The A-level (Advanced Level) is a subject-based qualification conferred as part of the General Certificate of Education, as well as a school leaving qualification offered by the educational bodies in the United Kingdom and the educational authorities of British Crown dependencies to students completing secondary or pre-university education. They were introduced in England and Wales in 1951 to replace the Higher School Certificate. The A-level permits students to have potential access to university if their grades are of satisfactory quality.

A number of Commonwealth countries have developed qualifications with the same name as and a similar format to the British A-levels. Obtaining an A-level, or equivalent qualifications, is generally required across the board for university entrance, with universities granting offers based on grades achieved. Particularly in Singapore, its A-level examinations have been regarded as being much more challenging than those in the United Kingdom and Hong Kong.

A-levels are typically worked towards over two years. Normally, students take three or four A-level courses in their first year of sixth form, and most taking four cut back to three in their second year. This is because university offers are normally based on three A-level grades, and taking a fourth can have an impact on grades. Unlike other level-3 qualifications, such as the International Baccalaureate, A-levels have no specific subject requirements, so students have the opportunity to combine any subjects they wish to take. However, students normally pick their courses based on the degree they wish to pursue at university: most degrees require specific A-levels for entry.

In legacy modular courses (last assessment Summer 2019), A-levels are split into two parts, with students within their first year of study pursuing an Advanced Subsidiary qualification, commonly referred to as an AS or AS-level, which can either serve as an independent qualification or contribute 40% of the marks towards a full A-level award. The second part is known as an A2 or A2-level, which is generally more in-depth and academically rigorous than the AS. The AS and A2 marks are combined for a full A-level award. The A2-level is not a qualification on its own, and must be accompanied with an AS-level in the same subject for certification.

In September 2023, it was announced by Prime Minister Rishi Sunak that the A-level would be scrapped and merged with T-levels to form the Advanced British Standard. This would incorporate compulsory English and mathematics studies.

Current usage
Several countries use A-levels as a school-leaving qualification. The A-levels taken by students in other countries may differ from the A-levels taken in the United Kingdom.

Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, the GCE AS and A-level are offered by Cambridge Assessment International Education (CIE) and Pearson Edexcel after completion of GCE O-level or IGCSE (CIE), and is conducted by the British Council. GCE Advanced Level qualifications are offered by some of the private, public, and international schools as an alternative to HSC (Higher Secondary School Certificate) offered by the Governments Board of Education. It has become a popular choice among students, but due to financial implications, its reach is limited to the middle and upper classes in major cities such as Dhaka and Chittagong.

Brunei
In Brunei, the A-level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). Some subjects are unique to Brunei or have a format, curriculum, or syllabus that is unique to Brunei.

Cameroon
The Advanced Level of Cameroon is based on the Cambridge International Examinations and similarly, conducted by the government of Cameroon in collaboration with Cambridge University. All the courses taken are related to what the candidate is willing to pursue a career in university and these courses are on a recognizable international standard for university entrance; as they are major relevant courses. You can select between 3 and 5 courses during your advanced level studies, prior taken your advanced level examination on which.

Hong Kong
The British A-level qualifications such as GCE A-level and International A-level are widely accepted in Hong Kong as an alternative to the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education for both admission and employment purposes. It is one of the most popular qualifications used for university admission via the non-JUPAS channel. For example, average non-JUPAS offers from the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology require one to three A*s (the mid-50% range). Since the introduction of the high distinction grade (A*) in 2010, the British A-level examination has regained its power to differentiate the very top levels of ability. According to the British Department for Education, in the academic year 2014/15, approximately 7.3%, 2.7%, 1.0%, and 0.3% of all the candidates from the GCSE cohort (548,480) achieved one to four A*s or a better result in the GCE A-level examination. This percentile rank is one important input for equating the levels in both examinations. On the sole basis of percentile ranks and the grade statistics from HKEAA in 2017, a score of 29/35 from the best five subjects in Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education is comparable to 1A*2A in the best three British A-levels, 32/35 to 2A*1A, 33/35 to 3A* and 34/35 to 4A*. In deriving inferences from these statistics, it is important to note that slightly more than a third of the GCSE candidates can go on to study in the sixth form before applying to universities via the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) while almost all Hong Kong students can study Form 6 before sitting the HKDSE examination.

Relevant authorities such as the Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) and UCAS also sought to connect the results from both exam systems to open doors for the holders of these qualifications who wish to study locally or overseas. Officially, the top distinction levels, A* in A-level and 5** in HKDSE, are currently recognized as broadly equivalent. In particular, in the light of statistical evidence, the 1% cut-off line is often set by admission offices at 2A*1A as compared to a score of 43/45 in the International Baccalaureate Diploma but the Uniform Mark Scale (UMS) instead of the letter grades would be used in many cases to offer a much more subtle view of the candidate's academic potential. Typical offers from Cambridge Medical School require 2A*1A and Oxford University Medical School require 1A*2A whereas those from the medical and dentistry schools of the University of Hong Kong and the Chinese University of Hong Kong require 4A* and 3A* respectively in A-level due to fierce competition.

India
In India, Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) and Learning Resource Network (LRN) GCE Advanced Level qualifications are offered at private and international schools as an alternative to the conventional Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC).

Malaysia
In Malaysia, the A-level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). Some subjects are unique to Malaysia or have a format, curriculum, or syllabus that is unique to Malaysia. For instance, there are two types of A-level in Malaysia, Cambridge A-level (administered by Cambridge International Examinations) and Edexcel International Advanced Level (administered by Pearson International).

Mauritius

In Mauritius, A/AS-level qualifications are taken as part of the Higher School Certificate, awarded upon successful completion of secondary school after passing of examinations jointly administered by the Mauritius Examinations Syndicate and the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). Some exam papers offered, such as French, are customized to support the national educational standards. Additionally, International A-level qualifications from Edexcel are available, for which exams may be registered through the Mauritius Examinations Syndicate.

Nepal
In Nepal, A-level offered from Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) is the most popular, and is presented by several public, private and international institutions as an alternative to the National Examination Board (Nepal)'s 10+2 curriculum. A-level has become a popular choice for many students in Nepal. Besides A-level, International Baccalaureate and Advanced Placement are also offered at this level. In Nepali, students generally appear for 4 subjects at A-level and 5 at AS-level.

Pakistan
A-levels are offered in Pakistan by non-governmental, private institutions, along with International Baccalaureate and other international examinations like the Advanced Placement. Examinations are handled by international British boards and the program is equivalent to Higher Secondary School Certificate. Cram Schools are established all around the country which prepares the students to take the examinations as private candidates.

Seychelles
In Seychelles, the A-level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). Some subjects are unique to Seychelles or have a format, curriculum, or syllabus that is unique to Seychelles.

Singapore

In Singapore, H1/H2/H3 level qualifications are awarded upon successful completion of examinations jointly administered by Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board (SEAB) and the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). Singaporean A-levels are notably much more difficult than the British A-levels but a little bit easier than the Hong Kong A-level Examination in terms of the proportion of students achieving highest grades, as part of the country's wider robust educational policy.

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, A-level qualifications are offered by governmental and non-governmental schools (Private Schools). The qualifications are awarded upon successful completion of examinations called Local A-levels while most of the private schools award them upon London A-levels. Local GCE Advanced Level qualifications are offered by the Department of Examinations. Private Schools (International Schools) in Sri Lanka provide A-level qualifications which are offered by:
 Cambridge Assessment International Education (CIE)
 Edexcel

Passing A-levels is a major requirement for applying to local universities and for private universities in Sri Lanka. Since the recent past, Universities in Sri Lanka have given the opportunity to apply for their foundation courses which only require O-level (Ordinary Level) results.

Tanzania

A-level is an education structure after the completion of 11 years of Universal Primary Education (UPE). The Universal Primary Education consists of two levels, the primary school level of seven years and ordinarily secondary level, of four years.

Students are then required to sit for the National Examination which is done on specific month in a certain year. The exams are done throughout the country the same date provided by the examination board. Examinations will depend on the cluster and core subjects in which a student shall take. There are three major clusters, namely science, business and liberal arts plus core subjects of which are seven in total or more. Students who will then pass according to the National Examination Standards, shall be selected to join Advanced Secondary Education and are selected according to the subjects they passed the most and by their wills to pursue certain subjects.

There are only three core subjects to study in Advanced Level and one or more optional subjects to sit for the Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (ACSEE). Then students are awarded Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education only if they have passed. The pass marks are arranged according to grades and the grades will determine whether a student will qualify to join tertiary education.

A-level education is a two years education which is offered by the government and non-government schools. It is regulated by ministry of education which assures both qualitative and quantitative of subject matters and there is a special independent council which is responsible in composing the Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (ACSEE) namely The National Examination Council of Tanzania (NECTA).

Uganda
In Uganda, a Uganda Advanced certificate of education is awarded to students who have passed their national examinations that are set and marked by the Uganda National Examination Board (UNEB). It is among the requirements requirements for one to join a university in Uganda. The advanced level takes two years for one to complete.

United Kingdom

A-levels are a college or sixth form leaving qualification offered in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. These are not compulsory, unlike GCSEs. In Scotland, A-levels are also offered by some schools as an alternative school-leaving qualification in place of the Scottish Advanced Higher. The main examination boards which administer British A-levels in the UK are:
 Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA)
 Oxford, Cambridge, and RSA Examinations (OCR)
 Edexcel (Edexcel Pearson – London Examinations)
 Welsh Joint Education Committee (WJEC)
 Council for the Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment (CCEA)
 Cambridge Assessment International Education (CIE)
 Learning Resource Network (LRN)

Oxford AQA, Edexcel, Cambridge International Examinations (CIE), and Learning Resource Network (LRN) also offer international versions of the British A-levels in the United Kingdom and worldwide.

The British variant of A/AS-levels is also taken in many Commonwealth and former Commonwealth countries, as well as in examination centers worldwide. British international schools in foreign countries generally offer the British A-levels as offered through Edexcel or Cambridge International Examinations. At select examination centers, the British A-level exams may also be available to private candidates.

