Environmental policy in China is set by the National People's Congress and managed by the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China. Under the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China, the Department of Policies, Laws, and Regulations is in charge of establishing and strengthening basic laws and policies such as environmental laws, administrative policies and economical regulations. It is also responsible for the development of national environmental protection policy and macro strategy.

China's rapid economic expansion combined with the country's relaxed environmental oversight has caused a number of ecological problems. In response to public pressure, the national government has undertaken a number of measures to curb pollution in China and improve the country's environmental situation. However, the government's response has been criticized as inadequate. Encouraged by national policy that judges regions solely by their economic development, corrupt and unwilling local authorities have hampered enforcement. Nonetheless, in April 2014, the government amended its environmental law to better fight pollution.

Since the 2010s, the government has given greater attention to environmental protection through policy actions such as the signing of the Paris climate accord, the 13th Five-Year Plan and the 2015 Environmental Protection Law reform  From 2006 to 2017, sulphur dioxide levels in China were reduced by 70 percent, and air pollution has decreased from 2013 to 2018 In 2017, investments in renewable energy amounted to US$279.8 billion worldwide, with China accounting for US$126.6 billion or 45% of the global investments. China has since become the world's largest investor, producer and consumer of renewable energy worldwide, manufacturing state-of-the-art solar panels, wind turbines and hydroelectric energy facilities as well as becoming the world's largest producer of electric cars and buses. Its commitment to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions has been a major force in decreasing the global cost of wind and solar power, in turn helping the use of renewable energy to rise globally.

Policy jurisdiction
China's State Environmental Protection Agency was raised to ministry level in 2008, and renamed the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP). Until 2018, it was responsible for implementing environmental policies, as well as the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations. The Ministry was tasked with protecting China's air, water, and land from pollution and contamination. Complementing its regulatory role, it funded and organized research and development.

Until 2018, China's pollutant trading programs and carbon emissions trading programs were under different policy jurisdictions. Pollutant trading programs were administered under the MEP and local Environmental Protection Bureaus until 2018. China's carbon emissions trading pilot programs were under the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) as well as local Development and Reform Councils.

In 2018, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment (MEE) was established. A number of environmental policy functions were merged from other ministries into the MEE, including MEP fiunctions, climate policy previously under the NDRC, and a number of environmental policy functions previously under the Ministry of Water Resources and the State Oceanic Administration. Pollutant and carbon emissions trading programs were also placed within the MEE's jurisdiction.

As of 2020, China's pollution reduction targets have been set geographically. Based on goals set in China's operative Five-Year Plan, the central government sets yearly pollution reduction targets. These targets are then divided among provinces, which divide them further among cities and counties. Local government's primary environmental policy goals are to meet these reduction targets.

In China, draft laws are submitted to the public for consultation and comments. Environmental non-government organizations in China are active in the legislative process through this mechanism.

As of at least 2023, there is a trend towards increasing emphasis on environmental policy success in the evaluation of Communist Party cadre.

History
From 1949-1979, China's participation in international environmental policy bodies was slight. In 1972, Chinese representatives attended the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. The next year, the Environmental Protection Leadership Group was established. In 1983, the Chinese government announced that environmental protection would become a state policy. China began taking an active role in international environmental policy since the 1992 Rio Meeting on Environment and Development. It has been active in international environmental fora since.

Through the 1980s and early 1990s, China did not prioritize domestic environmental matters. In 1987, it enacted its first air pollution control law. State policy began changing further in the mid-1990s to become more protective of the environment, with the pace of change accelerating following the 1998 China floods. After investigating, government scientists attributed much of the cause for flooding to upstream deforestation that had occurred during logging booms in the previous two decades. State regulation of environmental issues became more active, with the State Environmental Projection Administration aggressively campaigning against deforestation, curbing excessive water use during irrigation, and emphasizing decarbonization of China's energy supplies.

Beginning in 1998, the Party began to shift from a focus on pure developmentalism towards eco-developmentalism. Responding both to scientific evidence on the environment and increasing public pressure, the Party began to re-formulate its ideology to recognize that the developmentalist approach during reform and opening up was not sustainable. The Party began to use the terminology of environmental culture (huanjing wenhua) and ecological civilization.

Two large reforestation programs, the Natural Forest Protection Program and the Returning Farmland to Forest program, were announced in late 1998. The programs were piloted in Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Gansu in 1999. They became widely implemented in 2000. The Natural Forest Protection Program called for major reductions in timber harvest, forest conservation, and instituted logging bans in most of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Tibet. The program provided for alternative employment opportunities for former logging industry workers, including hiring them for reforestation work. The Returning Farmland to Forest program paid farmers to plant trees on less productive farmland and provided them with a yearly subsidy for lost income.

According to the Chinese government website, the Central Government invested more than 40 billion yuan between 1998 and 2001 on protection of vegetation, farm subsidies, and conversion of farm to forests. Between 1999 and 2002, China converted 7.7 million hectares of farmland into forest.

From 2001 to 2005, Chinese environmental authorities received more than 2.53 million letters and 430,000 visits by 597,000 petitioners seeking environmental redress. Meanwhile, the number of mass protests caused by concerns over environmental issues grew steadily from 2001 to 2007. The increased attention on environmental matters caused the Chinese government to display an increased level of concern towards environmental issues. For example, in his 2007 annual address Wen Jiabao, the Premier of the People's Republic of China, made 48 references to "environment," "pollution," and "environmental protection", and stricter environmental regulations were subsequently implemented. Subsidies for some polluting industries were cancelled, while other polluting industries were shut down. However, many internal environmental targets were missed.

After the 2007 address, the influence of corruption was a hindrance to effective enforcement, as local authorities ignored orders and hampered the effectiveness of central decisions. In response, CCP general secretary Hu Jintao implemented the "Green G.D.P." project, where China's gross domestic product was adjusted to compensate for negative environmental effects; however, the program quickly lost official influence due to unfavorable data. The project's lead researcher claimed that provincial leaders "do not like to be lined up and told how they are not meeting the leadership's goals ... They found it difficult to accept this." The government attempted to hold national "No Car Days" where cars were banned from central roads, but the action was largely ignored. In 2008, the State Environmental Protection Administration was official replaced by the Ministry of Environmental Protection during the March National People's Congress sessions in Beijing.

In 2011, the State Council issued its "Decision on Accelerating the Regulation of Water Consumption." The document's introduction emphasizes the importance of water management given the growing impact of climate change. The Decision established a 670 billion cubic meters limit for annual water consumption, to be broken down in turn per industry, region, and products.

Also in 2011, China addressed sulfur dioxide pollution through the China IV gasoline standard, which limited sulfur in gasoline to 50 ppm.

Citizen activism regarding government decisions that were perceived as environmentally damaging increased in the 2010s. In April 2012, protests occurred in the southern town of Yinggehai following the announcement of a power plant project. The protesters initially succeeded in halting the project, worth 3.9 billion renminbi (£387m). Another town was selected for the location of the plant, but when the residents in the second location also resisted the authorities returned to Yinggehai. A second round of protests occurred in October 2012 and police clashed with protester, leading to 50 arrests and almost 100 injuries. In response to a waste pipeline for a paper factory in the city of Qidong, several thousand demonstrators protested in July 2012. Sixteen of the protesters were sentenced to between twelve and eighteen months in prison; however, thirteen were granted a reprieve on the grounds that they had confessed and repented. In total, more than 50,000 environmental protests occurred in China during 2012.

In response to an increasing air pollution problem, the Chinese government announced a five-year, US$277 billion plan to address the issue in 2013. Northern China will receive particular attention, as the government aimed to reduce air emissions by 25 percent by 2017, compared with 2012 levels.

In 2012, the 18th Party Congress made ecological civilization one of the country's five national development goals. It emphasized a rural development approach of "Ecology, Productivity, Livability." The ecological civilization concept was also added to the Communist Party's constitution.

2013-2014 was the low point for China's urban environment. This prompted numerous policy initiatives under the framing of ecological civilization, including mitigation for air pollution, water pollution, urban flooding, urban heat islands, and subsidence, among other policy measures. The 2013 State Council Air Pollution Control Action Plan required the phase-in of the China V gasoline standard. A significantly more stringent standard than the China IV standard, the China V standard allowed no more than 10 ppm of sulfur in fuel. The 2014 National New-Type Urbanization Plan requires 20% of municipal regions to be zoned as ecological protection areas.

In March 2014, Premier Li Keqiang "declared war" on pollution during the opening of the National People's Congress. The NPC amended the Environmental Protection Law, strengthening the MEP's enforcement powers, and emphasizing the government's responsibility for protecting the environment. The amended law allows for public interest litigation on environmental issues and permits non-governmental organizations to bring such lawsuits. Lawmaker Xin Chunying called the law "a heavy blow [in the fight against] our country's harsh environmental realities, and an important systemic construct". Three previous versions of the bill were voted down. The bill is the first revision to the environmental protection law since 1989.

In 2015, China established the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law.

During 2016-2017, the MEP temporarily shut down approximately 40% of all Chinese factories as part of an environmental protection campaign. Between those two years, environmental protection inspections resulted in the disciplining, prosecution, and conviction of 17,000 officials.

Low carbon development was emphasized during the 19th Party Congress in 2017. During the opening session of the Congress, General Secretary Xi Jinping described pollution control as one of "Three Critical Battles" (along with poverty alleviation and de-risking).

