Joram Jaron van Klaveren (born 23 January 1979) is a Dutch politician. As a member of the Party for Freedom he was an MP from 17 June 2010 until 21 March 2014. He subsequently was an independent until his term in office ended on 23 March 2017.  He focused on matters of desegregation, employment-to-population ratio, egalitarianism and emancipation. From 24 March 2011 until 11 June 2014, he also was a member of the States-Provincial of Flevoland. He became well-known for anti-Muslim comments. In October 2018, he converted to Islam halfway through writing an anti-Islam book. After becoming a Muslim, he decided to rededicate his book to his search for religiosity and the subsequent conversion to Islam. His book titled Apostate: From Christianity to Islam in times of sécularisation and terror was published in both Dutch and English.

Biography
Van Klaveren was born on 23 January 1979 in Amsterdam. He was raised as a Reformed Liberated Christian, studied religious studies at VU University Amsterdam and has worked as an educator.

From March 2006 to June 2009, he was a member of the municipal council of Almere on behalf of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy. In the 2010 general election, he was elected into the House of Representatives on behalf of the Party for Freedom. Beside that, he has also been a member of the States of Flevoland since the 2011 provincial elections.

In 2009, Van Klaveren was convicted for driving under the influence and refusing a sobriety test.

On 21 March 2014, Van Klaveren announced that he would leave the Party for Freedom, as he no longer agreed with the party's course. Controversial comments on the Moroccan minority in the Netherlands by party leader Geert Wilders after the 2014 local elections played part in this decision. Van Klaveren continued as an independent MP. In May 2014, Joram van Klaveren, together with Louis Bontes and Johan Driessen, founded a new conservative political party called For the Netherlands (VNL).

After failing to get reelected during the 2017 general election because VNL did not secure a single seat, Van Klaveren's term in the House formally ended on 23 March 2017. Subsequently, he became a commentator in April 2017 for the daily radio show Dit is de Dag, produced by Christian public broadcaster EO. According to presenter Tijs van den Brink, he was hired because he represented conservative and right-wing Christians.

Conversion to Islam
At 40-years-old, he has said he became a Muslim after writing an anti-Islamic book. Van Klaveren was known for anti-Islamic comments: he spoke of "Muslim misery". In 2019, in interviews on the occasion of his publishing De afvallige ("The renegade"), which chronicles his search for religion and religiosity, he mentioned that he now accepts Muhammad as the prophet, and said that he had converted to Islam.

Van Klaveren is not the first high-profile PVV member to convert to Islam. He follows in the footsteps of Arnoud van Doorn, a former Hague-based PVV city councillor who converted in 2013.

His former political leader Wilders (PVV) said he had never seen Van Klaveren's conversion coming, adding that if Van Klaveren had still been with the PVV, he would have had to leave immediately. His erstwhile VNL leader Jan Roos added he was equally startled: "Does this flip surprise me? Yes, totally."

Said Bouharrou, who serves on the Board of Moroccan Mosques in the Netherlands praised his conversion and said that it was brave that he was prepared to do it in public.

Joram Van Klaveren is currently the President of the Anthony Janszoon Association, named after Anthony Janszoon van Salee.

Book
In his book, Apostate: From Christianity to Islam in Times of Secularisation and Terror, Van Klaveren talked about his testimony of faith:

"With the idea in mind that one God Whom Moses and Jesus, amongst others, spoke about is the same as the God that we read about in the Quran, and that Muhammed, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, without any doubts fits the line of Prophets from the Bible, I decided to pronounce the testimony of faith. This took place after an excellent dinner in a cozy, homely setting with a small group of people. After pronouncing the Shahada, it did not rain gold and  did not see the stars sparkle more than usual. However, I did notice a certain personal delight and rest."

References

External links
 House of Representatives biography (archive on archive.org)
 While Writing Anti-Islam Book He Became Muslim! - The Story of Joram Van Klaveren , 2022, on Youtube.

1979 births
Living people
Converts to Islam
Converts to Islam from Protestantism
Dutch Muslims
Dutch political party founders
VoorNederland politicians
Independent politicians in the Netherlands
Members of the House of Representatives (Netherlands)
Members of the Provincial Council of Flevoland
Municipal councillors of Almere
Party for Freedom politicians
People from Almere
Politicians from Amsterdam
People's Party for Freedom and Democracy politicians
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam alumni
21st-century Dutch educators
21st-century Dutch politicians
Dutch former Christians
Dutch critics of Islam

Joram van Klaveren


"Junk food" is a term used to describe food that is high in calories from sugar and/or fat, and possibly sodium, making it hyperpalatable, but with little dietary fiber, protein, vitamins, minerals, or other important forms of nutritional value. It is also known as HFSS food (high in fat, salt and sugar). The term junk food is a pejorative dating back to the 1950s. Many different kinds of junk food can be easily found in most supermarkets and fast food restaurants. Because of such easy access to it, people are most likely to consume it.

Precise definitions vary by purpose and over time. Some high-protein foods, like meat prepared with saturated fat, may be considered junk food. Fast food and fast food restaurants are often equated with junk food, although fast foods cannot be categorically described as junk food. Most junk food is ultra-processed food.

Concerns about the negative health effects resulting from a junk food-heavy diet, especially obesity, have resulted in public health awareness campaigns, and restrictions on advertising and sale in several countries. Current studies indicate that a diet high in junk food can increase the risk of depression, digestive issues, heart disease and stroke, type 2 diabetes, cancer, and early death.

Etymology
The term junk food dates back at least to the early 1950s, although its coinage has been credited to Michael F. Jacobson of the Center for Science in the Public Interest, in 1972. In 1952, the phrase appeared in a headline in the Lima, Ohio, News, Junk Foods' Cause Serious Malnutrition", over a reprint of a 1948 article from the Ogden, Utah, Standard-Examiner, originally titled, "Dr. Brady's Health Column: More Junk Than Food". In the article, Dr. Brady writes, "What Mrs. H calls 'junk' I call cheat food. That is anything made principally of (1) white flour and or (2) refined white sugar or syrup. For example, white bread, crackers, cake, candy, ice cream soda, chocolate malted, sundaes, sweetened carbonated beverages." The term cheat food can be traced back in newspaper mentions to at least 1916.

Definitions
In Andrew F. Smith's Encyclopedia of Junk Food and Fast Food, junk food is defined as "those commercial products, including candy, bakery goods, ice cream, salty snacks and soft drinks, which have little or no nutritional value but do have plenty of calories, salt, and fats. While not all fast foods are junk foods, many of them are. Fast foods are ready-to-eat foods served promptly after ordering. Some fast foods are high in calories and low in nutritional value, while other fast foods, such as salads, may be low in calories and high in nutritional value."

Junk food provides empty calories, supplying little or none of the protein, vitamins, or minerals required for a nutritious diet. Some foods, such as hamburgers, and tacos, can be considered either healthy or junk food, depending on their ingredients and preparation methods. The more highly processed items usually fall under the junk food category, including breakfast cereals that are mostly sugar or high fructose corn syrup and white flour or milled corn.

The United Kingdom's Advertising Standards Authority, the self-regulatory agency for the UK ad industry, uses nutrient profiling to define junk food. Foods are scored for "A" nutrients (energy, saturated fat, total sugar, and sodium) and "C" nutrients (fruit, vegetable, and nut content, fiber, and protein). The difference between A and C scores determines whether a food or beverage is categorized as HFSS (high in fat, salt and sugar; a term synonymous with junk food).

In Panic Nation: Unpicking the Myths We're Told About Food and Health, the junk food label is described as nutritionally meaningless: food is food, and if there is zero nutritional value, then it is not a food. Co-editor Vincent Marks explains, "To label a food as 'junk' is just another way of saying, 'I disapprove of it.' There are bad diets - that is, bad mixtures and quantities of food - but there are no 'bad foods' except those that have become bad through contamination or deterioration."

History
According to an article in the New York Times, "Let Us Now Praise the Great Men of Junk Food", "The history of junk food is a largely American tale: It has been around for hundreds of years, in many parts of the world, but no one has done a better job inventing so many varieties of it, branding it, mass-producing it, making people rich off it and, of course, eating it." Cracker Jack, the candy-coated popcorn-and-peanuts confection, is credited as the first popular name-brand junk food; it was created in Chicago, registered in 1896, and became the best-selling candy in the world 20 years later.

Popularity and appeal
Junk food in its various forms is trendy and an integral part of modern popular culture. In the US, annual fast-food sales are in the area of $160 billion, compared to supermarket sales of $620 billion (a figure which also includes junk food in the form of convenience foods, snack foods, and candy). In 1976, "Junk Food Junkie", a US top 10 pop song, described a junk food addict who pretends to follow a healthy diet by day, while at night gorges on Hostess Twinkies and Fritos corn chips, McDonald's and KFC. Thirty-six years later, Time placed the Twinkie at #1 in an article titled, "Top 10 Iconic Junk Foods": "Not only...a mainstay on our supermarket shelves and in our bellies, they've been a staple in our popular culture and, above all, in our hearts. Often criticized for its lack of any nutritional value whatsoever, the Twinkie has managed to persevere as a cultural and gastronomical icon."

America also celebrates an annual National Junk Food Day on July 21. Origins are unclear; it is one of around 175 US food and drink days, most created by "people who want to sell more food", at times aided by elected officials at the request of a trade association or commodity group. "In honor of the day," Time in 2014 published, "5 Crazy Junk Food Combinations". Headlines from other national and local media coverage include: "Celebrate National Junk Food Day With… Beer-Flavored Oreos?" (MTV); "National Junk Food Day: Pick your favorite unhealthy treats in this poll" (Baltimore); "Celebrities' favorite junk food" (Los Angeles); "A Nutritionist's Guide to National Junk Food Day" with "Rules for Splurging" (Huffington Post); and "It's National Junk Food Day: Got snacks?" (Kansas City).

As for the source of junk food's appeal, there is no definitive scientific answer; both physiological and psychological factors are cited. Food manufacturers spend billions of dollars on research and development to create flavor profiles that trigger the human affinity for sugar, salt, and fat. Consumption results in pleasurable, likely addictive, effects on the brain. At the same time, massive marketing efforts are deployed, creating powerful brand loyalties that studies have shown can trump taste.