Subjects offered

A wide variety of subjects are offered at A-level by the five exam boards. Although exam boards often alter their curricula, this table shows the majority of subjects that are consistently available for study.

 Accounting
 Afrikaans
 Ancient History
 Art and Design
 Applied Science
 Arabic
 Archaeology
 Architecture
 Bengali
 Biblical Hebrew
 Biology
 Business
 Business Studies
 Chemistry
 Chinese
 Classical Civilisation
 Classical Greek
 Classical Studies
 Communication and Culture
 Computer Science
 Criminology
 Dance
 Design and Technology
 Design and Textiles
 Digital Media and Design
 Digital Technology
 Divinity
 Drama
 Drama and Theatre
 Dutch
 Economics
 Economics and Business
 Electronics
 Engineering
 English Language
 English Language and Literature
 English Literature
 Environmental Science
 Environmental Technology
 Fashion and Textiles
 Film Studies
 Food Technology
 Food Preparation and Nutrition
 French
 Further Mathematics
 Geography
 Geology
 German
 Global Development
 Global Perspectives and Research
 Government and Politics
 Greek
 Gujarati
 Health and Social Care
 Hindi
 Hinduism
 History
 History of Art
 Home Economics
 Human Biology
 Humanities
 IT
 Information Technology
 International Relations
 Irish
 Islamic studies
 Italian
 Japanese
 Journalism in the Media and Communications Industry
 Latin
 Law
 Leisure Studies
 Life and Health Sciences
 Marine Science
 Mathematics
 Media Studies
 Modern Hebrew
 Moving Image Arts
 Music
 Music Technology
 Nutrition and Food Science
Punjabi
 Performance Studies
 Performing Arts
 Persian
 Philosophy
 Photography
 Physical Education
 Physical Science
 Physics
 Polish
 Politics
 Portuguese
 Product Design
 Professional Business Services
 Psychology
 Pure Mathematics
 Quantitative Methods
 Religious Studies
 Science in Society
 Russian
Sinhala
 Sociology
 Software Systems Development
 Spanish
 Sports Science
 Statistics
 Systems and Control Technology
 Telugu
 Tamil
 Technology and Design
 Thinking Skills
 Travel and Tourism
 Turkish
 Urdu
 Welsh

A-level reforms in England
Between 2015 and 2018 (first assessment Summer 2017), A-levels in England were reformed, transitioning from a modular to linear structure (initially across 13 subjects). This means all A-level exams are taken in one sitting as a set of terminal exams (three exams for the majority of subjects), and there is no coursework set for many subjects. For A-levels that retain a coursework element, the percentage of the final grade determined by coursework has been reduced. An example of this can be seen in Edexcel's new English Literature A-level, reformed in 2015, which reduces the amount of coursework to 20% (from 40% in the old modular specification). A-levels are no longer separated into units, and students must resit all of their exams if they wish to resit the qualification. While these reforms were expected to be complete for first teaching in 2017, this was extended to 2018 to include the reforms of less common languages such as Modern Hebrew and Bengali.

The AS-level is now a separate qualification and is not required for an A-level award, although it still encompasses the first year of the full A-level content. However, unlike AS-levels in the old modular courses, they are now worth only 40% as many UCAS points as a full A-level (from 50% in the modular courses), as content from the second year of A-level is considered more academically challenging than that of the first year.

As these reforms took place in stages, many students took a combination of modular and linear courses before all reforms were complete, with AS-levels still being part of an A-level in older modular courses.

These reforms look to combat grade inflation, where the proportion of students achieving the highest grades increases year upon year, causing the value of those grades to be eroded. The modular system has also been criticised for nurturing a 'resit culture', while new linear courses give no opportunity to resit individual units.

Controversially, some A-level course subjects have been abolished from 2017 as part of these reforms. These include archaeology, anthropology, creative writing, critical thinking, general studies and home economics. Many universities criticized the scrapping of exams taken at the end of AS-level, which used to be worth 50% of the overall A-level grade. This is because the universities used the grades achieved at AS-level (available to universities after a student applies during the second year of A-levels) as an indication of a student's ability and thus whether to give said student an offer.

Opposition to these reforms in Wales and Northern Ireland has resulted in maintaining the modular structure of their qualification.

Zimbabwe
The GCE Advanced Level qualification is offered by the Zimbabwe School Examinations Council (ZIMSEC). Before, this qualification was jointly offered by Cambridge International Examinations and the Council in Zimbabwe.

Former usage

Caribbean
In 2002, there has been a move away from the GCE Advanced Level to the CXC CAPE examinations, making them a de facto university entrance examination. Some universities also require applicants to take separate entrance examination. The International Baccalaureate and European Baccalaureate are also accepted.

See also
Advanced British Standard, a proposed replacement
General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) – an entry qualification
GCE Ordinary Level (O-Level) – an entry qualification that has been phased out in the United Kingdom
 Further / special
 Scholarship level (S-level) – last offered in 2001
 Advanced Extension Award (AEA) – 2002–2009, 2015 mathematics
 Sixth Term Examination Paper (STEP) – used by the University of Cambridge and the University of Warwick for admissions to study mathematics at undergraduate level
 International A-levels
Singapore-Cambridge GCE Advanced Level – harder examination in Singapore
Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination (HKALE) – now defunct
GCE Advanced Level in Sri Lanka
 Scotland
Higher (Scottish) – Scottish university entrance qualification
Advanced Higher (Scottish) – Scottish equivalent to A-level
Canada
Ontario Academic Credit
 Vocational
BTEC Extended Diploma – the highest level of the BTEC structure and is taken by people aged 16 or above (equal to A-levels)
T Level (level 3)
NVQ (level 3)
Advanced Vocational Certificate of Education (AVCE)
 Europe
Abitur – similar qualification in Germany and Finland
Eindexamen – similar qualification in the Netherlands
Matura or Maturità – similar qualification in some European countries
 Baccalaureate
Baccalauréat – similar qualification in France
European Baccalaureate – examination used mainly in the European School system
IB Diploma Programme – alternative examination found across the world
 International alternatives
Advanced Placement Program –similar qualification in the United States
Bagrut – similar qualification in Israel
Leaving Certificate (Ireland)
Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia (Malaysian Higher School Certificate) – better known as "STPM", an equivalent examination in Malaysia
Matriculation Certificate (Malta)
Senior Secondary Certificate of Education (Australia)

References

External links

 Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency: A Level resources
 University of Cambridge: International A & AS levels
 The Guardian 2005 A Level results
 2005 A Level results
 CIE O level and A level Timetable 2018

Educational qualifications in England
School examinations
1951 introductions
Secondary school qualifications
Secondary education in England
Secondary education in Wales
Secondary education in Northern Ireland
Educational qualifications in Wales
Educational qualifications in Northern Ireland

A-level


Charles Edward Leatherland, Baron Leatherland OBE MSM DL (18 April 1898 – 18 December 1992) was a British journalist and Labour Party politician.

Early life

Charles Edward Leatherland was born in Aston, Birmingham on 18 April 1898. He was the eldest son of John Edward Leatherland, an Army bandmaster. His mother Elizabeth Leatherland (née Abbis), a blacksmith's daughter, died when he was 9 years old. He attended Harborne School, Birmingham and left school at the age of 14.

In 1914 at the start of the First World War he joined the 16th Battalion of the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. In 1916 he was transferred to Xth Corps headquarters where he remained for the rest of the war. He became an Acting Sergeant Major and served in France, Belgium and Germany. He was awarded the Meritorious Service Medal.

In 1919 he returned to Birmingham and worked for Birmingham Corporation. He was a founder member and Midlands Organiser of the National Union of Ex-Service Men.

In 1921 he moved to Macclesfield and became Chief Reporter and Sub-Editor on a local newspaper, the Macclesfield Courier. In 1923 and 1924 he won gold medals in an international essay writing competition organised by the London Chamber of Commerce.

Labour Party Press and Publicity Department

In 1924 he moved to London to work as Parliamentary Correspondent in the Labour Party Press and Publicity Department. He became second in command to the Labour Press Officer, William Henderson. In 1925 he wrote eleven chapters of The Book of the Labour Party, the first major history of the Labour Party and the Labour movement.

In 1926 he played a significant behind the scenes role in the General Strike writing much of the contents of the British Worker, the TUC strike newspaper, including the TUC's "Message to All Workers" which appeared on the front cover of every issue.

Daily Herald

In 1929 Leatherland became a political sub-editor on the Daily Herald. In 1938 he became assistant news editor. By 1941 he had been appointed news editor. In the 1950s he acted as night editor and then assistant editor, which he combined with the duties of political editor. He retired from the Daily Herald in 1963.

Leatherland was also a freelance journalist. He wrote a weekly political gossip column for the Sunday Dispatch and weekly articles in the magazines John Bull and The Passing Show, both published by the Daily Herald owners Odhams Press. During the 1950s and 1960s he wrote a weekly column in the local government periodical the Municipal Journal.  In the 1960s he wrote a series of articles on local government themes for the National and Local Government Officers' Association (NALGO), the local government trade union. These articles were widely used by schools and colleges in the teaching of civics.

Essex County Council

Leatherland moved to the Old Rectory in Dunton Wayletts, Essex in 1934. He came to play a prominent role in Essex politics. He was Chairman of the Dunton Parish Invasion Committee and made radio broadcasts for the BBC during the Second World War. After spells as a district councillor in Laindon and Billericay, he became an Alderman on Essex County Council in 1946. He served as a Labour member of Essex County Council for 22 years. For 15 years he was Leader of the Labour group. He chaired the Finance Committee for several years, was vice-chairman for six years, and was County Council chairman in 1960–61. He also spent 15 years as Chairman of the Eastern Regional Council of the Labour Party. In 1951 he was awarded the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for political and public service. He lived latterly at Buckhurst Hill.

University of Essex

Whilst on Essex County Council, Leatherland campaigned for Essex to be the location of a new university. He played a leading role in the foundation of the University of Essex and became its first Treasurer serving in this role until 1972. In 1973 the University awarded him an honorary doctorate.

