did not exist at that time yet was given this name due to an official error. The locals wrote a request sent to the authorities here and signed it written in Špindler's Mill, but the authorities mistakenly thought that they were giving the name to a new municipality. After the merger of scattered settlements into one municipality, the name remained. One of the German variations of its name, Spindelmühle, was also created by an error of authorities.

Geography

Špindlerův Mlýn is located about  northwest of Trutnov and  east of Liberec, on the border with Poland. It lies in the Giant Mountains. In the east of the territory rises Luční hora, at  above sea level the second highest mountain of the Czech Republic. The town is situated in a valley between the Medvědín mountain and the ridges of Kozí hřbety and Pláň.

Špindlerův Mlýn lies at the confluence of the Elbe river and the Dolský creek. The Elbe source is located northwest of the town, near the Polish border, on the slopes of Mt. Violík at an altitude of . About 1 km downstream are the Elbe Falls (Labský vodopád) which cascade about  in depth. The Labská Dam with an area of  was built near Labská village in 1910–1914.

History

The area was covered by forests and not settled until the 16th century, when the first prospectors and then miners of silver and iron ore came. The miners and lumberjacks who came from Alps settled here and began to build huts. They took advantage of the experience from home and started raising cattle in the seemingly inhospitable mountains and farming in the clearings. The clearing became meadows and pastures, creating typical enclaves in the middle of forests, preserved to this day.

In the 18th century, large parts of the surrounding forests were a possession of the Habsburg minister Friedrich August von Harrach-Rohrau (1696–1749), after whom the village of Bedřichov (Friedrichsthal) is named. The Harrach family contributed to the improvement and development of the landscape. They founded several mountain huts all over the Giant Mountains. Jan Nepomuk František Count of Harrach (1828–1909) established a tourist route leading through Špindlerův Mlýn and established the first nature reserve in the Giant Mountains, located in the valley Labský důl on an area of more than .

After World War II, the remaining German-speaking population was expelled according to the Beneš decrees.

Tourism
After four travellers accommodated here in 1865, the locals recognized the tourist potential of this place, began to expand the huts and build hiking trails. The construction of the road from Vrchlabí in 1872 significantly contributed to the greater number of tourists. Poor buildings often became quality hotels. In 1909, operation of the electric lift for sledges, one of the first of its kind in Europe, started, which contributed to the reputation of the winter tourist resort.

With year-round use and with accommodation capacity of 10,000 beds, Špindlerův Mlýn is one of the most visited ski resorts in the country. There are  of 11 technically snow-covered downhill runs and  of cross-country trails.

Demographics

Transport
In the Przełęcz Karkonoska mountain pass, there is a pedestrian border crossing.

Sport
During the winter season the area hosts the Europacup in freestyle skiing and SnowJam, a professional snowboarding event. Some years, e.g. 2019, the Alpine Ski World Cup has been held here. In the surroundings there are many marked hiking, mountain biking and cross-country skiing trails.

Wildwater canoeing is also common on the Elbe river. One of the most demanding natural tracks in Central Europe and the hardest in the Czech Republic is located here.

Sights

The main sights are the Church of Saints Peter and Paul from 1802 and reinforced concrete arch bridge from 1911.

Notable people
Anna K (born 1965), singer; raised here

Franz Kafka stayed here for recreation in 1922 and began writing of his famous work The Castle.

Twin towns – sister cities

Špindlerův Mlýn is twinned with:
 Alanya, Turkey
 Podgórzyn, Poland

References

External links

Official tourist portal

Cities and towns in the Czech Republic
Populated places in Trutnov District
Ski areas and resorts in the Czech Republic
Populated riverside places in the Czech Republic
Populated places on the Elbe

Špindlerův Mlýn


The Black River County Park is a public park in Morris County, New Jersey operated by the Morris County Park Commission.

The park covers an area of  along the eastern shore of the Black River and is located between Long Valley and Chester. Its land represents a glacial valley carved by the Black River and some of its tributaries. The park is home to the Nathan Cooper Gristmill, the Elizabeth D. Kay Environmental Center, the Bamboo Brook Outdoor Education Center, and the Willowwood Arboretum.

The land was mined for iron ore during the 19th centuries, and within the park is an old iron mine. In 1883 the Hacklebarney Branch of the High Bridge Railroad, later part of the Central Railroad of New Jersey (CNJ), was built to serve the local iron mines. The railway was abandoned in 1900. The railway trestle has in part become part of a hiking trail along the river. When Alfred and Elizabeth Kay moved from Pittsburgh to the area in 1924 they consolidated land to establish the Hidden River Farm; later some of their land was donated to the park system.

The park is used for hiking, fishing, bird watching as well as for activities through its educational centers. A list of its botanical offering has been collected.

Other parks in the Black River valley are the Black River Wildlife Management Area and the Hacklebarney State Park.

Gallery

References

External links

Morris County Park Commission, official site that has separate sections for the four educational site of the park: Cooper Mill, Elizabeth D. Kay Environmental Center, Bamboo Brook Outdoor Education Center, and  Willowwood Arboretum
List of plants in the Black River County Park
 Hacklebarney State Park Trail Details and Info
 NY-NJTC: Black River County Park Trail Details and Info

County parks in New Jersey
Parks in Morris County, New Jersey

Black River County Park


On February 9, 1913, a  significant meteoric phenomenon was reported from locations across Canada, northeastern United States, Bermuda, and from many ships at sea as far south as Brazil, giving a total recorded ground track of over , and becoming known as the Great Meteor Procession of 1913. The meteors were particularly unusual in that there was no apparent radiant, the point in the sky from which meteors usually appear to originate. The observations were analysed in detail, later the same year, by the astronomer Clarence Chant, leading him to conclude that as all accounts were positioned along a great circle arc, the source had been a small, short-lived natural satellite of the Earth.

John A. O'Keefe, who conducted several studies of the event, proposed that the meteors should be referred to as the Cyrillids, in reference to the feast day of Cyril of Alexandria (February 9 in the Roman Catholic calendar from 1882 to 1969).