After several years of regional experiments in emissions trading systems, China started its national system on December 19, 2017.

In 2018, the Constitution of the People's Republic of China was amended to include the concept of ecological civilization building, as part of amendments that emphasized environmental conservation and the scientific outlook on development.

In 2019, the MEE established the Belt and Road Initiative International Green Development Coalition as a joint project with the environmental agencies of twenty-five other countries.

By the early 2020s, China's urban areas were significantly healthier and more sustainable than a decade earlier.

In 2020, Xi announced that China aims to peak emissions before 2030 and go carbon-neutral by 2060 in accordance with the Paris climate accord. According to Climate Action Tracker, if accomplished it would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2 - 0.3 degrees - "the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker".

In 2020, a sweeping law was passed by the Chinese government to protect the ecology of the Yangtze River. The new laws include strengthening ecological protection rules for hydropower projects along the river, banning chemical plants within 1 kilometer of the river, relocating polluting industries, severely restricting sand mining as well as a complete fishing ban on all the natural waterways of the river, including all its major tributaries and lakes.

Policy measures
China's Five-Year Plans are an important means of policy organization in the area of environmental protection. With the 11th Five-Year Plan, China introduced binding administrative targets which have been especially used in non-economic policy areas like environmental protection and land management.

Policy support for electronic vehicles
Electronic vehicle production has been a major success for China. From 2010 to 2012, the government subsidized 40-60% of the cost of buying an electric vehicle. Additionally, many local governments provided policy support, including tax breaks and "special license plates that exempted drivers from local traffic restrictions. China also set a zero emissions mandate, requiring companies that manufacture or import more than 30,000 vehicles in a year to include a set percentage of electric vehicles (for 2019, this was 10%; it was 12% in 2020). Similarly, regulations strongly discourage the building of new factories that can only produce vehicles with internal combustion engines; unless hard to meet criteria are satisfied, new factories must also be able to produce electric vehicles. The central government also funds and mandates vehicle charging infrastructure, including providing incentives for building owners to add charging infrastructure.

As a result of China's policy support for electric vehicles, sales have skyrocketed in China, going from less than 10,000 units to 330,000 units sold in just four years. By 2018, 1.1 million electric cars were sold in China, representing an 80% increase from the prior year.

Policy support for solar power
China leads the world in both the deployment of solar power (with more than one-third of global capacity) and in solar manufacturing.

China's Sixth Five-Year Plan (1981-1985) was the first to address government policy support for solar PV panel manufacturing. Policy support for solar panel manufacturing has been a part of every Five-Year Plan since.

The global financial crisis of 2007-2008 prompted significant stimulus efforts by China to invigorate its then-struggling solar industry.

The China Development Bank provided $20 billion of financing to domestic solar manufacturers in 2010.

China has provided feed-in-tariffs for solar power since at least 2011.

The 13th Five-Year Plan established a goal of 153.6 GW of solar capacity in China by 2020, as well as individual targets by province.

The value of Chinese solar technology exports has risen sharply, accounting for 3% ($32 billion) of the total value of China's exports in 2020. The CCP views solar technology production as dovetailing with its ambitions to transform China's economy toward higher value-added goods and services. The government spends heavily on solar research and development, with much of the funding coming form the Ministry of Science and Technology.

For the first half of 2022, China's investments in large scale solar increased 173 percent from the prior year, amounting to $41 billion USD.

Policy support for eco-cities

Eco-cities in China are a significant component of the country's efforts to address climate change and promote sustainable urban development. The government has launched three programs to encourage the construction of ambitious urban projects that integrate environmental considerations with urban planning, aiming to create environmentally-friendly, low-carbon, and livable urban environments.

China's rapid urbanization and industrialization have contributed to environmental challenges, including increased greenhouse gas emissions, higher energy consumption, and pollution. By leveraging green technologies, sustainable infrastructure, and eco-friendly practices, Chinese eco-cities seek to reduce carbon emissions, enhance resource efficiency, and improve the quality of life for urban residents. More than 90% of Chinese cities have adopted eco-city programs.

Pollution control

China's pollution control measures include pollutant and carbon emissions trading systems. Pollutant trading is a regional cap-and-trade program for the trading of emissions permits for pollutants like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in industrial waste air, and ammonia nitrogen and chemical oxygen demand in wastewater. Its carbon emissions trading programs developed first through pilot programs at the province and city levels before the establishment of its national program in 2017.

Although China uses various market-oriented pollution control policy measures, including emissions trading, its top-down enforcement and command-and-control measures have generally proven more effective and led to significant air and water improvements by 2020.

Some local environmental bureaus use real-time emissions monitoring to detect violators or classify companies as compliant with regulations. These mechanisms have been developed by local governments as part of "hierarchical and categorical management" systems following the State Council's Planning Outline for the Construction of a Social Credit System (2014-2020). Within the environmental protection context, these systems classify companies based on their track record of violations or compliance, increase supervision of companies with questionable environmental records, and decrease burdens on companies with good environmental records.

Current law

At the national level, China has more than 20 environmental laws adopted by the National People's Congress, there are also over 140 executive regulations issued by the state council, and a series of sector regulations and environmental standards set by the State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA).  In 2003, the government of China proposed a new development concept emphasizing humanism and attempting to achieve sustainable development and harmony between man and nature, as well as coordinated socio-economic progress among various regions and with foreign countries. At the international level, China has also participated in treaties such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and the UN Millennium Development Goals, which include poverty alleviation, environmental protection and sustainable development.

When the new environmental protection provisions go into effect in January 2015, the government's environmental agencies will be allowed to enforce strict penalties and seize property of illegal polluters. Companies that break the law will be "named and shamed", with company executives subject to prison sentences of 15 days. There will be no upper limit on fines; previously, it was often cheaper for companies to pay the meager fines provisioned by the law than install anti-pollution measures. In all, the new law has 70 provisions, compared to the 47 of the existing law. More than 300 different groups will be able to sue on the behalf of people harmed by pollution. It remains to be seen whether these changes to the law will overcome some of the traditional problems with environmental litigation in China, such as difficulty getting cases accepted by the court, trouble gathering evidence and interference from local government.

Under the new law, local governments will be subject to discipline for failing to enforce environmental laws. Regions will no longer be judged solely on their economic progress, but instead must balance progress with environmental protection. Additionally, local governments will be required to disclose environmental information to the public. Individuals are encouraged to "adopt a low-carbon and frugal lifestyle and perform environmental protection duties" such as recycling their garbage under the law.

In June 2017, the Chinese government made a second amendment to the Water Pollution Prevention Act. Based on the first regulation of Water Pollution Prevention Act in 1996, the amendment will increase the punishment for water pollution and the penalty ceiling may be raised to 1 million yuan. According to the statement of the Minister of Environmental Protection, the second revised version further strengthened the responsibilities of local governments, and refined and improved the drinking water safety protection system. Since the legislation in 1984, this law has made a significant and positive contribution to improving the water environment in China. However, the quality of water environment in China is still not promising.

Protected areas

A number of different classes of protected areas are recognized under Chinese law. National, provincial, and local governments all have the power to designate areas as protected. Regardless of designation, most enforcement is made at the local level.

Current issues

China has many environmental issues, severely affecting its biophysical environment as well as human health.

Water Shortage
China is facing three major water resources problems: water pollution, shortage of water resources and waste of water resources. The problem with water resources will be China's obstacles to achieve sustainable development in the 21st century. The government has begun to deal with water resources problems since the 1970s, establishing water pollution control and environmental protection agencies.

The Chinese government implemented two policies to alleviate the water shortage issues; supporting the South-North Water Diversion Project and improving water use efficiency. The government has provided funding for the South-North Water Diversion Project, which aims to bring 44.8 billion cubic meters of water to Beijing and other northern parts of China. The project will cause disruption to local inhabitants forcing the migration of nearly one million people. The total cost of this project is estimated at $62 billion. In 2010, the CCP and the State Council set policies to change ways of using water and improve water use efficiency. The central government had invested 1.8 trillion yuan to enable efficient water use by upgrading both agriculture irrigation systems and clean water systems in rural areas.

Besides the water shortage, the water quality is also an issue which has influenced public health and led to political disputes. Only less than half of all water resources meets the safe drinking water standards in China. Besides political oppositions between regions, the current government structure is also a barrier for water pollution control.

The Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People's Republic of China is a relatively young ministry. It is assigned relatively less power and fewer employees than other existing ministries, which results in its heavy dependence on local environmental protection bureaus (EPB). The problem is that local EPBs do not only get controlled by higher EPB but also by local governments whose performance is assessed mainly by economic development.  Therefore, the local governments have loose policies on companies that producing water pollution. Additionally, the financial support of EPBs comes from pollution fines instead of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment, which makes it difficult for the ministry to manage local EPBs.

Air pollution
Various forms of pollution have increased as China has industrialized, causing widespread environmental and health problems. In January 2013, fine airborne particulates rose as high as 993 micrograms per cubic meter in Beijing, compared with World Health Organization guidelines of no more than 25. Heavy industry, dominated by state-owned enterprises, has been promoted since the beginning of central planning and still has many special privileges such as access to cheap energy and loans. The industry possesses considerable power to resist environmental regulation.

