The Osage Nation ( ) (Osage: 𐓁𐒻 𐓂𐒼𐒰𐓇𐒼𐒰͘ (), "People of the Middle Waters") is a Midwestern American tribe of the Great Plains. The tribe developed in the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys around 700 B.C. along with other groups of its language family. They migrated west after the 17th century, settling near the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, as a result of Iroquois expansion into the Ohio Country in the aftermath of the Beaver Wars.

The term "Osage" is a French version of the tribe's name, which can be roughly translated as "calm water". The Osage people refer to themselves in their Dhegihan Siouan language as 𐓏𐒰𐓓𐒰𐓓𐒷 (), or "Mid-waters".

By the early 19th century, the Osage had become the dominant power in the region, feared by neighboring tribes. The tribe controlled the area between the Missouri and Red rivers, the Ozarks to the east and the foothills of the Wichita Mountains to the south. They depended on nomadic buffalo hunting and agriculture.

The 19th-century painter George Catlin described the Osage as "the tallest race of men in North America, either red or white skins; there being ... many of them six and a half, and others seven feet []." The missionary Isaac McCoy described the Osage as an "uncommonly fierce, courageous, warlike nation" and said they were the "finest looking Indians I have ever seen in the West".

In the Ohio Valley, the Osage originally lived among speakers of the same Dhegihan language stock, such as the Kansa, Ponca, Omaha, and Quapaw. Researchers believe that the tribes likely diverged in languages and cultures after leaving the lower Ohio Country. The Omaha and Ponca settled in what is now Nebraska; the Kansa in Kansas; and the Quapaw in Arkansas.

In the 19th century, the Osage were forced by the United States to move from modern-day Kansas into Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), and the majority of their descendants live in Oklahoma. In the early 20th century, oil was discovered on their land. They had retained communal mineral rights during the allotment process, and many Osage became wealthy through returns from leasing fees generated by their Osage headrights. However, during the 1920s and what was known as the Reign of Terror, they suffered manipulation, fraud and numerous murders by outsiders eager to take over their wealth.

In 2011, the nation gained a settlement from the federal government after an 11-year legal struggle over long mismanagement of their oil funds. In the 21st century, the federally recognized Osage Nation has approximately 20,000 enrolled members, 6,780 of whom reside in the tribe's jurisdictional area. Members also live outside the nation's tribal land in Oklahoma and in other states around the country. The tribe is bordered by the Cherokee Nation to the east, the Muscogee Nation and the Pawnee Nation to the south, and the Kaw Nation and Oklahoma proper to the west.

History

Traditional spirituality
Osage people who adhere to traditional customs believe they are an integral part of a broader universe. Their ceremonies and social organization represent what is observed around them that was created by Wah'Kon-Tah or Wakonda. Everything created has the spirit of Wakonda within it, from trees, plants, and the sky to animals and human beings. They believe there are two main divisions to life, consisting of the sky and earth. Life is created in the sky, and descends to the earth in material form. The sky is viewed as masculine in nature and the earth as feminine.

They revere the behavior of animals such as hawks, deer and bears, which are considered to be very courageous. Other species lived long lives, such as pelicans. Because humans lacked many of the characteristics naturally found within other forms of life around them, they were expected to learn from the others and emulate characteristics desirable for survival. Survival was not a competition between humans and non-humans, but rather a struggle between human communities.

Wakonda was viewed as "the mysterious life-force that pervades the sun", "moon", "earth", "and the stars", as well as the embodiment of order on Earth, which was seen as a place where chaos mostly won.

Efforts for survival were the responsibility of the people and not of Wakonda, although they might ask Wakonda for help. Considering life a struggle among human groups, they viewed warfare as necessary for self-preservation. The people's survival was dependent on their ability to defend themselves. Over time, the Osage developed clan and kinship systems that mirrored the cosmos as they saw it. Osage clans were typically named after elements of their world: animals, plants and weather phenomenon such as storms.

This was a symbolic representation. Each clan had its own responsibilities within the tribe. Names of clans included Red Cedar (Hon-tse-shu-tsy), Travelers in the Mist (Moh-sho-tsa-moie), Deer Lungs (Tah-lah-he) and Elk (O-pon). Children born to a certain clan had a ceremonial naming in order to introduce them to the community. Without a ceremonial name, an Osage child could not participate in ceremonies, so naming was an important part of Osage identity. The people regulated marriage through the clans: clan members had to marry people from opposite clans or divisions. Clan representation was expressed in the arrangement of Osage villages. The sky people lived on the side opposite the earth people, and the lodges of the Osage spiritual leaders were situated in between the two sides.

Osage life was highly ritualized, where there were certain ceremonies would be performed utilizing bundles, ceremonial pipes which used tobacco as offerings to seek Wakonda's aid. These ceremonies were presided over by Osage medicine people and spiritual leaders. Although some of the literature cites these individuals as "priests", this term is misleading and is more Eurocentric in nature. Ceremonies, although very elaborate served basic functions such as requesting aid from Wakonda for continued tribal existence and the blessing of a long life through children.

Ceremonial songs were also a way to document the knowledge spiritual leaders gained, considering there was no written language. Songs of this nature were taught and shared among only those other Osages who were sincere and had proven themselves. Many songs and ceremonies were created for all facets of life such as adoption, marriage, war, agriculture and to honor the rising of the sun in the morning.

During funerals, the faces of dead Osage were traditionally "painted to signal [his or] her tribe and clan".

Pre-colonization
The Osage are descendants of cultures of indigenous peoples who had been in North America for thousands of years. Studies of their traditions and language show that they were part of a group of Dhegihan-Siouan speaking people who lived in the Ohio River valley area, extending into present-day Kentucky.  According to their own stories, common to other Dhegihan-Siouan tribes, such as the Ponca, Omaha, Kaw and Quapaw, they migrated west as a result of war with the Iroquois and/or to reach more game.

Scholars are divided as to whether they think the Osage and other groups left before the Beaver Wars of the Iroquois.  Some believe that the Osage started migrating west as early as 1200 CE and are descendants of the Mississippian culture in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. They attribute their style of government to effects of the long years of war with invading Iroquois.  After resettling west of the Mississippi River, the Osage were sometimes allied with the Illiniwek and sometimes competed with them, as that tribe was also driven west of Illinois by warfare with the powerful Iroquois.

Eventually the Osage and other Dhegihan-Siouan peoples reached their historic lands, likely developing and splitting into the above tribes in the course of the migration to the Great Plains. By the 17th century, many of the Osage had settled near the Osage River in the western part of present-day Missouri.  They were recorded in 1690 as having adopted the horse, a valuable resource often acquired through raids on other tribes. The desire to acquire more horses contributed to their trading with the French.  They attacked and defeated indigenous Caddo tribes to establish dominance in the Plains region by 1750, with control "over half or more of Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Kansas," which they maintained for nearly 150 years. Together with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache, they dominated western Oklahoma.

The Osage held high rank among the old hunting tribes of the Great Plains. From their traditional homes in the woodlands of present-day Missouri and Arkansas, the Osage would make semi-annual buffalo hunting forays into the Great Plains to the west. They also hunted deer, rabbit, and other wild game in the central and eastern parts of their domain. Near their villages, the women cultivated varieties of corn, squash, and other vegetables which they processed for food. They also harvested and processed nuts and wild berries. In their years of transition, the Osage had cultural practices that had elements of the cultures of both Woodland Native Americans and the Great Plains peoples. The villages of the Osage were important hubs in the Great Plains trading network served by Kaw people as intermediaries.

Early French colonization

In 1673, French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet were among the first Europeans documented to contact the Osage, traveling southward from present-day Canada in their journey along the Mississippi River. Marquette's 1673 map noted the Kanza, Osage, and Pawnee tribes thrived in much of modern-day Kansas.

The Osage called the Europeans  (Heavy Eyebrows) because of their facial hair.  As experienced warriors, the Osage allied with the French, with whom they traded, against the Illiniwek during the early 18th century. The first half of the 1720s was a time of more interaction between the Osage and French colonizers. Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont founded Fort Orleans in their territory; it was the first European colonial fort on the Missouri River. Jesuit missionaries were assigned to French forts and established missions in an attempt to convert the Osage, learning their language to ingratiate themselves. In 1724, the Osage allied with the French rather than the Spanish in their fight for control of the Mississippi region. In 1725, Bourgmont led a delegation of Osage and other tribal chiefs to Paris. They were shown around France, including a visit to Versailles, Château de Marly and Fontainebleau. They hunted with Louis XV in the royal forest and saw an opera.

During the French and Indian War (the North American front of the Seven Years' War), France was defeated by Great Britain and in 1763 ceded control over their lands east of the River Mississippi to the British Crown. The French Crown made a separate deal with Spain, which took nominal control of much of the Illinois Country west of the great river. By the late 18th century, the Osage did extensive business with the French Creole fur trader René Auguste Chouteau, who was based in St. Louis. St. Louis was part of territory under nominal Spanish control after the Seven Years' War, but was dominated by French colonists.

They were the de facto European power in St. Louis and other settlements along the Mississippi, building their wealth on the fur trade. In return for the Chouteau brothers' building a fort in the village of the Great Osage  southwest of St. Louis, the Spanish regional government gave the Chouteaus a six-year monopoly on trade (1794–1802). The Chouteaus named the post Fort Carondelet after the Spanish governor. The Osage were pleased to have a fur trading post nearby, as it gave them access to manufactured goods and increased their prestige among the tribes.

Lewis and Clark reported in 1804 that the peoples were the Great Osage on the Osage River, the Little Osage upstream, and the Arkansas band on the Verdigris River, a tributary of the Arkansas River. The Osage then numbered some 5,500. The Osage and Quapaw suffered extensive losses from smallpox in 1801–1802. Historians estimate up to 2,000 Osage died in the epidemic.