Events of February 9
The evening of February 9 was cloudy across much of the densely populated northeast United States, meaning that some 30 million potential observers were for the most part unaware of the phenomenon. Nevertheless, more than a hundred individual reports – largely from more remote areas of Canada – were later collected by Clarence Chant, with additional observations unearthed by later researchers. At around 21hr EST, witnesses were surprised to see a procession of between 40 and 60 bright, slow-moving fireballs moving from horizon to horizon in a practically identical path. Individual fireballs were visible for at least 30 to 40 seconds, and the entire procession took some 5 minutes to cross the sky. An observer at Appin, Ontario, described its appearance at one of the most easterly parts of its track across Canada:

A huge meteor appeared travelling from northwest by west to southeast, which, as it approached, was seen to be in two parts and looked like two bars of flaming material, one following the other. They were throwing out a constant stream of sparks and after they had passed they shot out balls of fire straight ahead that travelled more rapidly than the main bodies. They seemed to pass over slowly and were in sight about five minutes. Immediately after their disappearance in the southeast a ball of clear fire, that looked like a big star, passed across the sky in their wake. This ball did not have a tail or show sparks of any kind. Instead of being yellow like the meteors, it was clear like a star.

Subsequent observers also noted a large, white, tail-less body bringing up the rear, but the various bodies making up the meteor procession continued to disintegrate and to travel at different rates throughout their course, so that by the time observations were made in Bermuda, the leading bodies were described as "like large arc lights in appearance, slightly violet in colour", followed closely by yellow and red fragments.

Research carried out in the 1950s by Alexander D. Mebane uncovered a handful of reports from newspaper archives in the northern United States. At Escanaba, Michigan, the Press stated the "end of the world was apprehended by many" as numerous meteors travelled across the northern horizon. In Batavia, New York, a few observers saw the meteors and many people heard a thundering noise, while other reports were made in Nunda-Dansville, New York (where several residents again thought the world was ending) and Osceola, Pennsylvania.

February 10
One curious feature of the reports, highlighted by Mebane, was that several appeared to indicate a second meteor procession on the same course around 5 hours later, although the Earth's rotation meant that there was no obvious mechanism to explain this. One observer, an A. W. Brown from Thamesville, Ontario, reported seeing both the initial meteor procession and a second one on the same course at 02:20 the next morning. Chant's original report also referred to a series of three groups of "dark objects" which passed, on the same course as the previous meteors, from west to east over Toronto on the afternoon of February 10, which he suggested were "something of a meteoric nature".

Accompanying sounds
William Henry Pickering noted that at eight stations in Canada a trembling of the house or ground was felt. In many other places loud, thunder-like sounds were heard, occasionally by people who had not seen the meteors themselves. Pickering used the sound reports to perform a check on the height of the meteors, which he calculated at .

Analysis
The first detailed study of the reports was produced by the Canadian astronomer Clarence Chant, who wrote about the meteors in vol. 7 of the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. The orbit was later discussed by Pickering and G. J. Burns, who concluded that it was essentially satellitic. Although this explanation was later attacked by Charles Wylie, who attempted to prove that the shower had a radiant, further studies by Lincoln LaPaz (who criticised Wylie's methods as "unscientific") and John O'Keefe showed that the meteors had most likely represented a body, or group of bodies, which had been temporarily captured into orbit about the Earth before disintegrating.

O'Keefe later suggested that the meteors, which he referred to as the "Cyrillids", could have in fact represented the last remnant of a circumterrestrial ring, formed from the ejecta of a postulated lunar volcano. This theory was a development of O'Keefe's unusual hypothesis on the origin of tektites.

References

External links
Condon Report, Conception: The Great Fireball of 9 February 1913, pp. 960–2

Meteoroids
1913 in science
1913 in the United States
1913 in Canada
19130209
Modern Earth impact events
February 1913 events in North America
20th-century astronomical events

1913 Great Meteor Procession


Mikel Scicluna (July 29, 1929 – March 20, 2010) was a Maltese  professional wrestler who gained his fame during the 1960s and 1970s. He reached the peak of his success in WWWF where he was 2-time tag-team champion, having held the United States Tag Team championship once and the WWE World Tag Team Championship once.

Professional wrestling career
Scicluna started wrestling during the 1950s, and used the name Mike Valentino early in his career. Scicluna worked primarily in Canada until 1965, when he ventured to the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF), now known as WWE, using his most famous moniker "Baron" Mikel Scicluna.

Scicluna was famous for entering the ring with a royal blue cape over his shoulders, indicating that he was of Maltese royal descent. Scicluna was also known for being a master of the "foreign object", mainly utilizing a roll of coins to bash opponents out of sight of the referee. He enjoyed success as a tag team wrestler, winning the WWWF United States Tag Team Championship with Smasher Sloan on September 22, 1966, in Washington, D.C. (though they eventually lost the belts in the same city to Spiros Arion and Antonio Pugliese), then the WWWF World Tag Team Championship with King Curtis Iaukea on February 1, 1972, in Philadelphia.

In singles competition, Scicluna defeated Spiros Arion for Australia's IWA World Championship on June 15, 1968, and would challenge Bruno Sammartino and Pedro Morales for the WWWF Championship from time to time. One of his biggest career wins was pinning Waldo Von Erich in six minutes at Madison Square Garden, prior to two Garden title matches with Sammartino. In the first match at MSG against Sammartino he was disqualified; Sammartino scored the pin in a rematch. Scicluna went on to lose a series of matches to Spiros Arion. In June 1976, Scicluna found himself part of history, as the opponent for Gorilla Monsoon on the night Monsoon engaged in an impromptu tussle with boxing great Muhammad Ali. Scicluna was wrestling Monsoon in a televised match and was sent over the top rope to the floor after receiving a Manchurian Chop. Scicluna waved off his opponent and walked off, taking a countout loss. From there, Ali entered the ring from the audience and tried to jab at Monsoon. Monsoon responded by dropping Ali with an airplane spin. This angle was a part of the buildup toward Ali's infamous boxer vs. wrestler match with Antonio Inoki later in the month.

Scicluna retired from active competition in 1983. He was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 1996.

Personal life
He was the son of Vincenzo Scicluna and Maria (née' Catania) who were married in Mosta, Malta, on 27 August 1927. He was named after his paternal grandfather Michele Scicluna. In retirement, he lived in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He also worked as a driver for the New York Times. He had a wife, Gloria, and one son. Scicluna died March 20, 2010, from pancreatic cancer.

