Dietary fiber (in Commonwealth English fibre) or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical composition, and can be grouped generally by their solubility, viscosity, and fermentability, which affect how fibers are processed in the body. Dietary fiber has two main components: soluble fiber and insoluble fiber, which are components of plant-based foods, such as legumes, whole grains and cereals, vegetables, fruits, and nuts or seeds. A diet high in regular fiber consumption is generally associated with supporting health and lowering the risk of several diseases. Dietary fiber consists of non-starch polysaccharides and other plant components such as cellulose, resistant starch, resistant dextrins, inulin, lignins, chitins (in fungi), pectins, beta-glucans, and oligosaccharides.

Food sources of dietary fiber have traditionally been divided according to whether they provide soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying amounts, according to the fiber characteristics of viscosity and fermentability. Advantages of consuming fiber depend upon which type of fiber is consumed and which benefits may result in the gastrointestinal system. Bulking fibers – such as cellulose and hemicellulose (including psyllium) – absorb and hold water, promoting bowel movement regularity. Viscous fibers – such as beta-glucan and psyllium – thicken the fecal mass. Fermentable fibers – such as resistant starch, xanthan gum, and inulin – feed the bacteria and microbiota of the large intestine, and are metabolized to yield short-chain fatty acids, which have diverse roles in gastrointestinal health.

Soluble fiber (fermentable fiber or prebiotic fiber) – which dissolves in water – is generally fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active by-products, such as short-chain fatty acids produced in the colon by gut bacteria. Examples are beta-glucans (in oats, barley, and mushrooms) and raw guar gum. Psyllium  a soluble, viscous, nonfermented fiber  is a bulking fiber that retains water as it moves through the digestive system, easing defecation. Soluble fiber is generally viscous and delays gastric emptying which, in humans, can result in an extended feeling of fullness. Inulin (in chicory root), wheat dextrin, oligosaccharides, and resistant starches (in legumes and bananas), are soluble non-viscous fibers. Regular intake of soluble fibers, such as beta-glucans from oats or barley, has been established to lower blood levels of LDL cholesterol, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Soluble fiber supplements also significantly lower LDL cholesterol.

Insoluble fiber – which does not dissolve in water – is inert to digestive enzymes in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Examples are wheat bran, cellulose, and lignin. Coarsely ground insoluble fiber triggers the secretion of mucus in the large intestine, providing bulking. Finely ground insoluble fiber does not have this effect and can actually have a constipating effect. Some forms of insoluble fiber, such as resistant starches, can be fermented in the colon.

Definition
Dietary fiber is defined to be plant components that are not broken down by human digestive enzymes. In the late 20th century, only lignin and some polysaccharides were known to satisfy this definition, but in the early 21st century, resistant starch and oligosaccharides were included as dietary fiber components. The most accepted definition of dietary fiber is "all polysaccharides and lignin, which are not digested by the endogenous secretion of the human digestive tract". Currently, most animal nutritionists are using either a physiological definition, "the dietary components resistant to degradation by mammalian enzymes", or a chemical definition, "the sum of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) and lignin".

Types and sources

Contents in food

Dietary fiber is found in fruits, vegetables and whole grains. The amounts of fiber contained in common foods are listed in the following table:

Dietary fiber is found in plants, typically eaten whole, raw or cooked, although fiber can be added to make dietary supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. Grain bran products have the highest fiber contents, such as crude corn bran (79 g per 100 g) and crude wheat bran (43 g per 100 g), which are ingredients for manufactured foods. Medical authorities, such as the Mayo Clinic, recommend adding fiber-rich products to the Standard American Diet (SAD) because it is rich in processed and artificially sweetened foods, with minimal intake of vegetables and legumes.

Plant sources
Some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example, plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp. The skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp. Grapes also contain a fair amount of fiber.

Soluble fiber
Found in varying quantities in all plant foods, including:
 legumes (peas, soybeans, lupins and other beans)
 oats, rye, chia, and barley
 some fruits (including figs, avocados, plums, prunes, berries, ripe bananas, and the skin of apples, quinces and pears)
 certain vegetables such as broccoli, carrots, and Jerusalem artichokes
 root tubers and root vegetables such as sweet potatoes and onions (skins of these are sources of insoluble fiber also)
 psyllium seed husks (a mucilage soluble fiber) and flax seeds
 nuts, with almonds being the highest in dietary fiber

Insoluble fiber
Sources include:

 whole grain foods
 wheat and corn bran
 legumes such as beans and peas
 nuts and seeds
 potato skins
 lignans
 vegetables such as green beans, cauliflower, zucchini (courgette), celery, and nopal
 some fruits including avocado, and unripe bananas
 the skins of some fruits, including kiwifruit, grapes and tomatoes

Supplements
These are a few example forms of fiber that have been sold as supplements or food additives. These may be marketed to consumers for nutritional purposes, treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders, and for such possible health benefits as lowering cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of colon cancer, and losing weight.

Soluble fiber
Soluble fiber supplements may be beneficial for alleviating symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, such as diarrhea or constipation and abdominal discomfort. Prebiotic soluble fiber products, like those containing inulin or oligosaccharides, may contribute to relief from inflammatory bowel disease, as in Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and Clostridium difficile, due in part to the short-chain fatty acids produced with subsequent anti-inflammatory actions upon the bowel. Fiber supplements may be effective in an overall dietary plan for managing irritable bowel syndrome by modification of food choices.

Insoluble fiber
One insoluble fiber, resistant starch from high-amylose corn, has been used as a supplement and may contribute to improving insulin sensitivity and glycemic management as well as promoting regularity and possibly relief of diarrhea. One preliminary finding indicates that resistant corn starch may reduce symptoms of ulcerative colitis.

Inulins

Chemically defined as oligosaccharides and occurring naturally in most plants, inulins have nutritional value as carbohydrates, or more specifically as fructans, a polymer of the natural plant sugar, fructose. Inulin is typically extracted by manufacturers from enriched plant sources such as chicory roots or Jerusalem artichokes for use in prepared foods. Subtly sweet, it can be used to replace sugar, fat, and flour, is often used to improve the flow and mixing qualities of powdered nutritional supplements, and has potential health value as a prebiotic fermentable fiber.

As a prebiotic fermentable fiber, inulin is metabolized by gut flora to yield short-chain fatty acids (see below), which increase absorption of calcium, magnesium, and iron.

The primary disadvantage of inulin is its fermentation within the intestinal tract, possibly causing flatulence and digestive distress at doses higher than 15 grams/day in most people. Individuals with digestive diseases have benefited from removing fructose and inulin from their diet. While clinical studies have shown changes in the microbiota at lower levels of inulin intake, higher intake amounts may be needed to achieve effects on body weight.

Vegetable gums
Vegetable gum fiber supplements are relatively new to the market. Often sold as a powder, vegetable gum fibers dissolve easily with no aftertaste. In preliminary clinical trials, they have proven effective for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Examples of vegetable gum fibers are guar gum and gum arabic.

Activity in the gut

Many molecules that are considered to be "dietary fiber" are so because humans lack the necessary enzymes to split the glycosidic bond and they reach the large intestine. Many foods contain varying types of dietary fibers, all of which contribute to health in different ways.

Dietary fibers make three primary contributions: bulking, viscosity and fermentation. Different fibers have different effects, suggesting that a variety of dietary fibers contribute to overall health. Some fibers contribute through one primary mechanism. For instance, cellulose and wheat bran provide excellent bulking effects, but are minimally fermented. Alternatively, many dietary fibers can contribute to health through more than one of these mechanisms. For instance, psyllium provides bulking as well as viscosity.

Bulking fibers can be soluble (e.g. psyllium) or insoluble (e.g. cellulose and hemicellulose). They absorb water and can significantly increase stool weight and regularity. Most bulking fibers are not fermented or are minimally fermented throughout the intestinal tract.

Viscous fibers thicken the contents of the intestinal tract and may attenuate the absorption of sugar, reduce sugar response after eating, and reduce lipid absorption (notably shown with cholesterol absorption). Their use in food formulations is often limited to low levels, due to their viscosity and thickening effects. Some viscous fibers may also be partially or fully fermented within the intestinal tract (guar gum, beta-glucan, glucomannan and pectins), but some viscous fibers are minimally or not fermented (modified cellulose such as methylcellulose and psyllium).

Fermentable fibers are consumed by the microbiota within the large intestines, mildly increasing fecal bulk and producing short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities. Resistant starch, inulin, fructooligosaccharide and galactooligosaccharide are dietary fibers which are fully fermented. These include insoluble as well as soluble fibers. This fermentation influences the expression of many genes within the large intestine, which affect digestive function and lipid and glucose metabolism, as well as the immune system, inflammation and more.

Fiber fermentation produces gas (majorly carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane) and short-chain fatty acids. Isolated or purified fermentable fibers are more rapidly fermented in the fore-gut and may result in undesirable gastrointestinal symptoms (bloating, indigestion and flatulence).

Dietary fibers can change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and can change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed through bulking and viscosity. Some types of soluble fibers bind to bile acids in the small intestine, making them less likely to re-enter the body; this in turn lowers cholesterol levels in the blood from the actions of cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation of cholesterol.

Insoluble fiber is associated with reduced risk of diabetes, but the mechanism by which this is achieved is unknown. One type of insoluble dietary fiber, resistant starch, may increase insulin sensitivity in healthy people, in type 2 diabetics, and in individuals with insulin resistance, possibly contributing to reduced risk of type 2 diabetes.

Not yet formally proposed as an essential macronutrient, dietary fiber has importance in the diet, with regulatory authorities in many developed countries recommending increases in fiber intake.

