Sir Cyril Wyche FRS ( – 28 December 1707) was an English lawyer, politician and administrator. He served two terms in the Dublin Castle administration as Chief Secretary for Ireland and was a Lord Justice of Ireland from 1693 to 1695. He was the fifth President of the Royal Society, and represented several constituencies in both the House of Commons of England and the Irish House of Commons.

Early life
He was born in Constantinople, then part of the Ottoman Empire, where his father, Sir Peter Wyche, was the English Ambassador. He was baptised by and named after Patriarch Cyril Lucaris, who became his godfather. Wyche was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, receiving a Bachelor of Arts in 1653. He received his Master of Arts (MA) in 1655 and his Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) in 1665.

He entered Gray's Inn in 1657 and was eventually called to the bar in 1670. In 1660, around the time of the Stuart Restoration, he was knighted by Charles II in the The Hague, likely owing to the influence of his brother-in-law, the Earl of Bath. Shortly afterwards Wyche inherited a substantial fortune on the death of his mother, Jane Meredith, daughter of Sir William Meredith of Stansty.

Career

1661 to 1685
Wyche was first returned to parliament as the Member of Parliament for Callington in 1661, having been elected on the interest of John Coryton. Between 1662 and 1675 he was one of the six clerks in Chancery, and by 1664 was listed as a firm supporter of the court faction. After resigning from the Chancery, he sold his inherited properties in Sussex and constructed a new, grand townhouse on Lord St Albans' development on St James's Square.

In August 1676, Wyche was appointed secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland, the Earl of Essex, on the recommendation of the Earl of Bath. He remained in post under the new lord lieutenant, the Duke of Ormonde, the following year. His administrative abilities were highly valued by both lords lieutenant and Essex described Wyche as "a very discreet understanding man". Upon becoming secretary he was appointed to the Privy Council of Ireland. He continued to contribute to parliamentary sessions in England during this period and was commissioned to examine Edward Colman in Newgate Prison during the Popish Plot in 1678. Wyche declined to stand for re-election 1679, but two years later he was elected to represent East Grinstead on the interest of the Earl of Dorset. He attended the Oxford Parliament, during which he was likely an opponent of the Exclusion Bill.

One of the original members of the Royal Society from 1663, between 1683 and 1684 he served as the society's fifth President. In 1684 he was elected a fellow of the Dublin Philosophical Society. Throughout this period he remained Ormonde's secretary for Irish affairs, but without a salary. Wyche complained to Ormonde that "I am the only man I think almost that ever was in my station without any salary from the crown", but the duke refused him a pension.

1685 to 1705
Wyche lost his secretarial office with Ormonde's retirement on the accession of James II in 1685. That year he was elected as the MP for Saltash. Despite his shock at the new king's ostentatious attendance at Roman Catholic mass, he continued to be a court supporter in parliamentary proceedings. Nonetheless, in 1688 he welcomed the Glorious Revolution and in 1690 he was appointed a gentleman of the Privy Chamber by William III.

In 1692 he again became involved in Irish affairs with his appointment as secretary to Viscount Sydney. Wyche was elected to the Irish House of Commons as the MP for Dublin University in 1692 Irish parliament. In 1693 he played a leading role in the revival of the Dublin Society, serving as the society's president in that year. That year he was appointed one of three Lords Justices of Ireland following the removal of Sydney as lord lieutenant. Wyche, however, disagreed with his fellow Lord Justice, Lord Capell of Tewkesbury, over the correct policy for Ireland in relation to money bills. Capell, who had the backing of the Whig Junto in England, ensured that Wyche was removed from office in May 1695.

Returning to England, Wyche was rumoured to be under consideration for appointment as ambassador to Constantinople, but the appointment never materialised. He remained out of crown employment until June 1700, when he was made chairman of the trustees for the Irish forfeitures, and returned to Ireland until 1703. In 1702 he was elected to represent Preston, but was not re-elected in 1705.

Personal life
He married three times; firstly in 1663, Elizabeth, the youngest daughter of Sir Thomas Jermyn of Rushbrooke, Suffolk, with whom he had 2 sons (1 of whom predeceased him) and 2 daughters; secondly in 1684 Susanna, the daughter of Sir Edward Norreys of Weston on the Green, Oxfordshire and the widow of Sir Herbert Perrott of Wellington; and thirdly in 1692 Mary, the daughter of George Evelyn of Wotton, Surrey. Mary was the niece of John Evelyn, the diarist.

Around 1690 he purchased Hockwold Hall (then called The Poynings) at Hockwold cum Wilton, Norfolk. He died there on 28 December 1707 and a monument to him can be found in St Peter's Church, Hockwold. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Jermyn Wyche, whose inheritance was valued at over £100,000.

References

Further reading
 Sir Cyril Wyche and the Popish Plot, 1678-80, Hugh Fenning, O.P., in Seanchas Ard Macha volume 19/2, pp. 53–62, 2002

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1632 births
1707 deaths
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Members of Gray's Inn
17th-century English lawyers
Original Fellows of the Royal Society
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Members of the Privy Council of England
Presidents of the Royal Society
Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall
English MPs 1661–1679
English MPs 1681
English MPs 1685–1687
English MPs 1702–1705
Chief Secretaries for Ireland
Members of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801) for Dublin University
Irish MPs 1692–1693
People educated at Westminster School, London

Cyril Wyche


Mary Jo Leddy,  (born 1 February 1946) is a Canadian writer, speaker, theologian and social activist.

Leddy is widely recognized for her work with refugees at Toronto's Romero House.
In 1973, she was the founding editor of the Catholic New Times. She is the author of the books "Say to the Darkness We Beg to Differ" (Lester and Orpen Denys, finalist City of Toronto Book Award), Reweaving Religious Life: Beyond the Liberal Model (Twenty Third Publications, 1990), At the Border Called Hope: Where Refugees are Neighbours (HarperCollins, 1997 and finalist for the Trillium Award, Radical Gratitude (Orbis Books, 2002), "Our Friendly Local Terrorist" (Between the Lines 2010) and "The Other Face of God: When the Stranger Calls Us Home" (Orbis 2011). 'Why Are We Here? A Meditation on Canada" (Novalis 2019)

Leddy was the recipient of a Ph.D. in philosophy from the University of Toronto with a thesis titled "The Event of the Holocaust and the Philosophical Reflections of Hannah Arendt." She studied under the direction of Emil Fackenheim, and she is currently a Senior Fellow at Massey College, University of Toronto, and a board member of PEN Canada and Massey College. After some years as a member of the Roman Catholic Sisters of Our Lady of Sion, she began working for a welcome house for refugees in 1991. This house then became the Romero House community and she became its director until 2010. She continues to live and work at Romero House.

Leddy received the Human Relations Award of the Canadian Council of Christians and Jews (1987), the Ontario Citizenship Award (1993), and the Order of Canada (1996).

She has received several honorary doctorates:
D.Litt.  -  York University (1993)
D.Litt. - Mount Saint Vincent (1994)
LL.D  - Windsor (1990)
LL.D. -  Waterloo (1995)
DD   - St. Andrew's
 D.M. - Catholic Theological Union, Chicago (2008)
 Honorary Fellow, University of St. Michael's College (2015)
DD   - Atlantic School of Theology (2016)
 DD Misericordia University , PA (2018)
 (DD) Emmanuel College/Victoria University/U of Toronto (2019)

References

1946 births
Living people
Activists from Toronto
Canadian magazine editors
Canadian humanitarians
Canadian spiritual writers
Canadian Roman Catholic theologians
Roman Catholic activists
University of Toronto alumni
Members of the Order of Canada
Writers from Toronto
Canadian people of Irish descent
Date of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Canadian women activists
Women magazine editors
20th-century Canadian nuns
21st-century Canadian nuns

Mary Jo Leddy


Montréal–Sainte-Marie was a former provincial electoral district in the Montreal region of Quebec, Canada that elected members to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec.

It was created for the 1912 election from part of Montréal division no. 1 electoral district.  Its final election was in 1962.  It disappeared in the 1966 election and its successor electoral district was Sainte-Marie.

Members of the Legislative Assembly
 Napoleon Séguin, Liberal (1912–1921)
 Joseph Gauthier, Parti Ouvrier (1921–1923)
 Camillien Houde, Conservative Party (1923–1927)
 Joseph Gauthier, Liberal (1927)
 Camillien Houde, Conservative Party (1928–1931)
 Gaspard Fauteux, Liberal (1931–1935)
 Candide Rochefort, Action liberale nationale – Union Nationale (1935–1939)
 Camillien Houde, Independent (1939–1944)
 Camille Côté, Union Nationale (1944–1948)
 Aime Gendron, Union Nationale (1948–1952)
 Yvon Dupuis, Liberal (1952–1956)
 Edgar Charbonneau, Union Nationale (1956–1966)

References
 Election results (National Assembly)
 Election results (QuebecPolitique.com)

Former provincial electoral districts of Quebec
Provincial electoral districts of Montreal

Montréal–Sainte-Marie


The Sacramento Music Festival (formerly the Old Sacramento Dixieland Jazz Jubilee) was held every Memorial Day weekend in Sacramento, California. It was organized by the Sacramento Traditional Jazz Society since 1974. The final festival was in 2017.

Peak attendance for the festival was 85,000 during the 1980s. It decreased after 2002. In 2011, organizers invited musicians from blues, country, and rock. Attendance in 2016 was 22,000 people. The festival concentrated on Dixieland jazz but also welcomed performers in swing, ragtime, barbershop, and zydeco.

Additionally, the festival had a significant traditional jazz youth band element, showcasing dozens of youth bands in hour long sets throughout the weekend. Many bands were local to the Sacramento area and were representatives of schools or private jazz clubs and other community organizations. However, youth bands from outside California were not uncommon, some hailing from as far away as Canada.

References

Culture of Sacramento, California
Jazz clubs in California
Jazz festivals in California
Music festivals in California
Tourist attractions in Sacramento, California
1974 establishments in California
Music festivals established in 1974
2017 disestablishments in California
Recurring events disestablished in 2017

Sacramento Music Festival


Aesop, or Æsop (from the Greek Αἴσωπος Aisopos), is known for his fables. He was, by tradition, a slave of African descent who lived from about 620 BC to 560 BC in Ancient Greece.

Aesop's Fables are still taught as moral lessons and used as subjects for entertainment, especially children's plays and cartoons. Aesop is said to have written thousands of fables, but none has been verified. This means we do not know whether he wrote any, or perhaps just collected them. His most famous one was perhaps The Lion and the Mouse.

No writings by him survive. Tales credited to him were gathered across the centuries and in many languages. This is a storytelling tradition that continues to the present day. Many of the tales have animals and inanimate objects that speak, solve problems, and generally have human characteristics.

The tradition is that he was at one point freed from slavery and that he eventually died at the hands of Delphians. In fact, the doubt about his life has led some to deny his existence altogether.