Championships and accomplishments
NWA San Francisco
NWA World Tag Team Championship (San Francisco version) (3 times) - with Gene Dubuque
World Championship Wrestling
IWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
IWA World Tag Team Championship (3 times) - with Ciclón Negro
World Wide Wrestling Federation
WWF Hall of Fame (Class of 1996)
WWWF United States Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Smasher Sloan
WWWF World Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with King Curtis Iaukea
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Most Washed Up Wrestler (1980)

References

External links

1929 births
2010 deaths
People from Balzan
People from Pittsburgh
Maltese professional wrestlers
Professional wrestlers from Pennsylvania
WWE Hall of Fame inductees
Deaths from cancer in Pennsylvania
Maltese sportsmen
Stampede Wrestling alumni
20th-century professional wrestlers
IWA World Heavyweight Champions (Australia)
IWA World Tag Team Champions (Australia)
World Tag Team Champions (WWE)

Mikel Scicluna


Neni was an ancient Egyptian queen of the Thirteenth Dynasty. She was the wife of king Sobekhotep III and the mother of two of his daughters: Iuhetibu Fendy and Dedetanqet. The only title attested for Neni is king's wife, the regular title of queens of this period. Not much else is known about her. There is a stela set up by her steward attesting that Neni had her own estates.

References

18th-century BC women
Queens consort of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt

Neni


Phytophthora cinnamomi, also known as cinnamon fungus, is a soil-borne water mould that produces an infection which causes a condition in plants variously called "dieback", "root rot", or (in certain Castanea species), "ink disease".

Once infected soil or water is introduced, the organism can spread rapidly throughout an environment. An infestation can lead to the illness, death, and possible eradication of vulnerable plants, as well as habitat reduction for animals. An outbreak can be challenging to recognize and can inflict irreversible harm to ecosystems.

The plant pathogen is one of the world's most invasive species and is present in over 70 countries around the world.

Distribution and hosts
Phytophythora cinnamomi is distributed worldwide and can infect a diverse range of hosts, including club mosses, ferns, cycads, conifers, cord rushes, grasses, lilies and a large number of species from many dicotyledonous families, and is included in the Invasive Species Specialist Group list of "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species". Its potential range is expected to extend northward with warming due to climate change.

It affects a range of economic plants, including food crops such as avocado and pineapple; as well as trees and woody ornamentals such as Fraser firs, shortleaf pines, loblolly pines, azaleas, camellia and boxwood, causing root rot, dieback and death of infected plants. Symptoms include wilting, decreased fruit size and yield, collar rot, gum exudation, necrosis, leaf chlorosis, leaf curl, and stem cankers. It can also cause dieback of young shoots and may interfere with transpiration of roots to shoots. Older plants may not display symptoms or only exhibit mild dieback despite having severe root rot.

Reproduction
Phytophthora cinnamomi is a diploid and primarily heterothallic species with two mating types, A1 and A2.  Sexual reproduction in heterothallic Phytophthora species ordinarily occurs when gametangia of opposite mating type interact in host tissue.  This interaction leads to the formation of oospores that can survive for long periods in or outside the host. Phytophthora cinnamomi is facultatively homothallic and capable of self-fertilization. Cultures of mating type A2 can be induced to undergo sexual reproduction by damaging conditions such as exposure to hydrogen peroxide or mechanical damage.

Life cycle
Phytophthora cinnamomi lives in the soil and in plant tissues and can spread in water. During periods of harsh environmental conditions, the organisms become dormant chlamydospores. When environmental conditions are suitable, the chlamydospores germinate, producing mycelia (or hyphae) and sporangia. The sporangia ripen and release zoospores, which infect plant roots by entering the root behind the root tip. Zoospores need water to move through the soil, therefore infection is most likely in moist soils. After entering the root, mycelia grow throughout the root absorbing carbohydrates and nutrients and destroy the structure of the root tissues, "rotting" the root and preventing the plant from absorbing water and nutrients. Sporangia and chlamydospores form on the mycelia of the infected root allowing further dispersal.

Transmission

Although P. cinnamomi was first identified in tropical and subtropical countries, but can survive and develop in cooler climates as well. It spreads as zoospores and/or chlamydospores in soil and water under favourable conditions such as warm temperatures and high soil moisture.

Methods of transmission include local invasion via contact between the roots of infected and susceptible plants, downslope movement in surface or subsurface water such as rivers or irrigation water, zoospore dispersal over long distances via wind-blown soil and debris, and transport of infected plant matter and soil, for example via particles stuck to footwear, vehicles or equipment. Native and feral animals have been known to transport the disease, including through the digestive tract of feral pigs. However human activities such as timber harvesting, mining, bush walking, and road construction are also major methods of dispersal.

Environmental impacts

When Phytophthora dieback spreads to native plant communities, it kills many susceptible plants, resulting in a permanent decline in the biodiversity and a disruption of ecosystem processes. It can also change the composition of the forest or native plant community by increasing the number of resistant plants and reducing the number of susceptible plant species. Native animals that rely on susceptible plants for survival are reduced in numbers or are eliminated from sites infested by Phytophthora dieback.

Australia
In Australia, where it is known as phytophthora dieback, dieback, jarrah dieback or cinnamon fungus, Phytophthora cinnamomi can infect thousands of native plants, causing damage to forests and removing habitats for wildlife. Several native plants are at risk of extinction due to the effects of the disease.

Phytophthora cinnamomis impact is greatest in Western Australia, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, while the Northern Territory remains unaffected due to the unfavourability of the environment.

Of particular concern is the infection and dieback of large areas of forest and heathland which support threatened species in the south-west Western Australia.  Many plants from the genera Banksia, Darwinia, Grevillea, Leucopogon, Verticordia and Xanthorrhoea are susceptible.  This in turn impacts on animals reliant on these plants for food and shelter, such as the southwestern pygmy possum (Cercartetus concinnus) and the honey possum (Tarsipes rostratus). A study in the Perth region found that dieback caused a significant shift in the bird community and affected nectar-feeding species the most, with fewer species such as the Western Spinebill in areas that were dieback-infested.

U.S. and Mexico
Damage to forests suspected to be caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi was first recorded in the United States about 200 years ago. Infection can cause littleleaf disease of shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), Christmas tree disease in nursery grown Fraser fir (Abies fraseri), and sudden death of a number of native tree species such as American chestnut. Oak populations are affected in areas ranging from South Carolina to Texas.