He also served as a magistrate for 26 years and became Deputy Chairman of the magistrates bench in Epping, Essex. He played a prominent part in the establishment of Basildon as a New Town and served as a member of Basildon Development Corporation. He also served on the Essex Territorial Army Association for many years. He was appointed as a Deputy Lieutenant of Essex in 1963.

Life Peerage

On 16 December 1964 he was created a Labour Life Peer as Baron Leatherland, of Dunton in the County of Essex. He attended the House of Lords for twenty-five years and was a frequent speaker in debates.

Charles Leatherland died in Epping, Essex at the age of 94 on 18 December 1992.

Personal life

Charles Leatherland married Mary Elizabeth ('Mollie') Morgan in Macclesfield in 1922. They had a daughter Irene Mary and a son John Charles. Irene Leatherland worked at Labour Party head office at Transport House from 1947 to 1962 becoming the Party's Conference Officer. John Leatherland served in the Army and then worked in advertising. Mollie Leatherland died in 1987 at the age of 87.

Arms

References

Publications
Could Revolution Win? in 'The Nineteenth Century and After' (1921)

Part-author The Book of the Labour Party ed. Herbert Treacy (1925)

Village Invasion Committee Plans in Bulletins from Britain. British Information Services (1942)

A Day in the Life of a news editor in The Inky Way Annual 1947–48. World's Press News Publishing Ltd (1948)

External links

Obituary in The Independent, December 1992 https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-lord-leatherland-1564837.html

Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Lord Leatherland

Biographical website by Lord Leatherland's grandson David Richards www.charlesleatherland.info

Laindon and District Community Archive http://www.laindonhistory.org.uk/page_id__12_path__0p49p21p.aspx

1898 births
1992 deaths
Labour Party (UK) life peers
British male journalists
Deputy Lieutenants of Essex
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United Kingdom)
Members of Essex County Council
British newspaper editors
Life peers created by Elizabeth II

Charles Leatherland, Baron Leatherland


A per unit tax, or specific tax, is a tax that is defined as a fixed amount for each unit of a good or service sold, such as cents per kilogram. It is thus proportional to the particular quantity of a product sold, regardless of its price. Excise taxes, for instance, fall into this tax category. By contrast, an ad valorem tax is a charge based on a fixed percentage of the product value. Per unit taxes have administrative advantages when it is easy to measure quantities of the product or service being sold.

Effect on supply curve
Any tax will raise cost of production hence shift the supply curve to the left. In the case of specific tax, the shift will be purely parallel because the amount of tax is the same at all prices. That amount is illustrated in the distance between the supply curve with taxation and the one without taxation.
Specific tax are indirect tax. This will raise the supply curve vertically by the amount of the tax, and new curve will be parallel to the original curve.

Tobacco taxation
The term specific tax is mostly connected to tobacco taxation. Using specific taxes has proved to be one of the most effective ways to reduce consumption, whereas ad valorem tax which is based on a per cent of product value may lead to substitution to cheaper brands.

References

External links
 Per unit tax — Definition at EconGuru.com's Economic Glossary
 Specific tax — Definition at BusinessDictionary.com gando

Sales taxes

Per unit tax


Rolling cone motion is the rolling motion generated by a cone rolling over another cone. In rolling cone motion, at least one of the cones is convex, while the other cone may be either convex, or concave, or a flat surface (a flat surface can be regarded as a special case of a cone whose apex angle equals ). The distinguishing characteristic of a rolling cone, in relation to other axially symmetrical rollers (cylinder, sphere, round disk), is that while rolling on a flat surface, the cone's center of gravity performs a circular motion rather than a linear one. Another unique characteristic is that one of its points (its apex) is at rest throughout the entire motion.

Kinematics

The motion of a rolling cone can be described as a superposition of a rotational motion of the cone around its axis of symmetry, and a rotary motion of its axis around the axis of symmetry of the stationary cone. The ratio between the angular velocities of these two motions is given by:

where  and  are the half apex angles of the stationary cone and the rolling cone, respectively,  is the angular velocity of the rolling cone's axis of symmetry around the axis of symmetry of the stationary cone, and    is the angular velocity of the rolling cone around its own axis of symmetry. In the special case of a cone rolling on a flat surface (i.e. ), this ratio becomes . For example, a cone having an apex angle of 60 degrees, while being rolled on a flat surface, will perform exactly two full rotations around its axis of symmetry before returning to its original position.

Use
One of the most practical applications of rolling cones is the use of  tapered roller bearings in rotating devices. Tapered bearings can bear higher loads than ball bearings in both radial and axial directions, and therefore are more frequently used as wheel bearings in most wheeled land vehicles.

In Conveyor systems, conical rollers are sometimes used when there's a need to create a curved path. A common example is belt conveyors in airport terminals where there's a need to move the luggage in loops.

In the 18th and 19th century rolling cone motion was used in the process of olive oil extraction. The olives were put in a large circular basin and heavy metal cones were rolled upon them. The fact that a cone can roll in circles without sliding made it more efficient to use conical roller millstones.

References
Sir William Thomson and Peter Guthrie Tait (2003). "Principles of mechanics and dynamics". pp. 79–81.

External links

Rolling cone simulation. Simulation appelet by Eugene Butikov. Covers also the case of a concave cone.
Olive oil extraction A review of traditional olive oil extracting techniques including conical rollers millstones.

Motion (physics)

Rolling cone motion


A coin capsule or is a type of plastic capsule designed to prevent coins from becoming damaged by protecting it from outside contaminants, scratches and drops while allowing the coin to be viewed through transparent plastic.

History
Similar to capsules, Coin slabs are a way to encapsulate coins commonly used by coin grading services; coin capsules are used by coin collectors, or numismatists to store and keep coins safe. The varied nature of coin sizes has led to a wide range of differently sized capsules becoming available each offer different levels or protection or security. Some types of capsules are designed with the ability to be reopened while others, once closed cannot be reopened without damaging the capsule.
Many capsules now come with adjustable foam inserts inorder to prevent inserted coins from moving around inside the capsule. Starting from 20mm, they can vary in sizes, including 31mm, 35mm, 44mm and 50mm.

References

Coin grading
Numismatics
Coin collecting

Coin capsule


Robert Goodman (June 8, 1939 – March 5, 2023) was an American boxing matchmaker, publicist, and promoter. He is a member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame since 2009, the Florida Boxing Hall of Fame (2009) and the New Jersey Boxing Hall of Fame since 1990, and recipient of the prestigious Boxing Writers Association of America's James J. Walker Memorial Award for Long and Meritorious Service to Boxing in 1980. He was the son of Murray Goodman, also in the International Boxing Hall of Fame, New Jersey Boxing Hall of Fame and Walker Award recipient. Bob Goodman also served as vice president and Matchmaker for Madison Square Garden from 1985 to 1994.  They are the only father-son to have received all of those honors.

Goodman also spent twenty-five years with Don King Productions serving in many capacities – Vice President, Boxing Operations, Matchmaker, and Director of Public Relations.

Goodman was also the President of his own company, Garden State Boxing, where they promoted many world champions.

Early years
Goodman was born and raised in the Bronx, New York. He was always told that he was conceived at Grossinger's, a famed Catskill Mountain resort that was the training home of many great champions, including Barney Ross, Rocky Marciano, Ken Norton, Roberto Duran, and Larry Holmes.  However it was in another Catskill resort – The Evans, where he got hooked on boxing for good, when he stayed with France's Marcel Cerdan in 1948. "It was amazing," said Goodman.  "We didn't even speak the same language, but he spoke with his eyes and gestures.  I used to get up to run with him.  It was there and then
that I became a "boxing junkie".

When Bob was a young teen, the family moved to New Jersey where he competed in soccer and track and field in school.  He took many sports related jobs during the summers, including Madison Square Garden and the National Sports Council.  He also worked on the S. Rae Hickok "Professional Athlete of the Year" Award, created by his father in 1949, which remained one of the most prized awards until 1975.

Education
Goodman attended the University of Miami in Florida for two years before enlisting in the United States Coast Guard. Goodman was the Officer in Charge of Coast Guard Recruiting for the State of Connecticut upon the end of his enlistment.

Career
After leaving the Coast Guard in 1962, Goodman took a public relations job with the New York Titans of the old American Football League.  Upon the sale of the Titans to become the Jets, Goodman and his father created the "sports division" of a Madison advertising agency, Arthur Falconer Associates and promoted most of the major fights of the era.  They also helped create the All-American Collegiate Golf Foundation, and handled other accounts such as Bancroft Sporting Goods and Tretorn.

When the company moved to New Jersey, Goodman and his father opened up their own firm on Madison Avenue, Murray Goodman Associates.  They handled events for Main Bout, Bob Arum's Top Rank and Don King Productions.  Light heavyweight great Bob Foster and heavyweight champion Ken Norton, were personal clients.

Don King brought Bob on board full-time as his Director of Boxing in the early 70's, where he remained until the end of 1985. During those years they promoted the biggest events in boxing, including the "Rumble in the Jungle" between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman; the "Thrilla in Manila" between Ali and Joe Frazier; The "Sunshine Showdown" with George Foreman and Joe Frazier, and the two fights between Roberto Duran and Sugar Ray Leonard.

At Madison Square Garden, Goodman and his staff developed many world champions, including James "Buddy" McGirt, Aaron "Superman" Davis, Tracy Patterson; Poison Junior Jones, Kevin Kelley, Julio Cesar Green, Lonnie Bradley, and Hector Acero Sanchez, among others.

Corporate changes caused Goodman to take his boxers to New Jersey, where they opened up Garden State Boxing.  Goodman rejoined Don King, and served as his Vice President Boxing Operations and Public Relations until 2009.

Goodman then joined Roy Jones Jr.'s Square Ring Promotions as the Chief Operating
Officer, where he remained.

Personal life and death
Bob Goodman and his wife of fifty-four years, Kathleen, had four daughters and nine grandchildren. They lived in southern New Jersey.

Goodman died in Galloway, New Jersey, on March 5, 2023, at the age of 83.