His most famous fable is a parable of the tortoise and the hare. In this story, a rabbit challenges a tortoise to a race. The rabbit is sure of its victory and as a result, depending on the version of the story, in some way completes the race slower than the turtle. Often, the hare takes a nap or takes too many breaks. The persistent tortoise, despite being slower, wins because it persevered.

The  Qur'anic figure Luqman (Arabic: لقمان) is often identified with Aesop, whose lore is found in several ancient cultures. At some time during the Middle Ages, much was transferred to Luqman that was told in Europe of Aesop. This identification with Aesop is confirmed by the fact that many of the fables ascribed to Aesop in the west are referred to Luqman in the east.

Aesop's Fables

Aesop's Fables or Aesopica refers to a collection of fables credited to Aesop. Aesop's Fables has also become a blanket term for collections of brief fables, usually involving personified animals.

The fables remain a popular choice for moral education of children today. Many stories included in Aesop's Fables, such as The Fox and the Grapes (from which the idiom "sour grapes" was derived), The Tortoise and the Hare (see Zeno's paradoxes) and The Shepherd Boy and the Wolf (also known as The Boy Who Cried Wolf), are well known throughout the world.

Sources

 Caxton, John, 1484. The history and fables of Aesop, Westminster. Modern reprint edited by Robert T. Lenaghan (Harvard University Press: Cambridge, 1967).
 Caxton's famous Epilogue
 Bentley, Richard, 1697. Dissertation  upon the Epistles of Phalaris...  and the Fables of Æsop. London.
 Jacobs, Joseph, 1889. The Fables of Aesop: Selected, Told Anew, and Their History Traced, as first printed by William Caxton, 1484, from his French translation
 i. A short history of the Aesopic fable
 ii. The Fables of Aesop
 Handford, S. A., 1954. Fables of Aesop. New York: Penguin.
 Perry, Ben E. (editor), 1965. Babrius and Phaedrus, (Loeb Classical Library) Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965. English translations of 143 Greek verse fables by Babrius, 126 Latin verse fables by Phaedrus, 328 Greek fables not extant in Babrius, and 128 Latin fables not extant in Phaedrus (including some medieval materials) for a total of 725 fables.
 Temple, Olivia and Robert (translators), 1998. Aesop, The Complete Fables, New York: Penguin Classics. ()
 Bryn Mawr Classical Review, with Aesop bibliography

Other websites

 Aesop's Fables
 Aesopica.net – Over 600 English fables, with Latin and Greek texts also – Searchable
 AesopFables.com – Large collection of fables, but many fables are NOT Aesopic
 Free audiobook of Aesop's Fables from LibriVox
 The Fables – A site primarily for children

620 BC births
560 BC deaths
Ancient Greek writers
Slaves

Aesop


Cheer is an American sport television docuseries airing on Netflix starting in January 2020. The six-part series follows the nationally ranked forty-member Navarro College Bulldogs Cheer Team from Corsicana, Texas, under the direction of coach Monica Aldama, as they prepare to compete in the National Cheerleading Championship held annually in Daytona Beach, Florida. The episodes focus especially on five individual Cheer Team members and include elements of the history of cheerleading, including the formation of the National Cheerleaders Association (NCA).

As the series begins, the Cheer Team has won fourteen NCA National Championships in the junior college division, as well as five "Grand Nationals" for the highest score of all teams in the competition. One of their closest competitive rivals, also a junior college, is Trinity Valley Community College in Athens, Texas, roughly forty miles away. The final episode addresses the outsized influence of Varsity Brands—just acquired by Bain Capital—that seems to control most aspects of the billion-dollar competitive cheerleading industry, including broadcast rights of the Daytona finals. The second season premiered on January 12, 2022.

Background

Cheerleading developed from mere boosterism into a sport gradually; as one team would develop pyramids, baskets, jumps, stunts, and creative tumbling skills from cheerleading, circus arts (like balancing), and dancing—other teams would emulate and build on those tricks. Unlike most college sports, cheerleading has no professional league after college, so the National Cheerleading Championship held annually in Daytona Beach, Florida is the highest-level event where cheerleaders can compete. As of 2020, competitive cheerleading is a billion dollar industry.

Director Greg Whiteley came across competitive cheerleading while filming for his football television series Last Chance U. He was struck by the cheerleaders' athleticism and highly competitive drive.

Navarro College, a "9,000-student community college in Corsicana, Texas, about fifty miles south of Dallas," has a cheer team coached by Monica Aldama who graduated from Corsicana High School, earned a degree in Finance at the University of Texas at Austin, then a Master of Business Administration at the University of Texas at Tyler. She was a cheerleader in college. Because of her devotion to her extended Texan family, and her husband's desire to raise their children near their families, she accepted the position of cheerleading coach at Navarro College. Starting in 2000, she built the program from the ground up, making it into the best in the nation.

Episodes

Series overview

Season 1 (2020)

Season 2 (2022)

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the series holds an approval rating of 96% based on 23 reviews, with an average of 7.75/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "With an inspirational troupe of teens and willingness to engage in the tougher trials facing the sport today, Cheer perfectly captures the highs and lows of what it takes to be a cheerleader." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 81 out of 100, based on seven critics, indicating "universal acclaim".

The Washington Posts Hank Stuever wrote, "Cheer quickly and effortlessly becomes all-consuming for the viewer. Whiteley superbly structures the story through six episodes to heighten the anxiety as the competition nears." Vulture's Jen Chaney stated, "while it depicts plenty of conflicts and disagreements between the cheerleaders at Navarro College in Corsicana, Texas, it's an ultimately more uplifting show that uses cheer as a prism through which to explore overcoming all kinds of obstacles." Rolling Stone wrote, "...it's Apocalypse Now with pompoms," and "It's not tough to see why America is obsessed with Cheer: At a time when our democratic ideals are smashed to pieces, threatening all our illusions of leadership, Cheer offers a fantasy cheer-ocracy, with Monica as a scarily credible cheer-tator.

In January 2020, the Navarro cheer team and coach Monica appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, and performed a full routine; Ellen DeGeneres presented them with $20,000 toward their fundraising goal. The January 25, 2020, episode of Saturday Night Live had a sketch spoofing Cheer with guest host Adam Driver as one of the coaches apparently unconcerned as team members want to make the mat—the twenty chosen for the finals—so bad they want to cheer despite near-catastrophic injuries. In late January 2020, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert featured a spoof commercial about mat talk, the boisterous positivity sideline cheers that teammates do for the performing members—for which Jerry Harris was singled-out during the series as excelling in—for their performance. The conceit was a new booster Mat Talk for Regular People program whereby the Navarro Cheer Team members would praise everyday people for mundane activities, and featured La'Darius Marshall, Harris, and Gabi Butler cheering people on, with coach Monica Aldama available for a Booster Shot.

Awards and nominations

See also
Last Chance U
Wrestlers

Notes
C.  The track playing in season 1 episode 2 at TC 13:45 - 15:03 and in episode 6 at TC 32:27 - 34:30 was originally composed for the short film Renovation (2018).

References

External links

2020s American documentary television series
2020 American television series debuts
Television series by Boardwalk Pictures
Netflix original documentary television series
Cheerleading television series
Navarro College cheerleading
English-language Netflix original programming
Television shows set in Texas
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program winners

Cheer (TV series)


William Charles Dement (July 29, 1928 – June 17, 2020) was an American sleep researcher. He was the founder of the Sleep Research Center at Stanford University. He was a leading psychiatrist on sleep, sleep deprivation and the diagnosis and treatment of sleep disorders such as sleep apnea and narcolepsy.

Dement was born in Wenatchee, Washington. He died on June 17, 2020 in Stanford, California from heart disease at the age of 90.

References

1928 births
2020 deaths
American psychiatrists
Medical researchers
Scientists from Washington (state)

William C. Dement


The Thompson submachine gun, also known as the Tommy gun, was an early submachine gun design. It was popular among soldiers, police, and civilians alike. It was invented by Brigadier General John T. Thompson at the end of World War I as a "trench-boom" weapon, or a weapon that could clear out trenches very quickly. The war ended before the submachine gun could be used in battle. In 1919, Brigadier General Thompson had the company he founded, Auto-Ordnance Company, modify the gun for civilian use. The gun was classified as a submachine gun, meaning a small, fully automatic, hand-held gun that fires pistol ammunition. It remains an iconic firearm that is very popular with collectors. It fires .45 ACP caliber bullets, an effective and accurate combat bullet against human targets.

Technical specification
 Caliber: .45 ACP
 Barrel:
 Length:
 Weight:  empty
 Operation: friction delayed gas blowback
 Capacity: 20, 30 round straight box magazine, 50, 100 round drum magazine (not compatible with M1 or M1A1), belt feed ("Persuader" prototype)
 Type: Submachine gun
 Fire modes: Semi-auto/Full-auto (600-725 RPM, 1,500 RPM on "Annihilator 1" prototype, and 800 on "Annihilator 2")
 In service: M1919 prototypes: (1919 - 1920)/Serial production (1921 - present day)

History
In 1882, John T. Thompson entered the United States Army. During the Spanish–American War he made a reputation for himself making sure ammunition got to the front lines. This was at a time of almost complete chaos in the army supply system. He later played a part in developing two important American military weapons. These were the M1903 Springfield rifle and the M1911 pistol. In 1916 Auto-Ordnance was started with Thompson holding the majority of shares. Designed for use in World War I, the gun was first called "The Annihilator I" (Thompson nicknamed it a trench broom) could fire 20 rounds per second. The first cases of the new submachine gun arrived on the docks for shipment on November 11, 1918; the same day the war ended. Thompson and Auto-Ordnance began developing the gun for civilian markets. In 1921 the first model, called the M1921, was produced.

After World War I
In 1921, the Colt Patent Firearms Company made 15,000 Thompson submachine guns for Auto-Ordinance at a cost of $38.25 each. These were called the "Model 1921A". This model weighed  and had an effective range (distance it was accurate) of . General Thompson tried to sell his gun to European countries with little success. He tried selling it in the US but sales were slow. In 1926 he got orders from the United States Postal Service and the United States Marine Corps. The Marines used the guns during the Banana Wars. It worked well to counter ambushes by Nicaraguan guerrillas. The Irish Republican Army used them in 1921 during the last part of the Irish War of Independence. They were not impressed by the fact they could only kill about 32 percent of those they fired at. Others who bought his submachine gun included Law enforcement agencies and ranchers. Organized crime quickly found uses for the gun. Later, the United States Navy ordered 1,500.