Physicochemical properties
Dietary fiber has distinct physicochemical properties. Most semi-solid foods, fiber and fat are a combination of gel matrices which are hydrated or collapsed with microstructural elements, globules, solutions or encapsulating walls. Fresh fruit and vegetables are cellular materials.
 The cells of cooked potatoes and legumes are gels filled with gelatinized starch granules. The cellular structures of fruits and vegetables are foams with a closed cell geometry filled with a gel, surrounded by cell walls which are composites with an amorphous matrix strengthened by complex carbohydrate fibers.
 Particle size and interfacial interactions with adjacent matrices affect the mechanical properties of food composites.
 Food polymers may be soluble in and/or plasticized by water.
 The variables include chemical structure, polymer concentration, molecular weight, degree of chain branching, the extent of ionization (for electrolytes), solution pH, ionic strength and temperature.
 Cross-linking of different polymers, protein and polysaccharides, either through chemical covalent bonds or cross-links through molecular entanglement or hydrogen or ionic bond cross-linking.
 Cooking and chewing food alters these physicochemical properties and hence absorption and movement through the stomach and along the intestine

Upper gastrointestinal tract

Following a meal, the stomach and upper gastrointestinal contents consist of
 food compounds
 complex lipids/micellar/aqueous/hydrocolloid and hydrophobic phases
 hydrophilic phases
 solid, liquid, colloidal and gas bubble phases.
Micelles are colloid-sized clusters of molecules which form in conditions as those above, similar to the critical micelle concentration of detergents.
In the upper gastrointestinal tract, these compounds consist of bile acids and di- and monoacyl glycerols which solubilize triacylglycerols and cholesterol.

Two mechanisms bring nutrients into contact with the epithelium:
 intestinal contractions create turbulence; and
 convection currents direct contents from the lumen to the epithelial surface.
The multiple physical phases in the intestinal tract slow the rate of absorption compared to that of the suspension solvent alone.
 Nutrients diffuse through the thin, relatively unstirred layer of fluid adjacent to the epithelium.
 Immobilizing of nutrients and other chemicals within complex polysaccharide molecules affects their release and subsequent absorption from the small intestine, an effect influential on the glycemic index.
 Molecules begin to interact as their concentration increases. During absorption, water must be absorbed at a rate commensurate with the absorption of solutes. The transport of actively and passively absorbed nutrients across epithelium is affected by the unstirred water layer covering the microvillus membrane.
 The presence of mucus or fiber, e.g., pectin or guar, in the unstirred layer may alter the viscosity and solute diffusion coefficient.

Adding viscous polysaccharides to carbohydrate meals can reduce post-prandial blood glucose concentrations. Wheat and maize but not oats modify glucose absorption, the rate being dependent upon the particle size. The reduction in absorption rate with guar gum may be due to the increased resistance by viscous solutions to the convective flows created by intestinal contractions.

Dietary fiber interacts with pancreatic and enteric enzymes and their substrates. Human pancreatic enzyme activity is reduced when incubated with most fiber sources. Fiber may affect amylase activity and hence the rate of hydrolysis of starch. The more viscous polysaccharides extend the mouth-to-cecum transit time; guar, tragacanth and pectin being slower than wheat bran.

Colon
The colon may be regarded as two organs,
 the right side (cecum and ascending colon), a fermenter. The right side of the colon is involved in nutrient salvage so that dietary fiber, resistant starch, fat and protein are utilized by bacteria and the end-products absorbed for use by the body
 the left side (transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon), affecting continence.
The presence of bacteria in the colon produces an 'organ' of intense, mainly reductive, metabolic activity, whereas the liver is oxidative.
The substrates utilized by the cecum have either passed along the entire intestine or are biliary excretion products.
The effects of dietary fiber in the colon are on
 bacterial fermentation of some dietary fibers
 thereby an increase in bacterial mass
 an increase in bacterial enzyme activity
 changes in the water-holding capacity of the fiber residue after fermentation
Enlargement of the cecum is a common finding when some dietary fibers are fed and this is now believed to be normal physiological adjustment. Such an increase may be due to a number of factors, prolonged cecal residence of the fiber, increased bacterial mass, or increased bacterial end-products.
Some non-absorbed carbohydrates, e.g. pectin, gum arabic, oligosaccharides and resistant starch, are fermented to short-chain fatty acids (chiefly acetic, propionic and n-butyric), and carbon dioxide, hydrogen and methane. Almost all of these short-chain fatty acids will be absorbed from the colon. This means that fecal short-chain fatty acid estimations do not reflect cecal and colonic fermentation, only the efficiency of absorption, the ability of the fiber residue to sequestrate short-chain fatty acids, and the continued fermentation of fiber around the colon, which presumably will continue until the substrate is exhausted.
The production of short-chain fatty acids has several possible actions on the gut mucosa. All of the short-chain fatty acids are readily absorbed by the colonic mucosa, but only acetic acid reaches the systemic circulation in appreciable amounts. Butyric acid appears to be used as a fuel by the colonic mucosa as the preferred energy source for colonic cells.

Cholesterol metabolism
Dietary fiber may act on each phase of ingestion, digestion, absorption and excretion to affect cholesterol metabolism, such as the following:

 Caloric energy of foods through a bulking effect
 Slowing of gastric emptying time
 A glycemic index type of action on absorption
 A slowing of bile acid absorption in the ileum so bile acids escape through to the cecum
 Altered or increased bile acid metabolism in the cecum
 Indirectly by absorbed short-chain fatty acids, especially propionic acid, resulting from fiber fermentation affecting the cholesterol metabolism in the liver.
 Binding of bile acids to fiber or bacteria in the cecum with increased fecal loss from the entero-hepatic circulation.
One action of some fibers is to reduce the reabsorption of bile acids in the ileum and hence the amount and type of bile acid and fats reaching the colon. A reduction in the reabsorption of bile acid from the ileum has several direct effects.
 Bile acids may be trapped within the lumen of the ileum either because of a high luminal viscosity or because of binding to a dietary fiber.
 Lignin in fiber adsorbs bile acids, but the unconjugated form of the bile acids are adsorbed more than the conjugated form. In the ileum where bile acids are primarily absorbed the bile acids are predominantly conjugated.
 The enterohepatic circulation of bile acids may be altered and there is an increased flow of bile acids to the cecum, where they are deconjugated and 7alpha-dehydroxylated.
 These water-soluble form, bile acids e.g., deoxycholic and lithocholic are adsorbed to dietary fiber and an increased fecal loss of sterols, dependent in part on the amount and type of fiber.
 A further factor is an increase in the bacterial mass and activity of the ileum as some fibers e.g., pectin are digested by bacteria. The bacterial mass increases and cecal bacterial activity increases.
 The enteric loss of bile acids results in increased synthesis of bile acids from cholesterol which in turn reduces body cholesterol.
The fibers that are most effective in influencing sterol metabolism (e.g. pectin) are fermented in the colon. It is therefore unlikely that the reduction in body cholesterol is due to adsorption to this fermented fiber in the colon.
 There might be alterations in the end-products of bile acid bacterial metabolism or the release of short chain fatty acids which are absorbed from the colon, return to the liver in the portal vein and modulate either the synthesis of cholesterol or its catabolism to bile acids.
 The prime mechanism whereby fiber influences cholesterol metabolism is through bacteria binding bile acids in the colon after the initial deconjugation and dehydroxylation. The sequestered bile acids are then excreted in feces.
 Fermentable fibers e.g., pectin will increase the bacterial mass in the colon by virtue of their providing a medium for bacterial growth.
 Other fibers, e.g., gum arabic, act as stabilizers and cause a significant decrease in serum cholesterol without increasing fecal bile acid excretion.

Fecal weight
Feces consist of a plasticine-like material, made up of water, bacteria, lipids, sterols, mucus and fiber.

 Feces are 75% water; bacteria make a large contribution to the dry weight, the residue being unfermented fiber and excreted compounds.
 Fecal output may vary over a range of between 20 and 280 g over 24 hours. The amount of feces egested a day varies for any one individual over a period of time.
 Of dietary constituents, only dietary fiber increases fecal weight.
Water is distributed in the colon in three ways:
 Free water which can be absorbed from the colon.
 Water that is incorporated into bacterial mass.
 Water that is bound by fiber.
Fecal weight is dictated by:
 the holding of water by the residual dietary fiber after fermentation.
 the bacterial mass.
 There may also be an added osmotic effect of products of bacterial fermentation on fecal mass.

Effects of fiber intake
Preliminary research indicates that fiber may affect health by different mechanisms.

Effects of fiber include:
Increases food volume without increasing caloric content to the same extent as digestible carbohydrates, providing satiety which may reduce appetite (both insoluble and soluble fiber)
Attracts water and forms a viscous gel during digestion, slowing the emptying of the stomach, shortening intestinal transit time, shielding carbohydrates from enzymes, and delaying absorption of glucose, which lowers variance in blood sugar levels (soluble fiber)
Lowers total and LDL cholesterol, which may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease (soluble fiber)
Regulates blood sugar, which may reduce glucose and insulin levels in diabetic patients and may lower risk of diabetes (insoluble fiber)
Speeds the passage of foods through the digestive system, which facilitates regular defecation (insoluble fiber)
Adds bulk to the stool, which alleviates constipation (insoluble fiber)
Balances intestinal pH and stimulates intestinal fermentation production of short-chain fatty acids (both insoluble and soluble fiber)

Fiber does not bind to minerals and vitamins and therefore does not restrict their absorption, but rather evidence exists that fermentable fiber sources improve absorption of minerals, especially calcium.

Research
As of 2019, preliminary clinical research on the potential health effects of a regular high-fiber diet included studies on the risk of several cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and type II diabetes.

A 2011 study of 388,000 adults ages 50 to 71 for nine years found that the highest consumers of fiber were 22% less likely to die over this period. In addition to lower risk of death from heart disease, adequate consumption of fiber-containing foods, especially grains, was also correlated with reduced incidence of infectious and respiratory illnesses, and, particularly among males, reduced risk of cancer-related death.

A study of over 88,000 women did not show a statistically significant relationship between higher fiber consumption and lower rates of colorectal cancer or adenomas. A 2010 study of 58,279 men found no relationship between dietary fiber and colorectal cancer.

An extensive article exploring the link between dietary fiber and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) described that dietary fiber has significant health benefits for IBD patients 117

A 2022 study over 20 years of Japanese adults aged 40–64 years showed a possible inverse relationship between the intake of soluble fiber and the risk of developing dementia during aging.

Dietary recommendations

European Union
According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA), which deals with the establishment of Dietary Reference Values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre, "based on the available evidence on bowel function, the Panel considers dietary fibre intakes of 25 g per day to be adequate for normal laxation in adults".