It is well-established that the poor eat more junk food overall than the more affluent, but the reasons for this are unclear. Few studies have focused on variations in food perception according to socio-economic status (SES); some studies that have differentiated based on SES suggest that the economically challenged do not perceive healthy food much differently than any other population segment. Recent research into scarcity, combining behavioral science and economics, suggests that, faced with extreme economic uncertainty, where even the next meal may not be a sure thing, judgment is impaired and the drive is to the instant gratification of junk food, rather than to make the necessary investment in the longer-term benefits of a healthier diet.

Health effects
When junk food is consumed very often, the excess fat, simple carbohydrates, and processed sugar found in junk food contribute to an increased risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease, and many other chronic health conditions. A case study on the consumption of fast foods in Ghana suggested a direct correlation between consumption of junk food and obesity rates. The report asserts that obesity resulted in related complex health concerns such as an upsurge in the rate of heart attacks. Studies reveal that as early as the age of 30, arteries could begin clogging and lay the groundwork for future heart attacks. Consumers also tend to eat too much in one sitting, and those who have satisfied their appetite with junk food are less likely to eat healthy foods like fruit or vegetables.

Testing on rats has indicated negative effects of junk food that may manifest likewise in people. A Scripps Research Institute study in 2008 suggested that junk food consumption alters brain activity in a manner similar to addictive drugs like cocaine and heroin. After many weeks with unlimited access to junk food, the pleasure centers of rat brains became desensitized, requiring more food for pleasure; after the junk food was taken away and replaced with a healthy diet, the rats starved for two weeks instead of eating nutritious fare. A 2007 study in the British Journal of Nutrition found that female rats who eat junk food during pregnancy increased the likelihood of unhealthy eating habits in their offspring.

Other research has been done on the impact of sugary foods on human emotional health and has suggested that consuming junk food can negatively impact energy levels and emotional well-being.

In a study published in the European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, the frequency of consumption of 57 foods/drinks of 4,000 children at the age of four and a half were collected by maternal report. At age seven, the 4,000 children were given the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), with five scales: hyperactivity, conduct problems, peer problems, emotional symptoms, and pro-social behavior. A one standard deviation increase in junk food was then linked to excessive hyperactivity in 33% of the subjects, leading to the conclusion that children consuming excess junk food at the age of seven are more likely to be in the top third of the hyperactivity scale. There was no significant correlation between junk food and the other scales.

Anti-junk food measures
Several countries have taken, or are considering, various forms of legislative action to curb junk food consumption. Eating habits can be influenced by the food environment around us. In 2014, United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right to health, Anand Grover, released his report, "Unhealthy foods, non-communicable diseases and the right to health", and called for governments to "take measures, such as developing food and nutrition guidelines for healthy diets, regulating marketing and advertising of junk food, adopting consumer-friendly labeling of food products, and establishing accountability mechanisms for violations of the right to health."

An early, high-profile, and controversial attempt to identify and curb junk food in the American diet was undertaken by the McGovern Committee (United States Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, chaired by Senator George McGovern) between 1968 and 1977. Initially formed to investigate malnutrition and hunger in the US, the committee's scope progressively expanded to include environmental conditions that affected eating habits, such as urban decay, then focused on the diet and nutritional habits of the American public. The committee took issue with the use of salt, sugar, and fat in processed foods, noted problems with overeating and the high percentage of ads for junk food on TV, and stated that bad eating habits could be as deadly as smoking. The findings were heavily criticized and rebutted from many directions, including the food industry, the American Medical Association, and the committee itself. In 1977, the committee issued public guidelines under the title, Dietary Goals for the United States, which became the predecessor to Dietary Guidelines for Americans, published every five years beginning in 1980 by the US Department of Health and Human Services.

Taxation

To reduce junk food consumption through price control, sin taxes have been implemented. Targeting saturated fat consumption, Denmark introduced the world's first fat-food tax in October 2011 by imposing a surcharge on all foods, including those made from natural ingredients, that contain more than 2.3 percent saturated fat, an unpopular measure that lasted a little over a year. Hungary has imposed taxes on foods and beverages high in added sugar, fat, and salt. Norway taxes refined sugar, and Mexico has various excises on unhealthy food. On April 1, 2015, the first fat tax in the US, the Navajo Nation's Healthy Diné Nation Act of 2014, mandating a 2% junk food tax, came into effect, covering the  Navajo reservation; the Act targeted problems with obesity and diabetes among the Navajo population.

Banning junk food advertisements
In mid-2021, the government of the United Kingdom proposed policies that would call for a ban on online advertisements of foods high in fat, salt, and sugar, in addition to an additional ban on advertising such foods on television before 9:00 pm local time. The bans would not affect advertisements that do not directly promote a junk food product, and promoting these products on company webpages and social media accounts would remain permitted. These bans were intended to come into force in 2023.

In October 2021, the Ministry of Consumer Affairs of Spain, under the leadership of minister Alberto Garzón, announced a ban on the advertising of several categories of junk food to children under 16. Such advertising would be forbidden on television, radio, online, in movie theaters, and in newspapers. Affected foods include candy, energy bars, cookies, cake, juice, energy drinks, and ice cream. The ban is to take effect in 2022.

Restricting advertising to children

Junk food that is targeted at children is a contentious issue. In "The Impact of Advertising on Childhood obesity", the American Psychological Association reports: "Research has found strong associations between increases in advertising for non-nutritious foods and rates of childhood obesity." Advertising of unhealthy foods to children increases their consumption of the product and positive attitudes (liking or wanting to buy) about the advertised product. Children's critical reasoning (the ability to understand what an advertisement is and the aim of advertising to buy the product) is not protective against the impact of advertising, and does not appear to be fully developed during adolescence.

The World Health Organization recommends that governments take action to limit children's exposure to food marketing, stating, "Many advertisements promote foods high in fats, sugar, and salt, consumption of which should be limited as part of a healthy diet. ... Food advertising and other forms of marketing have been shown to influence children's food preferences, purchasing behaviour and overall dietary behaviour. Marketing has also been associated with an increased risk of overweight and obesity in children. The habits children develop early in life may encourage them to adopt unhealthy dietary practices which persist into adulthood, increasing the likelihood of overweight, obesity and associated health problems such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases."

In the United Kingdom, efforts to increasingly limit or eliminate advertising of foods high in sugar, salt, or fat at any time children may be viewing are ongoing.  The UK government has been criticized for failing to do enough to stop advertising and promotion of junk food aimed at children. A UK parliamentary select committee recommended that cartoon characters advertising unhealthy food to children should be banned, supermarkets should have to remove unhealthy sweets and snacks from ends of aisles and checkout areas, local authorities should be able to limit the number of fast food outlets in their area, brands associated with unhealthy foods should be banned from sponsoring sports clubs, youth leagues and tournaments, and social media like Facebook should cut down junk food advertising to children—all are currently just recommendations.

In Australia, a Wollongong University study in 2015 found that junk food sponsors were mentioned over 1,000 times in a single Australian cricket match broadcast, which included ads and branding worn on players' uniforms and on the scoreboard and pitch. A coalition of Australian obesity, cancer, and diabetes organizations called on Cricket Australia, the sport's governing body, to "phase out sponsorships with unhealthy brands", emphasizing that cricket is a "healthy, family-oriented sport" with children in the audience.

Restricting sales to minors
Several states in Mexico banned sales of junk food to minors, starting in August 2020.

See also

 Obesity
 Ultra-processed food
 Hyperpalatable food
 Bliss point
 Comfort food
 Nutrient profiling

References

1950s neologisms
20th-century neologisms
Criticism of fast food
Fast food
Snack foods

Junk food


Harry Haywood (February 4, 1898 – January 4, 1985) was an American political activist who was a leading figure in both the Communist Party of the United States (CPUSA) and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). His goal was to connect the political philosophy of the Communist Party with the issues of race.

In 1926, he joined other African-American Communists and travelled to the Soviet Union to study the effect of Communism on racial issues found in the United States. His work there resulted in his selection to be the head of the Communist Party's Negro Department. The party platform changed by the late 1930s and began to stray away from advocating for African-American self-determination. As the party's platform changed over time, Haywood lost his stance within the party. His work also included creating a group to help the Scottsboro boys case.

Haywood was also an author. His first book was Negro Liberation, published in 1948. After he was expelled from his affiliating party, he wrote an autobiography called Black Bolshevik, which was also published in 1978. He contributed major theory to Marxist thinking on the national question of African Americans in the United States. He was also a founder of the Maoist New Communist movement.

Biography

Early years
Harry Haywood was born Haywood Hall, Jr., on February 4, 1898, in South Omaha, Nebraska, to former slaves Harriet and Haywood Hall, from Missouri and West Tennessee, respectively. They had migrated to Omaha because of jobs with the railroads and meatpacking industry, as did numerous other southern blacks. South Omaha also attracted White immigrants, and ethnic Irish had established an early neighborhood there. Haywood was the youngest of three sons.

In 1913 after their father was attacked by whites, the Hall family moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota. Two years later in 1915 they moved to Chicago. During World War I, he served with the Eighth Regiment, a black United States regiment. Upon his return to Chicago, the younger Hall was radicalized by the bitter Red Summer of 1919, especially the Chicago race riot, in which mostly ethnic Irish attacked blacks on the South Side.

Hall was influenced by his older brother Otto, who joined the Communist Party in 1921 and invited Hall to enter the secret African Blood Brotherhood. He was also influenced by theories he read of in Vladimir Lenin's State and Revolution as a teen. He stated, in his autobiography Black Bolshevik, that "this work was the single most important book I had read in the entire three years of my political search and was decisive in leading me to the Communist Party."

Military service
Haywood's military career included service in three wars. His interest in military combat began when his friends recalled tales of their service in the Eighth Illinois, Black National Guard Regiment. During World War I, he served with the Eighth Regiment, a black United States regiment. In the Spanish Civil War, like many Americans there, he fought for the Popular Front with the Abraham Lincoln Battalion of the International Brigades. Haywood held the position of Regimental Commissar in the XV International Brigade during the Battle of Brunete. While in Spain he, Langston Hughes and Walter Benjamin Garland broadcast from Madrid in support of the Republican cause. During World War II, he served in the Merchant Marine, where he was active with National Maritime Union.