World War II
The US military began using the weapon in 1938 and used it throughout World War II. There were two variants used. The model M1928A1 could use either stick or drum magazines, it had a muzzle brake (to counter the gun's tendency to rise when fired) and had Cooling fins (to counter the barrel of the gun getting too hot). The M1A1 model had no cooling fins, could only use the stick magazines and had a simplified sight. It was used by all the allies during the war. The main problem of the Thompson submachine gun was it was complex and expensive to manufacture. It was also heavy at about  loaded. It had to be kept very clean or it would misfire. But soldiers liked the weapon. It was a favorite of British and Australian soldiers. In the US military it was carried by squad leaders and officers. In the heavy jungles in the Pacific War, it sounded dangerously like the Japanese light machine guns causing some confusion on both sides. When the US developed the M3 submachine gun, also called the "grease gun", it was much lighter, cheaper to make and had a slower rate of fire. Most soldiers who had Thompsons were very slow to give them up in favor of the less well-liked grease gun.

It was used during the Korean War and later during the Vietnam War. The Thompson submachine gun was retired in 1971 after 33 years of service.

Other militaries
The Thompson was used in the Arab–Israeli conflict, the Cuban Revolution and in the Northern Ireland conflict (1969–1998.  The gun continues to be produced today, with many countries around the world still using it.  Over 1,700,000 Thompson submachine guns have been made.

Notes

References

Other websites

 From Gangland to the Battlefield — 15 Amazing Facts About the Thompson Submachine Gun
 Why do the earlier Thompson submachine guns have drum magazines ...
 Firing a Thompson on full-auto, YouTube

1919 establishments
Submachine guns

Thompson submachine gun


Charles I, also known as Charles Robert (; ; ; 128816 July 1342), was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1308 to his death. He was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou and the only son of Charles Martel, Prince of Salerno. His father was the eldest son of Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary. Mary laid claim to Hungary after her brother, Ladislaus IV of Hungary, died in 1290, but the Hungarian prelates and lords elected her cousin, Andrew III, king. Instead of abandoning her claim to Hungary, she transferred it to her son, Charles Martel, and after his death in 1295, to her grandson, Charles. On the other hand, her husband, Charles II of Naples, made their third son, Robert, heir to the Kingdom of Naples, thus disinheriting Charles.

Charles came to the Kingdom of Hungary upon the invitation of an influential Croatian lord, Paul Šubić, in August 1300. Andrew III died on 14 January 1301, and within four months Charles was crowned king, but with a provisional crown instead of the Holy Crown of Hungary. Most Hungarian noblemen refused to yield to him and elected Wenceslaus of Bohemia king. Charles withdrew to the southern regions of the kingdom. Pope Boniface VIII acknowledged Charles as the lawful king in 1303, but Charles was unable to strengthen his position against his opponent. Wenceslaus abdicated in favor of Otto of Bavaria in 1305. Because it had no central government, the Kingdom of Hungary had disintegrated into a dozen provinces, each headed by a powerful nobleman, or oligarch. One of those oligarchs, Ladislaus III Kán, captured and imprisoned Otto of Bavaria in 1307. Charles was elected king in Pest on 27 November 1308, but his rule remained nominal in most parts of his kingdom even after he was crowned with the Holy Crown on 27 August 1310.

Charles won his first decisive victory in the Battle of Rozgony (at present-day Rozhanovce in Slovakia) on 15 June 1312. After that, his troops seized most fortresses of the powerful Aba family. During the next decade, Charles restored royal power primarily with the assistance of the prelates and lesser noblemen in most regions of the kingdom. After the death of the most powerful oligarch, Matthew Csák, in 1321, Charles became the undisputed ruler of the whole kingdom, with the exception of Croatia where local noblemen were able to preserve their autonomous status. He was not able to hinder the development of Wallachia into an independent principality after his defeat in the Battle of Posada in 1330. Charles's contemporaries described his defeat in that battle as a punishment from God for his cruel revenge against the family of Felician Záh who had attempted to slaughter the royal family.

Charles rarely made perpetual land grants, instead introduced a system of "office fiefs", whereby his officials enjoyed significant revenues, but only for the time they held a royal office, which ensured their loyalty. In the second half of his reign, Charles did not hold Diets and administered his kingdom with absolute power. He established the Order of Saint George, which was the first secular order of knights. He promoted the opening of new gold mines, which made Hungary the largest producer of gold in Europe. The first Hungarian gold coins were minted during his reign. At the congress of Visegrád in 1335, he mediated a reconciliation between two neighboring monarchs, John of Bohemia and Casimir III of Poland. Treaties signed at the same congress also contributed to the development of new commercial routes linking Hungary with Western Europe. Charles's efforts to reunite Hungary, together with his administrative and economic reforms, established the basis for the achievements of his successor, Louis the Great.

Early years

Childhood (1288–1300)

Charles was the only son of Charles Martel, Prince of Salerno, and his wife, Clemence of Austria. He was born in 1288; the place of his birth is unknown. Charles Martel was the firstborn son of Charles II of Naples and Charles II's wife, Mary, who was a daughter of Stephen V of Hungary. After the death of her brother, Ladislaus IV of Hungary, in 1290, Queen Mary announced her claim to Hungary, stating that the House of Árpád (the royal family of Hungary) had become extinct with Ladislaus's death. However, her father's cousin, Andrew also laid claim to the throne, although his father, Stephen the Posthumous, had been regarded a bastard by all other members of the royal family. For all that, the Hungarian lords and prelates preferred Andrew against Mary and he was crowned king of Hungary on 23 July 1290. She transferred her claim to Hungary to Charles Martel in January 1292. The Babonići, Frankopans, Šubići and other Croatian and Slavonian noble families seemingly acknowledged Charles Martel's claim, but in fact their loyalty vacillated between Charles Martel and Andrew III.

Charles Martel died in autumn 1295, and his seven-year-old son, Charles, inherited his claim to Hungary. Charles would have also been the lawful heir to his grandfather, Charles II of Naples, in accordance with the principles of primogeniture. However, Charles II, who preferred his third son, Robert, to his grandson, bestowed the rights of a firstborn son upon Robert on 13 February 1296. Pope Boniface VIII confirmed Charles II's decision on 27 February 1296, excluding the child Charles from succeeding his grandfather in the Kingdom of Naples. Dante Alighieri wrote of "the schemes and frauds that would attack" Charles Martel's family in reference to Robert's alleged manoeuvres to acquire the right to inherit Naples. The 14th-century historian Giovanni Villani also noted that his contemporaries were of the opinion that Robert's claim to Naples was weaker than his nephew's. The jurist Baldus de Ubaldis refrained from setting out his position on the legitimacy of Robert's rule.

Struggle for Hungary (1300–1308)

Andrew III of Hungary made his maternal uncle, Albertino Morosini, Duke of Slavonia, in July 1299, stirring up the Slavonian and Croatian noblemen to revolt. A powerful Croatian baron, Paul Šubić, sent his brother, George, to Italy in early 1300 to convince Charles II of Naples to send his grandson to Hungary to claim the throne in person. The king of Naples accepted the proposal and borrowed 1,300 ounces of gold from Florentine bankers to finance Charles's journey. A Neapolitan knight of French origin, Philip Drugeth, accompanied the twelve-year-old Charles to Hungary. They landed at Split in Dalmatia in August 1300. From Split, Paul Šubić escorted him to Zagreb where Ugrin Csák swore loyalty to Charles. Charles's opponent, Andrew III of Hungary, died on 14 January 1301. Charles hurried to Esztergom where the Archbishop-elect, Gregory Bicskei, crowned him with a provisional crown before 13 May. However, most Hungarians considered Charles's coronation unlawful because customary law required that it should have been performed with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár.

Charles counted his regnal years from this coronation, but Hungary had actually disintegrated into about a dozen independent provinces, each ruled by a powerful lord, or oligarch. Among them, Matthew Csák dominated the northwestern parts of Hungary (which now form the western territories of present-day Slovakia), Amadeus Aba controlled the northeastern lands, Ivan Kőszegi ruled Transdanubia, and Ladislaus Kán governed Transylvania. Most of those lords refused to accept Charles's rule and proposed the crown to Wenceslaus II of Bohemia's son and namesake, Wenceslaus, whose bride, Elisabeth, was Andrew III's only daughter. Although Wenceslaus was crowned with the Holy Crown in Székesfehérvár, the legitimacy of his coronation was also questionable because John Hont-Pázmány, Archbishop of Kalocsa, put the crown on Wenceslaus's head, although customary law authorized the Archbishop of Esztergom to perform the ceremony.

After Wenceslaus's coronation, Charles withdrew to Ugrin Csák's domains in the southern regions of the kingdom. Pope Boniface sent his legate, Niccolo Boccasini, to Hungary. Boccasini convinced the majority of the Hungarian prelates to accept Charles's reign. However, most Hungarian lords continued to oppose Charles because, according to the Illuminated Chronicle, they feared that "the free men of the kingdom should lose their freedom by accepting a king appointed by the Church". Charles laid siege to Buda, the capital of the kingdom, in September 1302, but Ivan Kőszegi relieved the siege. Charles's charters show that he primarily stayed in the southern parts of the kingdom during the next years although he also visited Amadeus Aba in the fortress of Gönc.

Pope Boniface who regarded Hungary as a fief of the Holy See declared Charles the lawful king of Hungary on 31 May 1303. He also threatened Wenceslaus with excommunication if he continued to style himself king of Hungary. Wenceslaus, left Hungary in summer 1304, taking the Holy Crown with him. Charles met his cousin, Rudolph III of Austria, in Pressburg (now Bratislava in Slovakia) on 24 August. After signing an alliance, they jointly invaded Bohemia in the autumn. Wenceslaus who had succeeded his father in Bohemia renounced his claim to Hungary in favor of Otto III, Duke of Bavaria on 9 October 1305.

Otto was crowned with the Holy Crown in Székesfehérvár on 6 December 1305 by Benedict Rád, Bishop of Veszprém, and Anton, Bishop of Csanád. He was never able to strengthen his position in Hungary, because only the Kőszegis and the Transylvanian Saxons supported him. Charles seized Esztergom and many fortresses in the northern parts of Hungary (now in Slovakia) in 1306. His partisans also occupied Buda in June 1307. Ladislaus Kán, Voivode of Transylvania, seized and imprisoned Otto in Transylvania. An assembly of Charles's partisans confirmed Charles's claim to the throne on 10 October, but three powerful lords—Matthew Csák, Ladislaus Kán, and Ivan Kőszegi—were absent from the meeting. In 1308, Ladislaus Kán released Otto, who then left Hungary. Otto never ceased styling himself King of Hungary, but he never returned to the country.

Pope Clement V sent a new papal legate, Gentile Portino da Montefiore, to Hungary. Montefiore arrived in the summer of 1308. In the next few months, he persuaded the most powerful lords one by one to accept Charles's rule. At the Diet, which was held in the Dominican monastery in Pest, Charles was unanimously proclaimed king on 27 November 1308. The delegates sent by Matthew Csák and Ladislaus Kán were also present at the assembly.