United States
Current recommendations from the United States National Academy of Medicine (NAM) (formerly Institute of Medicine) of the National Academy of Sciences state that for Adequate Intake, adult men ages 19–50 consume 38 grams of dietary fiber per day, men 51 and older 30 grams, women ages 19–50 to consume 25 grams per day, women 51 and older 21 grams. These are based on three studies observing that people in the highest quintile of fiber intake consumed a median of 14 grams of fiber per 1,000 Calories and had the lowest risk of coronary heart disease, especially for those who ate more cereal fiber.

The United States Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND, previously ADA) reiterates the recommendations of the NAM. A 1995 research team's recommendation for children is that intake should equal age in years plus 5 g/day (e.g., a 4-year-old should consume 9 g/day). The NAM's current recommendation for children is 19 g/day for age 1-3 years and 25 g/day for age 4-8 years. No guidelines have yet been established for the elderly or very ill. Patients with current constipation, vomiting, and abdominal pain should see a physician. Certain bulking agents are not commonly recommended with the prescription of opioids because the slow transit time mixed with larger stools may lead to severe constipation, pain, or obstruction.

On average, North Americans consume less than 50% of the dietary fiber levels recommended for good health. In the preferred food choices of today's youth, this value may be as low as 20%, a factor considered by experts as contributing to the obesity levels seen in many developed countries. Recognizing the growing scientific evidence for physiological benefits of increased fiber intake, regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States have given approvals to food products making health claims for fiber. The FDA classifies which ingredients qualify as being "fiber", and requires for product labeling that a physiological benefit is gained by adding the fiber ingredient. As of 2008, the FDA approved health claims for qualified fiber products to display labeling that regular consumption may reduce blood cholesterol levels – which can lower the risk of coronary heart disease – and also reduce the risk of some types of cancer.

Viscous fiber sources gaining FDA approval are:

 Psyllium seed husk (7 grams per day)
 Beta-glucan from oat bran, whole oats, or rolled oats; or whole grain or dry-milled barley (3 grams per day)

Other examples of bulking fiber sources used in functional foods and supplements include cellulose, guar gum and xanthan gum. Other examples of fermentable fiber sources (from plant foods or biotechnology) used in functional foods and supplements include resistant starch, inulin, fructans, fructooligo saccharides, oligo- or polysaccharides, and resistant dextrins, which may be partially or fully fermented.

Consistent intake of fermentable fiber may reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Insufficient fiber in the diet can lead to constipation.

United Kingdom
In 2018, the British Nutrition Foundation issued a statement to define dietary fiber more concisely and list the potential health benefits established to date, while increasing its recommended daily minimum intake to 30 grams for healthy adults. Statement: 'Dietary fibre' has been used as a collective term for a complex mixture of substances with different chemical and physical properties which exert different types of physiological effects.

The use of certain analytical methods to quantify dietary fiber by nature of its indigestin ability results in many other indigestible components being isolated along with the carbohydrate components of dietary fiber. These components include resistant starches and oligo saccharides along with other substances that exist within the plant cell structure and contribute to the material that passes through the digestive tract. Such components are likely to have physiological effects.

Diets naturally high in fiber can be considered to bring about several main physiological consequences:
 increases fecal bulk and helps prevent constipation by decreasing fecal transit time in the large intestine
 improves gastro-intestinal health
 improves glucose tolerance and the insulin response following a meal
 increases colonic fermentation and short-chain fatty acid production
 positively modulates colonic microflora
 reduces hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and other coronary heart disease risk factors
 increases satiety and hence may contribute to weight management

Fiber is defined by its physiological impact, with many heterogenous types of fibers. Some fibers may primarily impact one of these benefits (i.e., cellulose increases fecal bulking and prevents constipation), but many fibers impact more than one of these benefits (i.e., resistant starch increases bulking, increases colonic fermentation, positively modulates colonic microflora and increases satiety and insulin sensitivity). The beneficial effects of high fiber diets are the summation of the effects of the different types of fiber present in the diet and also other components of such diets.

Defining fiber physiologically allows recognition of indigestible carbohydrates with structures and physiological properties similar to those of naturally occurring dietary fibers.

Fermentation
The Cereals & Grains Association has defined soluble fiber this way:
"the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine."

In this definition, "edible parts of plants" indicates that some parts of a plant that are eaten—skin, pulp, seeds, stems, leaves, roots—contain fiber. Both insoluble and soluble sources are in those plant components. "Carbohydrates" refers to complex carbohydrates, such as long-chained sugars also called starch, oligo saccharides, or poly saccharides, which are sources of soluble fermentable fiber. "Resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine" refers to compounds that are not digested by gastric acid and digestive enzymes in the stomach and small intestine, preventing the digesting animal from utilizing the compounds for energy. A food resistant to this process is undigested, as insoluble and soluble fibers are. They pass to the large intestine only affected by their absorption of water (insoluble fiber) or dissolution in water (soluble fiber). "Complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine" describes the digestive processes of the large intestine, which comprises a segment called the colon within which additional nutrient absorption occurs through the process of fermentation. Fermentation occurs through the action of colonic bacteria on the food mass, producing gases and short-chain fatty acids. These short-chain fatty acids have been shown to have significant health properties.  They include butyric, acetic (ethanoic), propionic, and valeric acids.

As an example of fermentation, shorter-chain carbohydrates (a type of fiber found in legumes) cannot be digested, but are changed via fermentation in the colon into short-chain fatty acids and gases (which are typically expelled as flatulence).

According to a 2002 journal article,
fiber compounds with partial or low fermentability include:
 cellulose, a poly-saccharide
 methyl cellulose
 hemicellulose, a poly-saccharide
 lignans, a group of phytoestrogens
 plant waxes

fiber compounds with high fermentability include:
 resistant starches
 beta-glucans, a group of polysaccharides
 pectins, a group of heteropolysaccharides
 natural gums, a group of polysaccharides
 inulins, a group of polysaccharides
 oligosaccharides

Short-chain fatty acids
When fermentable fiber is fermented, short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) are produced. SCFAs are involved in numerous physiological processes promoting health, including:
 stabilize blood glucose levels by acting on pancreatic insulin release and liver control of glycogen breakdown
 stimulate gene expression of glucose transporters in the intestinal mucosa, regulating glucose absorption
 provide nourishment of colonocytes, particularly by the SCFA butyrate
 suppress cholesterol synthesis by the liver and reduce blood levels of LDL cholesterol and triglycerides responsible for atherosclerosis
 lower colonic pH (i.e., raises the acidity level in the colon) which protects the lining from formation of colonic polyps and increases absorption of dietary minerals
 stimulate production of T helper cells, antibodies, leukocytes, cytokines, and lymph mechanisms having crucial roles in immune protection
 improve barrier properties of the colonic mucosal layer, inhibiting inflammatory and adhesion irritants, contributing to immune functions

SCFAs that are absorbed by the colonic mucosa pass through the colonic wall into the portal circulation (supplying the liver), and the liver transports them into the general circulatory system.

Overall, SCFAs affect major regulatory systems, such as blood glucose and lipid levels, the colonic environment, and intestinal immune functions.

The major SCFAs in humans are butyrate, propionate, and acetate, where butyrate is the major energy source for colonocytes, propionate is destined for uptake by the liver, and acetate enters the peripheral circulation to be metabolized by peripheral tissues.

FDA-approved health claims
The United States FDA allows manufacturers of foods containing 1.7 g per serving of psyllium husk soluble fiber or 0.75 g of oat or barley soluble fiber as beta-glucans to claim that regular consumption may reduce the risk of heart disease.

The FDA statement template for making this claim is:

Eligible sources of soluble fiber providing beta-glucan include:

 Oat bran
 Rolled oats
 Whole oat flour
 Oatrim
 Whole grain barley and dry milled barley
 Soluble fiber from psyllium husk with purity of no less than 95%

The allowed label may state that diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and that include soluble fiber from certain of the above foods "may" or "might" reduce the risk of heart disease.

As discussed in FDA regulation 21 CFR 101.81, the daily dietary intake levels of soluble fiber from sources listed above associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease are:

 3 g or more per day of beta-glucan soluble fiber from either whole oats or barley, or a combination of whole oats and barley
 7 g or more per day of soluble fiber from psyllium seed husk.

Soluble fiber from consuming grains is included in other allowed health claims for lowering risk of some types of cancer and heart disease by consuming fruit and vegetables (21 CFR 101.76, 101.77, and 101.78).

In December 2016, FDA approved a qualified health claim that consuming resistant starch from high-amylose corn may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes due to its effect of increasing insulin sensitivity. The allowed claim specified: "High-amylose maize resistant starch may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. FDA has concluded that there is limited scientific evidence for this claim." In 2018, the FDA released further guidance on the labeling of isolated or synthetic dietary fiber to clarify how different types of dietary fiber should be classified.

See also

 List of diets

References

Further reading
 Yusuf, K.; Saha, S.; Umar, S. (26 May 2022). "Health Benefits of Dietary Fiber for the Management of Inflammatory Bowel Disease". Biomedicines, 10(6: Novel Therapeutic Approaches in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 2.0 (special issue)), 1242. .

External links

Dietary supplements
Nutrition

Dietary fiber


Lucien Arbel (5 September 1826 – 20 February 1892) was a French draftsman who became a machinist and then an engineer.
He started his own metalworking business and became a major industrialist. He was also a deputy and then a senator of France.
His business was passed down to his sons and later evolved into Arbel Fauvet Rail.

Early years

Lucien Arbel was born on 5 September 1826 in Saint-Lupicin, Jura.
He graduated from the engineering school Arts et Métiers ParisTech in the town of Aix-en-Provence.
Lucien Arbel worked as a draftsman in Paris, then as an engine fireman and machinist, then as a mine engineer in the mines at Tartaras near Rive-de-Gier.

In 1856 he entered a partnership with the Deflassieux brothers, who made products for the railroad companies.
The firm was called "Arbel, Deflessieux Frères et Peillon."
He came up with a revolutionary design for a single-cast railroad wheel,
and later developed a cheap-to-manufacture design for wheels with counterweights.
As a result of his inventions, the company was employing 150 people by 1861.
In 1869 he founded his own company, "Forges de Couzon", to make wheels and axles for locomotives and railway wagons.
The Établissements Arbel opened the large Couzon factory in Rive-de-Gier.
The company was to be one of the ancestors of Arbel Fauvet Rail.