In 1804 after the United States made the Louisiana Purchase, the U.S. government appointed the wealthy French fur trader Jean-Pierre Chouteau, a half-brother of René Auguste Chouteau, as the Indian agent assigned to the Osage. In 1809, he founded the Saint Louis Missouri Fur Company with his son Auguste Pierre Chouteau and other prominent men of St. Louis, most of whom were of French-Creole descent, born in North America.  Having lived with the Osage for many years and learned their language, Jean-Pierre Chouteau traded with them and made his home at present-day Salina, Oklahoma, in the western part of their territory.

Wars with other tribes

The Choctaw chief Pushmataha, based in Mississippi, made his early reputation in battles against the Osage tribe in the area of southern Arkansas and their borderlands. In the early 19th century, some Cherokee, such as Sequoyah, voluntarily moved from the southeast to the Arkansas River valley under pressure from European-American settlement in their traditional territory. They clashed there with the Osage, who controlled this area.

The Osage regarded the Cherokee as invaders. They began raiding Cherokee towns, stealing horses, carrying off captives (usually women and children), and killing others, trying to drive out the Cherokee with a campaign of violence and fear. The Cherokee were not effective in stopping the Osage raids and worked to gain support from related tribes as well as whites. The peoples confronted each other in the "Battle of Claremore Mound," in which 38 Osage warriors were killed and 104 were taken captive by the Cherokee and their allies.

As a result of the battle, the United States constructed Fort Smith in present-day Arkansas. It was intended to prevent armed confrontations between the Osage and other tribes. The U.S. compelled the Osage to cede additional land to the federal government in the treaty referred to as Lovely's Purchase.

In 1833, the Osage clashed with the Kiowa near the Wichita Mountains in modern-day south-central Oklahoma, in an incident known as the Cutthroat Gap massacre. The Osage cut off the heads of their victims and arranged them in rows of brass cooking buckets.  No Osage died in this attack.  Later, Kiowa warriors, allied with the Comanche, raided the Osage and others. In 1836, the Osage prohibited the Kickapoo from entering their Missouri reservation, pushing them back to ceded lands in Illinois.

U.S. interaction
After the Lewis and Clark Expedition was completed in 1806, Jefferson appointed Meriwether Lewis as Indian Agent for the Territory of Missouri and the region. There were continuing confrontations between the Osage and other tribes in this area. Lewis anticipated that the U.S. would have to go to war with the Osage, because of their raids on eastern Natives and European-American settlements. However, the U.S. lacked sufficient military strength to coerce Osage bands into ceasing their raids. It decided to supply other tribes with weapons and ammunition, provided they attack the Osage to the point they "cut them off completely or drive them from their country."

For instance, in September 1807, Lewis persuaded the Potawatomie, Sac, and Fox to attack an Osage village; three Osage warriors were killed. The Osage blamed the Americans for the attack. One of the Chouteau traders intervened and persuaded the Osage to conduct a buffalo hunt rather than seek retaliation by attacking Americans.

Lewis tried to control the Osage also by separating the friendly members from the hostile. In a letter dated August 21, 1808, that President Jefferson sent to Lewis, he says that he approves of the measures Lewis has taken in regards to making allies of the friendly Osage from those deemed as hostile. Jefferson writes, "we may go further, & as the principal obstacle to the Indians acting in large bodies is the want of provisions, we might supply that want, & ammunition also if they need it." But the goal foremost pursued by the U.S. was to push the Osage out of areas being settled by European Americans, who began to enter the Louisiana Territory after the U.S. acquired it.

The lucrative fur trade continued to stimulate the growth of St. Louis and attracted more settlers there. It became a major port on the Mississippi River. The U.S. and Osage signed their first treaty on November 10, 1808, by which the Osage made a major cession of land in present-day Missouri. Under the Osage Treaty, they ceded  to the federal government.

This treaty created a buffer line between the Osage and new European-American settlers in the Missouri Territory. It also established the requirement that the U.S. president had to approve all future land sales and cessions by the Osage. The Treaty of Ft. Osage states the U.S. would "protect" the Osage tribe "from the insults and injuries of other tribes of Indians, situated near the settlements of white people....". As was common in Native American relations with the federal government, the Osage found that the U.S. did not carry through on this commitment.

Reservations and missionaries
Between the first treaty with the U.S. and 1825, the Osage ceded their traditional lands across what are now Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma in the treaties of 1818 and 1825. In exchange, they were to receive reservation lands to the West and supplies to help them adapt to farming and a more settled culture.

They were first relocated to a reservation in what is now southeastern Kansas called the Osage Diminished Reserve. The city of Independence would later develop there. The first Osage reservation was a  strip. The United Foreign Missionary Society sent clergy to them, supported by the Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, and Associate Reformed churches. They established the Union, Harmony, and Hopefield missions.
Cultural differences often led to conflicts, as the Protestants tried to impose their culture. The Catholic Church also sent missionaries. The Osage were attracted to their sense of mystery and ritual but felt the Catholics did not fully embrace the Osage sense of the spiritual incarnate in nature.

During this period in Kansas, the tribe suffered from the widespread smallpox pandemic of 1837–1838, which caused devastating losses among Native Americans from Canada to New Mexico. All clergy except the Catholics abandoned the Osage during the crisis. Most survivors of the epidemic had received vaccinations against the disease. The Osage believed that the loyalty of Catholic priests, who stayed with them and also died in the epidemic, created a special covenant between the tribe and the Catholic Church, but they did not convert in great numbers. Catholic clergy accompanied the Osage when they were forced to move again to Indian Territory in what became Oklahoma.

Honoring this special relationship, as well as Catholic sisters who taught their children in schools on reservations, numerous Osage elders went to the city of St. Louis in 2014 to celebrate its 250th anniversary of founding by the French. They participated in a mass partially conducted in Osage at St. Francis Xavier College Church of St. Louis University on April 2, 2014, as part of planned activities. One of the con-celebrants was Todd Nance, who is the first Osage to be ordained as a Catholic priest.

In 1843, the Osage asked the federal government to send "Black Robes", Jesuit missionaries, to their reservation to educate their children; the Osage considered the Jesuits better able to work with their culture than the Protestant missionaries. The Jesuits also established a girls' school operated by the Sisters of Loretto from Kentucky, led by Mother Bridget Hayden.

During a 35-year period, most of the missionaries were new recruits from Europe: Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium. They taught, established more than 100 mission stations, built churches, and created the longest-running school system in Kansas.

Civil War and Indian wars
White squatters continued to be a frequent problem for the Osage, but they recovered from population losses, regaining a total of 5,000 members by 1850. The Kansas–Nebraska Act resulted in numerous settlers arriving in Kansas Territory; both abolitionists and pro-slavery groups were represented among those trying to establish residency in order to vote on whether the territory should permit slavery. The Osage lands became overrun with European-American settlers. In 1855, the Osage suffered another epidemic of smallpox, because a generation had grown up without getting vaccinated.

Subsequent U.S. treaties and laws through the 1860s further reduced the lands of the Osage in Kansas. During the years of the Civil War, they were buffeted by both sides, as they were located between Union forts in the North and Confederate forces and allies to the South. While the Osage tried to stay neutral, both sides raided their territory, taking horses and food stores. They struggled simply to survive through famine and the war. During the war, many Caddoan and Creek refugees from Indian Territory came to Osage country in Kansas, further straining their resources. Although the Osage favored the Union by a five to one ratio, they made a treaty with the Confederacy to try to buy some peace. Roughly 200 Osage men were recruited into the Confederate army and formed the Osage Battalion, serving under Cherokee Confederate General Stand Watie.

Following the American Civil War and victory of the Union, the Drum Creek Treaty was passed by Congress on July 15, 1870, and ratified by the Osage at a meeting in Montgomery County, Kansas, on September 10, 1870. It provided that the remainder of Osage land in Kansas be sold, and the proceeds used to relocate the tribe to Indian Territory in the Cherokee Outlet. By delaying agreement with removal, the Osage benefited by a change in administration. They sold their lands to the "peace" administration of President Ulysses S. Grant, for which they received more money: $1.25 an acre rather than the 19 cents previously offered to them by the U.S.

In 1867, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer chose Osage scouts in his campaign against Chief Black Kettle and his band of Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians in western Indian Territory. He knew the Osage for their scouting expertise, excellent terrain knowledge, and military prowess. Custer and his soldiers took Chief Black Kettle and his peaceful band by surprise in the early morning near the Washita River on November 27, 1868. They killed Chief Black Kettle, and the ambush resulted in additional deaths on both sides. This incident became known as the Battle of Washita River, or the Washita massacre, an ignominious part of the United States' Indian Wars.

Removal to Indian territory

The Osage were one of the few American Indian nations to buy their own reservation. As a result, they retained more rights to the land and sovereignty. They retained mineral rights on their lands.  The reservation, of approximately , was purchased in 1872 and is coterminous with present-day Osage County, Oklahoma, in the north-central portion of the state between Tulsa and Ponca City.

The Osage established four towns: Pawhuska, Hominy, Fairfax, and Gray Horse. Each was dominated by one of the major bands at the time of removal. The Osage continued their relationship with the Catholic Church, which established schools operated by two orders of nuns, as well as mission churches.

It was many years before the Osage recovered from the hardships suffered during their last years in Kansas and their early years on the reservation in Indian Territory. For nearly five years during the depression of the 1870s, the Osage did not receive their full annuity in cash. Like other Native Americans, they suffered from the government's failure to provide full or satisfactory rations and goods as part of their annuities during this period. Middlemen made profits by shorting supplies to the Indians or giving them poor-quality food. Some people starved. Many adjustments had to be made to their new way of life.