Career with the Communist Party USA
Harry Haywood began his revolutionary career by joining the African Blood Brotherhood in 1922, followed by the Young Communist League in 1923. Soon after in 1925, he joined the Communist Party, USA (CPUSA). After joining the CPUSA, Haywood went to Moscow to study; it was on his passport application that he first adopted the pseudonym "Harry Haywood", deriving it from the first names of his mother and father. In Moscow, he studied first at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East in 1925, then at the International Lenin School in 1927. The anticolonial revolutionaries he met while in Moscow included Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh. He began to advocate for African-American concerns, arguing that they were captives in the United States and that "they must embrace nationalism in order to avoid the harmful effects of integration." He stayed until 1930 as a delegate to the Communist International (Comintern).

Haywood was General Secretary of the League of Struggle for Negro Rights, but he was active in issues involving working-class Whites as well. In the early 1930s, while head of the CPUSA Negro Department, he led the movement to support the Scottsboro Boys; organized miners in West Virginia with the National Miners Union; and was a leader in the struggles of the militant Sharecroppers' Union in the Deep South. In 1935 he led the "Hands off Ethiopia" campaign in Chicago's Black South Side to oppose Italy's invasion of Ethiopia. When eleven Communist leaders were tried under the Smith Act in 1949, Haywood was assigned the task of research for the defense.

In the CPUSA, Haywood served on the Central Committee from 1927 to 1938 and on the Politburo from 1931 until 1938. He also participated in the major factional struggles internal to the CPUSA against Jay Lovestone and Earl Browder, regularly siding with William Z. Foster.

The Comintern and the Black Belt nation

During his four-and-half-year stay in the Soviet Union (1925–1930), Harry Haywood held dual membership in both the CPUSA and the CPSU. As a member of the CPSU, he traveled extensively in the Soviet Union's autonomous republics, and participated in the struggles against both the Left Opposition headed by Leon Trotsky and the Right Opposition led by Nikolai Bukharin. In these struggles and in others, Haywood was on the side of Joseph Stalin. While working as a delegate for the Comintern, he served on commissions dealing with the question of African Americans in the United States, as well as the development of the "Native Republic Thesis" for the South African Communist Party. Haywood worked to draft the "Comintern Resolutions on the Negro Question" of 1928 and 1930, which stated that African Americans in the Southern part of the United States made up an oppressed nation, with the right to self-determination up to and including secession. He would continue to fight for this position throughout his life.

He believed that a distinct African-American nation had developed that satisfied the criteria laid out by Stalin in his Marxism and the National Question: a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological makeup manifested in a common culture. Because African Americans in the South constituted such a nation, Haywood believed the correct response was a demand for self-determination, up to and including the right to separate from the United States. Their "national territory" was historically the South, and they deserved full equality everywhere else in the United States. Haywood believed that only with genuine political power, which from a Marxist point of view included control of the productive forces, such as land, could African Americans obtain genuine equality. Their gaining of equality was a prerequisite for broader working class unity.

Most of those in the CPUSA who disagreed with Haywood considered the question of African-American oppression a matter of racial prejudice with moral roots, rather than an economic and political question of national oppression. They saw it as a problem to be solved under Socialism and in no need of special attention until after the institution of the revolutionary Dictatorship of the Proletariat. They criticized him for falling "into the bourgeois liberal trap of regarding the fight for equality as primarily a fight against racial prejudices of whites." To this charge, Haywood countered that the category of "race" is a mystification. He believed that relying on race and ignoring economic questions could only alienate African Americans and inhibit working-class unity.

Following the Great Migration of millions of blacks to the North and Midwest, accompanied by their urbanization, critics attempted to use statistics to counter the Black Belt theory and show there no longer was a black nation centered in the South. In his 1957 article, "For a Revolutionary Position on the Negro Question", Haywood responded that the question of an oppressed nation in the South was not one of "nose counting."

Harry Haywood's 1948 book, Negro Liberation,  was the first major study of the African-American national question written by an African-American Marxist. He argued that the root of the oppression of Blacks was the unsolved agrarian question in the South. He believed that the unfinished bourgeois democratic revolution of Reconstruction had been betrayed in the Hayes-Tilden Compromise of 1877. It abandoned African Americans to plantations as tenant farmers and sharecroppers, faced with the Redeemer governments, the system of Jim Crow laws, and the terror of the Ku Klux Klan and other paramilitary groups. According to Haywood, the rise of imperialism left blacks frozen as "landless, semi-slaves in the South." According to Haywood's autobiography, Paul Robeson subsidized his work on the project by offering $100 a month. It was translated and published in Russian, Polish, German, Czech and Hungarian. It was reprinted in 1976 by Liberator Press, the publishing arm of the October League. Haywood argued that "the position of the book was not new, but a reaffirmation of the revolutionary position developed at the Sixth Comintern Congress in 1928. The heart of this position is that the problem is fundamentally a question of an oppressed nation with full rights of self-determination. It emphasized the revolutionary essence of the struggle for Black equality arising from the fact that the special oppression of Blacks is a main prop of the system of imperialist domination over the entire working class and the masses of exploited American people. Therefore the struggle for Black liberation is a component part of the struggle for proletarian revolution. It is the historic task of the working-class movement, as it advances on the road to socialism, to solve the problem of land and freedom of the Black masses." On the other hand, Haywood went on to write, "What was new in the book was the thorough analysis of the concrete conditions of Black people in the post-war period. I made extensive use of population data; the 1940 census, the 1947 Plantation Count and other sources, in order to show that the present day conditions affirmed the essential correctness of the position we had formulated years before." Because of this and other works, Robert F. Williams called Harry Haywood "one of the modern pioneers in the Black liberation struggle."

Expulsion from the CPUSA
Following the death of Stalin in 1953 and Nikita Khrushchev's rise to power, the CPUSA followed Khrushchev's policy of destalinization and "peaceful coexistence". Long an admirer of Mao Zedong, Harry Haywood was one of the pioneers of the anti-revisionist movement born out of the growing Sino-Soviet split. He was driven out of the CPUSA in the late 1950s along with many others who took firm anti-revisionist or pro-Stalin positions.

The CPUSA's decision to change its position on the African-American national question was a central factor in Haywood's expulsion. Though the CPUSA had not been as active in the South since the dissolution of the Sharecroppers Union, in 1959 the CPUSA officially dropped its demand for self-determination for African Americans there. (The demand had been dropped earlier when Browder liquidated the party in 1944.) The CPUSA instead held that as American capitalism developed, so too would Black-White unity.

In 1957 he wrote "For a Revolutionary Position on the Negro Question" (later published by Liberator Press) but was unsuccessful at changing the direction of the Party. In 1959, Haywood, although no longer a functioning party member, attempted to intervene one last time. He wrote "On the Negro Question", which was distributed at the Seventeenth National Convention by and in the name of African Blood Brotherhood founder Cyril Briggs. This was not effective, however, as most of Haywood's potential allies had already been expelled from the CPUSA in the name of combatting "left"-sectarianism and dogmatism.

In Haywood's view, "White chauvinism" in the party, rather than an accurate analysis of the economic issues, had caused the change in position. He also argued that the change prevented the CPUSA from giving appropriate leadership as the Civil Rights Movement developed. He believed the Party was left behind actions of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the NAACP. The Party was even more alienated from the militant Black Power Movement that was to follow.

Political Activities 1950s–1980s

Haywood and his wife Gwendolyn Midlo Hall were among the founders of the Provisional Organizing Committee for a Communist Party (POC), formed in New York City in August 1958 by 83 mostly Black and Puerto Rican and White trade unionists, mainly coal miners from Williamsport, Pennsylvania and maritime workers. Its membership included Theodore W. Allen, best known later for his "White skin privilege" theory and widely acclaimed historical writings. According to Haywood, the POC rapidly degenerated into an isolated, dogmatic, ultraleft sect, completely removed from any political practice. Nevertheless, the (POC) did release many highly trained organizers from the dead hand of the CPUSA as the civil rights and the black power movement began to hit the streets. In 1964, Haywood worked in Harlem with Jesse Gray, leader of the Harlem Rent Strike and Tenants' Union later elected to the New York State Legislature from Harlem. Haywood worked with Malcolm X in 1964 until his assassination in 1965, and with James Haughton and Josh Lawrence in Harlem Fight-Back, then in Oakland, California, in 1966, then in Detroit, Michigan, with the Detroit Revolutionary Union Movement (DRUM) and the League of Revolutionary Black Workers. Haywood then returned to Mexico for a short time and then to the United States permanently in 1970 invited by Vincent Harding, then Director of the Institute for the Black World in Atlanta, Georgia.

In 1964, Haywood began to become involved with the New Communist Movement, the goal of which was to found a new vanguard Communist Party on an anti-revisionist basis, believing the CPUSA to have deviated irrevocably from Marxism-Leninism. He later worked in one of the newly formed Maoist groups of the New Communist Movement, the October League, which became the Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist). In the CP(M-L) Haywood served on the Central Committee. He published his autobiography Black Bolshevik although some of his important writings and political life during the 1960s were edited out. For example, the manuscript he wrote with the acknowledged collaboration with Gwendolyn Midlo Hall and was dedicated to Robert F. Williams was not mentioned. This work, circulated in mimeographed form from early 1964 throughout California and the Deep South, deeply influenced the armed self-defense movement against the Ku Klux Klan during 1964 and 1965 and projected a slogan widely picked up throughout the Deep South that we must pose our own challenge to order and stability to counter the challenge posed by "massive resistance" by Southern politicians and racist terrorists. Black Bolshevik became an important book widely cited by scholars and read by the wider public as well. Through it and his other writings, Haywood provided ideological leadership far beyond the New Communist Movement. Haywood's theoretical contributions had a substantial impact on the major, and numerous warring factions of the New Communist Movement well beyond his own CP(M-L), including, for example, the League of Revolutionary Struggle (Marxist-Leninist), the early Revolutionary Communist Party, the Revolutionary Workers Headquarters and the Communist Workers Party. Nonetheless, lack of experience, sectarianism, and voluntarism played a major role in keeping the young Maoist groups from taking a strong leading role. In his last published article, Haywood wrote that the New Communist movement spent too much time and energy seeking the "franchise" of governments and parties outside the United States without validating itself among the people of our own country.