Reign

Wars against the oligarchs (1308–1323)

The papal legate convoked the synod of the Hungarian prelates, who declared the monarch inviolable in December 1308. They also urged Ladislaus Kán to hand over the Holy Crown to Charles. After Kán refused to do so, the legate consecrated a new crown for Charles. Thomas II, Archbishop of Esztergom crowned Charles king with the new crown in the Church of Our Lady in Buda on 15 or 16 June 1309. However, most Hungarians regarded his second coronation invalid. The papal legate excommunicated Ladislaus Kán, who finally agreed to give the Holy Crown to Charles. On 27 August 1310, Archbishop Thomas of Esztergom put the Holy Crown on Charles's head in Székesfehérvár; thus, Charles's third coronation was performed in full accordance with customary law. However, his rule remained nominal in most parts of his kingdom.

Matthew Csák laid siege Buda in June 1311, and Ladislaus Kán declined to assist the king. Charles sent an army to invade Matthew Csák's domains in September, but it achieved nothing. In the same year, Ugrin Csák died, enabling Charles to take possession of the deceased lord's domains, which were situated between Požega in Slavonia and Temesvár (present-day Timișoara in Romania). The burghers of Kassa (now Košice in Slovakia) assassinated Amadeus Aba in September 1311. Charles's envoys arbitrated an agreement between Aba's sons and the town, which also prescribed that the Abas withdraw from two counties and allow the noblemen inhabiting their domains to freely join Charles. However, the Abas soon entered into an alliance with Matthew Csák against the king. The united forces of the Abas and Matthew Csák besieged Kassa, but Charles routed them in the Battle of Rozgony (now Rozhanovce in Slovakia) on 15 June 1312. Almost half of the noblemen who had served Amadeus Aba fought on Charles's side in the battle. In July, Charles captured the Abas' many fortresses in Abaúj, Torna and Sáros counties, including Füzér, Regéc, and Munkács (now Mukacheve in Ukraine). Thereafter he waged war against Matthew Csák, capturing Nagyszombat (now Trnava in Slovakia) in 1313 and Visegrád in 1315, but was unable to win a decisive victory.

Charles transferred his residence from Buda to Temesvár in early 1315. Ladislaus Kán died in 1315, but his sons did not yield to Charles. Charles launched a campaign against the Kőszegis in Transdanubia and Slavonia in the first half of 1316. Local noblemen joined the royal troops, which contributed to the quick collapse of the Kőszegis' rule in southern parts of their domains. Meanwhile, James Borsa made an alliance against Charles with Ladislaus Kán's sons and other lords, including Mojs Ákos and Peter, son of Petenye. They offered the crown to Andrew of Galicia. Charles's troops, which were under the command of a former supporter of the Borsas, Dózsa Debreceni, defeated the rebels' united troops at Debrecen at the end of June. In the next two months, many fortresses of Borsa and his allies fell to the royal troops in Bihar, Szolnok, Borsod and Kolozs counties. No primary source has made reference to Charles's bravery or heroic acts, suggesting that he rarely fought in person in the battles and sieges. However, he had excellent strategic skills: it was always Charles who appointed the fortresses to be besieged.

Stefan Dragutin, who controlled the Szerémség, Macsó and other regions along the southern borders of Hungary, died in 1316. Charles confirmed the right of Stefan Dragutin's son, Vladislav, to succeed his father and declared Vladislav the lawful ruler of Serbia against Stefan Uroš II Milutin. However, Stefan Uroš II captured Vladislav and invaded the Szerémség. Charles launched a counter-campaign across the river Száva and seized the fortress of Macsó. In May 1317, Charles's army suppressed the Abas' revolt, seizing Ungvár and Nevicke Castle (present-day Uzhhorod and Nevytsky Castle in Ukraine) from them. After that, Charles invaded Matthew Csák's domains and captured Komárom (now Komárno in Slovakia) on 3 November 1317. After his uncle, King Robert of Naples, granted the Principality of Salerno and the domain of Monte Sant'Angelo to his brother (Charles's younger uncle), John, Charles protested and laid claim to those domains, previously held by his father.

After Charles neglected to reclaim Church property that Matthew Csák had seized by force, the prelates of the realm made an alliance in early 1318 against all who would jeopardize their interests. Upon their demand, Charles held a Diet in summer, but refused to confirm the Golden Bull of 1222. Before the end of the year, the prelates made a complaint against Charles because he had taken possession of Church property. In 1319, Charles fell so seriously ill that the pope authorized Charles's confessor to absolve him from his all sins before he died, but Charles recovered. In the same year, Dózsa Debreceni, whom Charles had made voivode of Transylvania, launched successful expeditions against Ladislaus Kán's sons and their allies, and Charles's future Judge royal, Alexander Köcski, seized the Kőszegis' six fortresses. In summer, Charles launched an expedition against Stefan Uroš II Milutin, during which he retook Belgrade and restored the Banate of Macsó. The last Diet during Charles's reign was held in 1320; following that, he failed to convoke the yearly public judicial sessions, contravening the provisions of the Golden Bull.

Matthew Csák died on 18 March 1321. The royal army invaded the deceased lord's province, which soon disintegrated because most of his former castellans yielded without resistance. Charles personally led the siege of Csák's former seat, Trencsén (now Trenčín in Slovakia), which fell on 8 August. About three months later, Charles's new voivode of Transylvania, Thomas Szécsényi, seized Csicsó (present-day Ciceu-Corabia in Romania), the last fortress of Ladislaus Kán's sons.

In January 1322, two Dalmatian towns, Šibenik and Trogir, rebelled against Mladen II Šubić, who was a son of Charles's one-time leading partisan, Paul Šubić. The two towns also accepted the suzerainty of the Republic of Venice although Charles had urged Venice not to intervene in the conflict between his subjects. Many Croatian lords (including his own brother, Paul II Šubić) also turned against Mladen, and their coalition defeated him at Klis. In September, Charles marched to Croatia where all the Croatian lords who were opposed to Mladen Šubić yielded to him in Knin. Mladen Šubić also visited Charles, but the king had the powerful lord imprisoned.

Consolidation and reforms (1323–1330)

As one of his charters concluded, Charles had taken "full possession" of his kingdom by 1323. In the first half of the year, he moved his capital from Temesvár to Visegrád in the centre of his kingdom. In the same year, the Dukes of Austria renounced Pressburg (now Bratislava in Slovakia), which they had controlled for decades, in exchange for the support they had received from Charles against Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1322.

Royal power was only nominally restored in the lands between the Carpathian Mountains and the Lower Danube, which had been united under a voivode, known as Basarab, by the early 1320s. Although Basarab was willing to accept Charles's suzerainty in a peace treaty signed in 1324, he refrained from renouncing control of the lands he had occupied in the Banate of Severin. Charles also attempted to reinstate royal authority in Croatia and Slavonia. He dismissed the Ban of Slavonia, John Babonić, replacing him with Mikcs Ákos in 1325. Ban Mikcs invaded Croatia to subjugate the local lords who had seized the former castles of Mladen Subić without the king's approval, but one of the Croatian lords, Ivan I Nelipac, routed the ban's troops in 1326. Consequently, royal power remained only nominal in Croatia during Charles's reign. The Babonići and the Kőszegis rose up in open rebellion in 1327, but Ban Mikcs and Alexander Köcski defeated them. In retaliation, at least eight fortresses of the rebellious lords were confiscated in Slavonia and Transdanubia.

Through his victory over the oligarchs, Charles acquired about 60% of the Hungarian castles, along with the estates belonging to them. In 1323, he set about revising his previous land grants, which enabled him to reclaim former royal estates. During his reign, special commissions were set up to detect royal estates that had been unlawfully acquired by their owners. Charles refrained from making perpetual grants to his partisans. Instead, he applied a system of "office fiefs" (or honors), whereby his officials were entitled to enjoy all revenues accrued from their offices, but only for the time they held those offices. That system assured the preponderance of royal power, enabling Charles to rule "with the plenitude of power", as he emphasized in one of his charters of 1335. He even ignored customary law: for instance, "promoting a daughter to a son", which entitled her to inherit her father's estates instead of her male cousins. Charles also took control of the administration of the Church in Hungary. He appointed the Hungarian prelates at will, without allowing the cathedral chapters to elect them.

He promoted the spread of chivalrous culture in his realms. He regularly held tournaments and introduced the new ranks of "page of the royal court" and "knight of the royal court". Charles was the first monarch to create a secular order of knighthood by establishing the Order of Saint George in 1326. He was the first Hungarian king to grant helmet crests to his faithful followers to distinguish them from others "by means of an insignium of their own", as he emphasized in one of his charters.

Charles reorganized and improved the administration of royal revenues. During his reign, five new "chambers" (administrative bodies headed by German, Italian or Hungarian merchants) were established for the control and collection of royal revenues from coinage, monopolies and custom duties. In 1327, he partially abolished the royal monopoly of gold mining, giving one third of the royal revenues from the gold extracted from a newly opened mine to the owner of the land where that mine was discovered. In the next few years, new gold mines were opened at Körmöcbánya (now Kremnica in Slovakia), Nagybánya (present-day Baia Mare in Romania) and Aranyosbánya (now Baia de Arieș in Romania). Hungarian mines yielded about  of gold around 1330, which made up more than 30% of the world's total production. The minting of gold coins began under Charles's auspices in the lands north of the Alps in Europe. His florins, which were modelled on the gold coins of Florence, were first issued in 1326.

Internal peace and increasing royal revenues strengthened the international position of Hungary in the 1320s. On 13 February 1327, Charles and John of Bohemia signed an alliance in Nagyszombat (present-day Trnava in Slovakia) against the Habsburgs, who had occupied Pressburg. In the summer of 1328 Hungarian and Bohemian troops invaded Austria and routed the Austrian army on the banks of the Leitha River. On 21 September 1328, Charles signed a peace treaty with the three dukes of Austria (Frederick the Fair, Albert the Lame, and Otto the Merry), who renounced Pressburg and the Muraköz (now Međimurje in Croatia). The following year, Serbian troops laid siege to Belgrade, but Charles relieved the fortress.

Alliance with his father-in-law, Władysław I the Elbow-high, King of Poland, became a permanent element of Charles's foreign policy in the 1320s. After being defeated by the united forces of the Teutonic Knights and John of Bohemia, Władysław I sent his son and heir, Casimir, to Visegrád in late 1329 to seek assistance from Charles. During his stay in Charles's court, the nineteen-year-old Casimir seduced Clara Záh, who was a lady-in-waiting of Charles's wife, Elisabeth of Poland, according to an Italian writer. On 17 April 1330, the young lady's father, Felician Záh, stormed into the dining room of the royal palace at Visegrád with a sword in his hand and attacked the royal family. Záh wounded both Charles and the queen on their right hand and attempted to kill their two sons, Louis and Andrew, before the royal guards killed him. Charles's revenge was brutal: with the exception of Clara, Felician Záh's children were tortured to death; Clara's lips and all eight fingers were cut before she was dragged by a horse through the streets of many towns; all of Felician's other relatives within the third degree of kinship (including his sons-in-law and sisters) were executed, and those within the seventh degree were condemned to perpetual serfdom.