During this time, Indian Office reports showed nearly a 50 percent decline in the Osage population. This resulted from the failure of the U.S. government to provide adequate medical supplies, food and clothing. The people suffered greatly during the winters. While the government failed to supply them, outlaws often smuggled whiskey to the Osage and the Pawnee.

In 1879, an Osage delegation went to Washington, D.C., and gained agreement to have all their annuities paid in cash; they hoped to avoid being continually shortchanged in supplies, or by being given supplies of inferior quality - spoiled food and inappropriate goods. They were the first Native American nation to gain full cash payment of annuities. They gradually began to build up their tribe again but suffered encroachment by white outlaws, vagabonds, and thieves.

The Osage wrote a constitution in 1881, modeling some parts of it after the United States Constitution. By the start of the 20th century, the federal government and progressives were continuing to press for Native American assimilation, believing this was the best policy for them. Congress passed the Curtis Act and Dawes Act, legislation requiring the dismantling of communal lands on other reservations. They allotted communal lands in  portions to individual households, declaring the remainder as "surplus" and selling it to non-natives. They also dismantled the tribal governments.

20th century to present

Oil discovery

In 1894 large quantities of oil were discovered beneath the vast prairie owned by the tribe. Because of his recent work in developing oil production in Kansas, Henry Foster approached the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) to request exclusive privileges to explore the Osage Reservation for oil and natural gas. Foster died shortly afterward, and his brother, Edwin B. Foster, assumed his interests.

The BIA granted the request on March 16, 1896, with the stipulation that Foster was to pay the Osage tribe a 10% royalty on all sales of petroleum produced on the reservation. Foster found large quantities of oil, and the Osage benefited greatly monetarily. But this discovery of "black gold" eventually led to more hardships for tribal members.

The Osage had learned about negotiating with the U.S. government. Through the efforts of Principal Chief James Bigheart, in 1907 they reached a deal which enabled them to retain communal mineral rights on the reservation lands. These were later found to have large quantities of crude oil, and tribal members benefited from royalty revenues from oil development and production. The government leased lands on their behalf for oil development; the companies/government sent the Osage members royalties that, by the 1920s, had  dramatically increased their wealth. In 1923 alone, the Osage earned $30 million in royalties. Since the early 20th century, they are the only tribe within the state of Oklahoma to retain a federally recognized reservation.

In 2000 the Osage sued the federal government over its management of the trust assets, alleging that it had failed to pay tribal members appropriate royalties, and had not historically protected the land assets and appreciation. The suit was settled in 2011 for $380 million, and a commitment by the government to make numerous changes to improve the program. In 2016, the Osage nation bought Ted Turner's  Bluestem ranch.

Osage Allotment Act
In 1889, the U.S. federal government claimed to no longer recognize the legitimacy of a governing Osage National Council which the people had created in 1881, with a constitution that adopted some aspects of that of the United States.  In 1906, as part of the Osage Allotment Act, the U.S. Congress created the Osage Tribal Council to handle affairs of the tribe. It extinguished the power of tribal governments in order to enable the admission of the Indian Territory as part of the state of Oklahoma in 1907.

As the Osage owned their land, they were in a stronger position than other tribes. The Osage were unyielding in refusing to give up their lands and held up statehood for Oklahoma before signing an allotment act. They were forced to accept allotment but retained their "surplus" land after allotment to households, and apportioned it to individual members. Each of the 2,228 registered Osage members in 1906, and one non-Osage, received , nearly four times the amount of land, usually , that most Native American households were allotted in other places when communal lands were distributed. The tribe retained communal mineral rights to what was below the surface. As development of resources took place, members of the tribe received royalties according to their Osage headrights, paid according to the amount of land they held.

Although the Osage were encouraged to become settled farmers, their land was the poorest in the Indian Territory for agricultural purposes. They survived by subsistence farming, later enhanced by raising stock. They leased lands to ranchers for grazing and earned income from the resulting fees. In addition to breaking up communal land, the act replaced tribal government with the Osage National Council, to which members were to be elected to conduct the tribe's political, business, and social affairs.

Under the act, initially each Osage male had equal voting rights to elect members of the council, and the principal and assistant principal chiefs. The rights to these lands in future generations were divided among legal heirs, as were the mineral headrights to mineral lease royalties. Under the Allotment Act, only allottees and their descendants who held headrights could vote in the elections or run for office (originally restricted to males). The members voted by their headrights, which generated inequalities among the voters.

A 1992 U.S. district court decision ruled that the Osage could vote to reinstate the Osage National Council as city members of the Osage nation, rather than being required to vote by headright. This decision was reversed in 1997 with the United States Court of Appeals ruling that ended the government restoration. In 2004, Congress passed legislation to restore sovereignty to the Osage Nation and enable them to make their own decisions about government and membership qualifications for their people.

In March 2010, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit held that the 1906 Allotment Act had disestablished the Osage reservation established in 1872.  This ruling potentially affected the legal status of three of the seven Osage casinos, including the largest one in Tulsa, as it meant the casino was not on federal trust land. Federal Indian gaming law allows tribes to operate casinos only on trust land.

The Osage Nation's largest economic enterprise, Osage Casinos, officially opened newly constructed casinos, hotels and convenience stores in Skiatook and Ponca City in December 2013.

Natural resources and headrights

Before having a vote within the tribe on the question of allotment, the Osage demanded that the government purge their tribal rolls of people who were not legally Osage. The Indian agent had been adding names of persons who were not approved by the tribe, and the Osage submitted a list of more than 400 persons to be investigated. Because the government removed few of the fraudulent people, the Osage had to share their land and oil rights with people who did not belong. The Osage had negotiated keeping communal control of the mineral rights.

The act stated that all persons listed on tribal rolls prior to January 1, 1906 or born before July 1907 (allottees) would be allocated a share of the reservation's subsurface natural resources, regardless of blood quantum. The Osage headright could be inherited by legal heirs. This communal claim to mineral resources was due to expire in 1926. After that, individual landowners would control the mineral rights to their plots. This provision heightened the pressure for those whites who were eager to gain control of Osage lands before the deadline.

Although the Osage Allotment Act protected the tribe's mineral rights for two decades, any adult "of a sound mind" could sell surface land.  In the time between 1907 and 1923, Osage individuals sold or leased thousands of acres to non-Indians of formerly restricted land.  At the time, many Osage did not understand the value of such contracts and often were taken advantage of by unscrupulous businessmen, con artists, and others trying to grab part of their wealth. Non-Native Americans also tried to cash in on the new Osage wealth by marrying into families with headrights.

Osage Indian murders

Alarmed about the way the Osage were using their wealth, in 1921 the U.S. Congress passed a law requiring any Osage of half or more Indian ancestry to be appointed a guardian until proving "competency". Minors with less than half Osage ancestry were required to have guardians appointed, even if their parents were living. This system was not administered by federal courts; rather, local courts appointed guardians from among white attorneys and businessmen. By law, the guardians provided a $4,000 annual allowance to their charges, but initially the government required little record keeping of how they invested the difference. Royalties to persons holding Osage headrights were much higher: $11,000–12,000 per year during the period 1922–1925. Guardians were permitted to collect $200–1,000 per year, and the attorney involved could collect $200 per year, which was withdrawn from each Osage's income. Some attorneys served as guardians and did so for four Osage at once, allowing them to collect $4,800 per year.

The tribe auctioned off development rights of their mineral assets for millions of dollars. According to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, in 1924 the total revenue of the Osage from the mineral leases was $24,670,483. After the tribe auctioned mineral leases and more land was explored, the oil business on the Osage reservation boomed. Tens of thousands of oil workers arrived, more than 30 boom towns sprang up and, nearly overnight, Osage headright holders became the "richest people in the world."  When royalties peaked in 1925, annual headright earnings were $13,000.  A family of four who were all on the allotment roll earned $52,800, comparable to approximately $600,000 in today's economy.

The guardianship program created an incentive for corruption, and many Osage were legally deprived of their land, headrights, and/or royalties.  Others were murdered, in cases the police generally failed to investigate. The coroner's office colluded by falsifying death certificates, for instance claiming suicides when people had been poisoned. The Osage Allotment Act did not entitle the Native Americans to autopsies, so many deaths went unexamined. In the early 1920s there was a rise in murders and suspicious deaths of Osage, called the "Reign of Terror." In one plot, in 1921, Ernest Burkhart, a European American, married Molly Kyle, an Osage woman with headrights. His uncle William "King of Osage Hills" Hale, a powerful business man who led the plot, and brother Bryan hired accomplices to murder Kyle family heirs. They arranged for the murders of Kyle's mother, two sisters, a brother-in-law, and a cousin, in cases involving poisoning, bombing, and shooting.

With local and state officials unsuccessful at solving the murders, in 1925 the Osage requested the help of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. It was the bureau's first murder case. By the time it started investigating, Kyle was already being poisoned. This was discovered and she survived. She had inherited the headrights of the rest of her family.  The FBI achieved the prosecution and conviction of the principals in the Kyle family murders. From 1921 to 1925, however, an estimated 60 Osage were killed, and most murders were not solved.  John Joseph Mathews, an Osage, explored the disruptive social consequences of the oil boom for the Osage Nation in his semi-autobiographical novel Sundown (1934).  Killers of the Flower Moon: The Osage Murders and the Birth of the FBI (2017) by David Grann was a National Book Award finalist; a related major motion picture was released in October 2023.