Phytophthora cinnamomi is also a problem in the Mexican state of Colima, killing several native oak species and other susceptible vegetation in the surrounding woodlands. It is implicated in the die-off of the rare endemic shrub Ione manzanita (Arctostaphylos myrtifolia) in California.

Commercial effects
Phytophthora cinnamomi is the leading cause of damage to avocado trees, and is commonly known as "root rot" amongst avocado farmers.  Since the 1940s various breeds of root rot-resistant avocados have been developed to minimize tree damage.  Damaged trees generally die or become unproductive within three to five years. A 1960 study of the Fallbrook, California area correlated higher levels of avocado root rot to soils with poorer drainage and greater clay content.

Control

No treatment has been found to eradicate P. cinnamomi, although an integrated approach can control the spread and impact of the disease.

Gardening practices to restrict spread include restricting soil or water movement from infected areas by using clean bins and equipment, installing watertight drains to prevent surface run off, and working last in diseased areas after harvesting healthy areas first.

Planting in raised beds promotes rapid drainage and reduces prolonged contact of plant roots with water, making the soil environment less hospitable to P. cinnamomi. For specific plants such as young avocado plants, soil solarisation by using clear polythene sheets laid on the soil surface to trap radiant heat from the sun can reduce spread, and an integrated approach is generally taken to control disease on avocado.

Chemical means of control include fumigation and the use of phosphonate fungistats. Fumigation prior to planting may be effective on some life stages of P. cinnamomi, but does not eliminate chlamydospores as they are present deeper in the soil where fumigation may not reach. However, fumigation can potentially worsen disease by reducing the population of competing soil microorganisms, and P. cinnamomi is often able to re-invade fumigated soil.

Phosphonate fungistats can improve the ability of a tree to tolerate, resist, or recover from infection. Phosphite administered through direct foliage sprays, aerial application by aircraft or direct injection has been used to limit the disease with some success and has been recognized as a major strategy for disease prevention.

Commonly potassium phosphite is used as a biodegradable fungicide, and calcium or magnesium phosphite may also be used. Overuse of phosphate may harm the treated plant, especially when the plant is phosphate deficient.

See also
 Chlorosis
 Forest pathology

References

External links

 fact sheet of the Global Invasive Species database

cinnamomi
Water mould plant pathogens and diseases
Avocado tree diseases

Phytophthora cinnamomi


West Virginia National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery located Grafton, Taylor County, West Virginia. It encompasses . Along with Grafton National Cemetery, it is one of the two national cemeteries in the state of West Virginia, both of which are located in Grafton. After it was determined that the  Grafton cemetery had inadequate space for new burials, West Virginia groups began petitioning for a new national cemetery for the state. The federal government appropriated the site of the former West Virginia Industrial Home for Boys for the new cemetery, which was dedicated and opened in 1987.

History
By the 1960s the small,  Grafton National Cemetery had limited free space for new burials. A 1975 study of the cemetery determined that the remaining unused space was either too steep or too costly to use. West Virginia veteran groups such as the West Virginia United Veterans National Cemetery Committee campaigned state and federal government officials for a new national cemetery.

Negotiations between the United States Department of Veterans Affairs and the state resulted in the selection of a  site that was part of the West Virginia Industrial Home for Boys. Construction was delayed by work negotiations and poor weather conditions. A dedication ceremony took place on September 28, 1987 and the cemetery was opened for interments the next day, even though construction was incomplete.

The cemetery contains the Industrial School for Boys monument, a granite memorial erected in 1992 in memory of the residents of the West Virginia Industrial School for Boys who were buried at the cemetery between 1890 and 1939.

In 2010, the remains of World War II casualty Private First Class Lawrence Harris of Elkins, West Virginia were relocated to the National Cemetery after having been lost for 66 years. Harris and two other American soldiers—Corporal Judge C. Hellums and Private Donald D. Owens—were killed on October 9, 1944 when their M10 tank destroyer was destroyed by an explosion in France. The soldiers' remains were identified at the time of the incident, but after the war Army Graves Registration Service members were unable to locate the remains. In 1947, the three men were declared dead and their remains unrecoverable by a military board. The board was unaware that an Army group had removed the remains and had them buried unidentified at Ardennes American Cemetery in Belgium. After an ID bracelet was recovered from the site in 2003, investigations between 2006 and 2008 led to the graves being exhumed for DNA testing. The three soldiers were and Harris' remains were re-interred at the National Cemetery in his home state.

Notable burials
 Frank Gatski (1921–2005) – United States Army Private First Class in World War II and Hall of Fame professional football player
 Roy Earl Parrish (1888–1918) – West Virginia state senator and United States Army second lieutenant in World War I (cenotaph)

References

External links
 West Virginia National Cemetery
 National Cemetery Administration

Cemeteries in West Virginia
Protected areas of Taylor County, West Virginia
United States national cemeteries

West Virginia National Cemetery


The Société des gens de lettres de France (SGDLF; ; ) is a writers' association founded in 1838 by the notable French authors Honoré de Balzac, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, and George Sand.

It is a private association recognised in France as an establishment in the public interest by decree of 10 December 1891.

Members of the society must be writers whose work has been published by a publishing house (self-published works do not qualify). It is directed by a volunteer committee consisting of twenty-four writers, and is currently led by the novelist Alain Absire.

Purpose
It is the only writer-run writers' association in France with the expressed aim of defending the moral rights, the legal interests, and the social and legal status of all writers. It protects, considers, and proposes new rules and arrangements for the benefit of the community of writers.

The SGDLF offers social and legal assistance to its members. It has facilities for the deposit of completed works, helping writers guarantee their rights as original author in case of a legal dispute. Each year it organises diverse cultural events and awards a number of €75,000 prizes in recognition of published works.

Headquarters
The SGDLF occupies the 18th-century neoclassical Hôtel de Massa on rue de Faubourg-Saint-Jacques in the  14th arrondissement of Paris.  It is building with the strange history of having been moved stone by stone in 1928, from its original site on the Champs-Élysées to its present site in the garden of the Observatoire de Paris.