Active foreign policy (1330–1339)

In September 1330, Charles launched a military expedition against Basarab I of Wallachia who had attempted to get rid of his suzerainty. After seizing the fortress of Severin (present-day Drobeta-Turnu Severin in Romania), he refused to make peace with Basarab and marched towards Curtea de Argeș, which was Basarab's seat. The Wallachians applied scorched earth tactics, compelling Charles to make a truce with Basarab and withdraw his troops from Wallachia. While the royal troops were marching through a narrow pass across the Southern Carpathians on 9 November, the Wallachians ambushed them. During the next four days, the royal army was decimated; Charles could only escape from the battlefield after changing his clothes with one of his knights, Desiderius Hédervári, who sacrificed his life to enable the king's escape. Charles did not attempt a new invasion of Wallachia, which subsequently developed into an independent principality.

In September 1331, Charles made an alliance with Otto the Merry, Duke of Austria, against Bohemia. He also sent reinforcements to Poland to fight against the Teutonic Knights and the Bohemians. In 1332 he signed a peace treaty with John of Bohemia and mediated a truce between Bohemia and Poland. In 1332 Charles allowed the collection of the papal tithe (the tenth part of the Church revenues) in his realms only after the Holy See agreed to give one third of the money collected to him. After years of negotiations, Charles visited his uncle, Robert, in Naples in July 1333. Two months later, Charles's son, Andrew, was betrothed to Robert's granddaughter, Joanna, who had been made her grandfather's heir. Charles returned to Hungary in early 1334. In retaliation for a previous Serbian raid, he invaded Serbia and captured the fortress of Galambóc (now Golubac in Serbia).

In summer 1335, the delegates of John of Bohemia and the new King of Poland, Casimir III, entered into negotiations in Trencsén to put an end to the conflicts between the two countries. With Charles's mediation, a compromise was reached on 24 August: John of Bohemia renounced his claim to Poland and Casimir of Poland acknowledged John of Bohemia's suzerainty in Silesia. On 3 September, Charles signed an alliance with John of Bohemia in Visegrád, which was primarily formed against the Dukes of Austria. Upon Charles's invitation, John of Bohemia and Casimir of Poland met in Visegrád in November. During the Congress of Visegrád, the two rulers confirmed the compromise that their delegates had worked out in Trencsén. Casimir III also promised to pay 400,000 groschen to John of Bohemia, but a part of this indemnification (120,000 groschen) was finally paid off by Charles instead of his brother-in-law. The three rulers agreed upon a mutual defence union against the Habsburgs, and a new commercial route was set up to enable merchants travelling between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire to bypass Vienna.

The Babonići and the Kőszegis made an alliance with the Dukes of Austria in January 1336. John of Bohemia, who claimed Carinthia from the Habsburgs, invaded Austria in February. Casimir III of Poland came to Austria to assist him in late June. Charles soon joined them at Marchegg. The dukes sought reconciliation and signed a peace treaty with John of Bohemia in July. Charles signed a truce with them on 13 December, and launched a new expedition against Austria early the next year. He forced the Babonići and the Kőszegis to yield, and the latter were also compelled to hand over to him their fortresses along the frontier in exchange for faraway castles. Charles's peace treaty with Albert and Otto of Austria, which was signed on 11 September 1337, forbade both the dukes and Charles to give shelter to the other party's rebellious subjects.

Charles continued the reform of coinage in the late 1330s. In 1336, he abolished the compulsory exchange of old coins for newly issued coins for villagers, but introduced a new tax, the chamber's profit, to compensate the loss of royal revenues. Two years later, Charles ordered the minting of a new silver penny and prohibited payments made in foreign coins or silver bars.

John of Bohemia's heir, Charles, Margrave of Moravia, visited Charles in Visegrád in early 1338. The margrave acknowledged the right of Charles's son, Louis, to inherit Poland if Casimir III died without a son in exchange for Charles's promise to persuade Casimir III not to invade Silesia. Two leading Polish lords, Zbigniew, chancellor of Cracow, and Spycimir Leliwita, also supported this plan and persuaded Casimir III, who lost his first wife on 26 May 1339, to start negotiations with Charles. In July, Casimir came to Hungary and designated his sister (Charles's wife), Elizabeth, and her sons as his heirs. On his sons' behalf, Charles promised that they would make every effort to reconquer all lands that Poland had lost and that they would refrain from employing foreigners in Poland.

Last years (1339–1342)

Charles obliged the Kőszegis to renounce their last fortresses along the western borders of the kingdom in 1339 or 1340. He divided the large Zólyom County (now in Slovakia), which had been dominated by a powerful local lord, Donch, into three smaller counties in 1340. The following year, Charles also forced Donch to renounce his two fortresses in Zólyom in exchange for one castle in the distant Kraszna County (in present-day Romania). Around the same time, Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia, invaded Sirmium and captured Belgrade.

Charles was ailing during the last years of his life. He died in Visegrád on 16 July 1342. His corpse was first delivered to Buda where a Mass was said for his soul. From Buda, his corpse was taken to Székesfehérvár. He was buried in the Székesfehérvár Basilica a month after his death. His brother-in-law, Casimir III of Poland, and Charles, Margrave of Moravia, were present at his funeral, an indication of Charles's international prestige.

Family

The Anonymi descriptio Europae orientalis ("An Anonymous' Description of Eastern Europe") wrote, in the first half of 1308, that "the daughter of the strapping Duke of Ruthenia, Leo, has recently married Charles, King of Hungary". Charles also stated in a charter of 1326 that he once travelled to "Ruthenia" (or Halych-Lodomeria) in order to bring his first wife back to Hungary. A charter issued on 23 June 1326 referred to Charles's wife, Queen Mary. Historian Gyula Kristó says, the three documents show that Charles married a daughter of Leo II of Galicia in late 1305 or early 1306. Historian Enikő Csukovits accepts Kristó's interpretation, but she writes that Mary of Galicia most probably died before the marriage. The Polish scholar, Stanisław Sroka, rejects Kristó's interpretation, stating that Leo I—who was born in 1292, according to him—could hardly have fathered Charles's first wife. In accordance with previous academic consensus, Sroka says that Charles's first wife was Mary of Bytom from the Silesian branch of the Piast dynasty.

The Illuminated Chronicle stated that Charles's "first consort, Maria ... was of the Polish nation" and she was "the daughter of Duke Casimir". Sroka proposes that Mary of Bytom married Charles in 1306, but Kristó writes that their marriage probably took place in the first half of 1311. The Illuminated Chronicle recorded that she died on 15 December 1317, but a royal charter issued on 12 July 1318 stated that her husband made a land grant with her consent. Charles's next—second or third—wife was Beatrice of Luxembourg, who was a daughter of Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor, and the sister of John, King of Bohemia. Their marriage took place before the end of February 1319. She died in childbirth in early November in the same year. Charles's last wife, Elisabeth, daughter of Władysław I, King of Poland, was born around 1306. Their marriage took place on 6 July 1320.

Most 14th-century Hungarian chroniclers write that Charles and Elisabeth of Poland had five sons. Their first son, Charles, was born in 1321 and died in the same year according to the Illuminated Chronicle. However, a charter of June 1323 states that the child had died in this month. The second son of Charles and Elisabeth, Ladislaus, was born in 1324. The marriage of Ladislaus and Anne, a daughter of King John of Bohemia, was planned by their parents, but Ladislaus died in 1329. Charles's and Elisabeth's third son, Louis, who was born in 1326, survived his father and succeeded him as King of Hungary. His younger brothers, Andrew and Stephen, who were born in 1327 and 1332, respectively, also survived Charles.

Although no contemporaneous or nearly contemporaneous sources made mention of any further children, Charles may have fathered two daughters, according to historians Zsuzsa Teke and Gyula Kristó. Zsuzsa Teke writes that they were born to Mary of Bytom, but the nearly contemporaneous Peter of Zittau wrote that she had died childless. Gyula Kristó proposes that a miniature in the Illuminated Chronicle, which depicts Elisabeth of Poland and five children, implies that she gave birth to Charles's two daughters, because Kristó identifies two of the three children standing on her right as daughters. The elder of Charles's two possible daughters, Catherine, who was born in the early 1320s, was the wife of Henry II, Duke of Świdnica. Their only daughter, Anne, grew up in the Hungarian royal court after her parents' death, implying that Charles and Elisabeth of Poland were her grandparents. Historian Kazimierz Jasiński says that Elisabeth, the wife of Boleslaus II of Troppau, was also Charles's daughter. If she was actually Charles's daughter, she must have been born in about 1330, according to Kristó.

Charles also fathered an illegitimate son, Coloman, who was born in early 1317. His mother was a daughter of Gurke Csák. Coloman was elected Bishop of Győr in 1336.

Legacy

Charles often declared that his principal aim was the "restoration of the ancient good conditions" of the kingdom.
On his coat-of-arms, he united the "Árpád stripes" with the motifs of the coat-of-arms of his paternal family, which emphasized his kinship with the first royal house of Hungary. During his reign, Charles reunited Hungary and introduced administrative and fiscal reforms. He bequeathed to his son, Louis the Great, a "bulging exchequer and an effective system of taxation", according to scholar Bryan Cartledge. Nevertheless, Louis the Great's achievements overshadowed Charles's reputation.

The only contemporaneous record of Charles's deeds were made by a Franciscan friar who was hostile towards the monarch. Instead of emphasizing Charles's achievements in the reunification of the country, the friar described in detail the negative episodes of Charles's reign. In particular, the unusual cruelty that the king showed after Felician Záh's assassination attempt on the royal family contributed to the negative picture of Charles's personality. The Franciscan friar attributed Charles's defeat by Basarab of Wallachia as a punishment from God for the king's revenge.

References

Sources

Primary sources

The Divine Comedy: The Inferno, the Purgatorio, and the Paradiso – Dante Alighieri (Translated by John Ciardi) (2003). Penguin Books. .
The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle: Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing. .

Secondary sources

Further reading

External links

His picture on the Hungarian 200 forint banknote
Armorial of the House Anjou-Sicily
House of Anjou-Sicily

1288 births
1342 deaths
13th-century Hungarian people
14th-century Hungarian people
House of Anjou-Hungary
Kings of Hungary
Kings of Croatia
Hungarian people of Italian descent
Nobility from Naples
Burials at the Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary
People from Visegrád

Charles I of Hungary


A water ball or water walking ball is a large inflatable sphere that allows a person inside it to walk across the surface of a body of water. The giant ball is usually two metres in diameter and has a zippered entrance to allow for easy entry and exit. The water ball is similar to the zorb but it has only one layer and is designed for water travel rather than down-hill rolling. In the United Kingdom, the balls have been used at swimming pools, marinas and lakes in an effort to keep children fit.