Changes to law and management claims
As a result of the murders and increasing problems with trying to protect Osage oil wealth, in 1925 Congress passed legislation limiting inheritance of Osage headrights only to those heirs of half or more Osage ancestry. In addition, they extended the tribal control of mineral rights for another 20 years; later legislation gave the tribe continuing communal control indefinitely. Today, headrights have been passed down primarily among descendants of the Osage who originally possessed them. But the Bureau of Indian Affairs has estimated that 25% of headrights are owned by non-Osage people, including other American Indians, non-Indians, churches, and community organizations. It continues to pay royalties on mineral revenues on a quarterly basis.

Beginning in 1999, the Osage Nation sued the United States in the Court of Federal Claims (dockets 99-550 and 00-169) for mismanaging its trust funds and its mineral estate. The litigation eventually included claims reaching into the 19th century. In February 2011, the Court of Federal Claims awarded $330.7 million in damages in partial compensation for some of the mismanagement claims, covering the period from 1972 to 2000. On October 14, 2011, the United States settled the outstanding litigation for a total of $380 million. The tribe has about 16,000 members. The settlement includes commitments by the United States to cooperate with the Osage to institute new procedures to protect tribal trust funds and resource management.

Mineral Council
The Osage Tribal Council was created under the Osage Allotment Act of 1906. It consisted of a principal chief, an assistant principal chief, and eight members of the Osage tribal council. The mineral estate consists of more than natural gas and petroleum. Although these two resources have yielded the most profit, the Osage have also earned revenue from leases for the mining of lead, zinc, limestone, and coal deposits. Water may also be considered a profitable asset that is controlled by the Mineral Council.

The first elections for this council were held in 1908 on the first Monday in June. Officers were elected for a term of two years, which made it difficult for them to accomplish long-term goals. If for some reason the principal chief's office becomes vacant, a replacement is elected by the remaining council members. Later in the 20th century, the tribe increased the terms of office of council members to four years.

In 1994 by referendum, the tribe voted for a new constitution. Among its provisions was the separation of the Mineral Council, or Mineral Estate, from regular tribal government. According to the constitution, only Osage members who are Osage headright holders can vote for the members of the Mineral Council. It is as if they were shareholders of a corporation.

Present day

Demographics

The population as of 2017 is estimated at 47,350 in approximately .

Government
By a new constitution of 1994, the Osage voted that original allottees and their direct descendants, regardless of blood quantum, were citizen members of the Osage Nation. This constitution was overruled through court judgments. The Osage appealed to Congress for support to create their own government and membership rules. In 2004, President George W. Bush signed Public Law 108–431, "An Act to Reaffirm the Inherent Sovereign Rights of the Osage Tribe to Determine Its Membership and Form a Government." From 2004 to 2006, the Osage Government Reform Commission formed and worked to develop a new government. It explored "sharply differing visions arose of the new government's goals, the nation's own history, and what it means to be Osage. The primary debates were focused on biology, culture, natural resources, and sovereignty."

The Reform Commission held weekly meetings to develop a referendum that Osage members could vote upon in order to develop and reshape the Osage Nation government and its policies. On March 11, 2006, the people ratified the constitution in a second referendum vote. Its major provision was to provide "one man, one vote" to each citizen of the nation. Previously, based on the allotment process, persons voted proportionally as shareholders. By a 2/3 majority vote, the Osage Nation adopted the new constitutional form of government. It also ratified the definition of membership in the nation.

Today, the Osage Nation has 13,307 enrolled tribal members, with 6,747 living within the state of Oklahoma. Since 2006 it has defined membership based on a person's lineal descent from a member listed on the Osage rolls at the time of the Osage Allotment Act of 1906. A minimum blood quantum is not required. But, as the Bureau of Indian Affairs restricts federal education scholarships to persons who have 25% or more blood quantum in one tribe, the Osage Nation tries to support higher education for its students who do not meet that requirement.

The tribal government is headquartered in Pawhuska, Oklahoma, and has jurisdiction in Osage County, Oklahoma. The current governing body of the Osage nation contains three separate branches; an executive, a judicial and a legislative. These three branches parallel the United States government in many ways. The tribe operates a monthly newspaper, Osage News. The Osage Nation has an official website and uses a variety of communication media and technology.

Judicial branch
The judicial branch maintains courts to interpret the laws of the Osage Nation. It has the power to adjudicate civil and criminal matters, resolve disputes, and judicial review. The highest court is the Supreme Court. This Supreme Court has a Chief Justice, currently Meredith Drent, who replaced former Chief Justice Charles Lohah. There is also a lower Trial Court and more inferior courts as allowed by the tribal constitution.

Executive Branch
The executive branch is headed by a principal chief, followed by an assistant principal chief. The current principal chief is Geoffrey Standing Bear, and Raymond Red Corn is the assistant principal chief, who were both sworn in on July 2, 2014. Administrative offices also fall under this executive branch.

Legislative Branch
The legislative branch consists of a Congress that works to create and maintain Osage laws. In addition to this role, their mission is to preserve the checks and balances within the Osage government, carry out oversight responsibilities, support trial revenues, and preserve and protect the nation's environment. This Congress is made up of twelve individuals who are elected by the Osage constituency and serve four-year terms. They hold two regular congressional sessions and are headquartered in Pawhuska.

Education
In July, 2019, the tribe chartered Bacone College in Muskogee, Oklahoma, as its tribal college.

Economic development
The Osage Nation issues its own tribal vehicle tags and operates its own housing authority.  The tribe owns a truck stop, a gas station, and ten smoke shops.

In the 21st century, it opened its first gaming casino and as of December 2013 has seven casinos. Casinos are located in Tulsa, Sand Springs, Bartlesville, Skiatook, Ponca City, Hominy and Pawhuska. The tribe's annual economic impact in 2010 was estimated to be $222 million. Osage Million Dollar Elm, the casino management company, is encouraging employees in education, paying for certificate classes related to their business, as well as for classes leading to bachelor's and master's business degrees.

Osage Nation Museum
Located in Pawhuska, Oklahoma, the Osage Nation Museum provides interpretations and displays of Osage history, art, and culture. The continuously changing exhibits convey the story of the Osage people throughout history and celebrate Osage culture today. Highlights include an extensive photograph collection, historical artifacts, and traditional and contemporary art. Founded in 1938, the museum is the oldest tribally owned museum in the United States. Historian Louis F. Burns donated much of his extensive personal collection of artifacts and documents to the museum.
 In 2021, a Missouri cave was discovered with ancient Osage art. The contents were sold at auction, but the Osage leadership insists it belongs to the nation.

Notable Osage

Representations in literature
 John Joseph Mathews, an Osage writer and historian, explored the adverse social effects of the oil boom for the Osage Nation in his semi-autobiographical novel Sundown (1934); he also wrote histories of the nation, based in part on the oral histories of tribal elders.
 Linda Hogan wrote Mean Spirit a powerful novel based upon the Osage Murders that is also a moving  depiction of traditional indigenous culture.
 Laura Ingalls Wilder wrote a series of children's books, known as Little House on the Prairie (1932–1943). The novel Little House on the Prairie and its TV adaptation are based on her family's pioneer days in Kansas. They illegally squatted on Osage land and encountered members of the tribe.

Others
Fred Lookout (1865–1949), principal chief
Monte Blue (1887–1963), American actor of the silent and sound eras.
Louis F. Burns (1920–2012), historian and author, a leading expert on Osage history, customs, and mythology.
Charles Curtis, vice-president of the United States under Herbert Hoover, a descendant of Osage chief Pawhuska.
Cody Deal (b. 1986), television and film actor, best known for his role in the Syfy Original Movie, Almighty Thor
Jerry C. Elliott (b. 1943), one of the first Native Americans in NASA, received the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his actions in saving the lives of the three astronauts aboard Apollo 13.
Guy Erwin (b. 1958), first openly gay bishop in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (elected 31 May 2013).
Yatika Starr Fields (b. 1980), painter, muralist and street artist.
David Holt (politician) (b. 1979), Mayor of Oklahoma City; served in the Oklahoma State Senate; he was the first Osage elected to state office since 2006.
Kihegashugah or Little Chief, an Osage leader who traveled to France in the 1820s.
William Least Heat-Moon (b. 1939), professor of English and best-selling author.
John Joseph Mathews (c. 1894–1979), author and historian of the Osage Nation; World War I veteran.
Elise Paschen, poet and daughter of Maria Tallchief.
Wendy Ponca (b. 1960), fashion designer and artist
Carter Revard (1931-2022), poet, author, and Rhodes Scholar, also a specialist in medieval British literature
Chance Rencountre (born December 31, 1986), mixed martial artists competing in the Welterweight division in the Ultimate Fighting Championship.
Lucille Robedeaux (1915–2005), tribal elder and last surviving native speaker of the Osage language
Sacred Sun, a 19th-century Osage woman who was among a group taken to France.
Larry Sellers, healer, actor, linguistic mentor.
Maria Tallchief, classical ballerina with the New York City Ballet; contributed greatly to the success of ballet as a dance art in the United States.
Marjorie Tallchief, professional ballerina. Both sisters were prima ballerinas who performed in many countries throughout the 20th century.
Clarence L. Tinker (1887–1942), U.S. Army aviation officer who died during World War II while on a Pacific combat mission during the Japanese attack on Midway Island in June 1942. Achieved rank as major general.
"Tink" Tinker (George Edward Tinker IV) (b. 1944), author and Emeritus Professor of American Indian Studies at Iliff School of Theology, Emeritus Director of Four Winds American Indian Council, Denver
 Chief White Hair, the name of several Osage skiagusta in the 18th and 19th century. The indigenous name is anglicized as Pawhuska, also used as the name of a town in Oklahoma.