Prizes of the Société des gens de lettres

Spring session
Prizes recognising the entire oeuvre of an author
Grand prix de littérature de la SGDL, founded in 1947
Grand prix de poésie de la SGDL, founded in 1983
Prix Paul Féval de littérature populaire, founded in 1984
Prizes recognising a single work
Grand Prix SGDL du roman,  founded in 1947
Grand Prix SGDL de la nouvelle,  founded in 1984
Grand Prix SGDL du livre d'Histoire / Essai,  founded in 1986
Grand Prix SGDL du livre Jeunesse,  founded in 1982
Prix de poésie Charles Vildrac,  founded in 1973
Grand Prix SGDL de l'œuvre Multimédia

Fall session
Prizes recognising the entire oeuvre of an author
Grand Prix Poncetton de la SGDL, founded in 1970
Prix de Poésie Louis Montalte, founded in 1992
Prizes recognising a single work
Grand Prix Thyde Monnier de la SGDL, founded in 1975
Bourses Thyde Monnier, since 1975
Bourses Poncetton
Prizes for translation
Prix Halpérine-Kaminsky Consécration, since 1993
Prix Halpérine-Kaminsky Découverte, since 1993
Prix Gérard de Nerval
Prix Baudelaire
Prix Maurice-Edgar Coindreau

See also

 French literature
 Academy
 Encyclopédistes

External links
 —SGDL−Société des gens de lettres website

French writers' organizations
Gens de lettres
French literature
French literary awards
Arts organizations based in France
Learned societies of France
Organizations based in Paris
Organizations established in 1838
1838 establishments in France
14th arrondissement of Paris

Société des gens de lettres


The Chalkaspides ( "Bronze Shields") made up one of the two probable corps of the Antigonid-era Macedonian phalanx in the Hellenistic period, with the Leukaspides ("White Shields") forming the other.

Chalkaspides were found in other armies, too. The majority of the Seleucid phalanx was probably formed by the two corps that are mentioned in the Daphne Parade of 166 BC, namely the 10,000 Chrysaspides (Greek: Χρυσάσπιδες "Golden Shields") and the 5,000 Chalkaspides. Little else is known specifically about them, although they may have been present at the battle of Beth Zachariah in 162. Antigonus Doson armed the citizens of Megalopolis as Bronze Shields for the Sellasia campaign in 222 BC. These units are mentioned by classical writers when describing the Antigonid army in battle, although these units most probably ceased to exist after the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, when the Antigonid kingdom was crushed by Rome. These names were not only limited to the Antigonid (or Achaean) phalanx though. Plutarch tells of Mithridates VI of Pontus fielding a corps of Chalkaspides against Sulla at the Battle of Chaeronea.

See also
 Argyraspides

Further reading
Plutarch. Aemilius Paullus, c. 20, Sulla, c. 16 & c. 19
Sekunda, Nick (2001), "Hellenistic Infantry Reform in the 160's BC"

References

 Ancient Greek military terminology
 Military units and formations of the Hellenistic world
 Infantry units and formations of Macedon
Ancient Greek infantry types

Chalkaspides


A fiber-optic patch cord is a fiber-optic cable capped at each end with connectors that allow it to be rapidly and conveniently connected to telecommunication equipment. This is known as interconnect-style cabling.

General characteristics

Construction
A fiber-optic patch cord is constructed from a core with a high refractive index, surrounded by a coating with a low refractive index, that is strengthened by aramid yarns and surrounded by a protective jacket. Transparency of the core permits transmission of optic signals with little loss over great distances. The coating's lower refractive index causes light to be reflected back toward the core, minimizing signal loss. The protective aramid yarns and outer jacket minimize physical damage to the core and coating.

Size
Ordinary fibers measure 125 µm in diameter (a strand of human hair is about 100 µm). The inner diameter measures 9 µm for single-mode cables, and 50 / 62.5 µm for multi-mode cables.

The development of "reduced bend radius" fiber in the mid-2000s, enabled a trend towards smaller cables. Each unit of diameter reduction in a round cable, produces a disproportionate corresponding reduction in the space the cable occupies.

Classification

Patch cords are classified by transmission medium, connector construction, and construction of the connector's inserted core cover.

Transmission medium
Single-mode fiber is generally yellow, with a blue connector, and a longer transmission distance. Multi-mode fiber is generally orange or grey, with a cream or black connector, and a shorter transmission distance.

Connector construction

Connector design standards include FC, SC, ST, LC, MTRJ, MPO, MU, SMA, FDDI, E2000, DIN4, and D4.  Cables are classified by the connectors on either end of the cable; some of the most common cable configurations include FC–FC, FC–SC, FC–LC, FC–ST, SC–SC, and SC–ST.

Inserted core cover
The connector's inserted core cover conforms to APC, UPC, or PC configuration. A UPC inserted core cover is flat and is used in SARFT and early CATV. An APC connector's inserted core cover is oblique (about 30°, ±5°). To reduce the back reflection of a connector, UPC polish is used. Industry standard is a maximum of −40 dB for PC back reflection measurement and −50 dB for UPC back reflection measurement. If even less back reflection is required, an APC might be necessary. An APC connector has an 8º angle cut into the ferrule. These connectors are identifiable by their green color. An APC polished connector has a standard reflectivity maximum of −60 dB. APC fiber ends have low back reflection even when disconnected.

Armored fiber patch cord
Armored fiber-optic patch cord uses a flexible protective tube, usually stainless steel, inside the outer jacket as the armor to protect the fiber glass inside. It will not get damaged even if stepped on, and they are rodent-resistant.

Bend-insensitive fiber-optic patch cord
Bend-insensitive fiber patch cord is widely used in fiber to the home (FTTH). Single-mode bend-insensitive fibers include G657A1, G657A2, G657B2, and G657B3.

Mode-conditioning patch cord
A  patch cord is required where Gigabit 1000 Base-LX routers and switches are installed into existing multimode cable plants. The transceiver modules launch only single-mode 1300 nm signals but the existing network is built with multimode cables.

With a single-mode laser aimed into the center of a multimode fiber, the signal arriving at the far end, having followed various paths in the fiber, is spread out in time, making fast transitions between light and dark impossible to discern, and the problem increases with fiber length. This spreading in time is called differential mode delay (DMD) and limits the fiber length for Gigabit Ethernet sigalling. A mode-conditioning patch cord eliminates these multiple signals by aligning the single-mode launch away from the center of a multimode fiber core. This offset launch creates a transmitted signal that is similar to a typical multimode light-emitting diode (LED) launch.