References

1939 births
2023 deaths
American boxing promoters
People from the Bronx

Bob Goodman


Norma Fox Mazer (May 15, 1931 – October 17, 2009) was an American author and teacher, best known for her books for children and young adults. Her novels featured credible young characters confronting difficult situations such as family separation and death.

She was born in New York City but grew up in Glens Falls, New York, with parents Michael and Jean Garlan Fox.  Mazer graduated from Glens Falls High School, then went to Antioch College, where she met Harry Mazer, whom she married in 1950; they had four children, three of whom survived Mazer, one of whom, Anne Mazer, is also a writer. In addition to Antioch, Mazer also studied at Syracuse University. In 2009, she died at the age of 78 from brain cancer.

Mazer began writing professionally as a young mother and for several years she and her husband Harry wrote confessional stories for pulp magazines; they would later write several novels together.

Mazer's books were praised for the intelligence of their dialogue, psychological acumen, and the nuance with which domestic difficulties and tragedies were portrayed in the lives of young people. Rather than offering simple resolutions, her stories charted more complex and sometimes suspenseful paths that followed the characters' growth and self-knowledge.

New York Times Book Review contributor Ruth I. Gordon wrote that Mazer "has the skill to reveal the human qualities in both ordinary and extraordinary situations as young people mature....it would be a shame to limit their reading to young people, since they can show an adult reader much about the sometimes painful rite of adolescent passage into adulthood".

In 1988 Mazer said:

I hesitate to say I'm delivering messages....I'm writing stories and novels. I hope there's an underlying feeling for the reader -- a hope, perhaps a moral. But I'm not preaching. I'm telling stories.

Among the honors Mazer earned for her writing were a National Book Award nomination in 1973, an American Library Association Notable Book citation in 1976, inclusion on the New York Times Outstanding Books of the Year list in 1976, the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1978, an Edgar Award in 1982, German Children's Literature prizes in 1982 and 1989, and a Newbery Medal in 1988.

From 1997 to 2006 Mazer taught in the Master of Fine Arts in Writing for Children & Young Adults Program at Vermont College.

References

External links

 "The Censorship Connection: 'Shhhh!' by Norma Fox Mazer", The ALAN Review 24:2 (Winter 1997), ALAN — "Novelist discusses the impact on her of being disinvited to speak to students at a school and considers the implications of such reactions to literature and its authors."
 Norma Fox Mazer at Library of Congress Authorities — with 40 catalog records

1931 births
2009 deaths
American children's writers
American writers of young adult literature
Edgar Award winners
Newbery Honor winners
Writers from New York City
People from Glens Falls, New York
Antioch College alumni
Syracuse University alumni
Deaths from brain cancer in the United States
Deaths from cancer in Vermont
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
Vermont College of Fine Arts faculty
American women children's writers
20th-century American novelists
American women novelists
Women writers of young adult literature
Novelists from New York (state)
Novelists from Vermont
American women academics

Norma Fox Mazer


Jeremy Shapiro is a research director at the European Council on Foreign Relations.
Previously he was special advisor to the assistant secretary of state for Europe and Eurasia at the U.S. Department of State. Prior to his appointment he was director of research at the "Center on the United States and Europe" at the Brookings Institution. His expertise is in the fields of Civil-military relations, Europe, France, military operations, national security and transatlantic diplomacy.

He was a Ph.D. candidate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and he received his Master's degree from Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies in 1994. He graduated from Harvard in 1989. He previously worked in varied fields including software development, and was a political and security analyst for RAND and a research associate at MIT.

Shapiro works as an adjunct professor for the Security Studies Program at Georgetown University.

Shapiro is originally from Massachusetts.

Selected publications
France and the GIA, Democracies and Counter-terrorism, Robert Art and Louise Richardson, eds. (United States Institute of Peace, forthcoming 2004)
Allies at War: America, Europe and the Crisis Over Iraq, with Philip Gordon (McGraw-Hill, 2004)
A Vision not a Policy: Bush Administration Views on the Franco-German Couple, A View from Outside, Matt Browne et al. (Notre Europe, 2004)
French Lessons: The Importance of the Judicial System in Fighting Terrorism, U.S.-France Analysis (March 2003)
The French Experience of Counter-terrorism, with Bénédicte Suzan, Survival (Spring 2003)
The U.S. Can Learn from the French in the War Against Terrorism, EuroTransport Intelligence (5/19/03)
The U.S. Army and the New National Security Strategy, edited with Lynn Davis (RAND, 2003)
The Role of France in the War on Terrorism, U.S.-France Analysis (May 2002)
Strategic Appraisal: U.S. Air and Space Power in the 21st Century, co-editor with Zalmay M. Khalilzad (RAND, 2002)
Do Casualties Drive Policy? Defense News, with Harvey M. Sapolsky (9/27/99)
The Changing Role of Information in Warfare, with Martin Libicki, and "Information and War: Is it a Revolution?" Strategic Appraisal: The Changing Role of Information in Warfare, Zalmay M. Khalilzad and John P. White, editors (RAND, 1999)
Innovation in Financial Services Case Study: Home Banking," MIT Industrial Performance Center Working Paper (March 1999)
Military Privatization: The Future of the Force Protection Industry," Breakthroughs (Spring 1998)

References

External links
Video of discussion/debate with Shapiro and Jacqueline Shire on Bloggingheads.tv

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies alumni
Harvard University alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Georgetown University faculty
People from Massachusetts
American intelligence analysts
Brookings Institution people

Jeremy Shapiro


Ladies in White () is an opposition movement in Cuba founded in 2003 by wives and other female relatives of jailed dissidents and those who have been made to disappear by the government. The women protest the imprisonments by attending Mass each Sunday wearing white dresses and then silently walking through the streets dressed in white clothing. The color white is chosen to symbolize peace.

The movement received the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought from the European Parliament in 2005.

Origins

During the Black Spring in 2003, the Cuban government arrested and summarily tried and sentenced 75 human rights activists, independent journalists, and independent librarians to terms of up to 28 years in prison, for receiving American government funds and collaborating with U.S diplomats.

For its part, the Cuban government accused the 75 individuals of "acts against the independence or the territorial integrity of the state", including belonging to "illegal organizations", accepting money from the United States Interests Section in Havana and of "hijacking", "terrorist activities", and collaborating with foreign media. In the view of the Committee to Protect Journalists, the Black Spring violated the most basic norms of international law, including Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which guarantees everyone the right to "seek, receive, and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of their choice."

Under the leadership of Laura Pollán, the Ladies in White group was formed two weeks after the arrests. Relatives of the prisoners began gathering on Sundays at St. Rita's Church in Havana to pray for their relatives. After each Mass, they began a ritual procession from the church to a nearby park. The white clothing they wear is reminiscent of the Argentine Madres de Pizz de Mayo, who used a similar strategy to demand information about their missing children from the 1970s military junta. Each marcher wears a button with a photo of her imprisoned relative and the number of years to which he has been sentenced.

The Cuban government has criticized the Ladies in White for being a subversive association of American-backed terrorists. On Palm Sunday in 2005, the pro-government Federation of Cuban Women sent 150 women to counter-protest the group.

At times, rather large mobs have attacked these Ladies in White, yelling insults and slurs at them, and assisting the police to throw them into imprisonment buses. However, since Cardinal Jaime Lucas Ortega y Alamino intervened on their behalf in 2010, they have generally been allowed to protest outside of his church.

The Sakharov Prize
In 2005, the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought was awarded jointly to Reporters without Borders, Nigerian human rights lawyer Huawa Ibrahim, and the Ladies in White. Five of the leaders of the movement were selected to receive the prize: Laura Pollán, whose husband Hector Maseda is serving a 20-year sentence; Miriam Leiva, whose husband Oscar Espinosa Chepe has been conditionally released due to a serious illness; Berta Soler, whose husband Angel Moya Acosta is serving 20 years; Loida Valdes, whose husband Alfredo Felipe Fuentes was sentenced to 26 years; and Julia Núñez, whose husband Adolfo Fernández Saínz is serving 15 years. Some of the women were prevented from visiting their husbands to tell them of the award, but Laura Pollán told the Wall Street Journal that those who were told "are very happy and very proud".

The Cuban government barred the group's leaders from attending the Sakharov Prize award ceremony in Strasbourg, Alsace, Grand Est,  France, drawing an appeal on the group's behalf from the European Parliament.

Berta Soler received the award on the organization's behalf on her first-ever trip abroad in 2013. She was allowed to leave due to Cuba easing its travel regulations.

Support from U.S. government
The Cuban government alleges that the Ladies in White were created and financially sustained by the U.S. government as a means of destabilizing Cuba. Although it is unclear if the United States had a role in creating the organization, classified diplomatic cables released by WikiLeaks show that the U.S. Interests Section requested funding for the Ladies in White and that working with the group figures prominently in the section's activities.

2010 arrests
At a protest in Havana on November 30, 2010, group member Ivonne Malleza Galano was arrested along with her husband Ignacio Martínez Montejo. She and her husband were holding a banner reading "Stop hunger, misery and poverty in Cuba" in Havana's Fraternity Park. Two police officers confiscated the banner, handcuffed her and Martínez, and put them into a police vehicle as a surrounding crowd demanded their release. When onlooker and fellow protester Isabel Haydee Alvarez Mosqueda objected to their arrest, she was detained as well. Malleza and Alvarez were both transferred to Havana's Manto Negro women's jail. The three prisoners were held without charge, though their relatives were told the three were being investigated for "public disorder".

The three arrests were denounced by numerous human rights groups, including the Havana-based Cuban Commission of Human Rights and National Reconciliation, which described the three prisoners as "three people who simply staged a small peaceful protest on the streets without any kind of force or violence". Amnesty International named the three prisoners of conscience and called for their immediate and unconditional release. The Irish-based organization Front Line called for their release on 15 December 2011. On 13 January 2012, US Representatives Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Mario Díaz-Balart, Albio Sires, and David Rivera issued a bipartisan statement urging the prisoners' release, calling their detention "appalling and unjust". US Senators Marco Rubio and Robert Menendez also issued a statement calling for their release and condemning the "unrelenting tyranny" of "the Castro brothers".