History

One of the first water balls appeared in the film Diamonds Are Forever (1971) and in the Beach Boys music video, Getcha Back (1985). Charles Blane Jones designed the first water ball for public distribution in 1998.

Safety
The balls can be safely used in accordance with safety standards set in
ASTM F2374-20
Standard Practice For Design, Manufacture, Operation, And Maintenance Of Inflatable Amusement Devices, which includes:

"1.2.6 Stand-alone captured air inflatable devices that are designed to contain the patron within the elevated pressure space; are designed to be mobile during its intended use; or contain less than 270 ft3 of air and do not include an anchoring or ballasting system. Examples include, but are not limited to: a water walking ball, a sports ball, a hamster ball, a hill-rolling ball." For safe operation the ball must be contained in soft padded area of a pool with no hard surfaces, or in open water must be tethered to a ride operator or ride attendant.

See also earlier article

History of waterball safety efforts
The efforts to establish standards for safe operation of waterballs began with Patty Sullivan, President and CEO of [Eli Bridge Company], a company specializing in amusement park rides and ride safety, in collaboration with ASTM, Standardization News, Walking on Water, Made Easier, Safety
Consumer Products, ISSUE MONTH January/February ISSUE YEAR 2015.

Early safety concerns that have now been addressed
These new safety regulations came into effect after
earlier, April 1, 2011, concerns were expressed:
The United States Government has warned of the dangers of using the balls, saying it "does not know of any safe way" to avoid the dangers of suffocation and drowning, among other hazards. There are recorded instances of children fainting and crashing onto hard surfaces while inside the balls, and the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission has encouraged amusement ride officials not to allow their use. The Commission chairman declared an intention to pursue the safety investigation further.

Charles Jones from Oklahoma developed a water ball commercially in 1998. He was invited by a British reporter to visit London to demonstrate the ball on a lake. As soon as he attempted to walk across the water, he lost his balance and fell. The ball deflated and filled rapidly with icy water. He was saved from sinking below the surface when an assistant dragged the ball back to dry land using a safety line, witnessed by a crowd of tourists.

The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission has warned of the dangers of the balls being used in a safe manner. The Commission is aware of two unconfirmed incidents involving water balls. In one, a child was found unresponsive after being inside the ball for a very brief period of time. In the second incident, a person inside the ball suffered a fracture when it fell out of a shallow, above-ground pool onto hard ground.

Construction

Many water balls are constructed from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 0.8–1.0 mm thick. Thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU) are the best choice for use in cold weather or on snow. Some water balls are made from a PVC–TPU mix. More expensive balls use 100% TPU. Balls are typically made in China, and come in various sizes. A typical water ball stores flat and weighs 15 kilograms, and can be inflated in under a minute with a good air pump. Some models also have hand grips on the inside or outside, and the surface can be printed on.

See also

 Zorbing
 Hamster ball
 List of inflatable manufactured goods

References

1990s toys
Balls
Physical activity and dexterity toys
Inflatable manufactured goods
Water rides
Water toys

ru:Зорбинг#Гидрозорбинг

Water ball


(Polish: , ) (literally, "meadows upon Olza") is a village in the Karviná District, Moravian-Silesian Region, Czech Republic, since 1975 administratively a part of the city of Karviná as Louky, formerly a separate municipality. It lies on the left bank of the Olza River, in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia. It has a population of 453 (2001).

History
The village is first mentioned in a written document from 1450 as Lanky. Politically the village belonged then to the Duchy of Teschen, a fee of the Kingdom of Bohemia, which after 1526 became part of the Habsburg monarchy.

Historically, the village owed its prosperity to its fortunate position between the important towns of Frysztat and Cieszyn. Its inhabitants engaged mostly in fish farming in the complex of ponds near the village.

It is not clear when the first church was built; the oldest record mentions a wooden church in 1654. Because the Olza frequently flooded the church, a new Saint Barbara Church was built in 1818. The last church service was held in 1995.

After the Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The village as a municipality was subscribed at first to the political district of Teschen and the legal district of Freistadt, which in 1868 became an independent political district.

According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the municipality grew from 917 in 1880 to 1,792 in 1910. The majority were Polish-speaking (between 97.2% and 98.6%), followed by German-speaking minority (at most 28 or 2.5% in 1890) and Czech-speaking people (at most 17 or 1% in 1910). In terms of religion, in 1910 the majority were Roman Catholics (1,687 or 94.2%), followed by Protestants (68 or 3.8%), Jews (10 or 0.5%), and others (27 or 1.5%). The village was also traditionally inhabited by Silesian Lachs, speaking Cieszyn Silesian dialect.

After World War I, the fall of Austria-Hungary, the Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, the village became a part of Czechoslovakia. Following the Munich Agreement, in October 1938 together with the Zaolzie region it was annexed by Poland, administratively organised in Frysztat County of Silesian Voivodeship. The village was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Czechoslovakia.

Louky is a classic example of the devastation wrought by heavy industry, in this case, coal mining. The centre of the village was originally located north of today's settlement. During the Communist era, extensive mining activities irrevocably damaged the original village. Surface waters were polluted, farmland was degraded, the whole area was undermined, new ponds appeared, the water level rose, and mine tailings accumulated. All this sealed the fate of the old village; almost all the houses sank into the ground, and the village was demolished. Today only the Saint Barbara Church remains. It is structurally unstable, and it is only a matter of time before it too is gone.

Today's village lies south of original location and is much smaller. It is served by a small railway station. New Catholic church has been constructed there.

See also
 Polish minority in the Czech Republic
 Zaolzie

Footnotes

References

External links

 Unofficial website of Karviná-Louky
 Louky information with historical and contemporary photos
 Saint Barbara Church information with historical and contemporary photos

Villages in Karviná District
Neighbourhoods in the Czech Republic
Karviná

Louky (Karviná)


Queen's Astoria Design Hotel (originally known as Hotel Astoria) is a four star hotel located in Belgrade, the capital of Serbia.

History
Hotel Astoria's mid 1930s construction was financed by Đurđe S. Ninković, owner of various hospitality properties around the city of Belgrade, such as the Branislav Kojić-designed Hotel Pošta that had opened in 1930 on the opposite end of the Sava Square. For Hotel Astoria, which was envisioned as a bigger hotel, Ninković commissioned the building design to his own son-in-law, architect Ivan Savković who later, in 1950, went on to co-design the post-World War II building at 14 King Milan Street that housed the PR Serbia Assembly. The newly built hotel opened in 1937 and became one of the first modernist buildings in Belgrade with Streamline Moderne elements, applying a minimalist façade design and relying on simple geometric lines rather than ornate decorations. The building has since been given the status as a significant architectural milestone in Serbian architecture.

Basing its business model on the increasing amount of business travel in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia's developing economy, the hotel was a family-run enterprise with approximately 80 guest rooms, a restaurant, bar, and purpose-built architect's studio for the owner Ninković's son-in-law, architect Savković. The hotel stretches over 3,600m2 and is located in central Belgrade next to the main railway station.

Đurđe S. Ninković died in November 1940, at which point his wife Jelena, son Milorad Ninković, and daughter Nina Savković inherited the hotel and continued running the business.

With the Nazi German invasion of the Yugoslav kingdom on 6 April 1941, the hotel was confiscated and used for Wehrmacht's military purposes. At the end of the war, the Ninković-Savković family got the hotel back, albeit briefly.

At the end of World War II, the hotel was nationalized in the newly established, communist-run FPR Yugoslavia. The state (including its successor states) ran the hotel through a state-owned entity DHUTP Astoria for the following sixty years, officially having the legal status of a socially owned concern, with a member of OZNA showing up at the premises and informing the owners, members of Ninković and Savković families, that they won't be living there any longer.

2009 re-privatization
In March 2009, with the Serbian government privatization agency's announcement of a tender auction in order to re-privatize Hotel Astoria, the original pre-nationalization owners, members of the Ninković family, staged a protest by symbolically occupying the property, entering it on 3 March at 11am. Led by Đurđe Ninković, son of the hotel's owner Milorad Ninković, they occupied the hotel from March 3rd until March 30th employing the principles of direct action, unhappy at seeing the family property sold by the Serbian government without having passed a denationalization law or a restitution law for property seized by the FPR/SFR Yugoslavia communist regime. Instead, the government based the tender auction on the current privatization law, setting the hotel's initial price at €1.2 million.

The hotel occupation received significant media coverage, contributing to the public debate regarding the Serbian government's failure to compensate owners for property forcibly seized by the communists.

Regardless, the tender auction went ahead as planned on 6 March and the hotel got re-privatized via Serbian government privatization agency selling it for RSD230 million (~€2.4 million) to the Mladenovac-based company Progres a.d. and the Podgorica-based company Montenegro Premier. Under the purchasing agreement, the new owner also took on an obligation of investing RSD61.6 million into the property.

On 9 March, the Politika daily published an op-ed commentary by Đurđe Ninković who disputed the Serbian government's inherited legal basis to handle Hotel Astoria, invoking a communist era law ('law on nationalization of leased buildings and construction land for commercial exploitation') that came into effect on 1 January 1959. Among other things, he stated: "I invite everyone to try and derive their own conclusion about the fairness, legality, and finally, the price of the accepted bid at the auction that took place this past Friday. I only want to say that the hotel owners, represented by myself, would've never sold the hotel at that price. I remind everyone that Hotel Astoria was unlawfully nationalized and that the state never had a legal basis to make decisions about the hotel. Furthermore, all deadlines for the compensation payout because of nationalization are long overdue, and the last legally-set 50-year nationalization payout deadline expired on 1 January 2009 and since the state never paid the compensation in that timeframe it therefore forfeited the right to own that property, which it acquired illegally in the first place.... There are ongoing court cases in front of the Municipal Court and the Supreme Court. I'm going to invest all of my skill and experience, obtained over the 40 years of practicing law in Belgrade and London, in order to see justice done at those court cases by obtaining a court decision confirming the right of the Ninković family to run Hotel Astoria".

The new owner closed Hotel Astoria in July 2009 for renovations. In late November 2010, it re-opened under a new name, Queen's Astoria Design Hotel. The hotel is still subject to a number of pending court cases disputing ownership.

Historical significance
Hotel Astoria played a role in the development of democracy in Serbia, as it was the place where the Founding Committee of the Democratic Party held meetings in the law office of Mr Ninkovic (which the family had retained for use within the hotel building after nationalization) from the end of December 1989, in preparation for the re-establishment of the Democratic Party (DS). It was also the site where the Democratic Party's first political program was published in January 1990, and the site of the preparations for founding party conference held in February of that year. Following the founding party conference, the Democratic Party had its first central office in the hotel between February and October, 1990.

Mr Ninkovic's office in Hotel Astoria was also the home of the first central office of the Democratic Party of Serbia (DSS) for several months from July 1992, after a centre-right pro DEPOS coalition faction split from the Democratic Party to form the Democratic Party of Serbia (See Vox Iuris, December 2009).