References

Fiber-optic connectors

Fiber-optic patch cord


A mud bath is a therapeutic spa treatment that involves soaking in a bath of warm mud, often in a natural hot spring or geothermal pool. Mud baths have been used for centuries as a way to promote health and relaxation, and are still popular today in many parts of the world.

The mud used in mud baths is usually a combination of natural mineral-rich clay and water, which is heated to a comfortable temperature. The mud is then applied to the body, and the person is left to soak in the mud for a period of time, typically around 15-20 minutes.

The benefits of mud baths are allegedly numerous. The heat of the mud helps to increase blood flow and stimulate the immune system, while the minerals in the mud are believed to have a range of healing properties. Mud baths are also said to help detoxify the body, ease muscle pain and tension, and promote healthy skin.

A 2021 systematic review of studies which investigated the effect of mud bathes on osteoarthritis concluded that mud bath therapy "cannot substitute for conventional therapy" but can be utilized in addition to it as "treatment with mud-bath therapy may relieve pain, stiffness and improve functional status in patients".

In addition to the physical benefits, mud baths are also believed to have a relaxing and rejuvenating effect on the mind. Many people find that the warm, soothing sensation of the mud helps to reduce stress and promote a sense of well-being.

Mud baths can be found at spas and resorts all over the world, from California to Italy to Japan. Some of the most famous mud bath destinations include Calistoga in California's Napa Valley, where visitors can soak in natural hot springs surrounded by picturesque vineyards, and the Dead Sea in Israel, where the high salt content of the water and mud is said to have a range of therapeutic benefits.

Mud baths come from many sources:
Lakes (e.g., Lake Techirghiol in Romania and Käina Bay in Estonia)
Saltwater sea (e.g., Dead Sea in Jordan and Israel (West Bank)
Hot springs (e.g., Calistoga, Napa Valley, California)
Mud volcano (e.g., Tiga Island, Malaysia, El Totumo, Colombia)

See also

 Balneotherapy
 Bath salts
 Heubad
 Mud wrap
 Peloid
 Wallowing

References

Medicinal clay
Bathing

Mud bath


The lesser of two evils principle, also referred to as the lesser evil principle and lesser-evilism, is the principle that when faced with selecting from two immoral options, the least immoral one should be chosen. The principle is sometimes recalled in reference to binary political choices in democratic voting under a two-party system.

Origin

The maxim existed already in Platonic philosophy. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes: "For the lesser evil can be seen in comparison with the greater evil as a good, since this lesser evil is preferable to the greater one, and whatever preferable is good". The modern formulation was popularized by Thomas à Kempis' devotional book The Imitation of Christ written in early 15th century.

In part IV of his Ethics, Spinoza states the following maxim:

In modern elections
The concept of "lesser evil" voting (LEV) can be seen as a form of the minimax strategy where voters, when faced with two or more candidates, choose the one they perceive as the least harmful or the "lesser evil." To do so, "voting should not be viewed as a form of personal self-expression or moral judgement directed in retaliation towards major party candidates who fail to reflect our values, or of a corrupt system designed to limit choices to those acceptable to corporate elites" rather as an opportunity to reduce harm or loss.

In 2012, Huffington Post columnist Sanford Jay Rosen stated that the idea became common practice for left-leaning voters in the United States due to their overwhelming disapproval of the United States government's support for the Vietnam War. Rosen stated: "Beginning with the 1968 presidential election, I often have heard from liberals that they could not vote for the lesser of two evils. Some said they would not vote; some said they would vote for a third-party candidate. That mantra delivered us to Richard Nixon in 1972 until Watergate did him in. And it delivered us to George W. Bush and Dick Cheney in 2000 until they were termed out in 2009".

In the 2016 United States presidential election, both major candidates of the major parties — Hillary Clinton (D) and Donald Trump (R) — had disapproval ratings close to 60% by August 2016. Green Party candidate Jill Stein invoked this idea in her campaign stating, "Don't vote for the lesser evil, fight for the greater good". Green Party votes hurt Democratic chances in 2000 and 2016. Accordingly, the lesser evil principle can be applied to two front-runners among many choices, after eliminating from consideration "minor party candidates (who) can be spoilers in elections by taking away enough votes from a major party candidate to influence the outcome without winning."

In elections between only two candidates where one is mildly unpopular and the other immensely unpopular, opponents of both candidates frequently advocate a vote for the mildly unpopular candidate. For example, in the second round of the 2002 French presidential election graffiti in Paris told people to "vote for the crook, not the fascist". The "crook" in those scribbled public messages was Jacques Chirac of Rally for the Republic and the "fascist" was Jean-Marie Le Pen of the National Front. Chirac eventually won the second round having garnered 82% of the vote.

The principle of "the lesser of two evils" is sometimes jokingly (without regard for its strategic importance) changed to "the evil of two lessers", such as in the titles of these articles about the US presidential elections of 1988 and 2016.

Mythology
"Between Scylla and Charybdis" is an idiom derived from Homer's Odyssey. In the story, Odysseus chose to go near Scylla as the lesser of two evils. He lost six of his companions, but if he had gone near Charybdis all would be doomed. Because of such stories, having to navigate between the two hazards eventually entered idiomatic use. Another equivalent English seafaring phrase is "Between a rock and a hard place". The Latin line incidit in scyllam cupiens vitare charybdim ("he runs into Scylla, wishing to avoid Charybdis") had earlier become proverbial, with a meaning much the same as  jumping from the frying pan into the fire. Erasmus recorded it as an ancient proverb in his Adagia, although the earliest known instance is in the Alexandreis, a 12th-century Latin epic poem by Walter of Châtillon.

See also
 Binary opposition
 Consequentialism
 Dilemma
 False dilemma
 Minimax
 Mouseland
 Necessary evil
 Principle of double effect
 Two wrongs make a right
 Trolley problem
 Ticking time bomb scenario

References

External links

Political campaign techniques
International relations
Dilemmas
Ethical principles
Good and evil

Lesser of two evils principle


History

In the Middle Ages, Kutná Hora belonged to one of the most important cities in the Bohemian Kingdom. The silver mining started in the second half of 13th century. Unfortunately, the exact date and place, where it all started, remains unknown. Because of that there are lots of legends about the discovery of silver. The most common legend tells a story of a monk named Anthony from the monastery in Sedlec. According to this legend
the monk found out three silver rods at the foot of the hill.