See also
Osage script
Killers of the Flower Moon (film)

Notes

References

External links

Osage Nation, official website
Osage Indian Tribe History, from Handbook of North American Indian History, Smithsonian Institution, 1906, at Access Genealogy

Further reading

David Grann, Killers of the Flower Moon: The Osage Murders and the Birth of the FBI (2017), Knopf-Doubleday Publishing Group
Willard H. Rollings, Unaffected by the Gospel: Osage Resistance to the Christian Invasion, 1673-1906: A Cultural Victory (2004), Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 2004
Louie McAlpine, "Osage Medicine: Ancestral Herbs And The Illnesses That They Treat", Grayhorse Indian Village, Scope Publications, 1998.
 Terry P. Wilson,
 The Underground Reservation: Osage Oil, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985.
 Indians of North America New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1988
 Sister Mary Paul Fitzgerald, Beacon on the Plains, Leavenworth, Kansas: Saint Mary College, 1939
 William White Graves, The Annals of Osage Mission, 1934
 Gibson, Arrell M. 1972. Harlow's Oklahoma History , Sixth Edition. Norman, Oklahoma: Harlow Publishing Corporation.

Plains tribes
American Indian reservations in Oklahoma
Federally recognized tribes in the United States
Native American tribes in Oklahoma
Native American tribes in Missouri
Dhegiha Siouan peoples
Native American tribes in Kansas

Osage Nation


Grand unification theory or GUT is a model that tries to describe the universe. It says that three forces -  electromagnetic, weak and  strong forces - were once combined into a single force. These are three of the fundamental four forces of nature, which are responsible for all of the pushes and pulls in the universe. If gravity is also combined with these forces, then the GUT will become the proposed Theory of Everything.

Because GUT models have more dimensions than currently known, there has not been a single GUT. Particle accelerators, like the Large Hadron Collider have been built to test these GUTs indirectly, as it is too complex to observe effects on particles without them.

GUT was first proposed by researchers from CERN in the 1970s. The discovery of the Higgs Boson and other such recent discoveries will get scientists closer to knowing which GUT is correct, and ultimately know the Theory of Everything. This theory was given by Pakistani scientist Abdus Salam, who shared the Noble Prize with Weinberg and Glashow for it in 1979.

There have been numerous failed attempts to form a Grand Unified Theory, and many scientists believe that it is impossible¹. Although the attempts have not been successful so far, we have gained invaluable insight and understanding through the endeavours to find the Grand Unified Theory. By Aditya.A.Malpani

Basic physics ideas

Grand unification theory


The 1965 Rat Islands earthquake occurred at 05:01 UTC, on 4 February (19:01, 3 February local time). It had a magnitude of 8.7 and triggered a tsunami of over 10 m on Shemya Island, but caused very little damage.

Tectonic setting
The Rat Islands form part of the Aleutian Islands, a chain of volcanic islands forming an island arc, that results from the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate. This plate boundary, the Aleutian Trench, has been the location of many megathrust earthquakes.

Characteristics

The 1965 Rat Islands earthquake share common features with the 1963 Kuril Islands earthquake and the 1964 Alaska earthquake.

Earthquake
The earthquake was associated with a 600 km long rupture along the plate boundary, based on the distribution of aftershocks. The pattern of energy release suggest the presence of three asperities along the plate interface, each causing a pulse of moment release. Modelling of the tsunami supports the idea that the earthquake consisted of three sub-events, related to three structural 'blocks' within the overriding plate.

The main shock was followed by an earthquake of magnitude 7.6 nearly two months later, that triggered a small tsunami. This was not an aftershock, but a normal fault event within the outer rise of the subducting plate, triggered by the earlier event.

Tsunami
The tsunami had a maximum run-up height of 10.7 m on Shemya Island, 2.0 m at Amchitka Island, 1.6 m at Attu Island and 1.1 m in northern Kauai, Hawaii. It was also observed in Peru, Ecuador, Mexico, California, Japan and eastern Russia.

Damage
Flooding from the tsunami caused $10,000 worth of damage on Amchitka Island. Minor damage from the earthquake was recorded on both Attu and Shemya islands in the form of cracks in runways.

See also
List of earthquakes in 1965
List of earthquakes in Alaska
List of earthquakes in the United States
2021 Chignik earthquake

References

Further reading

External links

1965 in Alaska
Megathrust earthquakes in Alaska
Rat Islands
1960s tsunamis

1965 Rat Islands earthquake


Consumer goods, which are also called final goods, are goods that are put on the market for the  fulfillment of wants or needs. Examples for consumer goods might be food or a home appliance. Consumer goods are often subdivided into convenience goods (for example soap, or shampoo), and shopping goods (which usually are more expensive, and often last longer).

Goods
Consumer goods fulfill the wants of people

Consumer goods


Piotr Tomicki (1464 – 19 October 1535) was a Roman Catholic  Bishop of Przemyśl and Poznań, Archbishop of Kraków, Vice-Chancellor of the Crown, and Royal Secretary. Celebrated as one of the most important representatives of the Polish Renaissance, he studied in Italy, was part of the court of the nobleman and bishop Jan Lubrański, and had contacts with many of the enlightened minds of Europe, including Erasmus of Rotterdam.

Tomicki was a generous patron of artists, particularly sculptors. His collection of sculptures from between 1520-30 was rivalled only by that of the king.  He also presided over changes at the Jagiellonian University, which created a department of Roman Law, and introduced the teaching of Greek and Hebrew. Under his guidance Stanisław Górski wrote Acta Tomiciana, a collection of documents from the time of Tomicki's service as chancellor.

Life
Tomicki was born in 1464 near Poznań, the son of Mikołaj of Tomice, a Chorąży (standard-bearer) from Poznań, and Anna of Szamotuły. After his father's death in 1478, he went to the court of his uncle, Andrzej Szamotuły, then governor of Poznań. He studied at the cathedral school in Gniezno, before moving to Leipzig around 1486, and shortly after to the Kraków Academy, where he earned his bachelor's degree in 1490, and his magistrature in philosophy three years later in 1493. That same year he travelled to Bologna to study law, finishing his doctorate in 1500.

Immediately after graduation he began working in the Roman Curia, becoming chancellor of Cardinal Fryderyk Jagiellończyk, who gave him a number of ecclesiastical benefices, including the archdeaconry of Kraków, despite Piotr's not being a clergyman. After the death of Cardinal Fryderyk, Piotr went to the court of Jan Lubrański, the bishop of Poznań, where he remained between 1503-1506. Then he went to the office of the crown of King Sigismund I the Old, in whose service as secretary he repeatedly traveled as envoy to Hungary, Wallachia, and Pomerania.

In 1511 Piotr was ordained a priest, and in 1514 he was consecrated Bishop of Przemyśl. One year later he became Vice-Chancellor of the Crown, an office which he held until his death. In 1515, together with Chancellor Krzysztof Szydłowiecki, he became the main benefactor of a settlement with the Habsburgs. After the death of Jan Lubrański in 1520, he became bishop in Poznań and renounced the bishopric of Przemyśl. He resided in Wielkopolska for a while, devoting his time to politics and working for the royal court. In 1525, he became bishop of Kraków, while still bishop of Poznań, as well as Apostolic Nuncio, and collector of papal tributes. In 1526 he abdicated his position as bishop in Poznań. In that same year he conducted an amicable agreement between the king and Albert Hohenzollern. Tomicki served as both Bishop of Kraków and Vice-Chancellor of the Crown from 1525, which was inconsistent with the Polish law of Incompatibilitas. It was one of the main reasons for opposition near Szydłowiec during the Execution movement.

Piotr Tomicki died in Kraków on 19 October 1535. He was buried in Wawel Cathedral in a chapel that he himself founded.

He is one of the characters on the famous painting by Jan Matejko, Prussian Homage.

References

Further reading
Fr. Piotr Nitecki, The Bishops of the Church in Poland in the years 965-1999. Biographical Dictionary, ed. II Amendments and additions, Warsaw (2000), p. 451-452. .

External links
Acta Tomiciana at Wielkopolska Biblioteka Cyfrowa

1464 births
1535 deaths
Bishops of Kraków
Bishops of Poznań
Bishops of Przemyśl
University of Bologna alumni
16th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Poland
Crown Vice-Chancellors

Piotr Tomicki


Wellington's annual Artsplash Festival is New Zealand's largest student arts festival, and comprises over 100 primary and intermediate schools from the lower North Island an suneel
er 18,000 students and audience members. Venues are the Michael Fowler Centre, Capital E, and the Opera House. The two-week programme includes music, dance, choir, and theatre, as well as a major visual arts exhibition of student work. Other components include films for young people at the New Zealand Film Archive Mediaplex, workshops at Wellington Arts Centre, and class tours of Te Whaea, Bats Theatre, and the Royal New Zealand Ballet. The mission of the Festival is to encourage teachers and classes to explore the creative process and to gain confidence in presenting the results. Artsplash is a celebration of thousands of talented students and their artistry.

Artsplash, also known as 'Wellington's Young People's Arts Festival', was founded by a group of arts leaders in 1986, and managed first by the city's community arts officer Neal Palmer, and later Eric Vaughn Holowacz. The creative programming has become an annual part of the curriculum for participating schools. The Festival is now funded and fully managed by Wellington City Council, and is a partnership between venues, specialist educators, and the schools in Wellington Region.

References

Festivals in Wellington
Arts festivals in New Zealand

Artsplash Festival


Multi-sketch is an animation method of story-telling where a sequence of hand-drawn sketches are created simultaneously while narrating it with voice. To achieve this a Tablet PC or digitizing tablet can be used to create improvised progressive line sketches which are captured to video.

Such types of cartoons are created in a freestyle unscripted manner, which makes them original, since the whole animation does not need editing after it is completed. The final multi-sketch can be sent to various video formats.

References

Drawing
Animation techniques

Multi-sketch


Edward Hussey Delaval (born 1729; died 14 August 1814 in Westminster) was a British scholar and natural philosopher.