At the end of October 2018, the Chinese government has issued the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention and Control Law (2018 Amendment), which will be implemented starting immediately. Experts believe that although the law is inevitably flawed in some aspects, if  80% of the law can be implemented, it is going to significantly improve the air quality. This law has been scrutinized three times. The new amendment has clearly stated out that enterprises of iron and steel, building materials, non-ferrous metals, petroleum, and chemical industry that discharge dust, sulfide, and nitrogen oxides in the course of production shall adopt cleaner production processes, construct dust-removing, desulfurization, and denitrification equipment in a complete set, or adopt technological transformation and other measures to control the discharge of air pollutants. Compared to the revised Air Pollution Control Law in 2000, the new version doubled the entries. Almost all the laws in the current version have been amended and revised to fit the current situation.

Based on 2015's China Environmental Bulletin published by the Chinese government, in 2015 the national urban air quality is getting better. The first implementation of the new air quality standards has made the PM 2.5 average concentration decreased by 14.1% compared to the year of 2014. The Ministry of Finance established a fund of 10.6 billion Yuan to improve the air quality and to control the air pollution around the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and the surrounding areas, Yangtze River, and other key areas. The government is also actively promoting renewable energy vehicles with an annual production of 390,000, four times more than the production in 2014.

The amount of harmful particulates in the air in China fell 40% from 2013 to 2020.

Soil pollution

Soil pollution problems, which is the land surface degradation caused by the abuse of resources and land caused by human activities, together with corresponding protection measures in China have occurred in recent decades. In total, nearly 16.1% of China's soil was polluted. These pollutions have caused a serious impact on the growth of crops and the health of the people. In terms of related policies, the Chinese government decided to draw on the successful examples of other countries and integrate China's national conditions to maintain long-term governance of soil pollution problems. From the 1980s to the 1990s, China began to work on soil environmental research by starting the Modern conservation tillage research with the support of Australia. From 2000 to now, the problem of soil pollution in China has become increasingly serious. The government has gradually put the prevention and control of soil pollution issues and other environmental protection issues in the first place by charging fines for polluted factories.

China conducted a large-scale soil quality sampling analysis nationwide from 2005 to 2013,  and according to the National Soil Pollution Survey Bulletin promulgated by the Ministry of Environmental Protection of China in 2014, the total national soil exceedance rate (the percentage that exceeds the upper limit value) was 16.1%, of which slight, slight, moderate and heavy degree of pollution spot is 11.2%, 2.3%, 1.5% and 1.1%, respectively. From the point of view of pollution distribution, soil pollution in the south is heavier than in the north. The soil pollution problems in some regions such as the Yangtze River Delta, the Pearl River Delta, and the old industrial base in Northeast China are more severe. The soil in the southwest and south-central regions has exceeded the upper limit of heavy metals tolerance. The contents of the four inorganic pollutants such as cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and lead have gradually increased from northwest China to southeast China and from northeast China to southwest China.

In June 2017, the Ministry of Environmental Protection pointed out that China will establish a more refined working mechanism, continue to carry out investigation of soil pollution, promote the improvement of the legislative system, and fully cooperate with the National People's Congress in the legislation on soil pollution control law. In 2019, the Soil Pollution Prevention and Control Law of the People's Republic of China came into effect. Under this law, regulators can require liable parties to remediate agricultural land (if the pollutants found in harvested crops exceed specified levels) and for construction land (pollutant concentrations exceed soil pollution risk management standards). The law also establishes government invested funds for agricultural land soil pollution prevention and control, and for soil risk management and remediation where the land user or liable party cannot be identified.

Desertification
Land desertification is another pressing environmental issue. A land survey conducted by the State Forestry Administration of China from 2013 to 2016 shows that 2.61 × 106 km2 of the national land, accounting for more than a quarter of China's overall territory, is desertified. Arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid lands located in Northern and North-Western China make up for the majority of the affected territory. Desertification has long reaching consequences, resulting in ecological degradation, halting local economic development, as well as damaging the health of residents in the affected area. Desertified land facilitates the creation of sandstorms which threaten the health of residents in the nearby rural and urban areas alike. As the desert expands, it turns more and more land non-arable and unsuitable for development, creating poverty and food shortage. The current issue is a result of the combination of various anthropogenic and ecological factors. Devegetation brought about by unfavourable hydrologic conditions, climate change induced droughts, as well as unsustainable human activities such as overgrazing, agriculture, and deforestation, exposes the soil to frequent water and wind erosion, creating desert.

To combat land desertification, China has implemented a range of legislative policies as well as restorative programs. Laws are passed to prevent logging, agriculture, and animal grazing in locations of high desertification risk, establishing these areas as ecological function reserves. In areas surrounding desertified land, a large scale of protective forests and shelterbelts are created by programs such as the Three-Norths Shelter Forest Construction Program to reduce the effect of wind erosion. Since 1999, The Ministry of Forestry has been providing monetary rewards for farmers who plant trees instead of crops, as well as auctioning away national land to individuals to rehabilitate for economic gains. In 2002, The Sand Prevention and Control Law was introduced to encourage sustainable development in desertified areas, encouraging afforestation and establishment of green industries such as water efficient pasture and natural pharmaceutical production. This policy is met with wide support from the residents in these areas as it also stimulates local economic growth. Residents in the Kubuqi Desert, for example, have had their annual income increased from $56 to $2000 in less than 30 years.

Coal Over-Mining
Currently, China is the largest consumer and producer of al coal worldwide. The energy endowment in China has long been characterized as coal-rich and gas-poor. This dependence on coal is caused by the abundant coal resources but limited resources in natural gas and petroleum. In 2006, 5.85% of China's GDP was directly attributed to coal.

The heavy demand leads to over-mining of coal. Ecological degradation is one of the greatest damage caused by coal mining in China. Over-mining causes land subsidence and land sliding. In areas with abundant coal resources such as Huainan city in Anhui Province, land subsidence persistently happens because of over-mining. Land subsidence destroys houses, roads, bridges, and electricity facilities in the coal mining areas. By December 3, 2006, the coral mine created 700,000 hectares of land subsidence nationwide and total damage worth 50 billion yuan.  Theoretically, in order to mine 10 million tons of coal, 2,000 people need to be relocated from the coal mining area.

To change the structure of energy consumption and alleviate the damage due to coal mining, the Chinese government came up with 2 policies: the Coal Law of the People's Republic of China and the West-East Gas Pipeline Project. The Coal Law of the People's Republic of China was formulated for the purpose of standardizing and legalizing China's coal industry. It helps to protect coal resources, regulate coal production and business activities, and promote and ensure the development of the coal industry. The Coal Law of the People's Republic of China was implemented since December 1, 1996.

The West-East Gas Pipeline Project focuses on transporting natural gas from western to eastern part of China through pipelines. The western part of China has 6 main petroliferous basins, including the Tarim Basin, the Junggar Basin, the Turpan Basin, the Qaidam Basin, the Ordos Basin and the Sichuan Basin. Since the 1990s, oil prospectors have successively discovered petroleum reservoirs of different sizes such as Kela 2, Hotanhe, Yaha, Yangtuke, Yingmai 7, Yudong 2, in the western part of the Tarim basin. When the project was established in 2000, the reservoir of Kuqa–Tabei region of the Tarim Basin has total natural gas of 393.522 billion cubic meters, in which 285.471 billion cubic meters could be exploited. Specifically, Kela 2, Yangtake, Yingmai 7, Yudong, Yaha, Jilac, Yakela are the main supply reservoir. The above seven gas fields have a total natural gas volume of 380.534 billion cubic meters in which 2704.02 100 million cubic meters can be exploited. This nationwide network provides a solution to the gas resource disparity in China and helped China to address its rapid-growing demand on energy. Since the implementation of this pipeline in February, 2000, this project efficiently reduced China's reliance on coal. By 2021, the West-East Gas Pipeline helped to reduce he use of standard coal by 932 million metric tons, lessened carbon dioxide emission by 1.02 billion tons, and lowered carbon dioxide dust by 508 million tons.

Impact
China's lax environmental oversight had contributed to its environmental problems. Sixteen of the world's twenty most polluted cities were found in China in 2013, but has since reduced to just one at 19th place Government response has been criticized as inadequate. An official report released in 2014, found that 20% of the country's farmland, and 16% of its soil overall, is polluted. An estimated 60% of the groundwater is polluted.

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, China has shown great determination to "develop, implement, and enforce a solid environmental law framework" However, the impact of such efforts is not yet clear. The harmonization of Chinese society and the natural environment is billed as one of the country's top national priorities.

International groups called the law revision passed in April 2014 a positive development, but cautioned seeing the laws through to implementation would be a challenge.

Because China does not have a fully established legal system, enterprise executives base their environmental practices largely on perceptions about regulators rather than concerns for legal issues, according to a 2014 study published in Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. One executive interviewed said that China's environmental regulations were "comprehensive" but yet "vague," leaving local officials with large discretion in terms of enforcement. If executives think local officials may arbitrarily target their enterprises for enforcement, they are likely to adopt proactive practices, such as "developing certifiable environmental management systems," but not basic ones, such as waste recycling.

See also
Belt and Road Initiative International Green Development Coalition
Clear waters and green mountains
Environmentalism in China
Climate change in China
Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation

References

Environmental policy in China


Higher-order programming is a style of computer programming that uses software components, like functions, modules or objects, as values. It is usually instantiated with, or borrowed from, models of computation such as lambda calculus which make heavy use of higher-order functions. A programming language can be considered higher-order if components, such as procedures or labels, can be used just like data. For example, these elements could be used in the same way as arguments or values.