Haywood's theoretical contributions to questions of African-American national oppression and national liberation remain highly valued by the Ray O. Light Group, which developed out of an anti-revisionist split from the Communist Party USA in 1961, Freedom Road Socialist Organization, which was originally formed from the mergers of several New Communist Movement groups in the 1980s, and the Maoist Internationalist Movement as well as by many black revolutionaries and activists today. Haywood's role in the black protest movements during the 1960s through the 1980s can be studied at the Harry Haywood Papers, Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in New York City and Harry Haywood Collection, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Haywood's theoretical innovations have been influential in a range of scholarship including historical materialism, geography, Marxist education, and social movement theory, among others.

Marriage and family
In 1920, Haywood married a woman named Hazel, but they separated the same year.

While he was in Los Angeles in the late 1930s or 1940, he married Belle Lewis, whom he had known for years. They divorced in 1955.

In 1956, Haywood married Gwendolyn Midlo, a Jewish activist from New Orleans, Louisiana. She has been active in civil rights throughout her life. She also has become a prominent historian of slavery in the United States and Latin America, and of the African diaspora. She made her academic career at Rutgers University. They had three children, whom Midlo Hall mostly provided for alone. They are Dr. Haywood Hall (b. 1956), Dr. Rebecca Hall (b. 1963), and a third child from a previous marriage, Leonid A. Yuspeh (b. 1951.)

Haywood and Midlo Hall remained married until his death in 1985. Between 1953 and 1964, they collaborated on numerous articles, including some published in Soulbook Magazine, founded in Berkeley, California, in 1964. She did not follow him into the New Communist Movement, and they mostly lived apart after late 1964. Shortly before Haywood's expulsion from the Communist Party, he moved with his family to Mexico City, Mexico. During these years, Midlo Hall earned her bachelor's and master's degrees in history at Mexico City College. She returned with Haywood to the United States in 1964 working as a temporary legal secretary, started teaching in North Carolina in 1965, enrolled in graduate school in 1966, and earned her doctorate in 1970 at the University of Michigan. From there, she went to work as an assistant professor at Rutgers University, where she made her academic career and advanced to full professor. Midlo Hall has taught Africans in the Atlantic World at Michigan State University, as Adjunct Professor of History.

Death and legacy
Haywood died in January 1985, and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia. (Columbarium Court 1, Section LL, Column 7, 2nd Row from bottom.  Interred under birth name "Haywood Hall.")  He had a service-related disability and spent the last few years of his life at a Veterans Administration medical facility.  The Harry Haywood papers are housed at the Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, and at the Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Books Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York City.
In Richard Wright's autobiographical novel Black Boy (American Hunger), the character of Buddy Nealson is said to represent Haywood.

See also
Communists in the United States Labor Movement (1919–37)
Communists in the United States Labor Movement (1937–50)
The Communist Party USA and African-Americans
Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
Timeline of Racial Tension in Omaha, Nebraska
Black nationalism
Black separatism

Footnotes

Other sources consulted

 Max Elbaum, Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals Turn to Lenin, Mao, and Che. New York: Verso, 2006.
 William Z. Foster, History of the Communist Party of the United States. New York: International Publishers, 1952.
 Lance Hill,Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
 Robin D.G. Kelley, Hammer & Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1990.
 William Eric Perkins, "Harry Haywood (1898-1985)," in Mari Jo Buhle, Paul Buhle, Dan Georgakas, Eds. Encyclopedia of the American Left. New York: Garland, 1990.
 Cedric J. Robinson, Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.

Works

 The Communist Position on the Negro Question. With Earl Browder and Clarence Hathaway. New York: Workers Library Publishers, 1931.
 Lynching: A Weapon of National Oppression. With Milton Howard. New York: International Publishers, 1932.
 The Road to Negro Liberation: Report to the Eighth Convention of the Communist Party of the USA. New York: Workers Library Publishers, 1934.
 The South Comes North in Detroit's Own Scottsboro Case. New York: League of Struggle for Negro Rights, n.d. [1930s].
 Negro Liberation. New York: International Publishers, 1948. —Reissued by Liberator Press, Chicago, 1976.
  Articles from Soulbook, 1965–1967.
 Harry Haywood, For a Revolutionary Position on the Negro Question. Chicago: Liberator Press, 1975.
 Harry Haywood, Black Bolshevik: Autobiography of an Afro-American Communist. Liberator Press, Chicago: 1978.

Further reading

 Dawson, Michael C. Black Visions. The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies. University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 2001.
 Foster, William Z. History of the Communist Party of the United States. International Publishers, New York: 1952.
 Foster, William Z. The Negro People in American History. International Publishers, New York: 1954.
 Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. Defying Dixie. The Radical Roots of Civil Rights 1919–1950. W.W. Norton & Company, New York 2008.
 Howard, Walter T. Black Communists Speak on Scottsboro. A Documentary History. Temple University Press, Philadelphia: 2008.
 Howard, Walter T. We Shall Be Free!: Black Communist Protests in Seven Voices. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2013.
 Kelley, Robin D. G. Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill: 1990.
 Kelley, Robin D. G. and Betsy Esch, "Black Like Mao: Red China and Black Revolution", in Afro-Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections Between African Americans and Asian Americans. Fred Ho and Bill V. Mullen, Eds. Duke University Press, Durham: 2008; pp. 97–155.
 Solomon, Mark.The Cry Was Unity. Communists and African Americans, 1917–1936. University of Mississippi Press, Jackson: 1998.

External links

Harry Haywood Internet Archive
Documents from School on Afro-American National Question. Important texts from New Communist Movement groups based on theories put forward by Haywood.
The Third International and the Struggle for a Correct Line on the African American National Question. May 2006 text presented by Freedom Road Socialist Organization to the Workers Party of Belgium
Harry Haywood Papers Bentley Historical Library, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

1898 births
1985 deaths
Activists for African-American civil rights
Members of the Communist Party USA
African-American life in Omaha, Nebraska
American Comintern people
Marxist theorists
American Maoists
Abraham Lincoln Brigade members
20th-century African-American politicians
Anti-revisionists
Politicians from Omaha, Nebraska
American sailors
Military personnel from Omaha, Nebraska
United States Army soldiers
African-American trade unionists
American expatriates in the Soviet Union
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Communist University of the Toilers of the East alumni
International Lenin School alumni
African-American communists
African-American history of Nebraska
African-American Marxists

Harry Haywood


Flensburg (; Danish and ; ; ) is an independent town in the north of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Flensburg is the north of the region of Schleswig. After Kiel and Lübeck, it is the third-largest town in Schleswig-Holstein.

Flensburg's city centre lies about  from the Danish border.

Known for
In Germany, Flensburg is known for:
 the Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt (roughly: National Driver and Vehicle Register) with its Verkehrssünderkartei (literally: "traffic sinner card file"), where details of traffic offences are stored
 its beer Flensburger Pilsener, also called "Flens"
 the centre of the Danish national minority in Germany
 the greeting Moin
 the large erotic mail-order companies Beate Uhse and Orion
 its handball team, SG Flensburg-Handewitt
 the Naval Academy at Mürwik
 being the final seat of the Third Reich from 1 May 1945, following Adolf Hitler's death, until the Third Reich's final, formal dissolution in early June 1945.

Geography

Flensburg is in the north of the German state Schleswig-Holstein, very close to the German-Danish border. After Westerland, on the island of Sylt, it is Germany's northernmost town. Flensburg lies at the innermost tip of the Flensburg Firth, an inlet of the Baltic Sea. Flensburg's eastern shore is part of the Anglia peninsula.

Neighbouring municipalities
Clockwise from the northeast, beginning at the German shore of the Flensburg Firth, the following communities in Schleswig-Flensburg district and Denmark's Southern Denmark Region all border Flensburg:

Glücksburg (Amt-free town), Wees (Amt Langballig), Maasbüll, Hürup, Tastrup and Freienwill (all in Amt Hürup), Jarplund-Weding, Handewitt (Amt Handewitt), Harrislee (Amt-free community) and Aabenraa Municipality on the Danish shore of the Flensburg Firth.

Constituent communities
The town of Flensburg is divided into 13 communities, which are further divided into 38 statistical areas. Constituent communities have a two-digit number and the statistical areas a three-digit number.

The communities with their statistical areas:

01 Altstadt (Old Town) Lies somewhat down towards the sea rather than right downtown.
011 St. Nikolai (Danish: Skt. Nikolaj)
012 St. Marien
013 Nordertor (Danish: Nørreport)
02 Neustadt (Danish: Nystaden)
021 Duburg (Danish: Duborg)
022 Neustadt Nord
03 Nordstadt (Danish: Nordstaden)
031 Kreuz (Danish: Kors)
032 Galwik (Danish: Galvig)
033 Klues (Danish: Klus)
04 Westliche Höhe
041 Stadtpark (Danish: Byparken)
042 Marienhölzung (Danish: Frueskov)
043 St. Gertrud
044 Friedhof
05 Friesischer Berg (Danish: Friserbjerg)
051 Exe (Danish: Exe or Eksercerløkke)
052 Museumsberg
053 Friedenshügel (Danish: Fredshøj)
06 Weiche (Danish: Sporskifte)
061 Sophienhof (Danish: Sophiegård)
062 Schäferhaus (Danish: Skæferhus)
07 Südstadt
071 Martinsberg (Danish: Martinsbjerg)
072 Rude (Danish: Ryde)
073 Peelwatt (Danish: Pælevad)
08 Sandberg (Danish: Sandbjerg)
081 Achter de Möhl (Danish: Fiskergaarden)
082 Adelbylund
083 Sünderup (Danish: Synderup)
09 Jürgensby (Danish: Jørgensby)
091 St. Johannis (Danish: Sankt Hans)
092 St. Jürgen (Danish: Sankt Jørgen)
093 Jürgensgaard (Danish: Jørgensgaard)
094 Sender Flensburg-Jürgensby
10 Fruerlund
101 Blasberg (Danish: Blæsbjerg)
102 Bohlberg  (Danish: Bolsbjerg)
103 Fruerlund Hof
11 Mürwik (Danish: Mørvig)
111 Stützpunkt
112 Osbek (Danish: Osbæk)
113 Wasserloos (Danish: Vandløs)
114 Friedheim
115 Solitüde (Danish: Solitude)
12 Engelsby
121 Engelsby Süd
122 Vogelsang (Danish: Fuglsang)
13 Tarup
130 Tarup

History

Middle Ages

Flensburg was founded at the latest by 1200 at the innermost end of the Flensburg Firth by Danish settlers, who were soon joined by German merchants. In 1284, its town rights were confirmed and the town quickly became one of the most important in the Duchy of Schleswig. Unlike Holstein, Schleswig did not belong to the German Holy Roman Empire. Therefore, Flensburg was not a member of the Hanseatic League, but did maintain contacts with it.