During the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) Arbel was a Colonel of the National Guard.

Politician

With no political background, Arbel was the National Assembly candidate for Loire of the Conservative Republicans in the 8 February 1871 elections.
He sat in the center-left, and voted with the "reasonable" Republicans.
On 24 May 1873 he refrained from voting on the proposal to refuse the resignation of Adolphe Thiers. Later he spoke against the Albert de Broglie ministry, and voted for the proposal by Pascal Duprat to elect senators by universal suffrage, and for all the constitutional laws.

On 30 June 1876, standing as a very moderate Republican, Arbel was narrowly elected to the Senate for Loire in the third round of voting.
On 5 January 1879 he was re-elected.
The sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, the designer of the Statue of Liberty, exhibited a bust of Lucien Arbel in the Salon of 1879.
He sat on the center left in the Senate, and he constantly voted with that caucus until 5 January 1888, when he was replaced by M. Brunon,
another ironmaster and republican candidate.

Later years

In 1878 Lucien Arbel entered a partnership with his oldest son, Antoine, aged 23.
In 1882 a forty-ton steam hammer designed by Lucien Arbel and built by the Compagnie de l'Horme was installed at the works in Rive-de-Gier.
The single-acting hammer was specially designed to forge locomotive wheels up to  in diameter and other very wide forgings.

In 1882 Arbel's second son, Pierre, joined the partnership. Lucien Arbel remained at the head of the firm until 1888, when he retired.
After 1888 his sons undertook a huge expansion of the plant, starting with a new forging plant near Rive-de-Gier at Couzon.
In 1890 Lucien Arbel and his son, Pierre Arbel (1858–1934), founded Forges de Douai for the manufacture of railway cars and heavy metal parts.
Pierre Arbel took on the direction of the company.

Lucien Arbel died on 20 February 1892 in Paris aged 65.

Notes

Sources

1826 births
1892 deaths
People from Jura (department)
French republicans
Members of the National Assembly (1871)
Members of Parliament for Loire
French senators of the Third Republic
Senators of Loire (department)
French industrialists
French draughtsmen
19th-century French businesspeople
Arts et Métiers ParisTech alumni
Officers of the Legion of Honour

Lucien Arbel


Anthony Pleeth, born in 1948 in London, is an English cellist, specialising in the historically informed performance of music of the 18th and 19th centuries on period instruments.

Biography and career
He studied cello with his father, renowned cellist William Pleeth, at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, where he was the Gold Medallist in 1966.  He made his first recording for the BBC at the age of 13. He was a founder of the Galliard Trio (with Trevor Pinnock, harpsichord and Stephen Preston, flute), with which he performed from 1965 to its disbanding in 1972.

He was the principal cellist of The Academy of Ancient Music, and later of The English Concert, leaving in 1985, but remaining a member of the English Concert Chamber Group until 1991. His recordings have included cello concertos by Vivaldi with The English Concert and The Academy of Ancient Music as well as being the cello soloist in many orchestral pieces and concerti grossi with these two orchestras. He has recorded the complete cello sonatas of Geminiani and Marcello (with Christopher Hogwood and Richard Webb,) and Vivaldi (with Robert Woolley and Suki Towb), trio sonatas by Handel and Corelli and chamber music by J. C. Bach with the English Concert Chamber Group. With fortepianist Melvyn Tan, he recorded Beethoven's complete sonatas and variations for cello and piano. His musical interests are not limited to period performance; he plays modern cello and his cello ensemble has performed and recorded Bachianas Brasileiras 1 and 5.

He was appointed professor of cello at the Guildhall School of Music & Drama in 1969 and at the Royal College of Music in 1986.

Aside from Classical appearances, he has also been on many film soundtracks, such as We Were Soldiers by Nick Glennie-Smith, Gladiator by Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard and Tron: Legacy by Daft Punk.

References

1948 births
Living people
English classical cellists
Musicians from London
British music educators
Academics of the Royal College of Music
British performers of early music

Anthony Pleeth


"March on, Bahamaland" é o hino nacional das Bahamas. Foi composto por Timothy Gibson e foi adaptado em 1973.

Letra
Lift up your head
to the rising sun,
Bahamaland;
March on to glory
your bright banners
waving high.

See how the world
marks the manner
of your bearing!
Pledge to excel
through love and unity.

Pressing onward,
march together
to a common loftier goal;
Steady sunward,
tho' the weather
hide the wide and treachrous shoal.

Lift up your head
to the rising sun, Bahamaland,
'Til the road you've trod
lead unto your God,
March On, Bahamaland.

Ver também
Lista de hinos nacionais

Hino
Bahamas

March On, Bahamaland


Justo Lukbán y Rilles (May 28, 1863 – September 2, 1927) was a Filipino physician and politician. Lukban was elected to the Philippine Assembly and was mayor of the capital Manila from 1917 until 1920.

Early life
Justo Lukban was born in Labo, nowadays part of the Philippine province of Camarines Norte. He was the second child from a family of six children of Agustin Lukbán and Andrea Rilles. One of his three brothers was General Vicente Lukbán. He enrolled in 1873 at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran where he achieved a Bachelor of Arts-degree. Afterwards, Lukban studied medicine at the University of Santo Tomas. In 1888, he achieved his medical license and started his own practice in Manila.

Philippine Revolution and Philippine-American War
After the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution Lukban joined the revolutionary movement, just like his brother Vicente. He served as a medical officer. After the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato on December 15, 1897, Lukban left for Hong Kong together with Emilio Aguinaldo and other Filipino leaders, where they lived in voluntary exile. In Augustus 1898 he was named by Vincente Lukban as Councilor to the Central Directorate of the Hong Kong Junta. After his return to the Philippines in 1898, Lukban represented the province of as one of the members of the Malolos Congress. He was a member of the Council of Defense and Aid and head of the Medical Faculty at the newly established Universidad Literaria de Filipinas.

He served as a General in the Siege of Masbate on August 19, 1898. Authorized to collect money for the revolutionary cause, he managed to collect an amount of ₱20,200 for the Revolutionary Government. When the Philippine Revolutionary Army was defeated in central Luzon by the Americans, Lukban was one of the negotiators for a peaceful surrender to the US as a member of the Asociacion De Paz, which was led by Pedro Paterno and Felipe Buencamino. During that time he had the rank of Major. After his surrender, the Americans appointed him as Military Sanitary Health Inspector for Ambos Camarines.

Political career
In 1902 Lukban founded, together with Jose Maria de la Viña, Albert Barreto and León María Guerrero, the Partido Democrata, which pledged for Philippine independence through peaceful means. In May 1903, Lukban charged the Manila Jockey Club with infringing the Municipal Ordinance, as he claimed horse races are a game of chance and are cruel, with no benefits to horse breeding. In 1906, Lukban was the editor of the La Independencia newspaper, a newspaper which pledged for Philippine autonomy.

In January 1907, Lukban ran for the leadership election of the Partido Popular Independista, which urged immediate independence from the United States of America. To prevent further split, Alberto Barretto and Justo Lukban were elected co-leaders of the party. On March 12, 1907, the Union Nacionalista and the Independistas merged to form the Partido Nacionalista. The Nacionalistas split their ranks when Guerrero and Lukban, members of the old Independista group were dropped from the ticket in favor of Dominador Gomez and Felipe del Pan. In 1907, he took part in the elections for the Philippine Assembly, on behalf of the 1st Legislative District of Manila. He lost the elections to Dominador Gomez. Guerrero and Lukban ultimately set up the Liga Nacional Independencia whose sole purpose was to contest the 1907 elections.

Lukban ran for the election of Speaker of the Assembly, however Gomez defeated him by 31 votes. Gomez was found to be a Spanish citizen and a new election for his seat in the 1st Philippine Legislature was called. Gomez still ran in the March 30 election and defended his seat, beating Lukban by a larger margin of 425 votes. However, on June 18 Gomez resigned his rights to his seat, so a second election was called. The 1908 Manila's 1st assembly district special elections for the vacant seat were thereafter won by Lukban on August 11, 1908. At the end of his term in 1909, he was re-elected. This time, Gomez successfully challenged the election results in court, because Lukban did not conform to the requirement that a candidate needs to reside within his Legislative District. Lukban in turn resigned on January 26, 1911, and Gomez was declared the true winner of the 1909 election for the vacant seat.

On January 16, 1917, Lukban was appointed as the third Mayor of Manila. During his term as mayor, which would last until March 6, 1920, Rizal Avenue and the Jones Bridge were built. Lukban is mostly known as mayor for his attempts to rid Manila of its prostitutes. Following the suggestion of then-House Speaker Sergio Osmeña, he shipped a group of 181 prostitutes to Davao, Mindanao, from October 16–25, 1918. The case caused controversy after the Philippine press wrote about it. In 1920, Governor-General of the Philippines Leonard Wood appointed Lukban to President of the Board of Appeals.

Later life
After his retirement, he stayed with his daughter in Zurbaran Street, Santa Cruz, Manila. Lukban died in on September 2, 1927, at the age of 64, of a heart ailment. He is buried in Manila North Cemetery.

References

Sources
 Zoilo M. Galang, Encyclopedia of the Philippines, 3 ed. Vol III., E. Floro, Manila (1950)
 Carlos Quirino, Who's who in Philippine history, Tahanan Books, Manila (1995)

1863 births
1927 deaths
Mayors of Manila
Members of the House of Representatives of the Philippines from Ambos Camarines
People of the Philippine–American War
Paramilitary Filipinos
Converts to Methodism from Roman Catholicism
Filipino Methodists
Colegio de San Juan de Letran alumni
People from Camarines Norte
University of Santo Tomas alumni
Burials at the Manila North Cemetery
Members of the Philippine Legislature
Members of the Malolos Congress
Nacionalista Party politicians
Bicolano people
People from the Spanish East Indies

Justo Lukban


Leyburn State School is a heritage-listed state school at Peter Street, Leyburn, Southern Downs Region, Queensland, Australia. It was built from 1883 to 1930s. It is also known as Leyburn National School. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.