Life

He was the third son of Francis Blake Delaval and his wife Rhoda Apreece. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, admitted in 1747; he graduated B.A. in 1750, M.A. in 1754, and became a Fellow there in 1755. There also he knew the poet Thomas Gray.

Delaval inherited both Seaton Delaval Hall in Northumberland and Doddington Hall in Lincolnshire, but preferred to live in London. He died at the age of 85 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Works
Delaval shared the 1766 Copley Medal where he was cited for his research on metals and glass. His interest in glass included its use in music. His performances on musical glasses became well-known, and may have inspired Benjamin Franklin's glass harmonica.

Family
Delaval married Sarah Scott (1751–1829), daughter of George Scott of Methley; they had a daughter Sarah Hussey Gunman née Delaval (c1780–1825). Seaton Delaval was inherited by his nephew Sir Jacob Astley, 5th Baronet, whose mother Rhoda Astley, wife of Sir Edward Astley, 4th Baronet, was Delaval's sister. Doddington Hall was left to Sarah.

References

1729 births
1814 deaths
Recipients of the Copley Medal
18th-century British philosophers
19th-century British people
Fellows of the Royal Society

Edward Delaval


Dawson Butte, elevation , is a flat-topped mountain in Douglas County, Colorado. Adjacent to the mountain is the Dawson Butte Open Space, owned by Douglas County and managed by the County's Division of Open Space and Natural Resources.

The mountain and open space are located about five miles south of Castle Rock.

The publicly accessible portion of the open space covers 828 acres. A five-mile-long trail loops around the open space property. The trail is open to hikers, horseback riders, snowshoers, and mountain bikers. Dogs are allowed provided they are leashed. An old bridle path remains on the property, and some of the jumps are still set up.

There is no public access to the top of the butte.

Name
Dawson Arkose, a geological formation, takes its name from the Butte, which itself was named after an early Plum Creek area settler, Thomas Dawson.

See also

List of Colorado mountain summits

References

External links
Official website

Buttes of Colorado
Mountains of Douglas County, Colorado
North American 2000 m summits

Dawson Butte


Banwell Castle is a Victorian Gothic Revival mansion in Banwell, Somerset, England. It is a Grade II* listed building.

History
The land on which the house is built was owned by the Bishop of Bath and Wells. It was sold to John and Joan Landown in 1753. It was passed down to the Sympson family; John Dyer Sympson, a solicitor from London, built the castle as his home. It was completed in 1847. Built in the Gothic Revival style made popular by Augustus Pugin.it was expanded and embellished in the 1880s by Sir Elskin Baker, having passed to Sir William Baker, Other owners and tenants have been 1854 to 1874 Henry & Elizabeth Pigou then Sir William & Lady Frances Baker.  In 1883 the Estate was sold to the Shaw Yate's family from Rotherham. In 1905 Kate Behrens of Manchester purchased the property. Mr & Mrs Hope made it their home, she died in 1916 and the Estate was then sold to Richard Calvert who in 1919 had the Bristol Architect Sir George Oatley do remodelling work on the property.

In World War II it was taken over by the Royal Air Force and used as the headquarters for No. 955 Squadron, which was a barrage balloon unit and part of Balloon Command. The gatehouse was used by the local Air Raid Precautions. In 1963 the Estate was sold to Simon and Phillipa Wills (of W.D. & H.O. Wills). Until 1976 the next owners were Charles Skilton, a book and postcard publisher, and Jean Desebrock from South Africa. In 1988 William H & Hugh A Parsons purchased part of the castle and later purchased the whole of the estate. It remains a family home but is used for weddings, pre booked dinner Parties, wakes and as a bed and breakfast.

Architecture

The house has five windows in the three-storey main block between small circular turrets with other octagonal and hexagonal towers. In front of the house is a terrace with a trefoil pierced parapet with statutes of lions rampant with swords on embattled octagonal gate piers which flank six steps.

The coachhouse has a tall circular turret and contained a granary on the first floor. The gatehouse consists of a Chamfered double arch, with a parapet between circular embattled towers, with wrought iron gates with heraldic motifs. The walled kitchen garden,  south east of the house has another  tower. The terrace adjoining the house leads to a decorative dairy. The west garden walls include another tower.

References

Grade II* listed buildings in North Somerset
Houses completed in 1847
Mock castles in England
Gothic Revival architecture in Somerset
Augustus Pugin buildings
Grade II* listed houses in Somerset
1847 establishments in England

Banwell Castle


The ideology of the military junta that ruled Greece from 1967 to 1974 was followed by the creation and/or use of special terms that were employed by the junta as propaganda tools and to transmit its message to the Greek people as well as influence their way of thinking and attack the anti-junta movement. The terms of the lexicon include unique expressions and institutions that provide a glimpse into junta's mindset and government structure. Other words and concepts were borrowed and appropriated. Yet other terms were already in use prior to the 1967 coup. Finally, some are taken from Greece's cultural tradition. Some examples of these terms as well as their contextual meaning follow.

Sometimes the terms were combined for stronger effect. As an example O Skotadismos kai i Synodiporia meaning Western and Greek leftist sympathisers, in other words internal and external opposition to the junta.

The junta always communicated in katharevousa Greek with only one exception, Rahokokalia tou laou, which was specially coined for farmer consumption and it is the only phrase in the junta vocabulary to be in demotic Greek.

See also
 Lingua Tertii Imperii
 Newspeak

Citations and notes

Modern Greek words and phrases
Greek junta
Greek military junta
Wikipedia glossaries using tables

Glossary of the Greek military junta


Black Hearts in Battersea is a children's novel by Joan Aiken first published in 1964.  The second book in the Wolves Chronicles, it is loosely a sequel to her earlier Wolves of Willoughby Chase. The book is set in a slightly altered historical England—during the reign of King James III—in the early 19th century, and follows the adventures of Simon, an orphan whose plans to study painting in London are derailed by high adventure. Aiken was inspired to create an atmosphere of important events having already transpired offstage (which was helped by the fact that a great deal of the beginning had to be left out due to length), and also included an involved "Dickensian plot" which she believed to complement the habit many children have of rereading or having a book reread to them.

TV adaptation
In 1995, the book was adapted by James Andrew Hall into a television series by James Andrew Hall, airing on BBC1 from 31 December 1995 to 11 February 1996.

Cast list
 Mark Burdis as Scrimshaw
 Jade Williams as Dido
 Roger Bizley as Captain Dark
 Annette Badland as Dolly Buckle
 John Altman as Midwink
 Gemma Sealey as Sophie
 William Mannering as Simon
 Richard Woods as Boy with Wheelbarrow
*Choponopopy Chanvleguis as Chuncky

Radio adaptation

A BBC Radio dramatisation by Lin Coghlan, directed by Marc Beeby, of Joan Aiken's classic children's adventure. Starring Joe Dempsie as Simon, Nicola Miles-Wilden as Dido, and Emerald O'Hanrahan as Sophie.

Part One:
Young Simon comes to 18th century London to study painting - and finds himself caught up in wicked Hanoverian plots to overthrow the King.

Broadcasts: BBC Radio 4, 14:15 Wed 23 Dec.2009. 14:15 Wed 21 Dec.2011.

Part Two:
To save the King from Hanoverian plotters Simon and Sophie must first suffer shipwreck, attacks by wolves and a narrow escape from an exploding castle, in a hot air balloon.

Broadcasts: BBC Radio 4, 14:15, Thu 24 Dec.2009.  14:15, Thu 22 Dec.2011.

Cast list

SIMON ..... Joe Dempsie
DIDO ..... Nicola Miles-Wildin
SOPHIE ..... Emerald O'Hanrahan
DUKE ..... John Rowe
DUCHESS ..... Sheila Reid
COBBE ..... Ben Crowe
MRS COBBE ..... Annabelle Dowler
MR TWITE ..... Rhys Jennings
MRS TWITE ..... Tessa Nicholson
JUSTIN ..... Sam Pamphilon
BUCKLE ..... Nigel Hastings
MRS BUCKLE ..... Kate Layden
DR FURNEAUX ..... Bruce Alexander
DR FIELD ..... Ewan Hooper
MOGG ..... John Biggins
GUS ..... Joseph Cohen Cole
JABWING ..... Piers Wehner
WOMAN ..... Kate Layden

References

External links

1964 British novels
1964 children's books
British children's novels
English novels
Novels by Joan Aiken
British alternative history novels
Children's historical novels
Novels set in the 19th century
Novels about orphans
Doubleday (publisher) books
Jonathan Cape books
British novels adapted into television shows
Novels adapted into radio programs
Children's books set in England
Children's books set in the 19th century

Black Hearts in Battersea


Victor Louis Goines (born August 6, 1961) is a jazz saxophonist and clarinetist who has served as president and chief executive officer of Jazz St. Louis since September 2022. From 2000 to 2007, he was director of the jazz program at Juilliard.

Career
Goines graduated from St. Augustine High School in New Orleans and has been a member of Jazz at Lincoln Center Orchestra and the Wynton Marsalis Septet since 1993. Goines served as the director of jazz studies and professor for the Bienen School of Music at Northwestern University from 2008 to 2022. He presently serves as President/CEO of Jazz St. Louis.

Goines has collaborated with Terence Blanchard, Dee Dee Bridgewater, Ruth Brown, Ray Charles, Bo Diddley, Bob Dylan, Dizzy Gillespie, Freddie Green, Lionel Hampton, Freddie Hubbard, B.B. King, Lenny Kravitz, Branford Marsalis, Ellis Marsalis, James Moody, Dianne Reeves, Marcus Roberts, Diana Ross, Eric Clapton, Wycliffe Gordon, and Stevie Wonder.