Historians presume that there were several reasons this spot was chosen for settlement:
Shelter from heavy winds
A trade route between Holstein and North Jutland (namely the Hærvejen or Ochsenweg, a series of roads between Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein and Jutland, possibly dating from the Bronze Age)
 The Angelnway: a trade route between North Frisia and Angeln
A good herring fishery

Herrings, especially kippered, brought about the blossoming of the town's trade in the Middle Ages. They were sent inland and to almost every European country.

On 28 October 1412, Queen Margaret I of Denmark died of the plague aboard a ship in Flensburg Harbour.

From time to time plagues such as bubonic plague, caused mainly by rat fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis, a parasite found on brown rats), "red" dysentery and other scourges killed much of Flensburg's population. Lepers were strictly isolated at the St.-Jürgen-Hospital (Helligåndshospital, built before 1290), far outside the town's gates, where St. Jürgen Church is now. About 1500, syphilis also appeared. The church hospital "Zum Heiligen Geist" ("To the Holy Ghost") stood in Große Straße, now Flensburg's pedestrian precinct.

A Flensburger's everyday life was very hard, and the old roads and paths were bad. The main streets were neither paved nor lit at night. When the streets became really bad, citizens made the dung-filled streets passable with wooden pathways. Only the few upper-class houses had windows. In 1485, a great fire struck Flensburg. Storm tides also beset the town occasionally. Every household in the town kept livestock in the house and the yard. Townsfolk furthermore had their own cowherds and a swineherd.

Early modern times
After the fall of the Hanseatic League in the 16th century, Flensburg was said to be one of the most important trading towns in the Scandinavian area. Flensburg merchants were active as far away as the Mediterranean, Greenland, and the Caribbean. The most important commodities, after herring, were sugar and whale oil, the latter from whaling off Greenland. But the Thirty Years' War put an end to this boom time. The town was becoming Protestant and thereby ever more German culturally and linguistically, while the neighbouring countryside remained decidedly Danish.

In the 18th century, thanks to the rum trade, Flensburg had yet another boom. Cane sugar was imported from the Danish West Indies (now the US Virgin Islands) and refined in Flensburg. Only in the 19th century, as a result of industrialization, was the town at last outstripped by the competition from cities such as Copenhagen and Hamburg.

The rum produced in Flensburg was then reintegrated into West Indian trade routes, which as of 1864 moved away from the Danish West Indies to the British colony of Jamaica instead. It was imported from there, blended, and sold all over Europe. There is now only one active rum distillery in Flensburg, "A. H. Johannsen".

History as a German town
Between 1460 and 1864, Flensburg was, after Copenhagen, the Kingdom of Denmark's second-biggest port, but it passed to the Kingdom of Prussia after the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The Battle of Flensburg was on February 6, 1864: near the city a small Hungarian mounted regiment chased a Danish infantry and Dragoon regiment. A sizable Danish community remains in the town. Some estimates put the percentage of Flensburgers who belong to it as high as 25%; other estimates put it much lower. The SSW political party representing the minority usually gains 20–25% of the votes in local elections, but not all its voters are Danes. Before 1864, more than 50% belonged to what is now the minority; even today there are many Danish surnames in the Flensburg telephone directory (Asmussen, Claussen, Jacobsen, Jensen, Petersen, etc.). But the upper classes and the learned at that time were German, and since 1864, the German language has prevailed in the town.

On 1 April 1889, Flensburg became an independent city (kreisfreie Stadt) within the Province of Schleswig-Holstein, and at the same time still kept its status as seat of the Flensburg district. In 1920, the League of Nations decided that the matter of the German–Danish border would be settled by a vote. As a result of the plebiscite, and the way the voting zones were laid out, some of Flensburg's northern neighbourhoods were ceded to Denmark, whereas Flensburg as a whole voted by a large margin to stay in Germany.

In return for this pro-German vote, Flensburg was given a large hall, the "Deutsches Haus", which the government endowed as "thanks for German loyalty".

During the Second World War, the town was left almost unscathed by the air raids that devastated other German cities. But in 1943, 20 children died when a nursery school was bombed, and shortly after the war ended, an explosion at a local munitions storage site claimed many victims.

In 1945, Admiral Karl Dönitz, who was briefly President (Reichspräsident) of Nazi Germany after Adolf Hitler appointed him his successor and then killed himself, fled to Flensburg with what was left of his government. The so-called Flensburg Government, led by Dönitz, was in power from 1 May, the announcement of Hitler's death, for one week, until German troops surrendered and the town was occupied by Allied troops. The regime was effectively dissolved on 23 May, when the British Army arrested Dönitz and his ministers in Mürwik and detained them in the Navy School in Mürwik (). The Berlin Declaration promulgated on 5 June formalized the dissolution. Flensburg was therefore, for a few weeks, the seat of the last Third Reich government.

Since the Second World War
After the Second World War, the town's population broke the 100,000 mark for a short time, making Flensburg a city (Großstadt) under one traditional definition. The population later sank below that mark.

In 1945, after the suicide of Joseph Goebbels, the Dönitz Cabinet moved to Flensburg as Berlin was under assault by the Soviets and since Denmark and areas around Kiel were still under firm German hands.

In the years after the Second World War, South Schleswig, and particularly Flensburg, had a strong pro-Danish movement connected with the idea of the "Eider Politics". Its goal was for the town and all or most of Schleswig, the whole area north of the Eider River, to be united with Denmark. After 1945, Flensburg's town council was for years dominated by Danish parties, and the town had a Danish mayor.

The town profited from the planned location of military installations. Since German Reunification, the number of soldiers has dropped to about 8,000. Since Denmark's entry into the European Economic Community (now the European Union), border trade has played an important role in Flensburg's economic life. Some Danish businesses, such as Danfoss, have set up shop just south of the border for tax reasons.

In 1970, the Flensburg district was expanded to include the municipalities in the Amt of Medelby, formerly in the Südtondern district, and in 1974 it was united with the Schleswig district to form the district of Schleswig-Flensburg, whose district seat was the town of Schleswig. Flensburg thereby lost its function as a district seat but remained an independent (district-free) town.

Amalgamations
Until the middle of the 19th century, Flensburg's municipal area comprised an area of 2 639 ha. Beginning in 1874, the following communities or rural areas (Gemarkungen) were annexed to the town of Flensburg:

Population development
Population figures are for respective municipal areas through time. Until 1870, figures are mostly estimates, and thereafter census results (¹) or official projections from either statistical offices or the town administration itself.

¹ Census results

Danish minority

The Danish minority in Flensburg and the surrounding towns runs its own schools, libraries, and Lutheran churches, from which the German majority is not excluded. These two groups' coexistence is considered a sound and healthy symbiosis. A form of mixed Danish–German, Petuh, is used on the ferries.

There is also a Danish Consulate-General in Flensburg.

In Denmark, Flensburg seems to be mainly known for its "border shops" where, among other things, spirits, beer and candy are for sale at lower prices than in Denmark. The prices are lower because the value-added tax is lower and excise taxes are either lower (e.g., on alcohol) or do not exist (e.g., on sugar). The border shops may sell canned beer to Scandinavia residents without paying deposits as long as it is not consumed in Germany.

Politics
For centuries, two mayors led the town council, one for the north town (St. Marien) and one for the south town (St. Nikolai and St. Johannis). The council members and mayors were chosen by the council itself: retiring officials' successors were named by the remaining councillors in such a way that both halves of the town had as many members. These councillors usually bore the title "Senator".

This "town government" lasted until 1742 when the "northern mayor" was made the "directing mayor" by the Danish King. From this position came what was later known as the First Mayor. The second mayor simply bore the title "mayor" ("Bürgermeister"). After the town was ceded to Prussia, the townsfolk elected the mayors as of 1870, and the First Mayor was given the title Oberbürgermeister, still the usual title in German towns and cities. During the Third Reich, the town head was appointed by those who held power locally.

In 1945, after the Second World War, a twofold leadership based on a British model was introduced. Heading the town stood foremost the Oberbürgermeister, who was chosen by the town council and whose job was as chairman of council and the municipality. Next to him was an Oberstadtdirektor ("Higher Town Director"), who was leader of administration. In 1950, when Schleswig-Holstein brought its new laws for municipalities into force, the title Oberbürgermeister was transferred (once again) to this latter official. At first, and for a while, he was chosen by the council. Since that time, the former official has been called the Stadtpräsident ("Town President"), and is likewise chosen by the council after each municipal election. Since 1999, the Oberbürgermeister has been chosen directly by the voters, as before.

The first directly elected Oberbürgermeister, Hermann Stell, died on 4 May 2004 of a stroke. On 14 November 2004, the independent candidate suggested by the CDU, Klaus Tscheuschner, was elected to replace Stell with 59% of the vote. In the 2003 municipal election, Hans Hermann Laturnus was elected Stadtpräsident.