History

The settlement on Canal Creek (a tributary of the Condamine River) had grown from the 1840s to service the colonising settlers following the stock route blazed by the Leslie brothers in 1840 to the southern Darling Downs. Known from 1853 as Leyburn, the first sale of allotments was held in 1857 following the survey of the town earlier that year.

By 1872 a state school, an Anglican church, Police Station and Court House, two smithies, three stores, a sawmill and the inevitable three hotels made up the straggling wooden town centre of Leyboard along the road to Warwick. The town was described as "always a sleepy little town ... whose calm was broken by the brief Canal Creek gold-rush in 1871–1872 ... clothed in dust raised by the slow passage of teams and flocks through the town". Most men were either employed as carriers on the Toowoomba–Goondiwindi road or else worked on nearby stations, rejoining their families at their Leyburn cottages on Saturday night.

As one of the Darling Downs droving, drinking, and administrative centres located on the old stock and work-routes, significant government infrastructure was located in the town; from 1852 Leyburn became a postal distribution point for the district with mail services branching out from the town; in 1872 Leyburn was connected to the electric telegraph system becoming an important repeating station between Sydney and Brisbane; in 1861 Leyburn was appointed as a place for the holding of Courts of Petty Sessions, a Police Magistrate was appointed, and a lock-up erected followed in 1867 by a court house.

Leyburn's first primary school (then called the National School) was established following the petitioning in 1861 by the local community of the colony's Board of General Education. Reputedly the twelfth in Queensland, the school opened with an enrolment of 46 pupils on 13 January 1862 in temporary premises described as a small, dirty and uncomfortable hut pending the building of a more permanent school.

On 22 January 1865 the purpose-built school house was opened. Funded by a combination of local subscriptions and Board moneys, the school was erected on the eastern side of the existing school site bordering a narrow lane. At this time the school site consisted of blocks 8 and 9 (block 7 bordering Canning Street being added in 1945). The new school house was, in the style of the time, a low set building. It contained a single large school room and an adjoining smaller class room with the main entry by way of a covered porch. A verandah appears to have been added to the rear at a later date. Contrary to the Board of Education's recommendations, and owing to cost and time factors, the school was built not of brick but of timber (cypress pine). Soon afterwards, in fact, architect Richard George Suter was to convince the Board of the utility of timber schools and a number were to be erected throughout Queensland.

The bypassing of Leyburn by the railways signalled its decline (a common issue for many bypassed towns). In 1868 the Toowoomba to Dalby link on the Western railway line was completed and in 1871 the Toowoomba to Warwick link on the Southern railway line leaving only (yet significantly) the Goondiwindi traffic to pass through Leyburn. In the 1900s that too was destroyed with the building of the South Western railway line known as the Border Fence from Warwick to Goondiwindi (later extended to Dirranbandi).

The shingle roofed playshed was erected in 1883 to the west of the school house and teachers residence (erected adjacent to school house by 1877). Tenders for the erection of a playshed at Leyburn school were called in late 1882 by the local school committee according to plans and specification supplied by the Department of Public Instruction. It appears that the specifications may have been altered to allow for hardwood other than ironbark to be used as the committee advised that it was impossible to procure ironbark at the local sawmill.

William Clark's tender of  completion in 6 months, although not the lowest, was accepted apparently on the advice of the Superintendent of Buildings who advised that Clark performed excellent work for the department and is now engaged at erecting a new School at Merritts Creek. He also noted that material must be very difficult to procure at Leyburn as the prices generally are very high. By comparison for example a similar playshed with shingled roof was erected at Kalkie State School in 1879 at the cost of .

"Playshed" is the name used officially as well as colloquially for these structures. They were commonly associated with early lowset schools and were superseded by the innovation of raising the school buildings on high stumps to provide shelter underneath. More recently however shade structures within the school playground have enjoyed a renaissance. Playsheds were not designed to facilitate any particular game (although the board for the game of "Stones and Glasses" has been engraved on two of benches in the playshed) but rather were more general purpose spaces. In Queensland they were a response to the climate as well as a mechanism for dealing with a fluctuating number of enrolments.

Timber flooring was added to the playshed in 1887. The words "All are Welcome" painted on one beam are believed to have been added in the early twentieth century. In 1973 and 1974 the playshed was reshingled with 10,000 iron bark shingles by the Parents and Citizens Association. An outline of the playshed forms the school's emblem and appears on T-shirts and sweat shirts worn by the children and used on souvenirs for the 125th jubilee.

The existing (main) school building was opened on 20 October 1934. Following requests from the school committee and the Leyburn and District Progress Association for a new school and residence, the Public Works Department (who were at this time responsible for the building of schools) reported that the school was still sound but one of the most out-of-date on the Downs. It was recommended that the school and residence be sold for removal and new buildings erected in a different position.

The site chosen for the new school and teacher's residence was on Peter Street. Both buildings were erected by Brisbane contractor DWT Holmes according to types developed by the Public Works Department. The school, costing some , was (in contrast to its predecessor) a raised timber building (providing play space under the school) with a single classroom for 40 pupils with verandahs back and front, part of which were enclosed to provide hat rooms. This type of school building (described as E/T1) was constructed between 1930 and 1946 and was a continuation of earlier types developed for country schools, although differing from its predecessors in providing more lighting, a lower pitched roof, and wider classrooms. Unlike the sectional schools built by the Department of Public Instruction (which formed the majority of timber schools erected after 1920), this type was not originally designed for expansion.

As a response to both a shortage of teachers and perceived inadequacies in their accommodation (particularly in rural areas), the department constructed during the 1930s a number of new residences. The residences which provided accommodation for married male headteachers were thus used as an incentive to teach in country areas. In addition they were justified as providing a resident caretaker and cleaner of the site. The teacher's residence at Leyburn, costing , was described as a standard number 3 type (D/R3) but with brick chimney. Constructed between 1929 and 1950, type 3 residences were timber-framed buildings clad externally with weather boards except for the verandah walls which were single skinned vertically jointed tongue-and-groove boarding. They contained three bedrooms and were generally highset. Atypically the Leyburn residence is lowset.

Soon after the opening of the school, the former school house and residence were sold and removed: the school was purchased by Robert R Colebon and removed to nearby MacIntyre Street where it is still used as a private residence; the teacher's residence was purchased by T Hutton of Pratten.

Since its erection, the school has undergone a number of changes. In 1951 additions costing  were undertaken involving the extension of the classroom and verandahs on the northern side of the building; in 1957 part of the eastern verandah was enclosed for use as a library; in 1959 additions costing some  were completed to convert the building into a two classroom school. In 1976 a further addition (to the southern end of the building) included a library and health service room.

The school celebrated its 125th anniversary in 1987; in the same year the pool (used regularly by the local community) was opened. In 1995 approximately 40 children were enrolled with the junior school housed in a prefabricated building adjacent to the main building housing class rooms for the upper grades and offices. In 2015, there were 36 students in Years P-6 with 4 teachers (2 full-time equivalent).

Description

Leyburn is a rural village on the southern reaches of the Darling Downs, some  northwest of Warwick, on the banks of Canal Creek. The school grounds are sited on the western fringe of the township. The school building addresses Peter Street to the west, and nestled behind it beneath a canopy of camphor laurels is the playshed. To the south of the school building is the residence, to the north a demountable classroom block, to the east is the sports field and to the northeast is the tennis court, toilet block, swimming pool and change sheds. There are several silky oak trees to the eastern and western perimeters.

The school building has two classrooms used as one, an office, store and staff area. It is a high set timber building with gabled corrugated iron roof. The original classroom is lined with tongue and groove boards, and the newer areas are lined with fibrous cement sheet. To the west is an open verandah with racks for the children's school bags. There are timber stairs to the front and rear. To the east is a small landing with the original school bell. Underneath is mostly open with remnants of old school furniture.

The playshed is a symmetrical open timber structure, which is rectangular in plan. It has a gabled roof framed in large timber sections and clad in hand-split hardwood shingles. There is wide overhang on all four sides, leaving large gablets clad in weatherboard. There are metal ridge and hip cappings. The roof is supported on ten stop-chamfered square posts, about  square, which are bolted to buddy posts of a similar size, all set into the ground. There is triangular strutting to these posts which is also stop-chamfered, but some are replaced and some are missing. There are  square perimeter roof beams, and  tie-beams. Where the struts are missing, the quality of the workmanship is evident in the precision of the recessed housings. As there is no internal linings, the quality of the timber and the workmanship are plainly evident when inside the structure. The words "All Are Welcome" have been painted on the beam on the north side.

There is a raised timber floor, one step above ground level, with  wide boards. To the perimeter running inside the posts are timber benches, which leave entrance openings to the centre bay to each of the long sides.

Heritage listing
Leyburn State School was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.

The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.

Established in 1862 and on its present site in 1865, the Leyburn State School (then known as the Leyburn Provisional School) is significant as one of the first of the colony of Queensland's national schools.

Together with the other buildings and sites associated with the development of Leyburn in the nineteenth century, Leyburn State School is a symbol of the more prosperous times of the town and of government's investment in that development.

The Playshed, together with the mature trees and (the second) school building and residence (both erected 1934) are important components which collectively demonstrate the development of the school site.

The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.

It is a rare example of a surviving timber shingled roofed building made more remarkable by the survival of its shingled Leyburn relative, St Augustine's Anglican Church (1871). Perhaps to a lesser extent, timber-framed buildings constructed with large sections of timber carefully jointed are also now uncommon.

The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.

The school is an integral part of the Leyburn townscape which presents a remarkably intact example of an early Queensland township which serviced the Darling Downs, Queensland's first settled and richest agricultural district.

Together with playsheds at Brisbane Central State School (1877) and Kalkie State School (1879), the Leyburn Playshed is one of the oldest surviving playsheds, a building type commonly employed in nineteenth century schools.

The school building (described as type E/T1) is a variation of an earlier type which continued to be used for small country schools. The residence is an interwar Type 3 teacher's residence (also described as type D/R3) and is evidence of the continuing departmental policy of the provision of accommodation (for married male head teachers) as an inducement to teach in country areas whilst also providing the school with an onsite caretaker.

The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.

The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.

The Playshed has considerable architectural and aesthetic significance: it is a successful marriage of vernacular form and materials and is both a response to climate and a mechanism for dealing with fluctuating enrolments.