He has performed on more than 20 recordings, including the soundtracks for three Ken Burns documentaries and the films Undercover Blues (1993), Night Falls on Manhattan (1997), and Rosewood (1997). He has composed more than 200 original works, including Jazz at Lincoln Center and ASCAP commissions.

He has also served on the faculties of Florida A&M University, University of New Orleans, Loyola University of New Orleans, and Xavier University of Louisiana. Goines is an artist for Buffet Crampon and Vandoren.

Discography

As Leader

 Genesis (AFO, 1992)
 "Joe's Blues" (Rosemary Joseph Records, 1998)
 "To Those We Love So Dearly" (Rosemary Joseph Records, 1999)
 Sunrise To Midnight (Rosemary Joseph Records, 2000)
 "New Adventures" (Criss Cross Records, 2006)
 "Love Dance" (Criss Cross Records, 2007)
 "Pastels in Ballads and Blues" (Rosemary Joseph Records, 2007)
 "Twilight" (Rosemary Joseph Records, 2012)
 "Morning Swing" (Rosemary Joseph Records, 2013)
 "A Dance At The Mardi Gras Ball" (Rosemary Joseph Records, 2016)

Collaborations
"'with Janio Abreu'"

 Nuestra Herencia Musical (En Vivo) (2018)
 Juntos Otra Vez (En Vivo) (2020)
 Janio Abreu y Aire de Concierto, Victor Goines & Orquesta de Camara de la Habana  (En Vivo) (2022)

As Sideman
With Wynton Marsalis Septet

 "In This House, On This Morning" (Columbia, 1994)
 "Joe Cool's Blues ("Columbia, 1995)
 "The Marciac Suite" (Columbia, 1999)
 "Standard Time, Vol. 4: Marsalis Plays Monk" (Columbia, 1999)
 "Standard Time Vol. 6:  Mr. Jelly Lord" (Columbia, 1999)
 "Reeltime" (Sony Classical, 1999)
 "Wynton Marsalis:  The London Concert" (Columbia, 2000)
 "Unforgiveable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson" (Blue Note, 2004)
 "The War" (2007)

"'With The Jazz At Lincoln Center Orchestra'"

 Portraits by Ellington (Columbia, 1992)
 "The Fire of the Fundamentals" (Columbia, 1993)
 "They Came to Swing" (Columbia, 1994)
 "Blood on the Fields" (Columbia, 1997)
 "Jump Start and Jazz" (Columbia, 1997)
 "Live in Swing City" (Columbia, 1999)
 Sweet Release & Ghost Story (Columbia, 1999)
 "Big Train" (Columbia/Sony Classical, 1999)
 "All Rise" (Sony Classical, 2002)
 A Love Supreme (Palmetto Records, 2005)
 "Higher Ground: Hurricane Relief Benefit Concert" (Blue Note Records, 2005)
 "Don't Be Afraid…The Music of Charles Mingus "(Palmetto Records, 2005)""
 Congo Square (Jazz at Lincoln Center, 2007)
 "Portraits in Seven Shades" (The Orchard, 2010)
 "Vitoria Suite" (EmArcy Records, 2010)
 "Live in Cuba" (Blue Engine Records, 2015)
 "Big Band Holidays (Blue Engine Records, 2015)"
 "The Abyssinian Mass" (Blue Engine Records, 2016)
 "The Music of John Lewis" (Blue Engine Records, 2017)
 "Handful of Keys" (Blue Engine Records, 2017)
"'With Ruth Brown'"

 "Fine and Mellow" (Fantasy Records, 1992)
 R + B = Ruth Brown (Bullseye Blues, 1997)
 "A Good Day for the Blues" (Bullseye Blues, 1999)

Notes

External links
 Jazz at Lincoln Center Bio
 Northwestern University Faculty Profile

1961 births
African-American saxophonists
Jazz musicians from New Orleans
American jazz saxophonists
American male saxophonists
American jazz clarinetists
Living people
20th-century American saxophonists
21st-century American saxophonists
Florida A&M University faculty
University of New Orleans faculty
Loyola University New Orleans faculty
Xavier University of Louisiana faculty
Northwestern University faculty
Juilliard School faculty
21st-century clarinetists
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
Jazz at Lincoln Center Orchestra members
20th-century African-American musicians
21st-century African-American musicians
Criss Cross Jazz artists

Victor Goines


Welcome to the New Administration was a viral campaign and mixtape launched by Fall Out Boy bass guitarist Pete Wentz on August 18, 2008 to promote what is now known to be the group's fourth studio album, Folie à Deux. The mixtape was made available to stream and download on November 4, 2008, containing snippets and demos from Fall Out Boy as well as various Decaydance artists.

Origins
The campaign started when the website for Decaydance Records was supposedly "hacked" by an organization called "Citizens For Our Betterment". A posted link led to the organization's website which was decorated in the colors of the American flag. Links on the page were met with dead ends, requiring specific IP addresses to access their destinations. A post counter was displayed on the page with the number 59,994. Wentz left clues on his personal blog that the 60,000th would reveal something big. The Decaydance site returned to normal the following day. On August 19, his then-wife, Ashlee Simpson, was seen carrying a pamphlet for the organization, raising suspicion and sparking many rumors online. New posts appeared on the Citizens for Our Betterment web page everyday, many referring to November 4, the same day as the 2008 US presidential election. Also, Wentz posted more clues on his blog. More and more links were opened to the public as well.

On August 24, one such link led to a page saying "FOB - The Return - November Four" in large Stencil font, causing many to believe that Fall Out Boy would release their new album on November 4. Others theorized that this was another one of Wentz's attempts to raise political awareness, as he did by previously holding a rally for then-US Democratic Party presidential candidate, Barack Obama. Also, many Fueled by Ramen bands posted MySpace bulletins that same day with the title "Welcome to the New Administration". Every bulletin contained one word—"ten". Finally, on August 25, 2008, the Citizens for Our Betterment website was redirected to the band's Friends or Enemies page, which displayed an image of a voting booth featuring ballots with the names of several Decaydance artists. By clicking on each individual ballot, there is an audio clip from the respective artist reciting passages from past posts on the Citizens for Our Betterment website. A mixtape was also made available for download called Welcome to the New Administration that included songs from several Decaydance bands and an interlude by Ludacris announcing that Folie à Deux would be released on November 4. The album's release date however, was delayed until December 16, 2008 in the US.

Track listing

References

2008 mixtape albums
Fall Out Boy

Welcome to the New Administration


Eqrem Basha (, ) (born 1948 in Debar, PR Macedonia, FPR Yugoslavia) is among the most respected contemporary writers of Kosovo in recent years. His life and literary production are intimately linked to Kosovo and its capital Pristina, where he has lived and worked since the 1970s.

Career
It was in the early 1970s, during Kosovo's most prominent period, that Eqrem Basha moved to Pristina to study language and literature at the newly created Albanian language university there. He later worked for Pristina television as editor of the drama section, but was fired for political reasons. Basha is the author of eight volumes of innovative verse spanning the years from 1971 to 1995, three volumes of short stories and numerous translations (in particular French literature and drama).

He works at the publishing industry in Pristina. Eqrem Basha is an enigmatic poet. Perplexing, fascinating, and difficult to classify in a literary sense, he succeeds in transmitting a certain mystique to the inquisitive reader. At one moment he seems coolly logical and shows an admirable ability to reason deductively, and the next moment he is overcome by absurd flights of fancy into a surrealistic world where apparently nothing makes any sense. Basha has an urbane view of things and delights in the daily absurdities of life. Nothing could be more foreign to him than the inspiration many of his fellow poets derive from the rich folklore traditions of the northern mountain tribes and verse of social commitment. His verse is light, colloquial and much less declamatory than that of many of his predecessors.

References
Albanian literature from Robert Elsie

Living people
1948 births
Kosovan writers
People from Debar
Kosovan translators
Members of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Kosovo

Eqrem Basha


Lillian Gertrud Asplund (October 21, 1906 – May 6, 2006) was an American secretarial worker who was one of the last three living survivors of the sinking of  on April 15, 1912, and the last living survivor who could recall the disaster.

Early life

Lillian Asplund was born on October 21, 1906, in Worcester, Massachusetts, United States, to Carl and Selma (née Johansson) Asplund, both immigrants from Sweden. Her parents had lived briefly in Missouri prior to settling in Worcester. Lillian had a twin brother, Carl, two older brothers, Filip (born 1898), Clarence (born 1902) and younger brother Felix (born 1909), who was the only other survivor besides her mother and herself.

In 1907, Lillian's family received word that Lillian's paternal grandfather had died back in Sweden. As her father was the executor of his estate, the family made arrangements to return to Sweden to settle the estate of the family farm, located near the village of Alseda in Småland. Lillian, her parents and three brothers sailed from Boston aboard the Cunard Line's Ivernia and arrived in Liverpool on July 4, from where they proceeded to Gothenburg before arriving at Alseda. The family remained at Alseda for over four years while settling matters with the farm and caring for Lillian's grandmother, during which time Selma gave birth to another son, Felix, in March 1909. Lillian's mother would have rather stayed in Sweden, but her father said the children would get a better education back in America and booked passage for his family on the new White Star Line's Titanic.

Aboard Titanic

Lillian, her parents, and four brothers boarded Titanic at Southampton, England, United Kingdom, on April 10, 1912, as third-class passengers. Lillian was five years old at the time and recalled that the ship "was very big, and it had just been painted. I remember not liking the smell of fresh paint."