In the 2008 municipal election, the local list WiF (Wir in Flensburg) was elected the largest group in the Council Assembly of Flensburg, with 10 city councillors out of 43, closely followed by the South Schleswig Voter Federation (Südschleswigscher Wählerverband) (9 councillors) and the CDU (9 councillors). Also elected was the SPD (seven councillors), the Greens (3 councillors), the Left (3 councillors) and the FDP (2 councillors). Nevertheless, since the WiF-group was divided into two different caucuses, the SSW-group has been the assembly's largest group. The City President is Christian Dewanger (WiF).

In the 2010 mayoral election, Simon Faber (SSW) was elected Lord Mayor of the town in a runoff election with 54.8% of the vote. He was the first person from the Danish Minority to occupy this office since the end of World War II.

Mayor
The mayor of Flensburg is Fabian Geyer, who was elected in 2022. He took office on 15 January 2023.

City council

The Flensburg city council governs the city alongside the mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 14 May 2023, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party
! Votes
! %
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| South Schleswig Voters' Association (SSW)
| 6,785
| 24.8
|  7.2
| 11
|  3
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
| 6,470
| 23.6
|  4.8
| 10
|  2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
| 5,248
| 19.1
|  0.2
| 8
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
| 3,703
| 13.5
|  4.7
| 6
|  2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
| 1,553
| 5.7
|  2.1
| 2
|  1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
| 1,133
| 4.1
|  3.3
| 2
|  1
|-
|
| align=left| We in Flensburg (WiF)
| 670
| 2.4
|  6.1
| 1
|  3
|-
|
| align=left| Solidarity City Alliance (BüsoS)
| 571
| 2.1
|  2.1
| 1
|  1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Grassroots Democratic Party of Germany (dieBasis)
| 525
| 1.9
|  1.9
| 1
|  1
|-
|
| align=left| Flensburg Votes! (FLW)
| 429
| 1.5
|  0.7
| 1
| ±0
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Volt Germany (Volt)
| 328
| 1.2
|  1.2
| 1
|  1
|-
! colspan=2| Valid votes
! 27,406
! 99.2
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=2| Invalid votes
! 219
! 0.8
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=2| Total
! 27,625
! 100.0
!
! 44
!  1
|-
! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout
! 77,296
! 35.7
!  0.1
!
!
|-
| colspan=7| Source: City of Flensburg
|}

The result of the election held 6 May 2018 were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party
! Votes
! %
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
| 5,233
| 19.4
|  2.7
| 8
|  2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
| 5,088
| 18.8
|  6.3
| 8
|  3
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
| 4,930
| 18.2
|  2.5
| 8
|  1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| South Schleswig Voters' Association (SSW)
| 4,756
| 17.6
|  1.4
| 8
| ±0
|-
|
| align=left| We in Flensburg (WiF)
| 2,320
| 8.6
|  6.4
| 4
|  2
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
| 2,087
| 7.7
|  3.6
| 3
|  1
|-
| bgcolor=|
| align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
| 2,021
| 7.5
|  3.8
| 3
|  1
|-
|
| align=left| Flensburg Votes! (FLW)
| 599
| 2.2
|  0.7
| 1
| ±0
|-
! colspan=2| Valid votes
! 27,034
! 98.9
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=2| Invalid votes
! 288
! 1.1
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=2| Total
! 27,322
! 100.0
!
! 43
! ±0
|-
! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout
! 76,827
! 35.6
!  0.3
!
!
|-
| colspan=7| Source: City of Flensburg
|}

Coat of arms
Flensburg's coat of arms shows in gold above blue and silver waves rising to the left a six-sided red tower with a blue pointed roof, breaking out of which, one above the other, are the two lions of Schleswig and Denmark; above is a red shield with the silver Holsatian nettle leaf on it. The town's flag is blue, overlaid with the coat of arms in colour.

The lions symbolize Schleswig, and the nettle leaf Holstein, thus expressing the town's unity with these two historic lands. The tower recalls Flensburg's old town rights and the old castle that was the town's namesake (Burg means "castle"). The waves refer to the town's position on the Flensburg Fjord.

The coat of arms was granted the town by King Wilhelm II of Prussia in 1901, and once again in modified, newly approved form on 19 January 1937 by Schleswig-Holstein's High President (Oberpräsident)

Twin towns – sister cities

Flensburg is twinned with:
 Carlisle, England, United Kingdom
 Neubrandenburg, Germany
 Słupsk, Poland

Economy and infrastructure

Energy

The town has a well-established Combined Heat and Power and District Heating scheme, installed between 1970 and 1980. It is owned by the town.

Transport
West of Flensburg runs the A 7 Autobahn, leading north to the Danish border, whence it continues as European route E45. Federal Highways (Bundesstraßen) B 200 and B 199 also pass through the municipal area.

West of the town lies the Flensburg-Schäferhaus airport.

Local transport is provided by several buslines, including Aktiv Bus GmbH and Allgemeinen Flensburger Autobus Gesellschaft (AFAG). They all operate on an integrated fare system within the Flensburg transport community (Verkehrsgemeinschaft Flensburg). They also all subscribe to the Schleswig-Holstein tariff system, whereby anyone travelling from anywhere in Schleswig-Holstein or Hamburg may use Flensburg buses free to connect with their final destinations. This works both ways: a rider boarding any bus in Flensburg need only name a destination anywhere in Schleswig-Holstein or Hamburg, pay the fare, and travel to that destination on one ticket.

The Flensburg station opened in 1927 south of the Old Town. From there, trains run on the main line to Neumünster, Hamburg, and Fredericia, among them some InterCity connections as well as trains serving the line running to Eckernförde and Kiel. Another stop for regional trains to Neumünster is in Flensburg-Weiche. The stretch of line to Niebüll has been out of service since 1981, efforts to open it again notwithstanding. The secondary line to Husum and lesser lines to Kappeln and Satrup no longer exist. The tramway, which opened in 1881 to horse-drawn trams, was electrified in 1906, and at one point ran four lines, was replaced by buses in 1973.

Media

In Flensburg, the Flensburger Tageblatt, from the Schleswig-Holsteinischer Zeitungsverlag (newspaper publisher) is published daily, as is the bilingual (German and Danish) Flensborg Avis. There are also two weekly advertising flyers, MoinMoin (named for a common regional greeting) and Wochenschau (Newsweek) as well as an illustrated town paper (Flensburg Journal), the Flensburg "campus newspaper" and a town magazine (Partout). Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR) runs one of its oldest studios near the Deutsches Haus. Flensburg is the site of a number of radio transmission facilities: on the Fuchsberg in the community of Engelsby, Norddeutscher Rundfunk runs a transmission facility for VHF, television and medium wave. A cage aerial is mounted on a  guyed, earthed steel-lattice mast. This transmitter is successor to the Flensburg transmitter through which Germany's surrender was announced on 8 May 1945.

The broadcasting tower on the Fuchsberg is used for the programmes of Norddeutscher Rundfunk and Danmarks Radio while the countrywide VHF radio programmes of R.SH, delta radio, Deutschlandfunk and Deutschlandradio air from the Flensburg-Freienwill tower.

Flensburg has no local transmitter of its own because Schleswig-Holstein's state broadcasting laws allow only transmitters that broadcast statewide. From 1993 to 1996, "Radio Flensburg" tried to establish a local Flensburg radio station by using a local transmitter just across the border in Denmark, but it had to be shut down, owing to the Danish transmitter's own financial problems. Since October 2006, Radio Flensburg has broadcast as internet radio.

The "Offener Kanal" ("Open Channel") shows programmes made by local citizens seven days a week, mostly in the evenings, and can also be seen on cable television.

Public institutions
Flensburg is home to the following institutions:
Handwerkskammer Flensburg (Chamber of Skilled Crafts)
IHK Flensburg (Chamber of Trade and Industry)
Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt (federal government office for road traffic)

Education
 University of Flensburg has about 6,000 students as of 2019/20. Founded in 1946 as a pedagogical college, it became a university in 1994. Unlike the much larger University of Kiel it is not a full university; theology, medicine, law and some other programs are not offered here. But it does have the right to confer doctorates.
 Fachhochschule Flensburg is a Fachhochschule with more than 3,000 students; in 1886 a royal steamship machinist school was established, out of which developed a ship's engineers' school. From this grew the Fachhochschule for Technology, which was converted into the Fachhochschule Flensburg in 1973, at which time the economics programme was introduced.
 Marineschule Mürwik (Naval Academy at Mürwik), the main educational establishment for all German Navy officers.
 Flensburger Volkshochschule (German Folk high school)
 Voksenundervisningen (Danish)

Also in Flensburg is a complete range of training and professional schools, including a number of Danish ones. Flensburg is home to Schleswig-Holstein's Central State Library, a university library, a town bookshop and the Danish Central Library for South Schleswig, which offers not only intensive courses in Danish, but also, with its "Slesvigsk samling" collection, a vast repository of unique material about the border area's history and culture. Flensburg has an extensive town archive. The Danish minority's archive is housed at the Danish Central Library.