The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.

The school has had a long association with the Leyburn community: as both the centre of local education and a focus for community activity.

The Playshed erected in 1883 has become an emblem of the school and local community.

The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.

The school and residence are significant as examples of building types developed by the Department of Public Works for the Department of Public Instruction.

References

Attribution

Further reading

External links

 Leyburn State School Discovery Queensland Buildings website

Queensland Heritage Register
Southern Downs Region
Public schools in Queensland
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register

Leyburn State School


Chris Finnegan MBE (5 June 1944 – 2 March 2009) was a British professional boxer of Irish descent born in Iver, Buckinghamshire, England.

Early life
Finnegan was one of eight children; his father was from Liverpool and his mother from Newry, Northern Ireland. Finnegan always wore a Union Flag and a Shamrock on his boxing trunks to signify his joint heritage. Finnegan was introduced to boxing at a young age by his elder brother Terence. His younger brother Kevin also boxed professionally, winning the British and European middleweight titles, and fighting such opponents as Marvin Hagler and Alan Minter.

Amateur career
Juggling his amateur boxing career with his work as a hod carrier, Finnegan was the 1966 ABA middleweight champion, but he considered retiring from the sport after John Turpin, the man he had beaten in the ABA finals, was chosen ahead of him to represent England at the 1966 Commonwealth Games in Jamaica. Finnegan competed at the 1967 European Amateur Boxing Championships in Rome, where he lost on points to Jan Hejduk of Czechoslovakia.

Finnegan almost missed out on making the 1968 Summer Olympics team after sustaining an eye injury which prevented him taking the ABA championships. His disappointment about not making the team resulted in a two-week drinking binge. Finnegan's trainer at his Hayes boxing club, Dick Gunn, rescued the boxer from his binge by securing a box-off which Finnegan won.

One final obstacle almost prevented Finnegan's participation in the games: £70 owed in National Insurance Stamps, for which he had to appear before a magistrate. When the presiding magistrate heard that Finnegan was due to represent Britain at the Olympics he was given a reprieve, and wished luck in his bid to win a gold medal. When the Games were over, the debt was eventually paid by the British boxing promoter Harry Levene.

Fighting in the middleweight division, Finnegan's first opponent at the Olympics was little-known Titus Simba of Tanzania; Finnegan was knocked down in the first round, but climbed off the canvas to win the decision. In the quarter-finals Finnegan guaranteed himself at least a bronze medal by out-pointing the Yugoslav Mate Parlov, who would win gold at the 1972 Olympics and later hold the WBC light-heavyweight championship.

In the semi-final, Finnegan won a 4–1 decision over the American Al Jones despite receiving two standing eight-counts. Finnegan's final opponent was Aleksei Kiselyov of the Soviet Union. Finnegan won by a 3–2 verdict, the Mexican, Spanish and Cuban judges voting for him, and the Thai and Indian for Kiselyov. Finnegan was the last British boxer to win an Olympic gold medal until Audley Harrison in 2000. For his success Finnegan was awarded an MBE in the New Year Honours, which was presented to him by the Queen Elizabeth II on 12 February 1969.

In a famous television interview conducted moments after winning gold, Finnegan's wife back in Britain, Cheryl, remarked: "Fuckin' 'ell, you 'aven't fuckin' gone and done it, 'ave you?", to which Finnegan replied: "Yes, ol' lady, I fuckin' have." When asked of his future plans, Finnegan quipped that he intended "to go home and increase the family."

Finnegan's biggest problem after his gold medal victory was producing enough urine for the doping test. It would take several glasses of water, three or four pints of beer, encouragement from others, and a victory meal before Finnegan finally had enough urine to produce for the doping test which he finally got at 1:40 AM CST. The test proved negative.

Finnegan wrote an autobiography entitled Finnegan: Self-Portrait of a Fighting Man about his boxing career, including his gold medal win at Mexico City which he referred to as a "golden rivet".

1968 Olympic results
Chris Finnegan won an Olympic gold medal while representing Great Britain as a middleweight boxer in the 1968 Mexico City Olympics. Here are his results:

 Round of 32: Defeated Titus Simba (Tanzania) by decision, 5–0
 Round of 16: Defeated Ewald Wichert (West Germany) by decision, 3–2
 Quarterfinal: Defeated Mate Parlov (Yugoslavia) by decision, 5–0
 Semifinal: Defeated Alfred Jones (United States) by decision, 4–1
 Final: Defeated Aleksei Kiselyov (Soviet Union) by decision, 3–2 (won gold medal)

Professional career
The story of an unemployed labourer winning a gold medal for Britain at the Olympics had led to the Finnegans being inundated with small donations of money from well-wishers in the UK. Finnegan had considered turning professional even before the Olympics, but his money troubles meant that he was "more or less forced to".

To manage him he hired Sam Burns, who had guided Terry Downes to the world middleweight championship in 1962. Now trained by Freddie Hill, he made his professional debut on 9 December 1968, defeating Mike Fleetham in three rounds. Finnegan won 13 of his first 14 fights, his sole loss a cut-eye stoppage against Danny Ashie. Among his early opponents were Brendan Ingle, who would later go on to be a successful boxing trainer, and Harry Scott, then the number-one ranked British middleweight contender.

In his 15th fight, Finnegan was matched with reigning European middleweight champion Tom Bogs in Copenhagen, as a late replacement for the injured Mark Rowe. Finnegan dropped a close 15-round decision, in which the referee and sole judge Herbert Tomser scored four rounds to Bogs and eleven even. Five months later, in January 1971, Finnegan stopped Eddie Avoth in the 15th round to win the British and British Commonwealth light-heavyweight titles.

In May 1971, Finnegan travelled to Berlin to challenge for the European light-heavyweight title, held by Conny Velensek of Germany. The fight was scored a draw, although several British and German reporters at ringside felt that Finnegan deserved to win. After a win over Roger Rouse, who had previously fought both Dick Tiger and Bob Foster for the world light-heavyweight title, Finnegan and Velensek met again, this time at the Nottingham Ice Rink. Finnegan won a unanimous 15-round decision to take the title.

Finnegan was named Ring Magazine'''s progress of the year for 1971 and was now being touted as a challenger to reigning world light-heavyweight champion Bob Foster; he was at ringside for Foster's fight with Vicente Rondon and introduced to the crowd after the fight. Finnegan made his first defence of the European title four months later against Jan Lubbers at the Royal Albert Hall, and won by an eighth-round knockout. The world title fight with Foster was arranged for 26 September 1972, to take place at Wembley.

Finnegan was considered a heavy underdog against Foster, whose previous two opponents, contenders Rondon and Mike Quarry, had lasted a combined total of six rounds before being knocked out by him. However, Finnegan proved more competitive than expected, finally being stopped by Foster in the 14th round of a gruelling contest. Afterwards, Foster commented that Finnegan had been the best-equipped of all his previous title challengers. The bout was selected as "Fight of the Year" by Ring Magazine.

Six weeks after the Foster fight, Finnegan faced Rüdiger Schmidtke at Wembley, having been ordered by the European Boxing Union to defend his European title against him or risk being stripped of it. Finnegan lost by a 12th-round TKO after sustaining a bad cut on his nose. He remained inactive for four months, before successfully defending his British and Commonwealth titles against Roy John, winning a 15-round decision at Wembley.

Finnegan's next defence of his British and Commonwealth belts was against new European champion and emerging British light-heavyweight contender John Conteh; Finnegan lost a 15-round decision. He then won a ten-round decision over Mike Quarry, before facing Conteh again. This time Finnegan was stopped on cuts after six rounds. Finnegan then dropped a decision against Johnny Frankham for the British light-heavyweight title, before avenging that loss to win the Lonsdale Belt outright. That proved to be his final fight, as Finnegan retired from boxing in 1975 after undergoing surgery to repair a detached retina. His final record stood at 29–7–1.

Death
Finnegan died at the age of 64 after several weeks in Hillingdon Hospital suffering from pneumonia.

See also
 List of British light-heavyweight boxing champions

Sources

References

External links

  Guardian obituary
  Independent obituary
  Telegraph'' obituary

1944 births
2009 deaths
Boxers at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Deaths from pneumonia in England
English male boxers
English people of Irish descent
Light-heavyweight boxers
Middleweight boxers
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Olympic boxers for Great Britain
Olympic gold medallists for Great Britain
England Boxing champions
Olympic medalists in boxing
Medalists at the 1968 Summer Olympics

Chris Finnegan


The Maggie Murphy hoax was a hoax perpetrated in 1895 by W. L. Thorndyke. He created an image that depicted farmer Joseph B. Swan holding what appeared to be a giant potato. The photo rapidly spread around the United States, and appeared in a panel of Ripley's Believe It or Not!.

Background
The hoax began in Loveland, Colorado. W. L. Thorndyke, editor-in-chief for a local newspaper, had wanted to promote an upcoming street fair. Thorndyke turned to farmer Joseph B. Swan, and wanted to help bring customers to him. Swan had been known for growing more than 70 different types of potatoes and had previously been featured in several news reports for his success with his crop.

With the help of local photographer Adam Talbot, they produced a photograph which appeared in an 1895 issue of the Loveland Reporter. It was implied the potato weighed 86 pounds 10 ounces, and measured 2 feet 5 inches. Swan swore that he grew it himself. The image quickly spread around the United States. Over one thousand citizens sent letters to Thorndyke, requesting pieces of Maggie Murphy so they could grow their own oversized potato. Requests for seeds were also common. Thorndyke, realizing that the photograph was beginning to get out of control, admitted that it was a hoax. He wrote that he had asked Swan to carve a fake potato out of wood.

Cultural impact
The photograph appeared in numerous publications, including Scientific American and Ripley's Believe It or Not!. It has been reprinted in the book The World of Ripley's Believe It Or Not!, however, no mention is made of the photograph being a hoax. When Ripley's Believe It or Not! was adapted into a television series, the photograph was used in the opening segment. In 2012, Colorado playwright Rick Padden adapted the tale of the hoax into a two-act play, entitled The Great Loveland Potato Hoax.

References

Loveland, Colorado
Colorado culture
1895 in the United States
19th-century hoaxes
Potatoes
1895 in Colorado
Hoaxes in the United States
Photography forgeries

Maggie Murphy hoax


There was also a Giorgi II, Catholicos of Kartli who ruled in 826–838.