For example, in higher-order programming, one can pass functions as arguments to other functions and functions can be the return value of other functions (such as in macros or for interpreting). This style of programming is mostly used in functional programming, but it can also be very useful in object-oriented programming.  A slightly different interpretation of higher-order programming in the context of object-oriented programming are higher order messages, which let messages have other messages as arguments, rather than functions.

Examples of languages supporting this are Wolfram Language, C#, Java, ECMAScript (ActionScript, JavaScript, JScript), F#, Haskell, Lisp (Common Lisp, Scheme, Clojure, others), Lua, Oz, Perl, PHP, Prolog, Python, Ruby, Smalltalk, Scala, ML, and Erlang.

See also
Prolog#Higher-order programming
Higher-order logic programming

References

External links
 "Higher Order Programming" by Sjoerd Visscher (Uses JavaScript as example language)

Programming paradigms

Higher-order programming


A ticket of leave was an important document given to convicts who had been sent to Australia. Convicts who were well-behaved were given a ticket of leave. This gave them some rights, and they did not have to stay in gaol. With a ticket of leave, a convict was able to look for work in a particular area but could not leave the area without permission from a court. Every change of employer or district was written on the ticket.

History
Governor Philip Gidley King started the tickets of leave in 1801. It gave prisoners a reason to behave themselves. Also, it helped to provide cheap workers for farmers who were settling in Australia. The government saved money as it did not have to feed and clothe the prisoners.

Those with a ticket of leave were able to marry or to bring their families from Britain. They could buy land but not carry guns or get onto a ship. They were often made to pay back the cost of their travel in the prison ship to Australia. The ticket of leave had to be renewed every year, and those with one had to attend  (where it could be checked they were still living in the area), and church services. Prisoners could lose their ticket and be sent back to prison if they were lazy, if they tried to get paid too much, or if they were rude to the police or soldiers. Sometimes, prisoners who helped the government, by capturing escaped convicts for example, might be given a ticket of leave as a reward.

A convict who kept to the conditions of his ticket of leave was given a conditional pardon after half of the time he was supposed to be in gaol. Then, they were no longer a convict and could do everything except leave the colony. Convicts who did not keep to the conditions of their ticket could be arrested without warning, go to court without being able to appeal, and lose all their property.

The ticket
The ticket itself was a highly detailed document. It listed the convicts' number, the name, the ship in which sent to Australia, the year that they arrived, the captain of the ship, where they came from, their job, the crimes,the place and date of trial, the sentence, the birth date, what they looked like, the area the prisoner was allowed to live in, the court that gave out the ticket, the date the ticket was given, any other conditions of the ticket, and any changes of where they lived. A lot of this information has been kept, which makes them a very important source of information for people looking at family history.

References

Other websites
 Index to Ticket of Leave Passports
A real Ticket of Leave
Joseph Wilkes Ticket of Leave, 1869
  Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911

Imprisonment and detention
History of Australia
Documents

Ticket of leave


Wang Pu (王溥) (died July 5, 905), courtesy name Derun (德潤), was an official of the Chinese dynasty Tang dynasty, serving as a chancellor from 901 to 903, during the reign of Emperor Zhaozong.  He was killed in a purge of high-level Tang officials by the warlord Zhu Quanzhong the military governor (Jiedushi) of Xuanwu Circuit (宣武, headquartered in modern Kaifeng, Henan), who was then preparing to seize the throne.

Background
It is not known when Wang Pu was born.  His family was part of the Wang clan of Taiyuan and claimed original ancestry from King Ling of Zhou.  Wang Pu's traceable ancestry included officials of Han dynasty, Cao Wei, Jin dynasty (266–420), Northern Wei, Northern Qi, Sui dynasty, and Tang dynasty.  Wang Pu's grandfather Wang Kan (王堪) was a county magistrate, but his father Wang Cong (王聰) was not listed with any offices.  His biography in the New Book of Tang indicated that his own geographic origin had been lost to history.

Early career
After Wang Pu passed the imperial examinations in the Jinshi (進士) class, he entered governmental service and eventually became Libu Yuanwailang (禮部員外郎), a low-level official at the ministry of rites (禮部, Libu), as well as an editor of the imperial histories.  In 896, when the chancellor Cui Yin was commissioned as the military governor (Jiedushi) of Wu'an Circuit (武安, headquartered in modern Changsha), Henan, Cui invited Wang to serve on his staff as his secretary in his role as governor (觀察使, Guanchashi).  After Cui's commission was cancelled shortly after and he was allowed to remain as chancellor due to the intercession of his ally Zhu Quanzhong the military governor of Wuanwu Circuit, Wang also remained at the imperial government, becoming a scholar at Jianxian Hall (集賢殿).  Thereafter, at the request of Zhao Guangfeng the deputy chief imperial censor, Wang was made Xingbu Langzhong (刑部郎中), a supervisory official at the ministry of justice (刑部, Xingbu), but was also put in charge of the general affairs of the office of censors (御史臺, Yushi Tai).

When Emperor Zhaozong was deposed by a group of powerful eunuchs — Liu Jishu and Wang Zhongxian (王仲先) the commanders of the Shence Armies and the directors of palace communications Wang Yanfan (王彥範) and Xue Qiwo (薛齊偓) — in late 900, in favor of his son Li Yu, Prince of De the Crown Prince, Cui persuaded a group of Shence Army officers to carry out a countercoup in spring 901 to restore Emperor Zhaozong.  Wang Pu was involved in Cui's persuasion of the Shence Army officers as well, and soon thereafter was made an imperial scholar (翰林學士, Hanlin Xueshi) and deputy minister of census (戶部侍郎, Hubu Shilang).

Chancellorship
Shortly after Wang Pu's commission as imperial scholar and deputy minister of census, he was further made Zhongshu Shilang (中書侍郎), the deputy head of the legislative bureau of government (中書省, Zhongshu Sheng), and a chancellor, with the designation of Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi (同中書門下平章事), apparently at Cui Yin's recommendation.  He was also made the director of taxation (判戶部, Pan Hubu).  It was said that there was not much that he could do to improve the imperial governance, however.

In late 901, believing that Emperor Zhaozong and Cui were planning a general slaughter of the eunuchs, the eunuchs, now led by Han Quanhui, seized control of Emperor Zhaozong and took him to Fengxiang Circuit (鳳翔, headquartered in modern Baoji, Shaanxi), then ruled by the eunuchs' ally Li Maozhen.  Most imperial officials, led by Cui, stayed at the imperial capital Chang'an, and subsequently, as Zhu Quanzhong, whom Cui had summoned to try to combat the eunuchs, was approaching Chang'an, Cui sent Wang to Chishui (赤水, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi), to rendezvous with Zhu and to discuss the next step in the campaign.

Removal and death
By 903, Zhu Quanzhong had defeated Li Maozhen and forced Li Maozhen to surrender Emperor Zhaozong to sue for peace, and Emperor Zhaozong returned to Chang'an.  By this point, Cui Yin had become the most powerful official at the imperial court.  It was said that it was Cui's instigation that, shortly after the emperor's return to Chang'an, that Wang Pu was demoted to by Taizi Binke (太子賓客) — an advisor to the Crown Prince, but a completely honorary position at that time since there was no crown prince (Li Yu's having been removed from that title after the 901 countercoup) — and sent out of Chang'an to have his office at the eastern capital Luoyang.  (Also at Cui's instigation, two chancellors that Emperor Zhaozong had commissioned at Fengxiang, while under Li Maozhen's and the eunuchs' control, Su Jian and Lu Guangqi, were forced to commit suicide.)

Wang was later recalled to the imperial government to serve as the minister of worship (太常卿, Taichang Qing) and minister of public works (工部尚書, Gongbu Shangshu).  After Zhu, who was then intent on seizing the throne, assassinated Emperor Zhaozong in 904 and replaced him with his son Emperor Ai, in 905, Zhu, at the advice of his close associates Liu Can and Li Zhen, began demoting and killing Tang aristocrats en masse.  Wang was first demoted to be the census officer at Zi Prefecture (淄州, in modern Zibo, Shandong), and then ordered to commit suicide at Baima Station (白馬驛, in modern Anyang, Henan), with fellow former chancellors Pei Shu, Dugu Sun, Cui Yuan, Lu Yi, as well as the officials Zhao Chong (趙崇) and Wang Zan (王贊).  At Li Zhen's request (as Li Zhen, who was unable to pass the imperial examinations, resented these traditional aristocrats for claiming to be free from taint), Zhu had their bodies thrown into the Yellow River (as Li Zhen put it, to taint them).

Notes and references

 New Book of Tang, vol. 182.
 Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 262, 264, 265.