Malleza, Martínez, and Alvarez were released on 20 January after 52 days in prison; the release came only a few hours after Amnesty International's announcement of their "prisoner of conscience" designation. The organization reported that authorities told the three that they would face "harsh sentences" if they continued their anti-government activities.

The Ladies in White also participated in a vigil for imprisoned dissident Wilmar Villar Mendoza, who later died while on hunger strike.

2012 arrests
Roughly seventy members of the Ladies in White were detained on the weekend of 16–17 March 2012, including Berta Soler, the group's current leader. Many of them were arrested on their way to or from mass, which they customarily attend together before their Sunday protest march. All seventy were released without charges on 19 March. However, they were instructed by Cuba's secret police that they would no longer be allowed to protest.

A reporter for BBC News stated that protest groups like the Ladies in White were seeking to raise their profile in advance of an impending visit by Pope Benedict XVI—who was expected to discuss the issue of human rights with the Cuban government—and that the Cuban Communist Party was accordingly seeking to clamp down on protest.

On 21 March, Amnesty International designated imprisoned Ladies in White member Yasmin Conyedo Riveron and her husband Yusmani Rafael Alvarez Esmori as prisoners of conscience. The two had been arrested in January and charged with "violence against a state official" following an argument with a local Communist Party official. The pair were released on bail on 5 April.

On 9 December, police in Cuba arrested approximately 80 Ladies in White, allegedly using violence in detaining some of them. In all, 100 to 150 dissidents were placed under house arrest.

2015 arrests
In February 2015, 53 members of Ladies in White were arrested after a march through Havana after a mass.

2016 arrests
Hours before the historic visit of President Barack Obama to Cuba on 19 March, Cuban authorities arrested more than 50 members of Ladies in White during their weekly march. Some members believed Cuban authorities would allow them to protest without getting arrested due to the presence of international reporters and a foreign head of state.

Soler offered the following thoughts prior to being arrested: "For us, it's very important that we do this so President Obama knows that there are women here fighting for the liberty of political prisoners. And he needs to know that we are here being repressed simply for exercising our right to express ourselves and manifest in a non-violent way."

See also
 Censorship in Cuba
 Cuban dissident movement
 Human rights in Cuba
 Mothers Against Repression
 Mothers of Khavaran
 Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo
 Mourning Mothers
 Saturday Mothers
 Tiananmen Mothers

References

External links

Asociación Damas de Blanco (Ladies in White Official Association, in Spanish)
Damas de Blanco (Ladies in White in Spanish)
Damas de Blanco News - Noticias  News about Ladies in White in English and Spanish (with online translation)
Ladies, Ibrahim and Reporters joint Sakharov prize winners  European Parliament
Reporters without Frontiers - Cuba Annual report, 2005.
Sentencing documents  - From dissidents' trials.
Thousands of articles about the Ladies in White
Human Rights Foundation article

Human rights organizations based in Cuba
Opposition to Fidel Castro
Women's organizations based in Cuba
Politics of Cuba
Civil disobedience
2003 establishments in Cuba
Sakharov Prize laureates

Ladies in White


Allison Williams (born c. 1981) is a beauty queen from Morgantown, West Virginia who was crowned Miss West Virginia 2003. She competed in the Miss America 2004 pageant but was unplaced.

Sex tape lawsuit
Williams sued 59 defendants in countries such as the United States, Australia, South Africa, and The Netherlands for posting a sex video allegedly showing her in the back of a WVEC news van. She first discovered the video in August 2004 during her first week at law school. Her spokeswoman Lavinia Mann Cummings said, "These Web sites allege that the woman in the video is Miss West Virginia, but it's not", adding, "Some sites even had her pageant picture next to the video."

Williams won a $7.2 million verdict against nine Internet companies and individuals who tried to sell pornographic videos they falsely claimed featured her.

References

1980s births
Living people
Miss America 2004 delegates
People from Morgantown, West Virginia
West Virginia University alumni
Beauty pageant contestants from West Virginia
Place of birth missing (living people)

Allison Williams (Miss West Virginia)


Brendan Mundorf (born July 27, 1984, in Baltimore, Maryland, United States) is an American lacrosse player who played for the Denver Outlaws of Major League Lacrosse and the Philadelphia Wings of the National Lacrosse League.

Early years
Brendan Mundorf was born on July 27, 1984, in Ellicott City, Maryland, to an Australian father and American mother. He later attended Mount Saint Joseph High School in Baltimore.

College career
During Mundorf's career at University of Maryland, Baltimore County he was a four-year starter and earned America East Player of the Year in his junior and senior season. He led the Retrievers to back-to-back America East regular season titles in his junior and senior season. In his final season he helped the Retrievers go undefeated and earn a berth in the NCAA Tournament. He graduated with a degree in sociology.

NLL career
Mundorf was a first-round draft pick (11th overall) by the Titans in the 2007 NLL Entry Draft.
He was awarded Rookie of the Week Honors in Week 10 of the 2007 season. During the 2009 NLL season, he was named to the All-Star Game as an injury replacement. He was picked 3rd in the 2010 Orlando Titans dispersal draft by the Philadelphia Wings.

MLL career
Drafted by Denver 21st overall in the 2006 MLL Collegiate Draft.

Rookie Season: Played 9 games with the Outlaws as a rookie, ranking fourth on the club with 22 goals on 75 shots. Posted 7 assists to finish with 29 points. Named Cascade MLL Rookie of the Week for the 6 goals he scored vs. San Francisco.

2007: Appeared in 12 games with Denver, finishing with 36 goals and 11 assists for 47 points...His 36 goals led the team and tied for second in the league, while his point total led the team and tied for sixth in the league...Turned in an 8-point performance (5 goals, 3 assists.) vs. LA. Earned MVP honors in the Independence Day game with 5 goals and 1 assist vs. the Chicago Machine.

2008: Played 12 games and paced the Outlaws with 30 goals on 83 shots (52 on goal)...Added 14 assists to finished second on the team and seventh in the league with 44 points...Participated in his second MLL All-Star Game.

2009: Appeared in 12 games with Denver and led the team with 34 goals on 75 shots (49 on goal) with 10 assists...Ranked second on the team and tied fourth for league with 44 points. Added 15 groundballs. Named Bud Light MVP Honoree of the week four times...Earned MLL Offensive Player of the Week honors on May 26...Named to his third MLL All Star Game.

2010: Played 11 games with the Outlaws and tied for the team lead with 22 goals on a team-high 83 shots (38 on goal). Added 16 assists to finish with a team-best 38 points. Scored 4 power-play goals, netted 2 game-winning goals and picked up 15 groundballs. Earned MLL Offensive Player of the Week honors after scoring 4 goals and adding 1 assist vs. Chicago.

2011:  Played in 11 games with the Outlaws. Led the team with 45 points, 30 goals, and 15 assists. Recovered 23 groundballs. Played in 1 playoff game, scoring 1 goal and 1 assist for a total of 2 points as well as 1 groundball. Played in his fourth MLL All-Star game, representing Team Warrior. Contributed 1 goal, 3 assists, and 2 groundballs.

2012: Played in 12 games for the Denver Outlaws. Led the team with 32 goals, 27 assists, and 59 total points. Finished second in the MLL in goals and fourth is assists. Helped Outlaws increase attendance once again. Named as the 2012 MLL Season Most Valuable Player.

2013:  Acquired by the Bayhawks in a trade with the Denver Outlaws according to head coach Dave Cottle."We have been trying to get Brendan for the last four years and are excited to finally be able to keep him here locally," Cottle stated. "He plays with great competitive toughness and we are reuniting him with his college teammate Drew Westervelt." Appeared in just 8 games for the Bayhawks as he was hampered by an ailing knee injury. Tied for fourth on the team in points with 27, including 20 goals and seven assists.

Mundorf retired from professional lacrosse in 2017.

International career
Mundorf played for Team Australia in the 2006 World Lacrosse Championships, but in the 2010 and 2014 Championships he represented Team USA.

Statistics

NLL

MLL

UMBC

Accomplishments
 America East Player of the Year 2005 & 2006
 Most Outstanding Player in America East Tournament 2006
 Two-time Division I All American at UMBC
 21st overall pick in 2006 MLL draft
 11th overall pick in 2007 NLL Entry Draft
 10 game-winning goals in MLL
 2012 MLL MVP
 Denver Outlaws Career Leader in Points
 Played in 2006, 2010, 2014 World Lacrosse Championships (Earned Gold medal in 2010 WLC)
Has held endorsements with the following reputable companies: Battle Sports Science, Go Pro Workouts, Rockin Refuel and STX

References

1984 births
Living people
American lacrosse players
American people of Australian descent
Australian lacrosse players
Major League Lacrosse players
National Lacrosse League All-Stars
New York Titans (lacrosse) players
Orlando Titans players
Lacrosse players from Baltimore
UMBC Retrievers men's lacrosse players

Brendan Mundorf


Palma de Mallorca is the capital of the Balearic Islands and the Mallorca island, in the Mediterranean Sea, in front of the Iberian Peninsula. The city, with a population of 410,000, is the ninth-largest of Spain. It is a very important tourist center in the world, and is famous for its historic architecture. It has one university, a subway, and the international airport lies just southwest of the city.

Capital cities in Spain

Palma de Mallorca


James Alfred Taylor (September 25, 1878 – June 9, 1956) was an American politician, a member of the Democratic Party from West Virginia.

Taylor was born near Ironton, (Lawrence County, Ohio), where he attended the public schools. After graduating, he worked in a printing office in Ironton, before he moved to Alderson, West Virginia, where he also engaged in the newspaper business.

In 1905 he moved from Greenbrier County to Fayette County. Taylor served as a non-commissioned officer in the West Virginia National Guard from 1908 to 1911.