The peak of mining in Kutná Hora was reached in 14th century. During ages there were lots of mines, but only few of them have been preserved. Last mine was closed during 17th century.

Technology

Mines were formed by shafts – pits going underground. Their depth varied from 20 to 150 metres.

Miners worked with simple tools. Only 50 dm3 of rock were extracted within a six-hour shift. This technology allowed them to reach depths ranging from 400 to 450 metres in 14th century. The deepest mine in 16th century was the Osel (donkey) mine, which reached the depth of 600 metres.

St. George Mine

Mine was discovered in 1967 during a hydro-geological exploration of the heart of the city. Originally it was thought that the legendary Osel mine had been discovered. But further exploration proved that it is St. George mine.

The mine was established around 1330's and remained operational until the end of 15th or beginning of 16th century.

Nowadays visitors may see 250 meters long tunnel, but in total there more than 800m of stopes, drifts or corridors. During those 250 meters it's possible to see several interesting areas. Such as drifts to other levels of mine, exploration drifts, partly flooded stope, fragments of wooden drainage or wooden props (protection against collapsing of ceiling).

Mining
Czech Republic

Mining in Kutná Hora


Ambroise Paré (c. 1510 – 20 December 1590) was a French barber surgeon who served in that role for kings Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III. He is considered one of the fathers of surgery and modern forensic pathology and a pioneer in surgical techniques and battlefield medicine, especially in the treatment of wounds. He was also an anatomist, invented several surgical instruments, and was a member of the Parisian barber surgeon guild.

In his personal notes about the care he delivered to Captain Rat, in the Piémont campaign (1537–1538), Paré wrote: Je le pansai, Dieu le guérit ("I bandaged him and God healed him"). This epitomises a philosophy that he used throughout his career. These words, inscribed on his statue in Laval, are reminiscent of the Latin adage medicus curat, natura sanat.

Early life
Paré was born in 1510 in Bourg-Hersent, near Laval, then part of the province of Maine, in northwestern France. As a child he watched, and was first apprenticed to, his older brother, a barber-surgeon in Paris. He was also a pupil at Hôtel-Dieu, France's oldest hospital.

Medicine

Paré was a keen observer and did not allow the beliefs of the day to supersede the evidence at hand. In his autobiographical book, Journeys in Diverse Places, Paré inadvertently practiced the scientific method when he returned the following morning to a battlefield. He compared one group of patients who were treated in the traditional manner with boiling elder oil and cauterization, and the remainder with a recipe made of egg yolk, oil of roses and turpentine, and left overnight. Paré discovered that the soldiers treated with the boiling oil were in agony, whereas the ones treated with the ointment had recovered because of the antiseptic properties of turpentine. This proved this method's efficacy, and he avoided cauterization thereafter. However, treatments such as this were not widely used until many years later. He published his first book The method of curing wounds caused by arquebus and firearms in 1545.

Paré also reintroduced the ligature of arteries (first used by Galen and later described by Al-Zahrawi) instead of cauterization during amputation. The usual method of sealing wounds by searing with a red-hot iron often failed to arrest the bleeding and caused patients to die of shock. For the ligature technique he designed the "Bec de Corbeau" ("crow's beak"), a predecessor to modern haemostats. Although ligatures often spread infection, it was still an important breakthrough in surgical practice. Paré detailed the technique of using ligatures to prevent hemorrhaging during amputation in his 1564 book Treatise on Surgery. During his work with injured soldiers, Paré documented the pain experienced by amputees which they perceive as sensation in the 'phantom' amputated limb. Paré believed that phantom pains occur in the brain (the consensus of the medical community today) and not in remnants of the limb. He also performed many neurosurgical procedures.

In 1542, during the siege of Perpignan, Paré, accompanying the French army, employed a novel technique to aid in bullet extraction. During a battle, Maréchal de Brissac was wounded, having been shot in the shoulder. When finding the bullet seemed impossible, Paré had the idea to ask the victim to put himself in the exact position he was in when shot. The bullet was then found and removed by Henry's personal surgeon, Nicole Lavernault.

Paré was also an important figure in the progress of obstetrics in the middle of the 16th century. He revived the practice of podalic version, and showed how even in cases of head presentation, surgeons with this operation could often deliver the infant safely, instead of having to dismember the infant and extract the infant piece by piece. During his time at the Hôtel-Dieu, Paré directly influenced the education of future royal midwife Louise Boursier.

Paré also introduced the lancing of infants' gums using a lancet during teething, in the belief that teeth were failing to emerge from the gums due to lack of a pathway, and that this failure was a cause of death. This belief and practice persisted for centuries, with some exceptions, until towards the end of the nineteenth century lancing became increasingly controversial and was then abandoned.

Paré was ably seconded by his pupil Jacques Guillemeau, who translated his work into Latin, and at a later period himself wrote a treatise on midwifery. An English translation of it was published in 1612 with the title Childbirth; or, The Happy Delivery of Women.

In 1552, Paré was accepted into royal service of the Valois Dynasty under Henry II; he was however unable to cure the king's fatal blow to the head, which he received during a tournament in 1559. Paré stayed in the service of the kings of France to the end of his life in 1590, ultimately serving Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III.

According to Henri IV's chief minister Sully, Paré was a Huguenot and on 24 August 1572, the day of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, Paré's life was saved when King Charles IX locked him in a clothes closet. He died in Paris on 20 December 1590 from natural causes in his 80th year, and is buried at the church of Saint André-des-Arts. While there is evidence that Paré was sympathetic to the Huguenot cause, he seems to have kept up the appearance of being Catholic to avoid danger: he was twice married, had his children baptized, and was buried according to the Catholic faith.

A collection of Paré's works (he published these separately throughout his life, based on his experiences treating soldiers on the battlefield) was published at Paris in 1575. They were frequently reprinted, several editions appeared in German and Dutch, and among the English translations was that of Thomas Johnson (1634).