9th-century births
905 deaths
Chancellors under Emperor Zhaozong of Tang
10th-century executions by the Tang dynasty
Forced suicides of Chinese people
Tang dynasty historians
Executed Tang dynasty people

Wang Pu (Tang dynasty)


Linanthus maculatus (formerly Gilia maculata) is a species of flowering plant in the phlox family known by the common names San Bernardino Mountain gilia and Little San Bernardino Mountains gilia. It is endemic to California, where it is known only from a few locales in the Little San Bernardino Mountains and the adjacent Palm Springs area in the northern end of the Coachella Valley. The largest populations, which may contain thousands of individuals, are located within the bounds of Joshua Tree National Park. This is a very small annual herb no more than three centimeters high. It has a taproot which may exceed 6 centimeters in length to collect moisture from the dry desert sand in its native habitat. The tiny, hairy stem branches to form small matted clusters on the sand surface. The hairy leaves are just a few millimeters long and unlobed. The inflorescence is a dense cluster of flowers each only 2 to 5 millimeters wide. The flower corolla has curled-back lobes which are white, sometimes with a spot of purple or pink. The protruding stamens are yellow. The main threat to this species is development in its range, and it is also vulnerable to off-road vehicle damage in the wide open sandy flats where it grows.

References

External links
Jepson Manual Treatment
Photo gallery

maculatus
Flora of California
Taxa named by Jessie Milliken

Linanthus maculatus


General José María Yáñez Carrillo (1803 – August 10, 1880) was a Mexican hero of the war of independence from Spain and the invasions by France and the United States.

Biography
He was born to peasants in Valle de Santiago, Guanajuato, and ran way from home as a child to see other lands and customs of the people. At the age of 18, he joined the Ejército Trigarante to fight for the Independence of Mexico where he was promoted, and had his best performance in the defense of Tampico against an expedition eight years after the independence was consummated.

In 1838, he contributed to the successful defense of Veracruz against French invaders when they attacked during the Pastry War. On May 20, 1846, he revolted against President Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga, who was a conservative trying to turn the republic into a monarchy. As a general in Jalisco, commanding an army of 500 men and six artillery pieces, he attacked the invading U.S. Army, which had arrived through the San Blas port, forcing the invaders to retreat. In 1852, he was designated governor of Jalisco, by the conservatives who supported, with José María Blancarte, the Hospice Plan.

In November 1853 he commanded the forces that defeated William Walker and filibusters who tried to seize Baja California and Sonora to create an independent republic.

One of the most notable military facts about Yáñez, was the defense of Guaymas. He was designated governor of Sonora on April 19, 1854, and, on July 13 of the same year, he defended the state against an army under the command of Count Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon. In that month, the state of Sonora was invaded by 400 filibusters from France, Germany and Chile, under the command of Boulbon who was trying to seize the Mexican state and found an independent country. Count Boulbon had tried to convince Yáñez to give up Guaymas without resistance and, after his refusal, attacked the port on July 13. Neighboring Mexican states joined the army commanded by Yañez and Boulbon was arrested and executed on August 13. President Santa Anna criticized Yáñez out of apparent jealousy for his courage but, after his administration ended, Yáñez was declared "Benefactor (Benemérito) of Sonora and Jalisco". He was later designated governor of Sinaloa and, as such, he accepted the Tacubaya Plan. Few days later he resigned, leaving Pedro Espejo as governor of Sinaloa,  and traveled to Mexico City.

He died, as a Minister of War and the Navy, in Mexico City.

Guaymas Airport is named after him.

External links
Biography at Mexico-Tenoch.
 Report about the filibuster invasion of 1854 at the Mexican Army website.
 Historic dates of Sonora.
 Historic dates of Sinaloa.
William Walker in Baja California.

1803 births
1880 deaths
Second French intervention in Mexico
Governors of Sinaloa
Governors of Sonora
Governors of Jalisco
Mexican generals
Mexican military personnel of the Mexican–American War
People of the Mexican War of Independence
People from Guanajuato

José María Yáñez


was a Japanese samurai and diplomat.  He was the first diplomat from Japan to visit Spain, France, Italy and the Vatican.

The Roman Senate made Hasekura a citizen and a patrician of Rome.

Early life
Hasekura was a retainer of Date Masamune.  Date was the daimyo of Sendai.

Keichō Embassy
Hasekura headed a diplomatic mission from Japan to the Vatican. The trip lasted seven years from 1613-1620,  This historic journey is called the . Hasekura was the first Japanese ambassador in the Americas and in Europe.

Hasekura traveled with a group across the Pacific Ocean to Mexico. They sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to Europe.

Hasekura returned to Japan by crossing Mexico from east to west in 1618.  The Japanese sailed from Acapulco for the Philippines.  From Manila, they sailed north to Japan in 1620.

The story of Hasekura was unknown in Japan until the 19th century. This early diplomacy not included in official histories written in Japan in the 17th and 18th centuries.  Information about this embassy

Hasekura was a subject of interest in Europe.  In 1615, Scipione Amati published a book about Haskeura's journey.  In 1616, a book about the Japanese diplomats was published in French in Paris.

Legacy
In 1873, Japanese diplomats traveled to Europe.  They were surprised to learn about Hasekura.  The diplomacy of Hasekura was forgotten because of the Sakoku policy of isolation.

There are statues of Hasekura in Japan, Cuba, Spain, and Italy.

Many people in Coria del Río, Spain have the surname "Japón". These are descendants of the Japanese travelers.

Comet
A minor comet   11514 Tsunenaga was named after Hasekura in 1991.

Memory of the World Programme
Spanish and Japanese archives have documents from the Hasekura mission.  The letter carried by Hasekura to the King of Spain is in Seville, Spain.  The paper proof of Haskura's Roman citizenship is in Sendai, Japan.  These bits of history are proposed for UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme.

Related pages
Edo period

References

Other websites

The Epic journey of Hasekura Tsunenaga

1571 births
1622 deaths
People from Sendai
Japanese diplomats

Hasekura Tsunenaga


Richard Bozulich (born 1936) is an American author, publisher of Go books in English and college math instructor. He co-founded the Ishi Press. He has worked with several Japanese professional players.
He had a regular go column in The Daily Yomiuri, which at that time was Japan's largest English-language newspaper. He lives in Chigasaki, Japan.
In 2012 Bozulich was a candidate for Comptroller of New York City for the War Veterans Party.

From university
Bozulich was born in Los Angeles, California. From 1955 to 1956, he attended UCLA, studying the foundations of mathematics in the philosophy department under Richard Montague. Eventually he graduated from the University of California, Berkeley in 1966 with a BA in mathematics. Bozulich had worked his way through college by buying and selling highly technical used books and upon graduation decided to become a book publisher.

Ishi Press
He moved to Japan and in 1967 in partnership with Stuart Dowsey founded The Ishi Press, a book and magazine publishing company that published books primarily about the game of go.

Ishi Press' first few publications were translations of Japanese books such as Eio Sakata's The Middle Game of Go and Modern Joseki and Fuseki Vol. I and II but Bozulich soon began working with Japanese professional players, as well as principal collaborators James Davies and John Power, to produce original works in English. The first of these, Basic techniques of Go by Nagahara and Haruyama, was published in 1969. In 1973, Bozulich asked James Davies to write a seven-volume set covering the fundamentals of go, titled The Elementary Go Series. The first two volumes of this series In the Beginning by Ishigure (and Davies) and 38 Basic Joseki by Kosugi and Davies were published in 1974. By 1984, the set was complete, when Ishi Press published Nagahara and Bozulich's Handicap Go. Meanwhile, Bozulich continued to translate and publish Japanese material for the nascent Western go-playing community, selecting volumes such as Kageyama's Lessons in the Fundamentals of Go and Kage's Secret Chronicles of Handicap Go, and a series of books about basic opening strategies: The Power of the Star-Point (Takagawa), The Chinese Opening: The Sure Win Strategy (Kato) and The 3–3 Point: Modern Opening Theory (Cho).

In 1977, the Japan Go Association ceased publication of Go Review, their English-language magazine. Working closely with Power, Bozulich published a quarterly magazine Go World which continued through 129 issues, ceasing publication in 2013.  For many years Go World was the major source in English for comprehensive analysis of top Japanese tournament games.

Kiseido
In 1982 Bozulich founded Kiseido Publishing Company, publishing Invincible: The Games of Shusaku. This biography and game collection by John Power is about Honinbo Shusaku, the most famous Japanese player from the 1800s.  Kiseido became more active in the 1990s, when Bozulich produced two more multi-volume sets of instructional material: the twelve volume Mastering the Basics series, and the ten volume Get Strong at Go series. Kiseido continues to publish other books as well, such as The Go Player's Almanac, The World of Chinese Go and An Introduction to Modern Fuseki: Korean Style.

Go World
Richard Bozulich has written or published more than one hundred books, magazines, and newspaper articles about the game of go. He is the world's most prolific author of go materials in English. Richard Bozulich was the publisher of Go World magazine until it ceased publication in 2012, after 129 issues. He lives in Chigasaki, Japan and has worked as an instructor of mathematics at Shonan Institute of Technology until 2005, physics and chemistry at a local college. His father and mother were from Dugi Otok, an island off Zadar in Croatia.