His political career began in 1916, when he was elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates. Taylor served in this body until 1918 and later again twice (1920–22 and 1930–32). He eventually rose to Speaker during his last term.

in 1922 he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from West Virginia's 6th District (now defunct). He served two terms (re-elected in 1924) from March 4, 1923 to March 3, 1927. He was defeated in his bid for a third term by Republican candidate Edward T. England.

Taylor resumed the newspaper publishing business and was the unsuccessful Democratic nominee for governor in 1928. During his later career he served on the West Virginia Liquor Commission (1941–45) and was elected to the Fayette County Board of Education in 1946 for a six-year term.

He died in Montgomery, West Virginia and was interred in Huse Memorial Park in Fayetteville.

External links
 Congressional biography

1878 births
1956 deaths
American newspaper publishers (people)
American Presbyterians
Democratic Party members of the West Virginia House of Delegates
People from Alderson, West Virginia
People from Fayette County, West Virginia
People from Lawrence County, Ohio
School board members in West Virginia
Speakers of the West Virginia House of Delegates
West Virginia National Guard personnel
Military personnel from West Virginia
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from West Virginia
Journalists from Ohio

J. Alfred Taylor


The conservation-restoration of the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel was one of the most significant conservation-restorations of the 20th century.

The Sistine Chapel was built by Pope Sixtus IV within the Vatican immediately to the north of St. Peter's Basilica and completed in about 1481. Its walls were decorated by a number of Renaissance painters who were among the most highly regarded artists of late 15th century Italy, including Ghirlandaio, Perugino, and Botticelli. The Chapel was further enhanced under Pope Julius II by the painting of the ceiling by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512 and by the painting of the Last Judgment, commissioned by Pope Clement VII and completed in 1541, again by Michelangelo. The tapestries on the lowest tier, today best known from the Raphael Cartoons (painted designs) of 1515–16, completed the ensemble.

Together the paintings make up the greatest pictorial scheme of the Renaissance. Individually, some of Michelangelo's paintings on the ceiling are among the most notable works of Western art ever created. The frescoes of the Sistine Chapel and in particular the ceiling and accompanying lunettes by Michelangelo have been subject to a number of restorations, the most recent taking place between 1980 and 1994. This most recent restoration had a profound effect on art lovers and historians, as colours and details that had not been seen for centuries were revealed. It has been claimed that as a result "Every book on Michelangelo will have to be rewritten". Others, such as the art historian James Beck of ArtWatch International, have been extremely critical of the restoration, saying that the restorers have not realised the true intentions of the artist. This is the subject of continuing debate.

Previous restorations
The frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel had a number of interventions prior to the restoration process which was started in 1980. Initial problems with the ceiling appear to have been caused by water penetrating through the floor above. In about 1547 Paolo Giovio wrote that the ceiling was being damaged by saltpetre and cracks. The effect of saltpetre is to leave a white efflorescence.  Gianluigi Colalucci, Head Restorer at the Laboratory for the Restoration of Paintings for Papal Monuments, Museums and Galleries, states in his essay Michelangelo's colours rediscovered, that the early conservators treated this cosmetically by an application of linseed or walnut oil which had the effect of making the crystalline deposit more transparent.

In 1625, a restoration was carried out by Simone Lagi, the "resident gilder",  who wiped the ceiling with linen cloths and cleaned it by rubbing it with bread. He occasionally resorted to wetting the bread to remove the more stubborn accretions. His report states that the frescoes "were returned to their previous beauty without receiving any harm". Colalucci states that Lagi "almost certainly" applied layers of  glue-varnish to revive the colours but does not state this in his report in the interests of "preserving the secrets of their [the restorers'] craft".

Between 1710 and 1713 a further restoration was carried out by the painter Annibale Mazzuoli and his son. They used sponges dipped in Greek wine which Colalucci suggests was necessitated by the accretion of grime caused by soot and dirt trapped in the oily deposits of the previous restoration. Mazzuoli then worked over the ceiling, according to Colalucci, strengthening the contrasts by overpainting details. They also repainted some areas the colours of which were lost because of the efflorescence of salts. Areas of repainting were hatched or treated with a linear brushstroke. Colalucci states that Mazzuoli also applied a great deal of glue varnish. The restoration concentrated on the ceiling and less attention was paid to the lunettes.

The penultimate restoration was undertaken by the Restoration Laboratory of the Vatican Museum between 1935 and 1938. The scope of the work was to consolidate some areas of the intonaco at the eastern end of the building and partially remove the soot and dirt.

Modern restoration

The preliminary experimentation for the modern restoration began in 1979. The restoration team comprised Gianluigi Colalucci, Maurizio Rossi, Piergiorgio Bonetti, and others, who took as their guidelines the Rules for restoration of works of art as established in 1978 by Carlo Pietrangeli, director of the Vatican's Laboratory for the Restoration of Pictures, which govern the procedure and methods employed in restoration. An important part of modern restoration procedure, as established by these rules, is the study and analysis of the artwork. Part of this was the recording of every stage of the restoration process. This was done by the photographer Takashi Okamura for Nippon Television Network Corporation.

Between June 1980 and October 1984 the first stage of restoration, the work upon Michelangelo's lunettes, was achieved. The focus of the work then transferred to the ceiling, which was completed in December 1989 and from there to the Last Judgment. The restoration was unveiled by Pope John Paul II on 8 April 1994.  The final stage was the restoration of the wall frescoes, approved in 1994 and unveiled on 11 December 1999.

Aims of the conservators
The aims of the conservators were as follows:
 To study the frescoes progressively, to analyse any discoveries and utilise the appropriate technical responses.
 To record every step of the operation in archival reports, photographs and film.
 To use only those procedures and materials which were simple, extensively tested, not harmful, and reversible.
 To repair cracks and structural damage that threatened the stability of the plaster.
 To remove layers of grime consisting of candle wax and soot that had been deposited by the burning of candles in the chapel for 500 years.
 To remove repainting by previous restorers that attempted to counteract the effects of soot and other accretions.
 To remove oil and animal fat used to counteract salination of areas where water had leaked through.
 To remove crystalline accretions of salt that had whitened areas where water had leaked through.
 To conserve surfaces that were in danger of further deterioration because of bubbling, and flaking.
 To restore sympathetically those areas where deterioration of one sort or another had obliterated details and caused loss of integrity to the whole, for example, filling a bad crack and painting the plaster in a colour matching the original.
 To maintain in small defined areas a physical historical record of the previous restorations that had taken place.

Preparation and approach

In 1979 Colalucci undertook a series of experiments to discover the right approach for the restoration of the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. The investigation began by testing small areas of the wall fresco, Conflict over the Body of Moses by Matteo de Lecce, which had similar physical and chemical attributes to the painting techniques employed on Michelangelo's frescoes. Trials to find the right solvents were continued on a small portion of the Eleazar and Matthan lunette.

Because of the height of the ceiling and the inaccessibility of the ceiling frescoes, the precise nature of the damage and the problems that would be encountered by the restoration team could not be entirely foreseen until after the decision to restore was taken, and the scaffolding was in place. According to Colalucci, the continued scientific analysis and the response of the restorers to the particular problems was an ongoing part of the process, rather than the conservation team deciding on a single treatment for every part of the building.

In 1980, the decision to undertake a total restoration was taken. Nippon Television Network Corporation of Japan provided major funding of US$4.2 million in exchange for the exclusive reproduction rights.

Scaffold
The team of restorers completed the first stage of the restoration, on the vertical surfaces and curved spandrels around the upper sections of the windows, from aluminium scaffolding projecting from just below the lunettes and using the same holes in the wall that had been made for Michelangelo's scaffold. When they moved to the ceiling, they likewise employed a system similar to Michelangelo's, which involved cantilevering a shelf outwards from the scaffolding to support a stepped and arched platform. The advantages of modern lightweight materials meant that the platform could be wheeled, facilitating easy movement along the length of the building rather than dismantling and replacement, as Michelangelo had done in 1506.

State of the frescoes
The findings of the investigation of 1979 were that the entire interior of the chapel, but particularly the ceiling, was covered with a grime of candle smoke comprising wax and soot (amorphous carbon). Above the windows (the main source of ventilation), the lunettes were particularly stained from the smoke and exhaust fumes of the city, being "much dirtier than the ceiling proper".
The building was a little unstable and had already shifted considerably prior to Michelangelo's work of 1508, causing cracking of the ceiling, the crack in the "Judith" pendentive being so large that it had to be filled with bricks and mortar before painting. The upper part of the ceiling provided Michelangelo an irregular surface due to cracks and water seepage.

Continued ingress of water from the roof and from unroofed exterior walkways above the ceiling level had caused seepage which carried down salts from the building mortar and deposited them on the ceiling through evaporation. In places, this caused the surface of the frescoes to bubble and lift. Although discolouration was a serious problem, bubbling was not, because the thinness and transparency of the paint which Michelangelo employed on the greater part of the ceiling permitted the salts to pass through rather than accumulating beneath the surface.

Earlier restorations had all left their marks on the frescoes. To counteract the whitening caused by salination, animal fat and vegetable oil had been applied, which effectively made the salt crystals transparent, but left a sticky layer that accumulated dirt. An additional problem, most obvious in the small putti which hold the nameplates on the pendentives, was saltpetre seeping through small cracks and appearing as dark rings on the surface. Unlike the white crystalline salt deposits, this could not be removed and the staining was irreversible. Layers of varnish and glue had been applied to many areas. This had darkened and become opaque. Restorers had repainted details over the darkened areas in order to define the features of figures. This was particularly the case for the lunettes, spandrels and lower parts of the pendentives.

Close examination revealed that apart from smoky deposits, seepage deposits and structural cracks, the thin "pictorial skin" of Michelangelo's frescoes was in excellent condition. Colalucci describes Michelangelo as having employed the best possible fresco techniques, as described by Vasari. Most of the paint was well adhered and required little retouching. The plaster, or intonaco, on which the paintings were executed was found, for the most part, to be secure, as previous restorers had fixed it in places with bronze pins.

Interventions
Prior to the restoration, the team spent six months investigating the composition and condition of the frescoes, questioning members of the team that had restored the frescoes in the 1930s and making a detailed scientific study to ascertain which solvents and methods were best employed upon particular painted surfaces.