Location
Located at 1 Milovana Milovanovića Street, in the Belgrade municipality of Savski Venac, Queen's Astoria Design Hotel is in the near-vicinity of the city's Main Railway Station as well as its main bus terminal.

References

External links

 Queen's Astoria Design Hotel@TripAdvisor
 Press coverage April 2009, Radio Funkhaus Europa (Germany)
 Press coverage March 2009, Borba
 Press coverage March 2009, Danas
 Press coverage March 2009, Biznis Novine
 Press coverage March 2009, Capital.ba (Bosnia)
 Press coverage March 2009, Bgd Novine
 Press coverage March 2009, SEEbiz.eu
  Vibilla business portal article on hotel Astoria in English (2001)
 Article on hotel Astoria from Invest in Serbia magazine

Astoria
Hotel buildings completed in 1937
Savski Venac

Queen's Astoria Design Hotel


Charles City College was a private liberal arts college that operated from 1967 to 1968 in Charles City, Iowa.  It was one of several Midwestern colleges established by local civic leaders with the support and encouragement of Parsons College in Fairfield, Iowa. These Parsons "satellite schools" were by-products of the strong growth and apparent success of Parsons during the late 1950s and early 1960s, and all followed the "Parsons Plan" academic model developed at that school. None of the schools, however, were ultimately successful.

The "Parsons Plan" academic model employed at Charles City was the brainchild of Millard Roberts, who was the president of Parsons College from 1955 to 1967; the multi-faceted plan featured innovative teaching and administrative techniques and emphasized the recruitment of a geographically and academically diverse student body. Among other characteristics, the "Parsons Plan" schools welcomed unconventional students who had not seen success at other colleges. In the 1960s, the schools were also attended by a substantial number of young men seeking draft deferments that would allow them to avoid military service during the Vietnam War.

Charles City's reputation and fortunes were strongly tied to those of Parsons and when Parsons faltered beginning in 1967 the prospects for Charles City College and the other Parsons satellite schools grew bleak. The satellite schools also suffered from a lack of funding, high student turnover and accreditation issues. Ultimately, none of the "Parsons Plan" colleges became economically viable and all closed by the mid-1970s. Charles City College had the shortest life of the Parsons satellite schools, closing in 1968 after a single year of operation.

See also
 Salsbury v. Northwestern Bell Telephone Co.: a court case involving the school

References

Defunct private universities and colleges in Iowa
Educational institutions established in 1967
Educational institutions disestablished in 1968
Education in Floyd County, Iowa
1967 establishments in Iowa
1968 disestablishments in Iowa
Charles City, Iowa

Charles City College


Breiavatnet is a small lake in the municipality of Stavanger in Rogaland county, Norway.  The  lake is very shallow, only a few feet deep. The lake gets its water from the Kannikbekken stream, which flows from the Mosvatnet lake and runs through the city (the stream was put mostly underground in culverts and pipes in 1899).  A decorative fountain was installed in the middle of the lake in 1924.

The lake lies in the city centre of Stavanger, on the border of the boroughs of Storhaug and Eiganes og Våland. The Stavanger Cathedral, the City Park, and Stavanger Cathedral School lie on the northern shore of the lake.  The Stavanger train station is located on the south shore of the lake.

The lake is the home of various birds, such as swans, seagulls, ducks, and sparrows. There are scarcely any fish in the water, and an old story from the area says that only the principal of Stavanger Cathedral School is the only one with rights to go fishing in Breiavatnet.

See also
List of lakes in Norway
Stavangerpark

References

Stavanger
Lakes of Rogaland

Breiavatnet


Jakob Sveistrup (born 8 March 1972) is a Danish singer. He entered the Danish music scene in 2003 as a competitor in the Danish televised talent contest Stjerne for en aften ("Star for a Night"). He made it to the finals. Unusually, Sveistrup was not a professional singer; he was a teacher for autistic children.  However, in March 2006, Jakob resigned from this job to be a full-time musician.

Jakob then went on to compete in the Dansk Melodi Grand Prix, which took place at the Forum in Horsens on 12 February 2005.  He was selected as winner of the competition by national telephone voting for his performance of the song "Tænder på dig" by Jacob Launbjerg & Andreas Mørck.

This led to him representing Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2005 with the translated song, now called "Talking to You". The contest was hosted by Kyiv, Ukraine on 21 May 2005.

Since Denmark was not pre-qualified for the final, Jakob took part in the semi-final on 19 May 2005. He qualified for the final, and finished 10th.

He was a guest performer at Congratulations, the 50th anniversary Eurovision concert in Copenhagen, Denmark, in October 2005.

In May 2005 he released his first album, the self-titled Jakob Sveistrup. His second album, Fragments, was released in August 2006. His third album 3, was released in April 2007. Hope to Find, his fourth album was released in September 2009. His fifth album Runaway was released in June 2012. He released his sixth album in November 2015, entitled 10: Back to Beginning.

Jakob is also known as the former leadsinger in the Danish cover band Copycats www.copycats.dk.

Sveistrup has been married to Iben Andersen since 27 May 2000.

Albums

 Jakob Sveistrup (2005)
 Fragments (2006)
 3 (2007)
 Hope to Find (2009)
 Runaway (2012)
 10: Back to Beginning (2015)

References

1972 births
Living people
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Denmark
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2005
Dansk Melodi Grand Prix contestants
Danish pop singers
Danish schoolteachers
21st-century Danish male  singers

Jakob Sveistrup


Danganronpa is a mystery action visual novel video game series. It was developed by Spike Chunsoft Co Ltd (previously Spike Co Ltd) as a beta named DISTRUST. DISTRUST
was cancelled due to the story being too dark and the setting was not usable for high school students. Two animated shows were released: Danganronpa: The Animation and Danganronpa 3: The End of Hope's Peak High School.

Story

Danganronpa: Trigger Happy Havoc/Danganronpa: The Animation
Makoto Naegi and 15 other talented students enter a high school for highly skilled students named Hope's Peak Academy. In the game, Makoto Naegi enters the school building before fainting and waking up in a classroom. While in the animation, Makoto steps foot onto the school and immediately falls unconscious. He then goes to the gym to meet fifteen other high school students who joined Hope's Peak Academy. After the introductions, a robotic bear named Monokuma introduces himself and states that they are trapped in the school. The only way to escape is to commit murder without getting caught by the other students. For the rest of the game/animation, Makoto and his classmates are to find the murderer's of each case, if they do not find the murderer they will be executed, if they do find the murderer, only the murderer will be executed.

Danganronpa 2: Goodbye Despair
Hajime Hinata and 15 other students join an academy. When Hajime enters the academy he walks into a room that is filled with binary code and a door. When he walks through the door, he enters a classroom filled with fifteen other students. They all introduce themselves, a robotic rabbit named Usami/Monomi/Magical Girl Usami appears and introduces herself as their teacher. After her introduction, she gets a magical wand and twirls it around, the ceiling and walls rip off to show a paradise beach. Afterwards on a beach, she asks them to earn 15 Friendship Fragments. Afterwards, Usami asks everyone to come back to the beach, but a random storm shows up and a silhouette of Monokuma appears on a monitor. The silhouette asks the students to meet at a place on the island named Central Park. Monokuma introduces himself on the statue in Central Park and begins the killing game. He tells them the only way to escape the island successfully is to kill another student without getting caught by the other students. For the rest of the game, Hajime and his classmates attempt to debunk the mysteries and catch the murderers.

Danganronpa Another Episode: Ultra Despair Girls
Komaru Naegi and Toko Fukawa (from the first game) attempt to save the world from dangerous Monokuma robots. The events of this game take place between the second and first game, during the Despair event that seemed to kill off most of humanity. Komaru Naegi, Makoto Naegi's sister, has been trapped inside an apartment with no connection to the outside world for a year. Every day, she goes to the exit door but it seems to be locked from outside. However, one day, food was delivered to her and she banged on the door in an attempt to escape, as usual. A hostile Monokuma robot with sharp claws goes to attack her, chasing her across the locked apartment and the apartment building. She races to an elevator, which contains Byakuya Togami. He gives her a hacking gun, designed as a megaphone, and tells her to run to a nearby restaurant and find a member of the Future Foundation. Hostile Monokuma robots enter the restaurant and start attacking the customers, killing many of them. Afterwards, Komaru finds a Future Foundation member and they guide her to go to a helicopter. When she gets to the helicopter, she sees a kid wearing a Monokuma head singing. She gets onto the helicopter but a Monokuma robot tries to enter. After she solves the is, another issue begins. A Monokuma robot was up front tinkering with the helicopter controls and drives them up into the sky. Her first failed execution begins, as she flies into the sky. The helicopter crashes, with Komaru surviving with minor damage to her body. A Monokuma robot appears in front of her, as more appear. She faints and wakes up in a room. The Ultimate Servant, Nagito Komaeda, enters the room and asks if she could come to the main room. When she enters, five children introduce themselves as the Lil' Ultimate's. They also introduce a new type of killing game named Demon Hunting where the Lil Ultimate's had a target hitlist and it was their objective to kill all adults and make it a kids only place. Komaru's second failed execution begins, as she falls down a hole with a parachute. Again, she survives with minor injuries. After this, she meets Toko Fukawa and her alternate self, Genocide Jill/Jack. For the rest of the game, they go on a mission to defeat the Lil' Ultimates together, and save the city from the evil Monokuma robots.

Danganronpa 3: The End of Hope's Peak Academy
This animation has three seasons.

Despair Arc
Takes place before the events of Trigger Happy Havoc. A new teacher treats the Danganronpa 2 students. Chisa Yukizome is substitute teacher before she becomes an actual teacher at Hope's Peak Academy. In the first episode, most of the class is missing so the class that is present in the classroom and Chisa go on a heist to find all the students. As the show progresses the more the episode's get darker. On the final few episodes, Junko Enoshima brainwashes Chisa Yukizome, gives Chiaki Nanami false hope and death, and brainwashes all the students into committing despair-like actions.

Future Arc
Takes place after the events of Goodbye Despair. Older Makoto Naegi, Aoi Asahina, Kyoko/Kyouko Kirigiri, and a few others are trapped inside the Future Foundation building. The objective of this killing game is similar to the normal Danganronpa style, however there is only one killer. Everyone is given a wristband with a forbidden action and a timer. If they wristband wearer commits the forbidden action a poison will be put inside of them and make them bleed out of their eyes. It will also turn a part of the skin black and kill them. One the timer ends a gas will be put everywhere in the building in put them to sleep. On the final episode, the show is put on a cliff hanger.

Hope Arc
Takes place after the events of Goodbye Despair. Makoto Naegi is tasked to stop Ryota Mitarai from sending a brainwashing video(using his brainwashing technique) to the entire world which is supposed to fill them with hope. This season is only one episode long. At the end of the episode, Makoto Naegi rebuilds Hope's Peak Academy and becomes the new principal. This marks the end of Hope's Peak Academy.