Culture and sightseeing

Theatre
 Schleswig-Holsteinisches Landestheater (at the Stadttheater) and Symphony Orchestra
 Niederdeutsche Bühne der Stadt Flensburg (Low German Stage of the city of Flensburg)
 Det Lille Teater (Danish theatre)
 Theaterwerkstatt Pilkentafel (Theatre Workshop)
 Orpheus-Theater

Archives and libraries
 Town Archive, a very comprehensive collection, at the town hall
 Dansk Centralbibliotek for Sydslesvig, with archive of the Danish minority and Schleswig book collection
 Town Library
 State Central Library and Zentrale Hochschulbibliothek (Central College Library)

Museums
 Museumsberg – Museum for artistic and cultural history
 Schifffahrtsmuseum – Museum for shipping and shipbuilding
 Rummuseum – History of the "Rum Town" of Flensburg.
 Naturwissenschaftliches Museum – Animal and plant worlds of northern Schleswig-Holstein
 Museumshafen – Private initiative for maintaining old traditional working boats mainly from the Baltics (Segelschiffe)
 Museumswerft – Shipbuilding (sail) of bygone centuries. The place also has a children's boatyard.
 Fischereimuseum – Initiative of the fishery association, lies on the old fishery harbour
 Phänomenta – For experiencing and understanding nature and technology
 Salondampfer "Alexandra" – passenger steamer built 1908. The Alexandra regularly makes small trips in the Flensburg Förde (bay)
 Klassische Yachten Flensburg – classic yacht harbour. Private initiative to present classic yachts typical of the Baltics.
 Gerichtshistorische Sammlung – a collection of legal history at the Flensburg State Court
 Bergmühle – Association for maintaining the historic windmill from 1792
 Johannesburger Heimatstube – Documents, pictures and writings from East Prussia

Buildings

Flensburg has a well-preserved Old Town with many things to see from centuries past. Characteristic is the row along the waterfront. Three of the four old town cores are along this north–south axis. The building boom in imperial times led to a partial rebuilding of the Old Town, but without destroying its structure, and leading to notable expansion of the town. Virtually unscathed in the Second World War, Flensburg, like other places in Germany, adopted a policy of getting rid of old buildings and rebuilding in the style of the time. Lack of money limited this trend in Flensburg, but before the policy ended in the late 1970s, countless old buildings had been demolished in the north and east Old Town, to be replaced by newer structures. Despite great losses, Flensburg still has a compact, well-preserved Old Town in the valley with good additions to what was built in the founders' time on the surrounding heights.

Johanniskirche (Flensburg) Johanniskirche (Johannischurch), town's oldest church in the innertown, 12th century
Marienkirche (Flensburg) Marienkirche, High Gothic, Baroque additions, tower from 1885, well decorated
Nikolaikirche (Flensburg) Nikolaikirche, Gothic main church, famous organ design by Hinrich Ringeringk
Heiliggeistkirche (Flensburg) Heiliggeistkirche (Danish: Helligåndskirken), former chapel of the Hospital zum Heiligen Geist
Franziskanerkloster Flensburg Franziskanerkloster, ruins from 1263
Nordertor, a gate, and the town's landmark
Kompagnietor another gate, built in 1602, shipping company and harbour gate
Alt-Flensburger Haus, where the Eckener brothers' parents lived, Norderstraße 8
Flensborghus, a former orphanage, today seat of the Danish minority, Norderstraße 76
Many merchants' houses running from the main streets Holm-Große Straße-Norderstraße, the town's greatest architectural attraction
Südermarkt 9 (market) with the town's oldest house
Nordermarkt (market) with the Schrangen (market hall) and Neptunbrunnen (fountain)
Rote Straße with nice craftsmen's houses
Jürgenstraße with the Gängeviertel ("Warren Neighbourhood", i.e. with very dense building and narrow streets), former suburb.
Oluf-Samson-Gang, picturesque lane with little half-timbered houses, Flensburg's historic red light district.
Row of warehouses
Ship bridge (Schiffbrücke), a long quay on the harbour
Scanty ruins of the town wall, at the Nikolaikirche and at the Franciscan friary
Bergmühle and Johannismühle (mills)
Deutsches Haus, gathering and event hall in the town core
Flensburg station (Main Railway Station), completed in 1929
Town Hall, seventeen-floor cube from 1964, in 1997 totally renovated
Altes Gymnasium, built in 1914, Flensburg's oldest Gymnasium, founded in 1566 as "Gymnasium trilingue" (Latin, Greek, Hebrew)
Duborg Skolen, Flensburg's Danish Gymnasium, as well as other school buildings

Lost buildings
Gertrudenkirche, church in the Ramsharde (former neighbourhood where Neustadt now stands), folded after the Reformation, graveyard maintained until 1822
Jürgen-Hospital, abandoned after the Reformation, the new St. Jürgen-Kirche stands there today
Old Town Hall, 15th century, demolished in 1883
Government building, appellate court and house of the estates, from 1850 to 1864 political centre of the Duchy of Schleswig, gave way to a department store in 1964
Speicher Johannisstraße 78 (warehouse), bombed in 1945
Town fortifications

Others

 Flensburg Fjord
 Old Cemetery, parkland with noteworthy grave markers from the 19th century
 Christiansenspark, remnant of a very big landscape park
 Volkspark in the town's east end
 Marienhölzung (Danish Frueskov), woods in the town's west end

Regular events

May/June: Rumregatta (yearly)
May/June: Danske Årsmøder (yearly)
 June/December: Campusfete (twice yearly)
 June: Rote-Straße-Fest (yearly)
July: Dampf-Rundum (every two years)
 July/August: Flensburger Hofkultur (yearly summer cultural programme)
August: Flensburger Tummelum (Old Town Festival) (every two years)
October: Apfelfahrt des Museumshafen (yearly)
October: "Flensburg Shortfilmfestival" (yearly)
December: Christmas market (yearly)

Notable people

Honorary citizens

The town of Flensburg has bestowed honorary citizenship upon the following persons, listed chronologically:

 1851: Friedrich Ferdinand Tillisch, Minister for the Duchy of Schleswig
 1857: Christian Rønnenkamp, salesman and shipowner
 1867: Edwin Freiherr von Manteuffel, Prussian King's Governor
 1872: Karl von Wrangel, General
 1895: Otto Fürst von Bismarck, Reich Chancellor
 1911: Friedrich Wilhelm Selck, Commercial Councillor
 1917: Heinrich Schuldt, Town Councillor
 1924: Hugo Eckener, Aviation pioneer
 1930: Hermann Bendix Todsen, Oberbürgermeister
 1999: Beate Uhse-Rotermund, aviator and businesswoman

Special Resident

 Isted Lion (unveiled 1862) a war monument, originally in Flensburg, then Berlin, then Copenhagen, now resident again in Flensburg

Sons and daughters of the town

The arts

 Melchior Lorck (1526/27 – after 1583), a renaissance painter, draughtsman and printmaker
 Heinrich Jansen (1625–1667), Danish Baroque painter, court painter to Frederick III of Denmark
 Caius Gabriel Cibber (1630–1700), Danish sculptor, appointed carver to the king's closet by William III of England
 Hermann Vogel (1856–1918), French painter and illustrator, from the Duchy of Schleswig
 Ludwig Dettmann (1865–1944), a German impressionist painter
 Hans Christiansen (1866–1945), artistic craftsman and Art Nouveau founder
 Elvira Madigan (1867–1889), stage name of a Danish tightrope walker and trick rider, whose illicit affair and dramatic death were the subject of a 1967 Swedish film
 Ella Heide (1871–1956), Danish painter, painted in Skagen from 1908
 Wilhelm von Brincken (1881–1946), American character actor and German spy during WW I
 Emmy Hennings (1885–1948), writer, performer, poet and dadaist
 Dieter Thomas Heck (born 1937), German television presenter, singer and actor
 Pippa Steel (1948–1992), British actress
 Peter Lund (born 1965), a theatre director and author

Music
 Carla Spletter (1911–1953), German operatic soprano
 Frank Dostal (born 1945), German songwriter, music producer, and singer with the rock band The Rattles
 Christian Broecking (born 1957), musicologist, music critic, columnist, producer and author
 Andreas Delfs (born 1959), Music Director of the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra
 Dorothea Röschmann (born 1967), opera soprano
 DJ Koze (born 1972), German DJ and music producer
 Kim Frank (born 1982), singer and actor
 Ingrid Verena Timm (born 1985), taus player, singer, musicologist and teacher

Science and religion

 Lütke Namens (1497–1574), the last Franciscan friar in Flensburg and critic of the Reformation
 Thomas Fincke (1561–1656), Danish mathematician, physicist, and professor at the University of Copenhagen
 Heinrich Harries (1762–1802), German Protestant pastor from the Duchy of Schleswig
 Hans Lassen Martensen (1808–1884), Danish bishop and academic
 Theodor von Jürgensen (1840–1907), internist
 Hugo Eckener (1868–1954), pioneer of German Zeppelin aviation
 Carl Wilhelm Otto Werner (1879–1936), German physician, after whom Werner syndrome, a form of progeria, was named
 Hans Asmussen (1898–1968), German Evangelical and Lutheran theologian
 Lorenz Magaard (born 1934), German-American mathematician and oceanographer
 Tim Clausen (born 1969), structural biologist in Vienna, studies pyridoxal phosphate enzymes

Political and public service

 Hans Nansen (1598–1667), Danish statesman and tradesman, travelled to the White Sea, northern Russia and Iceland
 Johan Lorensen (ca.1640–1702), Governor-General of The Danish West Indies
 Christian V (1646–1699), king of Denmark and Norway
 Princess Anna Sophie of Denmark (1647–1717), daughter of King Frederick III of Denmark
 Frederik Krag (1655–1728), Danish nobleman, senior civil servant and Governor-General of Norway
 Johannes Moller (1661–1725), Danish pietist and headmaster
 Georg Waitz (1813–1886), German historian, politician, and disciple of Leopold von Ranke
 Marie Kruse (1842–1923), Danish schoolteacher specializing in educating girls
 Friedrich von Scholtz (1851–1927), general, served in the East and the Balkans during WWI
 Nicholas Asmussen (1871–1941), Flensburg-born Ontario building contractor and political figure
 Peter Voss (1897–1976), SS-Oberscharführer, commander of the crematoria and gas chambers at Auschwitz
 Hans von Luck (1911–1997), army colonel and author of the book Panzer Commander
 Kay Nehm (born 1941), German lawyer, Attorney General of Germany
 Wolfgang Börnsen (born 1942), CDU politician, member of the Bundestag
 Jürgen Storbeck (born 1946), director of Europol
 Bärbel Höhn (born 1952), German politician, member of the Bundestag
 Klaus Tscheuschner (born 1956), Lord Mayor of Flensburg
 Simon Faber (born 1968), German politician, Lord Mayor of Flensburg

Sport
 Charles Meyer (1868–1931), Danish racing cyclist
 Haide Klüglein (born 1939), swimmer
 Kristian Poulsen (born 1975), Danish racing driver
 Sascha Görres (born 1980), footballer in USA
 Kolja Afriyie (born 1982), football defender
 Niels Hansen (born 1983), football midfielder
 Pierre Becken (born 1987), footballer

See also
 Flensburg, Minnesota
 Isted Lion, in German known as the Flensburger Löwe
 Chronicle of the Expulsion of the Grayfriars#Chapter 1 Concerning the Friary in Flensborg
 SG Flensburg-Handewitt

References
Notes

External links

 Flensburg's official website
 Flensburg tourism information
 Flensburg online
 Danish newspaper in Flensburg
 German newspaper in Flensburg
 Museumsberg Flensburg

Towns in Schleswig-Holstein
Port cities and towns of the Baltic Sea
Populated coastal places in Germany (Baltic Sea)

Flensburg


Robert Horton Gundry (born 1932) is an American scholar and retired professor of New Testament studies and Koine Greek.