The first stage of the physical restoration was to re-attach any areas of the plaster surface (which was approximately 5 mm thick) that were in danger of separating and breaking away. This was done by injecting a polyvinylacetate resin. Earlier bronze braces that had been used to stabilise surfaces were removed in those places where they were causing cracking, and the holes filled. Pigments that appeared to be not well adhered were consolidated with the application of diluted acrylic resin.

The restorers washed the surfaces using a variety of solvents. Distilled water was used wherever possible to remove soot and dissolve water-soluble gums. Retouching and repainting that had been part of previous later restorations were removed with a gelatinous solvent, applied in several stages for measured times, and washed with distilled water. Salt efflorescences of calcium carbonate were treated by the application of a solution of dimethylformamide. The final step was the application of a weak solution of acrylic polymer to consolidate and protect the surface, and further washing.

Where necessary some areas were retouched in watercolour, to integrate the pictorial material. These areas are distinctively textured with vertical brushstrokes, not visible from a distance but easily discernible as restoration work when viewed close up.

Certain small areas were left unrestored, in order to maintain a physical record of the previous restorations that had taken place, for example, an area left with overpainting and candle wax, and another area demonstrating the attempt to counteract salination with oil.

Environmental protection of the frescoes
Once the many layers of candle wax, varnish, and animal glue were removed from the surface of the Sistine Chapel frescoes, they became subject to dangers that could not have been predicted by previous restorers.

One of the major dangers to the frescoes is automotive exhaust, and they are also vulnerable to the effects of the crowds of tourists that pass through the chapel every day, bringing with them heat, humidity, dust and bacteria (the latter of which can biodegrade paints and pigments). The clean plaster surfaces are more in danger from these destructive elements than they were when they were covered with a layer of smoky wax.

Previously, the Sistine Chapel's only ventilation was from its windows in the upper level of the walls. To prevent exhaust fumes and wind-blown pollutants from entering, the windows are now permanently closed and an air conditioning system has been installed. The installation is by Carrier of the United Technologies Corporation and was developed with the cooperation of the Vatican's Office of Technical Services. It has been designed to counteract the various problems specific to the Chapel, in particular the rapid changes of heat and humidity that occur with the admission of the first crowds of tourists each morning and the departure of the last visitors each afternoon. The air conditioning varies not only the heat but also the relative humidity between the summer and winter months so that changes to the atmospheric environment occur gradually. The air near the ceiling is kept at a temperate level, while the air in the lower section of the building is cooler and circulates more rapidly, with the effect that dirt particles fall towards the floor rather than being streamed upwards. Bacteria and chemical pollutants are filtered out.

Environmental specifications:
 Air filtration units: remove particles down to 0.1 micrometre
 Air temperature:  in summer, moving gradually to  in winter.
 Relative humidity at ceiling: 55% ±5%.
 Sensors: 92, of which about half are for back-up purposes.
 Wiring: 26 km (85,000 ft)

Response to the restoration

Criticism and praise
When the restoration of the Sistine Chapel was announced, it sparked a barrage of queries and objections from art historians around the world. One of the most vocal of these critics was James Beck, of ArtWatch International, who issued repeated warnings about the possibility of damage to Michelangelo's work from over-strenuous restoration. An argument that was used repeatedly was that all the previous interventions had caused damage of one sort or another. Any restoration, as opposed to conservation, puts an artwork at risk. Conservation, on the other hand, aids in the preservation of the work in its present state and in the prevention of further deterioration. Beck has written about his concerns in Art Restoration, the Culture, the Business and the Scandal.

While James Beck became "embroiled in a public debate" with Gianluigi Colalucci, Ronald Feldman, a New York art dealer, started a petition supported by 15 well-known artists including Robert Motherwell, George Segal, Robert Rauschenberg, Christo and Andy Warhol asking Pope John Paul II to call a halt to the procedure and also the restoration of Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper.

An undertaking of the restoration team was that everything would be handled in a transparent fashion, that reporters, art historians and others with a bona fide interest should have ready access to information and to view the work. However, a single company, Nippon Television Network Corporation, had sole photography rights. Michael Kimmelman, chief art critic of The New York Times, wrote, in 1991, that the criticism of the restoration of the ceiling and lunettes was in part fuelled by the Nippon Television Network's reluctance to make public those photographs that they had taken by exclusive right, which had recorded every stage of the process and which were the only solid evidence that the work was being done appropriately.

According to Kimmelman, the reason for their reluctance to produce the detailed photos, which could have put to rest the worst fears of many of the interested parties, was the intention of the company to produce a large limited-edition two-volume coffee-table book ("as large as a coffee table"). This book, when produced retailed for US$1,000. Kimmelman refers to the fact that these photos were only made available to the few who could afford the exorbitant price as "ungenerous" and "immoral".

As the work was progressively completed, there were those who were delighted; Pope John Paul II spoke an inaugural homily after each stage. In December 1999, after the completion of the wall frescoes, he said:

Cardinal Edmund Szoka, governor of Vatican City, said: "This restoration and the expertise of the restorers allows us to contemplate the paintings as if we had been given the chance of being present when they were first shown."

Other writers were less flattering. Andrew Wordsworth of The Independent, London, expressed the major point of concern:

This crucial matter was also emphasised by Beck and defined in very clearly expressed terms on the website of the artist, Peter Layne Arguimbau.

Issues raised by critics
That part of the restoration in the Sistine Chapel which has caused the most concern is the ceiling, painted by Michelangelo. The emergence of the brightly coloured Ancestors of Christ from the gloom sparked a reaction of fear that the processes being employed in the cleaning were too severe. Despite warnings, the work on the ceiling proceeded and, according to critics such as James Beck, their worst fears were confirmed once the ceiling was completed.

The cause for dissent lies in the analysis and understanding of the techniques utilised by Michelangelo, and the technical response of the restorers to their understanding of those techniques. A close examination of the frescoes of the lunettes convinced the restorers that Michelangelo worked exclusively in "buon fresco"; that is, the artist worked only on freshly laid plaster and each section of work was completed while the plaster was still in its fresh state. In other words, they believed Michelangelo did not work "a secco"; he did not come back later and add details onto the dry plaster.

The restorers, by assuming that the artist took a universal approach to the painting, took a universal approach to the restoration. A decision was made that all of the shadowy layer of animal glue and "lamp black", all of the wax, and all of the overpainted areas were contamination of one sort or another: smoke deposits, earlier restoration attempts and painted definition by later restorers in attempt to enliven the appearance of the work. Based on this decision, according to Arguimbau's critical reading of the restoration data that has been provided, the chemists of the restoration team decided upon a solvent that would effectively strip the ceiling down to its paint-impregnated plaster. After treatment, only that which was painted "buon fresco" would remain.

According to critics, the inherent problem with this approach is that it relied heavily upon an assumption that Michelangelo only painted buon fresco, that he was always satisfied with the result at the end of the day, and that in four and a half years spent on the ceiling, he stuck exclusively to one approach, and never made small alterations or added details. Arguimbau, on his website, quotes Colalucci, the head of the team, as contradicting himself on this matter.

A summary of the relevant statements of Colalucci, in the order that they occur in the Appendix entitled Michelangelo's colours uncovered is as follows:

The ongoing criticism has been that the restorers presumed to know what end result the master was seeking to achieve in every separate case across the ceiling, and by what method he sought to achieve it. The disagreements about this have been vociferous and are unresolved.

Carbon black problem
The restorers took for granted that all of the layers of grease and soot on the ceiling were the result of candle smoke. Contrary to this view, James Beck and numerous artists have suggested that Michelangelo used carbon black in a wash of glue to lay on shadows and crisp dark definition, a secco. If this is the case, then the greater part was removed in the restoration.

On some of the figures, however, there still remains clear evidence of painting in carbon black. The apparent explanation for this is that over the long period that Michelangelo was at work, he probably, for a variety of reasons, varied his technique. Things that might affect the degree of finish achieved on a particular giornata include the heat and humidity of the day and the length of daylight hours. Whatever the reason for the difference is, a difference in approach to the light and shade on the individual figures is clearly apparent.

There are still intense areas of shadow which throw the Cumaean Sibyl into relief. But it is more than relief; it is the three-dimensionality which art-lovers expect to see in the work of the man who sculpted Moses. Critics of the restoration claim that this was Michelangelo's aim and that many frescoes had brightly contrasting colours laid side-by-side that were then worked over a secco to achieve this effect and that this is what has been lost by a too-scrupulous cleaning.

Consistently missing from the restored ceiling is the crisp a secco detailing of the architecture: the scallop shells, acorns and "bead and reel" ornament which Michelangelo possibly would have left for completion by an assistant, when he moved on to the next panel. The treatment of these details varied considerably. In a few places, around the Ezekias spandrel, for example, the architectural detailing was painted buon fresco and remains intact.

A comparison of two spandrels reveals different post-restoration states. The one on the left has shadows and details defined in black. The green robe with yellow highlights has been washed with black and defined with deep shadow. On the trompe-l'œil architecture, each motif is picked out in black. The eyes of the child are detailed in black and white. The continued presence of these details suggests that they were completed while the plaster was damp. The entire right spandrel has an unfinished look. Before cleaning it also had black defining the shadows of the robes and crisp detailing on the architecture.

On the corner pendentives, each of which depicts a violent subject, the removal of the carbon black has diminished the dramatic intensity of all four scenes. This is particularly noticeable in the loss of depth in the Punishment of Haman. Where once the figure projected starkly against the darkly shadowed interior, now foreshortening, definition and drama is lost in the pastel monotone that remains.

Colour
The curator, Fabrizio Mancinelli, quotes the 18th-century French traveller De Lalande in saying that the colouring of the ceiling was, by that time, monotonous, "tend[ing] towards dull red and grey". Mancinelli writes that the restoration reveals "a new Michelangelo" as a colourist and that this "new character makes much better sense of his historical position". He goes on to say that perceptive viewers of the Sistine Chapel ceiling have always been aware that the range of colours used was very different from that which could be seen, and included the same pinks, apple greens, oranges, yellows and pale blues that were employed by Michelangelo's teacher, Domenico Ghirlandaio, one of the most competent fresco painters of the Renaissance.