Bibliography
 All About Ko (2007)
 The Basics of Go Strategy (2007)
 501 Tesuji Problems (2005)
 Making Good Shape (2002)
 One Thousand and One Life-and-Death Problems (2002)
 Five Hundred and One Opening Problems (2002)
 Get Strong at Tesuji (2002)
 Get Strong at Attacking (2002)
 Get Strong at Invading (2000)
 The Go Player's Almanac (2001)
 The Second Book of Go (Beginner and Elementary Go Books) (1998)
 Get Strong at Handicap Go (1998)
 Get Strong at the Endgame (1997)
 Get Strong at Life and Death (1997)
 Get Strong at the Opening (1996)
 Get Strong at Joseki, Volume 1 (1995)
 Get Strong at Joseki, Volume 2 (1996)
 Get Strong at Joseki, Volume 3 (1996)
 Geometries, Groups and Algebras in the Nineteenth Century – A History
 Magic of Go: A Complete Introduction to the Game of Go (1988)
 An Introduction to Go (1984)
 Handicap Go (1982)
 Modern Joseki and Fuseki, Vol. 1: Parallel Fuseki, Ishi Press 1968, reprinted 2006
 Modern Joseki and Fuseki, Vol. 2: The Opening Theory of Go, Ishi Press 1971, reprinted 2006
 The Middle Game of Go or "Chubansen", Ishi Press, 1971,

References

External links
Kiseido Publishing Company

1936 births
Living people
Go (game) writers
American Go players
American book editors
American instructional writers
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science alumni
American expatriates in Japan

Richard Bozulich


Brasil Online (BOL) is an Internet portal that provides email hosting and free email services UOL.

History

In April 1996, BOL was launched in Brazil by Grupo Abril, one of the largest Communication Holdings in Brazil.
Grupo Abril and Grupo Folha, which owns (UOL), signed a joint-venture that September. UOL acquired BOL and created the largest Brazilian Internet provider in numbers of subscribers and amount of content in Portuguese. Features such as news, photos, videos, chat rooms and entertainment are offered by the portal. It has million users every month.
In October 1999, BOL was re-branded as the first free email provider in Brazil. BOL hosted more than million email accounts by the following August.
BOL launched a new email platform based in Ajax with Web 2.0 technology in 2008. The platform has search engines that go through each folder as well as provide automatic contact storage, create filters to organize messages, including smart visualization of attached files and creating contact groups.

In 2011, BOL partnered with sports journalist Milton Neves. With the partnership, Neves hosted his sports portal "Terceiro Tempo" and blog covering news, opinions and Brazilian and International football side stories on BOL.
In 2013, BOL partnered with Elancers to create a resume database on the BOL Empregos page. BOL Empregos is a free service that gathers more than 40,000 jobs for meeting from over 6,000 business for sale. A new version of the BOL mobile mail app for Smartphones and Tablets compatible with Android and iOS operating systems was released that year.

Services

BOL Mail
BOL offers a free email service with a 6 GB capacity, spellchecker, customizable themes and interfaces for iPhone, iPad and Android. Since 2012, BOL uses the IMAP system for send and receive procedures to ensure that the original server's content is not erased.

BOL Notícias
The BOL Notícias platform has more than 100 million page views every month. The portal offers sports, entertainment and cooking content in real time. It also reproduces news from sources such as UOL, national and international news agencies.

BOL Chat
BOL's chat is free and accessible to the general public. BOL Chat offers more than 700 chat rooms, 9 themes and has approximately 70 million page views every month.

VilaBOL

VilaBOL was a free cloud data hosting service provided by BOL. VilaBOL offered 15 MB of storage, an e-mail account, a web designer tool, a poll designer and a hit counter for each user. The service was terminated in 2012.

References

External links

Grupo Folha
Internet properties established in 1996
Brazilian websites
Internet service providers of Brazil
Free email hosting

Brasil Online


Pamphilus of Alexandria (; fl. 1st century AD) was a Greek grammarian, of the school of Aristarchus of Samothrace.

He was the author of a comprehensive lexicon, in 95 books, of foreign or obscure words, the idea of which was credited to another grammarian, Zopyrion, himself the compiler of the first four books. The work itself is lost, but an epitome by Diogenianus (2nd century) formed the basis of the lexicon of Hesychius.

A similar compilation, called "meadow" (cf. the Praia of Suetonius) from its varied contents, dealing chiefly with mythological marvels, was probably a supplement to the lexicon, although some scholars identify them. Pamphilus was one of the chief authorities used by Athenaeus in the Deipnosophists. The Suda assigns to another Pamphilus, simply described as "a philosopher," a number of works, some of which were probably by Pamphilus the grammarian.

See G Thilo in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopedic, M Schmidt, appendix to his edition of Hesychius, (1862) vol. iv.; A Westermann in Pauly's Realencyclopädie (1848).

References

Ancient Greek grammarians
Ancient Egyptian writers
1st-century Egyptian people
Roman-era Alexandrians
1st-century writers
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown

Pamphilus of Alexandria


David Alexander Tetlow Stafford (born 10 March 1942) is projects director at Edinburgh University's Centre for the Study of the Two World Wars and Leverhulme Emeritus Professor in the university's School of History, Classics and Archaeology.

Stafford took his B.A. at Downing College, Cambridge in 1963.  He then undertook postgraduate study at the University of London, taking an M.A. and finally his Ph.D. in history in 1968.

Beginning his career with government service, Stafford served in the British Diplomatic Service as a third secretary at the Foreign Office from 1967 to 1968, and then as second secretary in 1968.  He then took up an appointment as research associate (1968–70) at the Centre of International Studies at the London School of Economics and Political Science.  He then became assistant professor of history (1970–76) at Canada's University of Victoria in British Columbia.  He was promoted to associate professor of history (1976–82) and finally professor of history (1982–84).  He then became director of studies (1985–86) and executive director (1986–92) at the Canadian Institute of International Affairs in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.  From 1992 to 2000 Stafford became a visiting professor at Edinburgh University's Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities, and then, from 2000, he became projects director at the Centre for the Study of the Two World Wars.

Stafford is particularly noted for his scholarly works concerning Winston Churchill and British intelligence, various aspects of the Second World War, and twentieth-century intelligence and espionage with a focus on Britain. He now resides in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.

Published works
 From Anarchism to Reformism: A Study of the Political Activities of Paul Brousse, 1870-90, University of Toronto Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 1971.
 Britain and European Resistance, 1940-1945: A Survey of the Special Operations Executive, with Documents, University of Toronto Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 1980.
 Camp X: Canada's School for Secret Agents, 1941-1945, Lester & Orpen Dennys (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 1986; Dodd Mead (New York, NY), 1987.
 The Silent Game: The Real World of Imaginary Spies, Lester & Orpen Dennys (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 1988; revised edition, University of Georgia Press (Athens, GA), 1991.
 (With J.L. Granatstein) Spy Wars: Espionage and Canada: From Gouzenko to Glasnost, Key Porter Books (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 1990.
 (Editor, with A. Stuart Farson and Wesley K. Wark) Security and Intelligence in a Changing World: New Perspectives for the 1990s, Frank Cass (Portland, OR), 1991.
 Churchill and Secret Service, John Murray (London, England), 1997; Overlook Press (Woodstock, NY), 1998.
 Roosevelt and Churchill: Men of Secrets, Little, Brown (London, England), 1999; Overlook Press (Woodstock, NY), 2000.
 (Editor, with Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones) American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 1939-2000 (case studies), Frank Cass (Portland, OR), 2000.
 Secret Agent: The True Story of the Special Operations Executive, BBC Worldwide (London, England), 2000; published as Secret Agent: The True Story of the Covert War against Hitler, Overlook Press (Woodstock, NY), 2001.
 (Editor) Flight from Reality: Rudolf Hess and His Mission to Scotland, 1941, Pimlico (London, England), 2002.
 Spies beneath Berlin, John Murray (London, England), 2002; Overlook Press (Woodstock, NY), 2003.
 Ten Days to D-Day: Countdown to the Liberation of Europe, Little, Brown (London, England), 2003; published as Countdown to D-Day: Citizens and Soldiers on the Eve of the Invasion, Little, Brown (New York, NY), 2004.
 Endgame, 1945: Victory, Retribution, Liberation, Little, Brown (London, England), 2007; published as Endgame, 1945: The Missing Final Chapter of World War II, Little, Brown (New York, NY), 2007.

Notes

External links
 University profile

1942 births
British historians
Living people
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
People associated with the University of Edinburgh School of History, Classics and Archaeology
Alumni of Downing College, Cambridge
Alumni of the University of London
British diplomats
Academics of the London School of Economics
Academic staff of the University of Victoria
Historians of World War II
British male writers

David A. T. Stafford


The Royal Mile () is a succession of streets forming the main thoroughfare of the Old Town of the city of Edinburgh in Scotland. The term was first used descriptively in W. M. Gilbert's Edinburgh in the Nineteenth Century (1901), describing the city "with its Castle and Palace and the royal mile between", and was further popularised as the title of a guidebook by R. T. Skinner published in 1920, "The Royal Mile (Edinburgh) Castle to Holyrood(house)".

The Royal Mile runs between two significant locations in the royal history of Scotland: Edinburgh Castle and Holyrood Palace. The name derives from it being the traditional processional route of monarchs, with a total length of approximately one Scottish mile, an obsolete unit equal to 1.8072576 km. The streets which make up the Royal Mile are (west to east) Castlehill, the Lawnmarket, the High Street, the Canongate and Abbey Strand. The Royal Mile is the busiest tourist street in the Old Town, rivalled only by Princes Street in the New Town.

Geography
Retreating ice sheets, many millennia ago, deposited their glacial debris behind the hard volcanic plug of the castle rock on which Edinburgh Castle stands, resulting in a distinctive crag and tail formation. Running eastwards from the crag on which the castle sits, the Royal Mile sits upon the ridge of the tail which slopes gently down to Holyrood Palace. Steep closes (or alleyways) run between the many tall lands (or tenement buildings) off the main thoroughfare. The route runs from an elevation of  above sea level at the palace to  at the castle, giving an average gradient of 4.1%.