George II () ( 1050 – 1112), of the Bagrationi dynasty, was a king of Georgia from 1072 to 1089. He was a son and successor of Bagrat IV and his wife Borena of Alania. Unable to deal effectively with the constant Seljuk Turkish attacks and overwhelmed by internal problems in his kingdom, George was forced to abdicate in favor of his energetic son David IV, to whom he remained a nominal co-ruler until his death in 1112. He also held the high Byzantine titles of curopalates (c. 1060) and caesar (c. 1081).

Early reign

George's childhood coincided with the civil war between his father, Bagrat IV (r. 1027–1072), and the rebellious Georgian feudal lord Liparit, who succeeded in temporarily driving Bagrat into the Byzantine Empire, and crowned George as king at the Ruisi cathedral between 1050 and 1053, under the regency of Bagrat's sister Gurandukht. In fact, Liparit became the master of nearly half of the Georgian kingdom and the most powerful dynast in the country. By 1060, Bagrat IV had been able to secure the throne and made George his heir apparent to whom the Byzantine emperor attached the title of curopalates. In 1070, Prince George, at the head of a combined Georgian-Alan army, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Shaddadid emir of Arran, Fadl II, and ravaged his possessions at Ganja.

Seljuk invasions

George succeeded as King of Georgia upon the death of his father in 1072 and received the title of nobelissimos and later that of sebastos from the Byzantine emperor. A year later, he faced a major aristocratic revolt led by Niania Kvabulis-dze, Ivane Liparitis-dze, and Vardan of Svaneti. Although victorious, the king had to buy the rebels' loyalty through generously awarding them additional estates. Soon, Georgia was attacked again by the Seljuks, a nomadic Turkic people, who would prove to be a major menace to George II's reign. Following the 1073 devastation of Kartli (central Georgia) by the Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan, George successfully repelled an invasion commanded by a Turkish general left by the sultan in charge of the Caucasus. The king also secured the formal return of Upper Tao/Tayk (Theme of Iberia), a frontier region which had been a bone of contention between Georgia and the Byzantine Empire early in the 11th century, by the Byzantine governor, Gregory Pakourianos, who began to evacuate the region shortly after the 1071 disaster inflicted by the Seljuks on the Byzantine army at Manzikert. On this occasion, George was bestowed with the Byzantine title of caesar, granted the fortress of Kars and put in charge of the Imperial Eastern limits. This did not help to stem the Seljuk advance, however. In 1076, the Seljuk sultan Malik Shah I surged into Georgia and reduced many settlements to ruins. Harassed by the massive Turkic influx, known in Georgian history as didi turkoba, or the Great Turkish Invasion, from 1079/80 onward, George was pressured into submitting to Malik-Shah to ensure a precious degree of peace at the price of an annual tribute. George II was even able to garner the Seljuk military support in his campaign aimed at bringing the eastern Georgian Kingdom of Kakheti, which had long resisted the Bagratid attempts of annexation, within a unified Georgian realm. However, tired with a protracted siege of the Kakhetian stronghold of Vezhini, George abandoned the campaign when snow fell, and headed for the Ajameti forests to ease his disappointment by hunting. The Seljuk auxiliaries also lifted the siege and plundered the fertile Iori Valley in Kakheti. Aghsartan I, king of Kakheti, went to the sultan to declare his submission, and in token of loyalty embraced Islam, thus winning a Seljuk protection against the aspirations of the Georgian crown.

Deposition

George II's wavering character and incompetent political decisions coupled with the Seljuk yoke brought the Kingdom of Georgia into a profound crisis which climaxed in the aftermath of a disastrous earthquake that struck Georgia in 1088. In 1089, George handed over the crown to his vigorous sixteen-year-old son David. This changeover is shrouded in mystery and is mentioned only in passing in the Georgian chronicles. All that is recorded is that George crowned his son as king with his own hands, after which he disappears from the chronicle. He was most probably forced by his nobles, in a palace coup masterminded by the powerful minister Bishop Giorgi Chkondideli, to abdicate in favor of David. George is mentioned in prayers dated to 1103 as "king of kings, and caesar of all the East and West", suggesting that he was still alive and given some titles by his reigning son, but exercised no real power.

References

1050s births
1112 deaths
Bagrationi dynasty of the Kingdom of Georgia
Kings of Georgia
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Caesars (Byzantine nobles)
Monarchs who abdicated
Nobilissimi
Sebastoi
Kouropalatai

George II of Georgia


Ptoion (Ancient Greek Ptōïon , also Ptōon  / , Modern Greek Ptoo Πτώο or Oros Pelagias Όρος Πελαγίας) is a mountain chain in northeastern Boiotia. It stretches from Akraiphia by the former Lake Copais in the west to the Gulf of Euboea in the east, reaching up to 725 m (Agia Pelagia) in the west and 781 m (Petalás) in the east. The massif is particularly famed for the oracle of Apollo, which was located in the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios at the western end of the range and was among the most important Greek oracles up to the time of the Persian Wars.

History of the Oracle of Apollo

The oracle of Apollo Ptoios was located three kilometres northeast of Akraiphia. Pausanias reports that it was originally an oracle of Ptoios, a local hero who was son of Athamas and Themisto, but that he was displaced by Apollo.  The name Ptoios was also that of the mountain which loomed over the oracle and was borne by Apollo as a local epithet. The hero had his own small sanctuary on the Kastraki, about a kilometre west of the original location which shows archaeological signs of activity from the seventh century BC until the 4th.

On Mount Ptoios itself there are remains of a neolithic-Helladic settlement and a Mycenaean fortress, but it had been abandoned by Archaic times. The oracle is mentioned by Herodotus who describes a visit by Mys of Europos who had been sent by the Persian general Mardonius to obtain prophecies from many oracles:
But miracle reported by the Thebans is the greatest in my opinion. They say that, when Mys of Europos was going around all the oracles, he went to the sanctuary of Ptoios Apollo. This temple is called the Ptoion; it belongs to the Thebans and lies above Lake Copais by the mountain closest to the city of Akraiphia. When this man called Mys came to this temple, three townsmen chosen by the community came along to record what was foretold and at once the seer spoke in a Barbarian language. The Thebans were amazed at hearing a Barbarian language rather than Greek but did not know what this meant for the matter at hand. Mys of Europa, however, took the tablet they were carrying from them and wrote down the words of the prophet, declaring that he was speaking in Carian. He took what he had written with him and went away to Thessaly, where Mardonius was able to read it.
This incident is also recorded by Pausanias. The area was controlled by Thebes until the end of the Classical period, as demonstrated by the remains of Theban defensive works on various peaks in the mountain range (though not on Mount Ptoios itself). After that the sanctuary was at first under the control of the Boeotian League and later of Akraiphia. By the time Pausanias visited the site in the second century AD, the "infallible" oracle was no longer active.

According to a decree of the Delphic Amphictyonic League, a musical competition in honour of Apollo called the Ptoia was held near the oracle every five years from 227 BC. The festival later lapsed, but was revived under the Julio-Claudian Emperors as the Ptoia and Caesarea () and continued to be celebrated until the beginning of the third century AD.

In Byzantine times the sanctuary was replaced by a Christian monastery, called Agia Pelagia which relocated to the summit of Mount Ptoios during the Ottoman period.

Site of the Oracle

The sanctuary of Apollo lay on three terraces, supporting a Doric peripteral Temple with eight columns on the short sides (12 m long) and thirteen on the long sides (25 m long), which was built at the end of the fourth century on top of the foundations of an Archaic temple. The actual oracle was located in a watery grotto to the east. The extra-regional importance of the oracle is shown by the large number of votive offerings.  Most of the kouroi and tripods from the Ptoion are now located in the Archaeological Museum of Thebes and the National Archaeological Museum in Athens.

Bibliography
 Siegfried Lauffer, "Ptoion", in Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft XXIII,2, cols. 1506–1578
 Albert Schachter, The Cults of Boiotia. Vol. 1, London 1981, pp. 52–73; Vol. 3, London 1994, pp. 11–21

References

External links

 Ptoion Sanctuary - Article by Barbara Paulmichl onAncient Boeotia hosted by Munich University.

Mountain ranges of Greece
Geography of ancient Boeotia
Classical oracles
Temples of Apollo
Epithets of Apollo
Landforms of Boeotia

Ptoion


Wells Memorial Library is a historic library building located at Upper Jay, Essex County, New York.  It was built in 1907, and is a 1 1/2-story, square, frame building with Tudor Revival and Arts and Crafts design elements.  It sits on a stone foundation and has a steep hipped roof with cross gables.  It features stucco cladding, half-timbering, and narrow banks of multi-pane windows.  An addition to the building was constructed in 2001.

It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2011.

References

Libraries on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Tudor Revival architecture in New York (state)
Library buildings completed in 1907
Buildings and structures in Essex County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Essex County, New York

Wells Memorial Library


La Une () is a Belgian national television channel, owned and operated by the French-language public-service broadcasting organization RTBF. La Une is the equivalent of Flemish station VRT 1, of the Flemish broadcaster VRT.

History

INR
Experimental television was born in Belgium June 2, 1953 with the live broadcast of the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.

On 31 October at 20:30 from Studio 5 of Le Flagey, the headquarters of the National Institute of Belgian Radio (INR), Andrée Rolin officially opened the channel. After that, the announcer Janine Lambotte opened the broadcast with the newly created experimental television and broadcast 2 hours a day, 6 days a week. Transmission began with the French television news relayed by the RTF transmitter TV-Lille (France's first regional station), followed by a cabaret-themed broadcast called Boum.

In the early days, INR broadcast two to three evenings per week, with a strong focus on theatre and drama, and was aired on Fridays and during the holidays. On Wednesday and Sunday evenings, the channel broadcast its own productions. The rest of the programming was provided by RTF. The first live sports coverage began with the FIFA World Cup 1954 and Monday Sports from 1955. The first newscast premiered on September 1, 1956, produced entirely in Brussels and with almost no pictures, except for the presenter reading the script.