Life
Gundry was born in 1932 to Norman C. and Lolita (née Hinshaw) Gundry. He is the older brother of Stanley N. Gundry.

Gundry received B.A. and B.D. degrees from the Los Angeles Baptist College and Seminary in the 1950s, and in 1961 a Ph.D. from Manchester University, England, where he worked under F. F. Bruce. For 38 years, beginning in 1962, he taught at Westmont College in Santa Barbara, California. In 1997 the college installed Gundry in its first endowed faculty chair and soon afterwards established also the Robert H. Gundry Chair of Biblical Studies. Upon his retirement in 2000 the college made him professor emeritus and scholar-in-residence. He has been a frequent contributor to periodicals such as Books and Culture and Education and Culture.

Writings and controversies
Besides many articles and reviews that have appeared in scholarly journals, Gundry has published major scholarly commentaries on the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Matthew. The one on Matthew caused a controversy that led to his resignation from the Evangelical Theological Society (ETS) at that society's request in 1983. Voters favoring the request reckoned that the commentary was at odds with the society's affirmation of scriptural inerrancy. Using redaction criticism, Gundry argued that Matthew tailored the story of Jesus, sometimes unhistorically, to meet the needs of the Gospel's intended audience. Especially troubling to many in the ETS was Gundry's contention that Matthew made unhistorical, theologically motivated revisions of the infancy story in Matthew.

Earlier, Gundry had been asked to furnish a commentary on Matthew in the Expositor's Bible Commentary (EBC), a major evangelical series of commentaries published over the course of a decade or more in the 1970s and 1980s, as each section was completed. When he submitted his proposed commentary to Frank Gaebelein, general editor of the series, Gaebelein pronounced the commentary acceptable; but the subeditors Merrill C. Tenney and James M. Boice objected to its use of redaction criticism. Gaebelein pronounced acceptable Gundry's successive revised versions as well; but Tenney and Boice objected again, to both of them, so that D. A. Carson of Trinity Evangelical Divinity School was assigned to write on Matthew. This assignment caused a delay of several years in the publication of the EBC's volume on the Synoptic Gospels. Meanwhile, Eerdmans Publishing Company brought out a longer, more technical version of Gundry's work.

According to Gundry, his work does not call into question the inerrancy of the Gospel of Matthew. He argues, to the contrary, that inerrancy must be considered in the twin lights of authorial intent and acceptable literary standards of the author's time and place, and that Matthew intentionally and acceptably "treats us to history mixed with elements that cannot be called historical in a modern sense."  To be called inerrant, then, Matthew's Gospel need not be measured against standards of modern historical writing. By contrast, says Gundry, "Luke states a historical purpose along lines that run closer to modern history writing ..." These views were supported by a significant portion of the ETS; and after looking into the matter, the society's executive committee cleared Gundry. But a campaign against him, spearheaded by Norman Geisler, resulted in the request that he resign. Against his critics, Gundry has contended that he treats biblical wording more seriously than they do when they construct strained harmonizations to maintain historicity at every point. Outside certain quarters of the ETS, his work is generally considered a model of conservative evangelicalism.

Gundry's other published books include The Use of the Old Testament in St. Matthew's Gospel (based on his doctoral dissertation), Sōma in Biblical Theology (arguing for a physical meaning of "body," even in figurative usage), and The Old Is Better (containing new and revised essays on various topics). His two books The Church and the Tribulation and First the Antichrist undermine the popular view that Christians will be "raptured" out of the world prior to a coming tribulation (see Second Coming).

Yet another book, Jesus the Word according to John the Sectarian, argues that American evangelicalism needs to return, mutatis mutandis, to the enlightened fundamentalism of the early 20th century, as distinct from the obscurantist fundamentalism of the mid-20th century. In 2000 Gundry presented the essence of Jesus the Word at the 30th annual lecture of the Institute for Biblical Research.

Extracurriculars: Teaching Christianly Outside Class contains talks delivered on various occasions at Westmont College, and the title Peter: False Disciple and Apostate according to Saint Matthew is self-explanatory. Gundry's latest book, Re-Views by an Evangelical Biblical Critic, gathers lightly edited, previously published review essays of books and films dealing in biblical text and translation, higher critical issues, literary portraits of Jesus, the relation between the Bible and tradition, and biographical portrayals of people associated with Scripture and its interpretation.

Gundry's textbook, A Survey of the New Testament, has been translated from English into Portuguese, Serbo-Croatian, Korean, Russian, and Turkish and produced as an eighteen-lesson DVD course in English. His Commentary on the New Testament includes his own, literal translation of the entire New Testament and verse-by-verse explanations of its original meaning and contains many independent judgments not found elsewhere in either scholarly or popular literature.

Works

Thesis

Books
  – based on his Ph.D. thesis

  - revised and retitled edition of the 1982 title

Festschriften
In 1994 Gundry was presented with a Festschrift, To Tell the Mystery: Essays on New Testament Eschatology in Honor of Robert H. Gundry (ed. Thomas E. Schmidt and Moisés Silva; Sheffield: JSOT, 1994).
In 2014 a second Festschrift was presented to him: Reconsidering the Relationship between Biblical and Systematic Theology in the New Testament (ed. Benjamin E. Reynolds, Brian Lugioyo, and Kevin J. Vanhoozer; WUNT 2/369; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014).

References

1932 births
Living people
20th-century evangelicals
21st-century evangelicals
Alumni of the University of Manchester
American biblical scholars
New Testament scholars
Westmont College faculty

Robert H. Gundry


Gideon's Trumpet is a 1964 book by Anthony Lewis describing the story behind the 1963 landmark court case Gideon v. Wainwright, in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that criminal defendants have the right to an attorney even if they cannot afford one. In 1965, the book won an Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America for Best Fact Crime book.

A made-for-TV movie, of the same name, based on the book was released in 1980, starring Henry Fonda as Clarence Earl Gideon, José Ferrer as Abe Fortas and John Houseman as Earl Warren (though Warren's name was never mentioned in the film; he was billed simply as "The Chief Justice"). Houseman also provided the offscreen closing narration at the end of the film.  Lewis himself appeared in a small role as "The Reporter". The movie was a Hallmark Hall of Fame presentation produced by Worldvision, and aired on CBS.

The name is a play on words, using the defendant's last name and invoking the biblical story in which Gideon ordered his small force to attack a much larger enemy camp. Gideon's army carried trumpets and concealed torches in clay pots. When the call to attack came, the noise and light they made tricked their enemies into thinking that a much larger army was attacking them. Thus, Gideon won the battle with little actual fighting (Judges 7:16-22).

See also
 Clarence Earl Gideon
 Gideon v. Wainwright

References
 Anthony Lewis, Gideon's Trumpet. New York: Vintage Books/Random House, 1964. (most of the book's material previously published in the New Yorker in 1964 in a different form)
 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 64:11986.

1964 non-fiction books
American non-fiction books
Law books
1980 television films
1980 films
1980 drama films
American courtroom films
Courtroom dramas
American docudrama films
Edgar Award-winning works
Hallmark Hall of Fame episodes
Peabody Award-winning broadcasts
1980s prison films
1980s legal films
Random House books
Hebrew Bible words and phrases
American drama television films
1980s American films

Gideon's Trumpet


The Ensenada de Barragán ("Barragán's Bay, or Cove") is a small bay on the Río de la Plata, some  southeast of Buenos Aires, Argentina. The area is in the Ensenada district of Buenos Aires province, centred on the city of the Ensenada. The old cove has partly silted since the 17th century, and the area is now considered to be part of Isla Santiago (Santiago Island).

The coastal region was first mapped by Magellan in 1520 in his trip around the world; the bay itself was settled by Hernandarias in the early 17th century. In 1629, the land was sold to Antonio Gutiérrez Barragán, hence its toponymy. The town itself was founded in 1801.

Until the middle of the 19th century, the bay provided a good natural port. The cove was fortified by the Spanish governors, and later by the Viceroys of the River Plate, several times with batteries and a defensive wall. The place came to be known as "Fuerte Barragán" (Fort Barragán, see below).
With the foundation of the new capital of Buenos Aires province (La Plata) in 1882, a new port was built between Ensenada and the nearby town of Berisso. The port relies on a dredged channel cutting through the silt of Barragán Bay and Santiago Island (and another natural channel called "Río Santiago") to connect La Plata with the River Plate. The new haven is now known as Port of La Plata, and it is mostly used for industrial freight.

Fuerte Barragán: A defensive battery on the River Plate

On 2 January 1801 Viceroy Marqués de Avilés granted Colonel Pedro Cerviño the settlement of a town at the Ensenada de Barragán. He was also responsible for building the first defensive wall at Fuerte Barragán (Fort Barragán), as well as its eight-cannon battery.

The Ensenada de Barragán played an important role during the British invasions of the Rio de la Plata. In June 1806, Fort Barragán was commanded by Santiago de Liniers and repulsed the first landing of the British under General Beresford; the invading army was forced to come ashore at Quilmes, some  upstream. On the second British invasion in June 1807, however, the fort was left unmanned and it was captured by Lieutenant-General Whitelocke.

The fort was rebuilt under the direction of Pedro Benoit in 1855 and again by the Buenos Aires province in 1911. Since 1985, it is a Historic Museum managed by the municipality of Ensenada.

External links
  History of Ensenada, Province of Buenos Aires
  Municipality of Ensenada
  Fort Barragán Museum

Bays of Argentina
La Plata basin

Barragán cove