The brilliant palette ought to have been expected by the restorers as the same range of colours appears in the works of Giotto, Masaccio and Masolino, Fra Angelico and Piero della Francesca, as well as Ghirlandaio himself and later fresco painters such as Annibale Carracci and Tiepolo. The reason for employing this range of colours is that many other pigments are not usable in fresco as they have chemical properties that react badly in interaction with wet plaster.  The colour that is noticeably missing from Michelangelo's ceiling, but not The Last Judgment, is the intense blue of lapis lazuli. This colour, achieved by grinding semi-precious stone, was always applied as a secondary, a secco stage, along with the gold leaf applied as haloes and decoration to robes.

The aspect of the colouring which was most unexpected was Michelangelo's treatment of shadows. The painting of the Libyan Sibyl and the Prophet Daniel, which are side-by-side, are exemplary. On the yellow dress of the Sibyl, Michelangelo has bright yellow highlights, passing through carefully graded tones of deeper yellow to pale orange, darker orange and almost to red in the shadows. While red shadows are of themselves unusual in a fresco, the gradation through adjacent parts of the spectrum is a natural enough solution. On Daniel's robes, there is no such gentle gradation. The yellow lining of his cloak becomes a sudden dense green in the shadows, while the mauve has shadows that are intensely red. These colour combinations, which are best described as iridescent, can be found at various places on the ceiling, including the hose of the young man in the Mathan lunette which is pale green and reddish purple.

In some instances, the colour combinations look garish: this is particularly the case with the Prophet Daniel. A comparison of the "restored" and "unrestored" figure gives strong evidence that Michelangelo worked over this figure in a wash of carbon black, and that the technique was preplanned. The bright red used on the robes of Daniel and the Libyan Sibyl does not, on its own, create effective shadows. In these and many other cases it appears to have been intended as underpainting, to be seen only through a thin black wash and with the deepest shadows picked out in more intense black, as they still are on the Cumaean Sibyl. This use of bright, contrasting colours as underpainting is not a common feature of frescoes, but it is commonly employed in both oil painting and tempera. Like Daniel, the Libyan Sibyl's yellow garment once had much more subtlety in its folds and shadows than it has now.

There is absolutely no doubt that before the restoration, the whole ceiling was dirtier, more muted and more monochrome than Michelangelo ever intended, but when images of the frescoes are viewed in their stained and unrestored state the subtle washes and intense definitions, described by Beck and Arguimbau, still make their presence known, giving mass and bulk to the forms.

The painter and biographer Giorgio Vasari, in his Lives of the Artists, describes the figure of Jonah as it appeared in the mid-16th century:

The large figure of Jonah is of great significance to the total composition, both pictorially and theologically, being symbolic of the Risen Christ. The figure occupies the pendentive which rises from the altar wall to support the vault, and strains backward, his eyes turned towards God. The foreshortening described by Vasari was innovative and highly influential to later painters. The cleaning of this significant figure has left a few remnants of black shadow visible to the extreme left side of the painting. All the other, less intense, black lines and washes have been removed, lessening the impact of the radical foreshortening, and also robbing the great fish, the genii behind Jonah, and the architectural figures of much detail.

Eyes

The missing depth is not the only factor that the critics deplore. An important feature of Michelangelo's work which, in many places, has disappeared forever is the painting of the eyeballs. Eyes appear in many instances to have been painted buon fresco. Wherever they have not been painted buon fresco but added a secco, they have been removed by the restorers.

They are an essential part of the most impressive and famous of the frescoes, the Creation of Adam. Adam gazes at God. God looks directly at Adam. And under God's protective arm, Eve turns her eyes sideways in a look of admiration for her husband-to-be. Again and again, Michelangelo painted telling gazes into the faces of his characters. The eye sockets of the family in the Zorobabel lunette are empty as are the eyes of the man in the Aminadab lunette, but the removal that has caused the most distress to the critics are the eyes of the little figure in green and white who once looked out of the gloom above the lunette of Jesse.

Arguimbau says:

Richard Serrin, in an essay entitled Lies and Misdemeanors: Gianluigi Colalucci's Sistine Chapel Revisited says:

Restoring the light
Carlo Pietrangeli, former Director General of the Vatican Museums, writes of the restoration: "It is like opening a window in a dark room and seeing it flooded with light." His words resonate with those of Giorgio Vasari who, in the 16th century, said of the Sistine Chapel ceiling:

Pietrangeli, in his foreword to The Sistine Chapel, written after the restoration of the lunettes, but prior to the restoration of the ceiling, commends those who had the courage to commence the restoration process, and thanks not only those who visited the restoration while it was in progress and gave the benefit of their knowledge and experience, but also those who were critical of the enterprise. Pietrangeli made acknowledgement that these people spurred the team on to punctilious documentation so that a full report of criteria and methods should be available to those who are interested, both in the present and the future.

See also

 Index of Vatican City-related articles
 List of works by Michelangelo

Footnotes

References

R
Art history
Collections care
Sistine Chapel
Cultural heritage conservation
Museology

Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes


Brookwood Farm is a historic farm on Blue Hill River Road in Canton, Massachusetts. Some of its fields, but none of the buildings, are in Milton. It is owned by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and managed by the Department of Conservation and Recreation.

Property
Its oldest building, the Old Barn was built in 1690.  The Cape Cod style house located on the street was built in 1800.  The larger house, set about 1,500 feet (500m) back from the street, converted from a hunting lodge in 1954, has been considered for a Governor's Mansion. There are also several outbuildings. All of the buildings, except the Old Barn, are suffering from a lack of funding for their upkeep.

The farm comprises about 70 acres (30ha), about half in woods and the balance in fields.  There are three ponds.  It is bounded on the south by Route 128 / I-93, on the east by residences, on the west by property owned by Meditech and on the north by Blue Hill River Road (which is called Hillside Street in Milton).  Across Blue Hill River Road is Great Blue Hill.

History
Its historical owner was General Samuel Parker, best known for his role in suppressing the 1919 Boston Police strike.
The farm's most recent private owner was Henry Saltonstall Howe, an insurance executive, who bought it in 1951, built the house, and lived there as a bachelor gentleman farmer until his death in 1994. He had donated the property to the state with a life estate in 1976, so on his death it passed to the management of the Metropolitan District Commission which later became the Department of Conservation and Recreation.
In 2006, the DCR granted a permit to Brookwood Community Farm, Inc., a non-profit, to organically farm  for food and flowers. That has continued through 2010.

The farm was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 25, 1980. The barn was added separately at the same time.

Gallery

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Milton, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places listings in Norfolk County, Massachusetts

References

Farms on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
Buildings and structures in Canton, Massachusetts
Canton, Massachusetts
Milton, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Norfolk County, Massachusetts

Brookwood Farm


Ernest Peter Maresca (August 21, 1938 – July 8, 2015) was an American singer, songwriter and record company executive, best known for writing or co-writing some of Dion's biggest hits, including "Runaround Sue" and "The Wanderer".

Biography
Maresca was born in the Bronx, New York.  He began singing and writing in a doo-wop group, the Monterays, later renamed as the Desires, and, after Maresca left, as the Regents, who had a hit with "Barbara Ann".   In 1957, his demo of his song "No One Knows" came to the attention of Dion DiMucci, who recorded it successfully with the Belmonts on Laurie Records, the record reaching No. 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 record chart in 1958.   Maresca then began songwriting full-time, and recording his own demos.  He wrote  "Runaround Sue" with Dion (the singer's only US number one hit), and then other big hits with and for him.  These included "The Wanderer", originally a B-side which became a US million seller and a UK hit twice over, in 1962 and 1976 on reissue; the song was also a hit for Leif Garrett, Status Quo (in the UK), and Eddie Rabbitt for whom it was a number one country hit in 1988.   Maresca also co-wrote Dion's follow-up hits, "Lovers Who Wander"; and "Donna the Prima Donna".

In 1961, Maresca was offered a recording contract with Seville, a small New York label. His protestations that he was not much of a singer were brushed aside, and he wrote a hit for himself, "Shout! Shout! (Knock Yourself Out)", which reached number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in early 1962.   The song was recorded in 1982 by Rocky Sharpe and the Replays, whose version made number 19 on the UK singles chart.  Maresca continued to record, with less success, for the remainder of the 1960s, both under his own name and using the pseudonym Artie Chicago (From The Bronx), including his own version of "The Wanderer" in 1968.

He had greater success as a writer, with hits including "Runaround" by the Regents, "Whenever a Teenager Cries" by Reparata and the Delrons, "Hey Dean, Hey Jean" by Dean & Jean, and "Party Girl" by Bernadette Carroll. He also wrote, along with Jimmy Curtiss, the Jimmie Rodgers 1967 comeback (and last) hit, "Child of Clay".   By the 1970s he was head of Laurie Records' publicity department, and continued as a record company executive.  In 1992 he was responsible for selling the Laurie catalogue to Capitol Records on behalf of Laurie's founders Gene and Bob Schwartz, and Eliot Greenberg.  He continued to work until the 2000s, as a consultant to EMI and administrator of Laurie's publishing.

Ernie Maresca died on July 8, 2015, at his home in South Florida, after a brief illness at the age of 76.

Discography

Singles

As composer
 Dion: "Runaround Sue", "The Wanderer", "Lovers Who Wander"; and "Donna the Prima Donna"
 Dion and the Belmonts: "No One Knows"
 The Belmonts: "Come On Little Angel"
 The Regents: "Runaround"
 Dean & Jean: "Seven Day Wonder", "Hey Dean, Hey Jean"
 Bernadette Carroll: "Party Girl"
 Jimmie Rodgers: "Child of Clay"

References

External links
Ace Records
Discogs.com

1938 births
2015 deaths
American music industry executives
American male singer-songwriters
American people of Italian descent
Musicians from the Bronx
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)

Ernie Maresca