Castle Esplanade and Castlehill

The Castle Esplanade was laid out as a parade ground, in 1753, using spoil from the building of the Royal Exchange (now the City Chambers). It was formalised in 1816 when it was widened and provided with decorative railings and walls. The Esplanade with its several monuments has been A-listed by Historic Scotland. It is the venue of the annual Edinburgh Military Tattoo at which time specially designed temporary grandstands are erected. Cannonball House has a cannonball lodged in the wall, often said to have been accidentally fired from the Castle but which actually marks the elevation of Comiston Springs, three miles to the south of the Castle, which fed a cistern on Castlehill, one of the first piped water supplies in Scotland.

From the Castle Esplanade, the short section of road entitled Castlehill is dominated by the former Tolbooth-Highland-St John's Church (on the south side at the foot of this section), now the headquarters of the Edinburgh International Festival society – The Hub, and on the north side by the Outlook Tower and Camera Obscura. The Assembly Hall of the Church of Scotland and New College are further down on the same side. The Scottish Parliament met in the Assembly Hall between 1999 and 2004.

Lawnmarket
The Lawnmarket is a separately named part of the High Street. Addresses are a continuation of the High Street numbers. It runs from the West Bow to St Giles Street.

A charter of 1477 designated this part of the High Street as the market-place for what was called "inland merchandise" – items such as yarn, stockings, coarse cloth and other similar articles. In later years, linen was the main product sold. As a result, it became known as the Land Market which was later corrupted to Lawn Market. Located in a close on the south side, Riddle's Court is the well-preserved 16th-century house of a merchant John MacMorran, who was shot by rioting schoolboys in 1595.

Today, the majority of shops in the street are aimed at tourists. On the north side is the preserved 17th century merchant's townhouse Gladstone's Land owned by the National Trust for Scotland. The lower end of the Lawnmarket is intersected by George IV Bridge on the right (south) and Bank Street on the left (north), leading to The Mound and the New Town. The view down Bank Street is closed by the baroque headquarters of the Bank of Scotland.

On the south-west corner of this intersection, with its entrance on George IV Bridge, is a modern hotel, replacing the former Lothian Regional Council offices. This building is of controversial design, winning both best building awards and the Carbuncle Cup in 2009–10.

Between Bank Street and St Giles Street, marking the end of the Lawnmarket, the High Court of Justiciary, Scotland's supreme criminal court, is housed in the Justiciary Building.

High Street

On the south side, about one-third of the way down from the Castle toward the Palace is Parliament Square, named after the old Parliament House which housed both the law courts and the old Parliament of Scotland between the 1630s and 1707 (when its existence was ended by the Act of Union). Parliament House now houses the Court of Session, Scotland's supreme civil court. St Giles' Cathedral, the High Kirk of Edinburgh, also stands in Parliament Square.

By the West Door of St Giles' is the Heart of Midlothian, a heart-shaped pattern built into the "setted" road, marking the site of the Old Tolbooth, formerly the centre of administration, taxation and justice in the burgh. The prison was described by Sir Walter Scott as the "Heart of Midlothian", and soon after demolition the city fathers marked the site with a heart mosaic. Locals have traditionally spat upon the heart's centre as a sign of contempt for the prison. On the north side, opposite St Giles', stand Edinburgh City Chambers, where the City of Edinburgh Council meets. On the south side, just past the High Kirk, is the Mercat Cross from which royal proclamations are read and the summoning of Parliament announced.

The whole south side of buildings from St Giles to the Tron Kirk had to be rebuilt or refaced in the 1820s following the Great Edinburgh Fire of 1824. This was done in a Georgian style, stepping down the hill.

The central focus of the Royal Mile is a major intersection with the Bridges.  North Bridge runs north over Waverley station to the New Town's Princes Street. South Bridge (which appears at street level to be simply a road with shops on either side—only one arch is visible from below) spans the Cowgate to the south, a street in a hollow below, and continues as Nicolson Street past the Old College building of the University of Edinburgh.

At John Knox's House the High Street narrows to a section of the street formerly known as the Netherbow, which, at its crossroads with Jeffrey Street (north) and St Mary's Street (south), marked the former city boundary. At this point stood the Netherbow Port, a fortified gateway between Edinburgh and the Canongate (until 1856 a separate burgh), which was removed in 1764 to improve traffic flow. The Scottish Storytelling Centre is a modern extension to John Knox House, owned by the Church of Scotland. It opened in 2006, replacing the former Netherbow Arts Centre, which itself replaced the Moray-Knox Church in the 1960s. Following the English victory over the Scots at the Battle of Flodden in 1513, a city wall was built around Edinburgh known as the Flodden Wall, some parts of which survive. The Netherbow Port was a gateway in this wall and brass studs in the road mark its former position. On the corner of St Mary's Street is the World's End Pub which takes its name from the adjacent World's End Close, whimsically so named because this was in former times the last close in Edinburgh before entering the Canongate.

Entertainment for the wedding of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1558
There was a triumph or show at the Salt Tron and other locations on the Royal Mile to celebrate the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots and Francis II of France, on 3 July 1558. The wedding itself took place in Paris on 24 April 1558. The Edinburgh entertainment was written and produced by William Lauder and William Adamson. Walter Binning painted the "play cart" for actors portraying the signs of the seven planets and Cupid. Artificial "summer trees" decorated with fruit made from tennis balls covered with gold foil or leaf were placed on four stages. The seven planets had been portrayed in a show in Paris after the wedding.

Other 16th-century royal entertainments at the Tron and on the Royal Mile include the Entry of Mary, Queen of Scots (1561), the Entry of James VI (1579), and the Entry of Anne of Denmark (1590).

Murders of Note

Several infamous murders have taken place on the central section of the Royal Mile:

George Lockhart, Lord Carnwath, murdered by John Chieslie in 1689.
James Mackcoull, murdered William Begbie in 1806 in the close leading to Tweeddale Court.
World's End Close, double murder in 1977 by Angus Sinclair.

Canongate

Beyond the crossroads, the Royal Mile continues down the Canongate, meaning literally "the canons' way" when it was used in former times by the Augustinian canons of Holyrood Abbey. The street continues downhill past Moray House (now the main academic offices of Moray House School of Education of the University of Edinburgh), the Canongate Tolbooth (now a museum of social history called The People's Story), the Kirk of the Canongate (the Canongate's parish church and a thriving congregation of the Church of Scotland) and the new Scottish Parliament Building to Holyrood Palace and the ruined abbey. Until 1856 the Canongate was not merely a street, but the name of the surrounding burgh, separate from Edinburgh and outside the Flodden Wall.

Abbey Strand
This street is the short approach to Holyrood Palace at the foot of the Canongate. One of the buildings on the north side was the house of Lucky Spence, a notorious brothel madam, remembered in Allan Ramsay's poem, Lucky Spence's Last Advice. On the south side is the Queen's Gallery, used to exhibit items in the Royal collection, in the shell of the former Holyrood Free Church and Duchess of Gordon's School. There are also the remains of the gatehouse of Holyrood Palace built by James IV, with a copy of the royal coat-of-arms of James V set in the wall.

Today

Today, the Royal Mile contains a variety of shops, restaurants, public houses, and visitor attractions. During the annual Edinburgh Fringe, the High Street becomes crowded with tourists, entertainers, and buskers. Parliament Square is at the heart of Scotland's legal system, being the home of both the High Court of Justiciary and the Court of Session.

See also
List of closes on the Royal Mile
Moubray House
Museum of Childhood
Royal Mile police box
Writers' Museum

References

External links
City of Edinburgh Council
Edinburgh Old Town Association

Old Town, Edinburgh
Streets in Edinburgh
Tourist attractions in Edinburgh
Busking venues

Royal Mile


Lot  was a person in the biblical Book of Genesis chapters 11–14 and 19. He moves to Sodom and Gomorrah. He leaves quickly when angels warn him of the coming destruction of the cities, but his wife looks back 'and she became a pillar of salt' (Genesis 19:26) He fathers children with his daughters when they get him drunk. They gave birth to Moab and Ammon.

Move to Sodom

Lot is the son of Abraham's brother Haran, son of Terah. After Haran dies, Lot moves with Abraham to Canaan. When Lot's shepherds argue with Abraham's shepherds, Lot moves to Sodom because of how rich the place is even though the people are evil. Lot is kidnapped after four kings invade Sodom, so Abraham takes 318 men, goes to war, saves Sodom and rescues Lot.

The Angels' visit

When The Almighty tells Abraham he will kill everyone in Sodom and Gomorrah to punish them, Abraham asks The Almighty not to do that since there might be 50 good people there. The Almighty tells him that He wouldn't kill anyone there if there were 50 good people so Abraham asks if The Almighty would destroy them if there were 45. He says He wouldn't kill anyone there if there were 45 good people. Then Abraham asks what He would do if there were 40 and The Almighty said He would let everyone there live if there were 40. Then Abraham asks The Almighty about if there were thirty good people and The Almighty says He wouldn't kill anyone there if there were thirty good people. Then Abraham asks the Almighty what He would do if there were 20 and He says he wouldn't kill anyone in the city at all. Then Abraham asks if there were ten and The Almighty says that if there were 10 good people in Sodom and Gomorrah, He wouldn't destroy the city at all.  So the Almighty sent two angels to pretend to be humans and go to Sodom and Gomorrahto look for ten good people. They meet Lot, who brings them into his house and feeds them matzah. Then the people of Sodom and Gomorrah tell Lot they'll kill him unless he lets them rape the two men who are with him so Lot tells them to rape his two virgin daughters instead. They break Lot's door down to kill Lot and his wife and children so the angels make the Sodomites blind and tell Lot that The Almighty is going to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah because there aren't 10 good people there.  They tell Lot to run away with his family and not look back. Most of Lot's family doesn't listen so he runs away with his wife and two daughters. The Almighty sends fire and sulphur to Sodom and kills everyone there and Lot's wife turns around and looks back so The Almighty turns her into salt while Lot goes to a city called Zoar.