Danganronpa V3: Killing Harmony
Kaede Akamatsu and her classmates join a new academy, "The Ultimate School for Gifted Juveniles". Kaede introduces herself and walks out of a locker she was asleep in. She explores the classroom a bit. A detective named Shuichi Saihara falls out of a locker and begins to freak out. They both introduce themselves and tell each other how they arrived. They leave the classroom to be seen by giant mechs named Exisals, which chase them to the gym. When they enter they see 14 other students. 5 smaller versions of Monokuma appear named the Monokubs. They introduce themselves and give everyone new clothes to put on. Afterwards, a flashlight is used to erase their memory of the event and the beginning happens all over again. They all go back to the gym to find Monokuma. Monokuma begins the killing game, and Kaede and her classmates must find out the mysteries of the school and find the murderer to each case.

Characters

Trigger Happy Havoc/The Animation

 Monokuma - Ultimate Antagonist
 Makoto Naegi - Ultimate Lucky Student
 Kyoko/Kyouko Kirigiri - Ultimate ???/Ultimate Detective 1.0
 Byakuya Togami - Ultimate Heir/ Ultimate Affluent Progeny
 Toko/Touko Fukawa | Genocide Jack/Jill/Sho - Ultimate Literary Girl/Ultimate Serial Killer
 Aoi Asahina - Ultimate Swimmer
 Yasuhiro Hagukure - Ultimate Fortune Teller
 Sayaka Maizono - Ultimate Idol
 Leon Kuwata - Ultimate Baseball Player
 Chihiro Fujisaki - Ultimate Programmer
 Mondo Owada/Ohwada - Ultimate Biker
 Kiyotaka Ishimaru - Ultimate Perfect/Hall Monitor/Prefect
 Hifumi Yamada - Ultimate Fanfic Creator/Ultimate NSFW Artist
 Celestia/Celes/Celsete Ludenberg - Ultimate Gambler
 Sakura Ogami/Ohgami - Ultimate Fighter/ Ultimate Martial Artist
 Junko Enoshima - Ultimate Despair/Ultimate Real Fashionista/Mastermind
 Mukuro Ikusaba - Ultimate Fake Fashionista/Ultimate Solider
 Alter Ego - Ultimate N/A
 Jin Kirigiri - Ultimate Prinicipal

Goodbye Despair

 Monokuma - Ultimate Antagonist
 Hajime Hinata/Izuru Kamukura - Ultimate ???/Ultimate Hope
 Chiaki Nanami - Ultimate Gamer
 Nagito Komaeda - Ultimate Lucky Student/The Servant
 Fuyuhiko Kuzuryu/Kuzuryuu - Ultimate Gangster/ Ultimate Yakuza
 Akane Owari - Ultimate Gymnast
 Sonia Nevermind - Ultimate Princess
 Kazuichi Soda/Souda - Ultimate Mechanic
 Byakuya Togami - Ultimate Imposter
 Teruteru Hanamura - Ultimate Chef/Cook
 Mahiru Koizumi - Ultimate Photographer
 Peko Pekoyama - Ultimate Swordswoman
 Ibuki Mioda - Ultimate Musician/Light Music Club Member
 Hiyoko Saionji - Ultimate Traditional Dancer
 Mikan Tsumiki - Ultimate Nurse
 Nekomaru Nidai - Ultimate Team Manager/Coach
 Gundham/Gundaham Tanaka - Ultimate Animal Breeder
 Usami/Magical Girl Usami/Monomi - Ultimate Teacher
 Alter Ego Junko - Ultimate Fashionista/Mastermind

Ultra Despair Girls

 Komaru Naegi - Ordinary Girl
 Monaca Towa - Lil' Ultimate Homeroom/Warriors Of Hope/Mastermind
 Masaru Daimon - Lil' Ultimate P.E./Warriors Of Hope
 Jataro Kemuri - Lil' Ultimate Art/Warriors Of Hope
 Kotoko Utsugi - Lil' Ultimate Drama/Warriors Of Hope
 Nagisa Shingetsu - Lil' Ultimate Social Studies/World Studies/Warriors Of Hope
 Shirokuma - Ultimate ???
 Yuta Asahina - Ordinary Boy
 Monokuma Kids - Ultimate ???
 Monokuma Variants - Ball Monokuma/Beast Monokuma/Big Bang Monokuma
 Haiji Towa

The End of Hope's Peak Academy

 Kyosuke Munakata - Former Ultimate Student Council President
 Chisa Yukizome - Former Ultimate Housekeeper/Maid 1.0
 Ryota Mitarai - Former Ultimate Animator
 Daisaku Bandai - Former Ultimate Farmer
 Great Gozu - Former Ultimate Wrestler 1.0
 Kazuo Tengan - Former Headmaster/Principal/Mastermind
 Seiko Kimura - Former Ultimate Pharmacist
 Sonosuke Izayoi - Former Ultimate Blacksmith
 Koichi Kizakura - Former Student Scout
 Miaya Gekkogahara - Former Ultimate Therapist
 Ruruka Ando - Former Ultimate Confectioner/Baker
 Juzo Sakakura - Former Ultimate Boxer/Wrestler 2.0
 Chiaki Nanami - Ultimate Gamer
 Students - Chisa Yukizome's Students
 Monokuma - Ultimate Antagonist

Killing Harmony

 Monokuma - Ultimate Antagonist
 Kaede Akamatsu - Ultimate Pianist
 Shuichi Saihara - Ultimate Detective 2.0
 K1-B0/Keebo/Kibo - Ultimate Robot
 Maki Harukawa - Ultimate Child Caretaker
 Himiko Yumeno - Ultimate Magician/Mage
 Rantaro Amami - Ultimate ???/Survivor/Adventurer
 Ryoma Hoshi - Ultimate Tennis Player/Prisoner
 Kirumi Tojo - Ultimate Maid 2.0
 Angie Yonaga - Ultimate Artist
 Tenko Chabashira - Ultimate Aikido Master
 Korekiyo Shinguji - Ultimate Anthropologist
 Miu Iruma - Ultimate Inventor
 Gonta Gokuhara - Ultimate Entomologist/Bug Explorer
 Kokichi Oma/Ouma - Ultimate Supreme Leader/ Ultimate Supreme Leader of Evil
 Kaito Momota - Ultimate Astronaut
 Tsumugi Shirogane - Ultimate Cosplayer/Mastermind
 Monokubs - Montaro/Monodam/Monosuke/Monokid/Monophanie
 Junko Enoshima the 53rd - Ultimate Fashionista 53rd

Gameplay
Each game is split up into multiple chapters. Each chapter has 3 main parts - Daily Life, Deadly Life, and the Class Trial.

Daily Life
Each chapter begins with Daily Life. During Daily Life, the player can walk around the school and talk to other characters. They can also find "Monocoins", the game's currency. These coins can be used to buy items from the school store.

At some points in the game, the player is given "Free Time", which allows them to speak to other characters in "Free Time Events". Each Free Time Event is a small conversation between the player and another character. The player can choose to give one of the items they have bought to start a Free Time Event. In these conversations, players can learn more about a character and their backstory. Players can also skip Free Time Events by going to sleep in their dormitory.

Deadly Life
Once another character is killed, Deadly Life begins. During Deadly Life, the player must investigate and find clues. They can find clues by looking around the crime scene and speaking to other students.

Class Trial
After the player has found enough clues, the Class Trial will begin. The Class Trial is a mock trial where the students have to figure out who the killer is. The player uses the clues they have found to help figure out who the killer is in a number of minigames. At the end of the class trial, Monokuma will punish the student with an execution that follows their talent.

 Non-Stop Debate: In this minigame, some of the player's clues appear as "Truth Bullets". Many characters talk about part of the murder case. As they speak, their words are shown on the screen. Some of their words are colored in orange. These are called "Weak Points". The player has to find the right Truth Bullet and "shoot" it at the correct Weak Point, by seeing which of their clues does not support a character's statement. Some games have different mechanics for the Non-Stop Debate. For example, in Goodbye Despair, there are also blue "Agree Points", which the player can use with evidence that supports a character's statement. In Killing Harmony, the player may turn any of their Truth Bullets into "Lie Bullets" in a mechanic called "Perjury". When using a Lie Bullet, the player will lie about their evidence in order to convince the other characters.
 Hangman's Gambit: In this minigame, many letters are shown on the screen. The player must find the right letters to spell out an important clue.
 Bullet Time Battle (called Panic Talk Action in Goodbye Despair and Argument Armament in Killing Harmony): In this minigame, the player is given a small rhythm game. They must press a button in time with the beat in order to argue with another character.
 Rebuttal Showdown (Goodbye Despair and Killing Harmony only): In this minigame, one character argues with the player. Their words are shown in a similar way to the Non-Stop Debate. The player can "cut" their words with "Truth Blades", a different version of Truth Bullets.
 Logic Dive (Goodbye Despair only): In this minigame, the player rides a snowboard through various obstacles. Sometimes, the path in front of the player will split. Each path has an answer above it. The player must choose the right answer to continue with the case.
 Mass Panic Debate (Killing Harmony only): In this minigame, the player must play three Non-Stop Debates at once. The player must listen carefully to find the right Weak Point.
 Psyche Taxi (Killing Harmony only): In this minigame, the player must drive along a road, collecting boxes which spell out a question. The player must then drive up to a passenger with the correct answer.
 Mind Mine (Killing Harmony only): In this minigame, the player must break blocks to reveal images of clues. They must break the blocks to reveal the correct clue before they run out of time.
 Scrum Debate (Killing Harmony only): In this minigame, the characters are split into two groups based on two answers to a question. Whenever the other group makes a statement, the player must choose the right person on their team to respond to the statement.
 Closing Argument: At the end of the Class Trial, the player is given a small comic book with missing panels. The player must select the right panels to complete the story and prove how the killer committed the murder.

Video games
2013 television series debuts

References

Danganronpa (franchise)


Manuel Medina Ortega (born 1935 in Arrecife de Lanzarote (Las Palmas)) is a Spanish politician and Member of the European Parliament for the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, part of the Party of European Socialists. Medina also served in the Spanish Congress of Deputies representing Las Palmas from 1982 to 1987 when he resigned upon election to the European Parliament.

External links
Biography at Spanish Congress site
Official biography
Manuel Medina, Estado de Derecho y clivage político

1935 births
Living people
Members of the 2nd Congress of Deputies (Spain)
Members of the 3rd Congress of Deputies (Spain)
MEPs for Spain 1986–1987
MEPs for Spain 1987–1989
MEPs for Spain 1989–1994
MEPs for Spain 1994–1999
MEPs for Spain 1999–2004
MEPs for Spain 2004–2009
People from Arrecife
Spanish Socialist Workers' Party MEPs

Manuel Medina (politician)