The weather report already existed. For several years, it was in the form of animated cartoons corresponding to the weather announced. These drawings were carried out at the Royal Meteorological Institute live from a frosted glass leaving only the drawing of a character with an umbrella or a radiant sun on bathers, etc. visible.  These were done by Bob Boudard, a cabaret variety artist gifted with a talent of drawing cartoons (and also capable of whistling and interpreting various musical pieces). Hidden behind the frosted screen, Boudard had to carry out the bulletin on the fly when he arrived at the institute, often at the last minute thanks to taxi drivers who had got to know him and who were ready to go and bring him in time because he had various obligations that kept him busy in Brussels, among others maintaining his cafe on the Rue des Dominicains, a meeting point for many actors from the theaters of Brussels' city centre.

The Brussels World's Fair in 1958 gave the INR an opportunity to strengthen its new television networks and supersede radio. The panel "Belgian experimental television" disappeared from the screen, outside broadcast vans were acquired, Expo Magazine was broadcast daily for six months, and closing days and the interruption during the holidays disappeared. Every day, reports, interviews, debates and animations made the summary of activities of the Expo '58. The Investigations and Reports section introduced the first major magazine on Belgian television: Neuf Millions (Nine Million).

In 1953, there were only 6,500 television sets in Belgium. The INR transmitters were then located at the Palais de Justice in Brussels and limited to a reach in a radius of 40 km. It was not until 1954 that transmitters were built in Liège and 1958 in Wavre, which could cover almost 96% of the French-speaking territory. In 1956, there were over 100,000 television sets, and in 1960, it reached the 70,000 viewer mark throughout Belgium.

RTB
In 1960, the Harmel Act replaced the National Institute of Broadcasting by Radio-Télévision Belge (RTB). The new facility included a Dutch public broadcaster (Belgische Radio en Televisie or BRT), a French public broadcaster (Radio-Télévision Belge or RTB) and an institution of common services. Both broadcasters were independent of each other and had full cultural autonomy, an organic vis-à-vis independence from the government and the guarantee of freedom of information. RTB/BRT was headed by a program director appointed by the King.

In 1962, cable was introduced in Liège and Namur and was later rolled out throughout the country in 1975, ending the monopoly of public television. Numerous programmes premiered such as Le Jardin Extraordinaire (1965), Le Week-end sportif (1967), the live broadcast of the Tour de France, the first political debates and election nights and major reports abroad. In 1971, the RTB began its color transmissions with Le Jardin extraordinaire and the news in 1973.

In 1977, a second television channel was created, RTbis, and the decentralization of production took place with the creation of regional centres in Liège and Charleroi. A new production centre was established in Brussels in 1979.

RTBF 1

RTB became the Belgian Radio and Television of the French Community (RTBF) in 1977 by the decree of the Cultural Council of the French Community. RTBF offered cultural autonomy, a monopoly of radio and television broadcasting, freedom of information and of independence from the government. RTBF would be governed by a board of directors whose members would be elected in accordance with policy distributions within the Cultural Council. The Chief Executive would be appointed by the Cultural Council.

The first television channel of the RTBF was renamed RTBF 1.

In 1983, RTL Television was launched and obtained the authorization of a radio relay between Luxembourg and Brussels; in compensation, RTBF received access to non-commercial advertising in 1984. Financial contributions and the on-screen display of commercial sponsors would be permitted in exceptional cases in 1987 to allow the RTBF to organise the Eurovision Song Contest. The decree of the French Community authorizing the dissemination of commercial advertising by commercial channel RTL-TVI in 1988 put an end to the monopoly of broadcasting of the RTBF, but in 1989, another decree of the French Community authorized the broadcast by RTBF of commercial advertisements to rebalance the situation. Management and marketing of advertising space were entrusted to TVB, a joint venture of public and private channels of the French Community (RTBF 1, Télé 21 and RTL-TVI). TVB divided the advertising revenue between the two channels by 25% to 75% for RTBF and RTL. The system was later criticized from all sides and was discontinued in 1996.

RTBF La Une
In 1997, the Parlement de la Communauté française made RTBF an autonomous public company, with RTBF 1 being renamed RTBF La 1 along with RTBF 21 into RTBF La 2. RTBF La Une became the first Belgian television channel to broadcast 24 hours a day, unlike its Flemish counterpart, BRTN TV1 (now known as één) which closed down during the day. During the FIFA World Cup 1998, RTBF decided to air all matches on its two main channels, La 1 and La 2. So that the wider public had access to the full coverage, it later redistributed to transmitters that transmitted La Une and La Deux on cable networks and also by analogue terrestrial, throughout Wallonia. This scheme continued after the World Cup.

Visual identity (logo)
In September 1985, the yellow numeral 1 appeared, and as a result, a new CGI look was created. The start-up and closedown video represented an environment made of geometric figures, while the intro of Journal Télévisé showed a 3D view of the district where the Reyers Tower was located. The packaging was slightly modified in 1989 to mark the start of commercial advertising on RTBF.

5 years later, to the day, the entire look was redone, from its general identity to the promos. A blue ring was added to the back of the stylized yellow "1" and the new design was based on a shadow play on a blue background to give the channel a little more projection and a more modern style. JT's intro was similar to the previous one, without the buildings in 3D and with a more transparent Reyers Tower.

In September 1992, 4 rectangles were added to the extant logo. A new look, created by the OLM agency, was implemented, including the logo and photographs of the various hosts and presenters of the channel. JT's new opening was more simplistic: the components of the logo came alive and a globe was added in the blue circle.

A new intro for JT was used at the beginning of 1994. It depicted the Reyers Tower projecting rays of light at the top of the Earth.

Between 1994 and 1996, several on-air designs followed one another, including one with floating squares.

A new, more abstract logo appeared in September 1996, retiring the yellow numeral 1. The look showcased the new logo in different environments. It was later replaced replaced from March 1997 by a graphically similar look, but featuring a first version of the chip look.

The new logos of the RTBF channels arrived in September 1997, featuring a chip design. The idents and the promos contained sped-up images of road trips. The new JT intro, however, was only used from December, featuring nocturnal aerial views of the Reyers Tower.

In January 2000, a new look was adopted, with some modifications in 2002 and 2003. This look would be the last to contain versions for start-ups and closedowns, while the previous one did not.

On January 26, 2004, the current logo appeared. The first look with this logo featured a pointer. The new JT intro featured the rotating Earth on a reddish-white background. This intro was changed in 2005.

On March 21, 2011, a new JT intro appeared for the first time. In December of that same year, a new 3D look also appeared.

On March 21, 2016, the JT intro changed again. The graphics were the same, but with a few changes and the reappearance of the red square for La Une newscasts, and a pink circle for La Deux newscasts.

On September 3, 2018, the news got a makeover. A whole new studio, a whole new intro, but also a second new set for, among others, On n'est pas des pigeons!, Jeudi en prime and Studio Foot.

La Une
In January 2004, RTBF La 1 was renamed La Une. In March 2011, La Une ceased broadcasting on analogue along with La Deux and La Trois.

Availability
La Une is available in Brussels and Wallonia via Digital Terrestrial (DVB-T), cable (VOO & Telenet), satellite via TéléSAT and Belgacom TV (IPTV).

In Flanders, prior to the digital switchover, La Une was also available in certain cities near the Walloon border in the following provinces: Flemish Brabant, East Flanders, Limburg, Antwerp and West Flanders via analogue terrestrial, due to the terrestrial spillover.  La Une is also available in Flanders, TéléSAT and TV Vlaanderen via Satellite, Proximus Pickx, Telenet and Voo.

La Une is available in Luxembourg via spillover from neighbouring Wallonia as well as via pay-TV providers Luxembourg Online and Tango.

References

External links
 Official site of La Une
 Official site of RTBF

1953 establishments in Belgium
French-language television stations in Belgium
Television channels in Belgium
Television channels and stations established in 1953

La Une


Kolakolli (Murder Murderer, Master Executioner) or Chakkamadan (Jack fruit Freak) was an Indian rogue elephant active in the Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary near Thiruvananthapuram. This elephant gained considerable notoriety among Indian media and was accused of killing 12 people in and around Peppara over a span of seven to eight years. As a result, a hunt was launched to capture the tusker in 2006. Kolakolli was eventually captured and died whilst in captivity.

Origin of name
The elephant was initially nicknamed Chakkamadan (Chakka-Jack fruit) because of its fondness for ripping jack fruits and used to regularly visit farms during jack fruit seasons. It was also said to have a body odour similar to smell of jack fruits.  The rogue elephant later gained its new nickname Kolakolli that originated out of the Malayalam words 'Kola' which means murder (also used as a superlative in a notorious sense) and 'Kolli', meaning murderer.  It was popularised by the media giving it a demonised image.

Capture and death
A hunt was launched for the elephant in 2006 after it gained notoriety as a dangerous murderer.  The plan was to capture and tame Kolakolli.  After several weeks of intense efforts the elephant was captured and sent for training.  However it died a few days later reportedly due to cardiac arrest, while in captivity.

See also
 Black Diamond
 Rogue elephant of Aberdare Forest
 List of individual elephants

References

Elephant attacks
Elephants in India
Individual animals in India
Individual elephants
Individual wild animals

Kolakolli


William Clyde Caldwell (May 14, 1843 – January 7, 1905) was an Ontario businessman and political figure. He represented Lanark North in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario as a Liberal member four times from 1872 to 1875, 1879 to 1886, 1888 to 1894 and 1898 to 1905.

He was born William Caldwell in Lanark in Canada West in 1843. He worked in his father's timber company and later became a partner in the business. He received a Bachelor of Arts from Queen's College in 1866. Around 1872, he adopted the middle name Clyde, after the Clyde River in Lanark County where the family held timber limits, to distinguish himself from several other William Caldwells in the province. On his father's death, he inherited the company and several mills in Lanark. He became part-owner of a grist mill in Carleton Place and built a sawmill in Almonte. He also owned a woollen mill in Lanark. He was elected in an 1872 by-election to represent Lanark North in the Ontario legislature. In 1883, he moved to Kingston but kept property in Lanark. Caldwell was also a member of the Freemasons. He died in Lanark in 1905. Caldwell Street in Lanark is named after him.

External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

1843 births
1905 deaths
Businesspeople from Ontario
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Ontario Liberal Party MPPs
People from Lanark County

William Clyde Caldwell