Moab and Ammon
Lot's daughters thought that the entire world was destroyed so the first of them decided to get Lot so drunk that he wouldn't recognize her and she could have sex with him and after she did that, her sister did the same thing. The first daughter got pregnant and had a son Moab while the second also had a son, Ben-Ammi. Moab became the ancestor of the Moabites and Ben-Ammi became the ancestor of a nation called the children of Ammon.

Jewish and Christian Traditions
According to Jewish tradition, Lot was bad but The Almighty saved him because of Abraham but according to Christian tradition, Lot was a good guy.

Related pages
Dead Sea

Old Testament people

Lot (biblical person)


This is a discography of Giuseppe Verdi's penultimate opera, Otello. It was first performed at La Scala, Milan, on 5 February 1887.

Otello has been recorded complete on disc and film a number of times since World War II, but most music-guide reviewers contend that a recording made of a 1947 NBC radio broadcast of the opera conducted by Arturo Toscanini and featuring singers  Herva Nelli, Ramón Vinay and Giuseppe Valdengo, is musically the best of these versions. RCA Victor has issued the Toscanini recording several times on commercial LPs and on CD in digitally remastered form. In addition, performances of Otello were captured live as early as the 1920s (at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, London) and the 1930s (at the Metropolitan Opera, New York City, the latter via the Metropolitan Opera radio broadcasts). They, too, are available on CD reissues. A wide variety of stage performances dating from the 1950s to the present day are also to be had on CD or on DVD.

Audio and video recordings

Extracts
Individual arias, duets and scenes from Otello have been committed to disc by many celebrated tenors, baritones and sopranos since acceptable audio technology was first developed in the early 20th century. The best of these recorded extracts have been reissued on CD and make for fascinating comparative listening. Recordings made in the early 1900s by the creators of the roles of Otello and Iago, namely Francesco Tamagno and Victor Maurel, are among those now available in digital formats.

References

External links
Detailed Otello discography – operadis-opera-discography.org.uk

Opera discographies
Operas by Giuseppe Verdi

Otello discography


Beyond Skyline is a 2017 American science fiction action film written, co-produced and directed by Liam O'Donnell in his directorial debut. It stars Frank Grillo, Bojana Novakovic, Jonny Weston, Iko Uwais, Callan Mulvey, Yayan Ruhian, Pamelyn Chee, Betty Gabriel, and Antonio Fargas. It is the sequel to the 2010 film Skyline and the second installment in the Skyline film series, set concurrently with the events of the first film.

The film was released on December 15, 2017 in the United States by Vertical Entertainment. Unlike its critically panned predecessor, Beyond Skyline received mixed reviews, with several critics calling it an improvement over the original.

Plot
Taking place at the same time as Skyline, Mark Corley, a Los Angeles police detective, helps his estranged son, Trent, out of jail just as an alien invasion begins. Much of the city's population is taken up into various spaceships by a blue light. Mark leads a group of surviving humans through underground subway tunnels to escape, though most of the humans are killed or abducted. The survivors, Mark, Trent, transit operator Audrey, and homeless man "Sarge" (who is immune to the blue light due to his blindness), escape to the marina following the city's nuclear destruction, only to be abducted into the alien flagship.

On board, Mark tries to find his son and storms his way into various chambers, where he meets up with survivor Elaine and her transformed husband Jarrod (from the first film). Elaine explains that Jarrod retains control of his mind despite being transformed into a bio-mechanical alien soldier. Though Elaine is only three months pregnant, her pregnancy has accelerated and she gives birth to a daughter.

Elaine dies during the delivery, and Mark and Jarrod team up to destroy the ship by setting alien explosives inside the control systems. When Jarrod is killed fighting the alien leader, Mark rescues Audrey but is too late to save his son. Trent has his brain taken and placed in another alien bio-mechanical machine creature. The dying Jarrod destroys the ship, which crashes in rural Laos.

Mark, Audrey, Sarge and the baby escape from the spaceship which starts to repair itself. Sarge dies from his wounds shortly after the group meets Sua and his sister Kanya, who belong to a drug cartel and fight against both aliens and local rogue ex-policemen bandits. While trekking through the jungle, they discover that the human baby grows at an accelerated rate, from an infant into a three-year-old in just one day. Sua and Kanya lead the rest to a hidden human resistance hideout located in local ruins. In addition, the leader of the rogue policemen, Huana, intercepts them but is disarmed and captured by Sua.

Harper, a medical officer and former drug chemist, examines the baby girl and learns about her unique DNA. He believes her blood may be the key to defeating the aliens. Using the child's blood and recovered alien technology, Harper develops the serum that he believes will free the bio-mechanical soldiers from alien control and restore their human personalities.

While on a patrol, Kanya encounters an alien and sacrifices herself by luring it into an old minefield left over from the Vietnam war. The ensuing explosion destroys the alien, but gives away their location to the ships searching for the baby. They converge on the human base. During the resulting battle, several members of the resistance are killed, including Harper. Mark enters an alien ship and uses his serum to turn the mind-controlling blue light into a red light that frees the mind-controlled soldiers. Before he can deploy it, the aliens attack and rip out the cannon containing the light. Sua frees a jailed Huana so that he can fight for the resistance. Mark, Audrey, Sua and Huana then make a last stand to fight back the aliens.

Trent, his mind restored after encountering his father, also fights back. During the battle, the child fixes the cannon, which Trent uses to kill the alien leader and release the red light, freeing the bio-mechanical soldiers. With Earth saved, Audrey names the girl Rose after Mark's deceased wife.

Ten years later, Rose, now a fully-grown adult, has taken control of an alien ship, and Trent is her second-in-command. Rose leads freed bio-mechanical soldiers and humans in an assault on the other alien ships around the Moon, including the mothership.

Cast
 Frank Grillo as Mark Corley, a detective, Trent's father, and Rose's adoptive father
 Bojana Novakovic as Audrey, an LA transit worker
 Jonny Weston as Trent Corley, Mark's estranged son and Rose's adoptive brother
 Callan Mulvey as Harper, a doctor of the human resistance
 Iko Uwais as Sua, the leader of an underground human resistance
 Pamelyn Chee as Kanya, the sister of Sua
 Yayan Ruhian as Huana, a militia leader
 Betty Gabriel as Jones, an LA cop
 Antonio Fargas as Sarge, a blind homeless man
 Jacob Vargas as Garcia, a police officer and friend of Mark

 Lindsey Morgan as Cpt. Rose, leader of the resistance, Mark's adoptive daughter, and Trent's adoptive sister
 Samantha Jean as Elaine, a captive woman and the biological mother of Rose (originally played by Scottie Thompson in the previous Skyline film)
 Tony Black as Jarrod in a flashback. (originally played by Eric Balfour in the previous Skyline film)

Production
In November 2014, Variety announced that Iko Uwais would join the cast, alongside Frank Grillo, Bojana Novakovic, and Yayan Ruhian. Liam O'Donnell wrote the script for the film, also wrote the script for the first film, will now direct as well as produce with Greg and Colin Strause serving as producers also.  The Strause Brothers were the directors of the first film, Skyline. Matthew Chausse will also produce. Uwais and Ruhian will also serve as fight choreographers on the film.

The film's visual effects and production were done by Hydraulx.

Filming
Principal photography began in December 2014, with shooting in Yogyakarta and Batam, Indonesia. and Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The finale of the film was shot in the Indonesian Prambanan temple complex, though the script suggests that it is located in Laos.

Release
The first film had a PG-13 rating but the sequel was given an R rating by the MPAA. On Alien Day 2017, set photos were released to show what the aliens in Beyond Skyline looked like for the sequel. The first trailer was released on August 16, 2017. The film premiered at Sitges Film Festival October 8, 2017. The film went on to screen at several  genre film festivals including Toronto After Dark, Trieste Science+Fiction, Austin Other Worlds, Boston Sci-Fi Film Festival, Rio Grind Vancouver, and was the closing night film at the inaugural Cinepocalypse in Chicago on November 9. Beyond Skyline was released on VOD and Digital on December 15, 2017, and on DVD and Blu-Ray on January 8, 2018.

Reception

, the film holds a 67% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 21 reviews with an approval rating of 5.50 out of 10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 46 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

Sequel

A third film, Skylines, again directed by O'Donnell and produced by the Strause brothers, was released on December 18, 2020.

References

External links

2017 science fiction action films
2017 films
American science fiction action films
2010s English-language films
Films about extraterrestrial life
Films shot in Indonesia
American sequel films
American alternate history films
Vertical Entertainment films
Alien invasions in films
2010s American films

Beyond Skyline