Bezoar stone experiment
In 1567, Ambroise Paré described an experiment to test the properties of bezoar stones. At the time, the stones were commonly believed to be able to cure the effects of any poison, but Paré believed this to be impossible. It happened that a cook at Paré's court was caught stealing fine silver cutlery, and was condemned to be hanged. The cook agreed to be poisoned, on the conditions that he would be given a bezoar straight after the poison and go free in case he survived. The stone did not cure him, and he died in agony seven hours after being poisoned. Thus Paré had proved that bezoars could not cure all poisons.

Forensics

Paré's writings further include the results of his methodical studies on the effects of violent death on internal organs. He also created and wrote, Reports in Court, a procedure on the writing of legal reports in relation to medicine. His writings and instructions are known to be the beginning of modern forensic pathology.

Prostheses
Paré contributed both to the practice of surgical amputation and to the design of limb prostheses. He also invented some ocular prostheses, making artificial eyes from enameled gold, silver, porcelain and glass.

Honors
Asteroid 259344 Paré, discovered by French amateur astronomer Bernard Christophe in 2003, was named in his memory. The official  was published by the Minor Planet Center on 14 February 2014 ().

See also
 Louis Duret
 Clinique Ambroise Paré
 Cagot

References

External links

 Statue of Ambroise Paré, Place du Jet d'eau in Laval, France
 Page through a virtual copy of Paré's Oeuvres
 . Bezoar stone story on pages 186–7. Paré not a huguenot on page 84
 Famous Surgeons in History''

1510s births
1590 deaths
People from Mayenne
French surgeons
16th-century French physicians
French medical writers
French military doctors
16th-century surgeons
French male non-fiction writers
16th-century French writers
16th-century male writers

Ambroise Paré


Willibrord Benzler OSB (16 October 1853 – 16 April 1921) was the Roman Catholic Bishop of Metz from 1901 to 1919.

Life
Born as Karl Heinrich Johann Eugen Benzler in Niederhemer, Westphalia, the eldest son of Karl Benzler, an innkeeper, and his wife, Klementine (née Kissing), he was baptized at SS Peter and Paul Church on 24 October 1853. After attending the elementary school in Niederhemer and the höhere Bürgerschule in Menden, he went on to study at the secondary school in Attendorn, and (from 1867 to 1871) at the gymnasium Paulinium in Münster, where he graduated.

After beginning to study architecture in Cologne, in December 1871 he changed to study philosophy and Catholic theology at the University of Innsbruck. In the autumn of 1872 he joined the Collegium Canisianum maintained by the Jesuits; however, his application to join the order was denied in 1874. Instead he joined the Benedictine abbey of Beuron and chose the name Willibrord. On 28 August 1877 he was ordained to the priesthood by Johann Baudri, auxiliary bishop of Cologne.

During the Kulturkampf the monks of Beuron were forced to leave the country. From 1875 to 1880 they stayed in Volders (Tyrol). In 1880 they were invited to revive the Emaus Abbey in Prague. From 1883 to 1887 he was prior of Seckau Abbey in Styria, which had been revived as a priory of Beuron. In 1887 the monks were able to return to their monastery in Beuron, where he became prior. In 1892 Maria Laach Abbey was refounded by the monks of Beuron, and Willibrord Benzler became its prior. On 15 October 1893 the priory was made an abbey, and he became the first abbot. On 8 December he was consecrated as abbot by Wilhelm von Reiser, Bishop of Rottenburg.

Even though Benzler had earlier been discussed as a possible bishop of Cologne or Fulda, his appointment as bishop of Metz on 21 September 1901 was somewhat surprising. He was ordained on 28 October 1901 by Michael Felix Korum, bishop of Trier.

After World War I the diocese of Metz became French again, and a German bishop was no longer acceptable; Benzler therefore resigned in January 1919. His resignation was officially accepted on 10 July; on 31 July he was appointed archbishop of the titular see of Attalia in Pamphylia. He returned to his abbey in Maria Laach and later to Beuron, but a serious heart disease forced him to move to the Cistercian abbey of Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden to receive medical help. In 1921 he died there, and was buried at his first abbey in Beuron.

Coat of arms

The bishopric coat of arms of Willibrord Benzler showed on the heraldic right side three silver fish on blue ground, while to the left it had a red cross of Lorraine with the word "PAX" (peace). The origin of the three hills to the bottom of the cross is unknown, they might have been a reference to his hometown in the hills of the Sauerland. Below the shield is the motto of Bishop Benzler, "In verbo tuo" (Following your word).

Sources
 Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon article

Publications

References

1853 births
1921 deaths
People from Hemer
German Benedictines
Bishops of Metz
20th-century German Roman Catholic bishops
People from the Province of Westphalia
Members of the First Chamber of the Parliament of the Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine
20th-century German Roman Catholic priests

Willibrord Benzler


A deductive database is a database system that can make deductions (i.e. conclude additional facts) based on rules and facts stored in its database. Datalog is the language typically used to specify facts, rules and queries in deductive databases. Deductive databases have grown out of the desire to combine logic programming with relational databases to construct systems that support a powerful formalism and are still fast and able to deal with very large datasets. Deductive databases are more expressive than relational databases but less expressive than logic programming systems such as Prolog.
In recent years, deductive databases have found new application in data integration, information extraction, networking, program analysis, security, and cloud computing.

Deductive databases reuse many concepts from logic programming; rules and facts specified in Datalog look very similar to those written in Prolog, but there are some important differences:
 Order sensitivity and procedurality: In Prolog, program execution depends on the order of rules in the program and on the order of parts of rules; these properties are used by programmers to build efficient programs. In database languages (like SQL or Datalog), however, program execution is independent of the order of rules and facts.
 Special predicates: In Prolog, programmers can directly influence the procedural evaluation of the program with special predicates such as the cut. This has no correspondence in deductive databases.
 Function symbols: Logic programming languages allow function symbols to build up complex symbols. This is not allowed in deductive databases.
 Tuple-oriented processing: Deductive databases use set-oriented processing while logic programming languages concentrate on one tuple at a time.

References

Further reading
 Author: Herve Gallaire, Jack Minker, Jean-Marie Nicolas: Logic and Databases: A Deductive Approach. Publisher: ACM. doi:10.1145/356924.356929
 Author: Stefano Ceri, Georg Gottlob, Letizia Tanca: Logic Programming and Databases. Publisher: Springer-Verlag.
 Author: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe: Fundamentals of Database Systems (3rd edition). Publisher: Addison-Wesley Longman.

Database management systems

Deductive database