Selma Asplund recalled that when Titanic struck an iceberg at 11:40 pm on the night of April 14, 1912, the family got to the first class promenade window where Lillian and Felix were loaded into descending lifeboat no. 10 by their father. Despite her mother's wishes to remain with her husband, she eventually was thrown in the boat; Lillian later recalled, "My mother said she would rather stay with him [my father] and go down with the ship. But he said the children should not be alone. She [my mother] got a seat. She had Felix on her lap, and she had me between her knees. I think she thought she could keep me a little warmer that way." Because the boat was nearly full and there was no more room for the other boys, Carl Asplund told his wife, "Go ahead, we will get into one of the other boats." Lillian was haunted by the memory of seeing her father and brothers standing at the rail and seeing her father lead her brothers away, presumably to find another lifeboat. She later said that the ship sinking "looked like a big building going down."

Lillian's father, Carl, and her three brothers, Filip, Clarence and Carl Edgar, all died in the sinking. Lillian, her mother and brother were rescued by , which had arrived at the scene shortly after four o'clock in the morning. Lillian and her brother were loaded into burlap bags and hoisted to the ship's deck. Aboard the Carpathia, Lillian remembered:
A woman took all my clothes off me. My clothes had gotten very dirty and wet in the lifeboat. My mother was trying to find me. She was saying, 'I have a daughter!' Well, she found me. And eventually my clothes were dry, and I put them back on. They took us, the children, to the place where they take people who are sick. Well, not sick, but people who needed a little more attention. The people on the Carpathia were very good to us."
Carpathia arrived in New York City on April 18. Lillian's mother took her and her brother to Worcester shortly thereafter.

In the confusion after the disaster, a Worcester newspaper reported that both Mr. and Mrs. Asplund had been saved, along with Clarence, Lillian and Felix, and that Filip and Carl had drowned. A later report said that Mrs. Asplund and her "two babies" had been taken to a local hospital, and that Mr. Asplund and Clarence were apparently at another location. A final report confirmed that neither Lillian's father nor Clarence were among the survivors. Mr. Asplund's body was recovered by CS Mackay-Bennett. On his corpse was his watch, its hands frozen at 2:19 am, one minute before the ship went down entirely. He was later buried in All Faiths Cemetery in Worcester. As the family's savings and possessions were lost in the disaster, a fundraiser and benefit was held by the city of Worcester which brought in $2,000 ().

Later life

Lillian's mother never recovered from the loss of her husband and three eldest sons and refused to discuss the disaster with anyone, saying that it was simply wrong to do so. Lillian agreed and, for the rest of her life, hardly ever spoke of the disaster. According to her lawyer, when asked about why she refused interviews even when offered money, Lillian stated: "Why do I want money from the Titanic? Look what I lost. A father and three brothers."

Lillian worked secretarial jobs in the Worcester area and retired early to care for her mother. Mrs. Asplund died on April 15, 1964, the 52nd anniversary of the sinking, at the age of 90. Her brother Felix, who never married and with whom Lillian lived, died of pneumonia on March 15, 1983, at the age of 73.

Death

Lillian died in her home in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts, on May 6, 2006, at the age of 99. She was buried at the Old Swedish Cemetery in Worcester, alongside her father, mother, and brother. Her death left Barbara West Dainton and Millvina Dean as the last two living survivors of the Titanic. However, as both women were less than a year old at the time, neither had any recollection of the sinking. With Lillian being the last survivor who remembered the disaster, first-hand accounts of the RMS Titanic passed into history upon her death.

After Lillian's death, the steamship ticket she had held for so many years was sold at auction in 2009. It was a part of documents and items that were posthumously found in a safety deposit box that were connected to the disaster, such as her father's pocket watch that stopped at 2:19 am.

References

External links

 Lillian Gertrud Asplund, 99, Who Survived the Titanic's Sinking, Is Dead
 Recalling the Last Titanic Survivor
 Final American survivor of Titanic disaster dies (includes photo of Asplund)

1906 births
2006 deaths
People from Worcester, Massachusetts
American people of Swedish descent
RMS Titanic survivors
20th-century American people
20th-century American women

Lillian Asplund


Ralph Burton Rogers (November 30, 1909 – November 4, 1997) was an American industrialist, philanthropist and PBS executive, called the "Founding Father of the Public Broadcasting Service."

Biography
He was born on November 30, 1909 in Boston, Massachusetts. He was educated at Boston Latin School and Northeastern University. As a businessman, Rogers worked for or ran many industrial firms, including Cummins Diesel Engine and Indian Motorcycles.

In 1950, he started work with Texas Industries in Dallas and by 1951 he was chairman of the board, president, and chief executive officer of this company. It became a Fortune 500 company with many interests but remains focused on cement production.

Rogers became civically and politically active in the 1960s.  In 1972, he is credited with saving the Public Broadcasting Service during the Nixon Administration. As chairman of PBS (1973-1979) he organized more than 200 independent stations into a national television system. He later co-founded the Children's Television Workshop, and became a significant philanthropist, primarily in the Dallas area.

He died on November 4, 1997.

Awards and honors

 Horatio Alger Award. According to the Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans, the award "symbolizes the Association's values, including personal initiative and perseverance, leadership and commitment to excellence, belief in the free-enterprise system and the importance of higher education, community service, and the vision and determination to achieve a better future."
 1978 Ralph Lowell Award, by which the Corporation for Public Broadcasting "recognizes outstanding contributions and achievements to public television."

See also
 Hartford N. Gunn Jr.

References

External links
 Ralph B. Rogers papers at the University of Maryland libraries

1909 births
1997 deaths
American manufacturing businesspeople
Sesame Workshop people
20th-century American businesspeople
Boston Latin School alumni
Northeastern University alumni
Businesspeople from Boston
PBS people
American chief executives
American chairpersons of corporations
20th-century American philanthropists
Philanthropists from Massachusetts

Ralph B. Rogers


Jacopo Ligozzi (1547–1627) was an Italian painter, illustrator, designer, and miniaturist. His art can be categorized as late-Renaissance and  Mannerist styles.

Biography

Born in Verona, he was the son of the artist Giovanni Ermano Ligozzi, and part of a large family of painters and artisans. After a time in the Habsburg court in Vienna, where he displayed drawings of animal and botanical specimens, he was invited to come to Florence and became one of the court artists for the Medici.

Upon the death of Giorgio Vasari in 1574, he became head of the Accademia e Compagnia delle Arti del Disegno, the officially patronized guild of artists, which was often called to advise on diverse projects. He served Francesco I, Ferdinando I, Cosimo II and Ferdinando II, Grand Dukes of Tuscany. For the Medici, he adorned the Grotto of Thetys in the Colossus of the Apennine.  He was named director of the grand-ducal Galleria dei Lavori, a workshop providing designs for artworks made mainly for export: embroidered textiles and for the newly popular medium of pietre dure, mosaics of semiprecious stones and colored marbles.

He painted frescoes depicting episodes from the life of St. Francis of Assisi for the cloister of the Ognissanti. He also painted a canvas of St. Raymond resuscitating a Child for Santa Maria Novella and Martyrdom of St. Dorothea for the church of the Conventuali at Pescia. His altarpieces depict crowds in staged positions, robbed of emotion; the paintings breathe an academic staleness that is typical of Florentine painting of the age.

In his many pen-and-wash drawings featuring religious, mythological, or heraldic images, Ligozzi demonstrated a greater originality. He is known best for his depictions of fauna and flora, which reflect the nascent scientific pursuits of the Medici. His botanically correct depictions of plants can even include exquisitely observed root systems. Among his accurate depictions of animals is A Marmot with a Branch of Plums (1605). Ligozzi was commissioned to create some of the depictions found in the encyclopedic visual catalogue of the plant collections of Bolognese Ulisse Aldrovandi (kept in the Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe of the Uffizi Gallery). He can be described as the Audubon of late Renaissance Florence. He is also credited with bringing the lusher color-palette of Verona to Florence.

Ligozzi was influential among some subsequent Florentines including Bartolomeo Bimbi. Among his pupils were Donato Mascagni, known as Frate Arsenio, and Mario Balassi. Ligozzi's nephew Bartolommeo Ligozzi was also a painter. In Florence, he worked on some projects with Bernardino Poccetti. Both Agostino Carracci and Andrea Andreani engraved some of his works. He died in Florence.

Sources

John Seabrook, "Annals of Agriculture: Renaissance Pears", The New Yorker, September 5, 2005, p. 105.
Getty Center Biography
National Gallery Art exhibition titled The Flowering of Florence: Botanical art for the Medici

References

External links

Uffizi Gallery site

Mannerist artists
Botanical illustrators
Italian painters of animals
16th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
17th-century Italian painters
1547 births
1627 deaths
Artists from Verona

Jacopo Ligozzi


Dimethylformamide is an organic compound with the formula (CH3)2NC(O)H. Commonly abbreviated as DMF (although this initialism is sometimes used for dimethylfuran, or dimethyl fumarate), this colourless liquid is miscible with water and the majority of organic liquids. DMF is a common solvent for chemical reactions. Dimethylformamide is odorless, but technical-grade or degraded samples often have a fishy smell due to impurity of dimethylamine. Dimethylamine degradation impurities can be removed by sparging samples with an inert gas such as argon or by sonicating the samples under reduced pressure. As its name indicates, it is structurally related to formamide, having two methyl groups in the place of the two hydrogens.  DMF is a polar (hydrophilic) aprotic solvent with a high boiling point. It facilitates reactions that follow polar mechanisms, such as SN2 reactions.

Structure and properties
As for most amides, the spectroscopic evidence indicates partial double bond character for the C-N and C-O bonds. Thus, the infrared spectrum shows a C=O stretching frequency at only 1675 cm−1, whereas a ketone would absorb near 1700 cm−1.

DMF is a classic example of a fluxional molecule.

The ambient temperature 1H NMR spectrum shows two methyl signals, indicative of hindered rotation about the (O)C-N bond. At temperatures near 100 °C, the 500 MHz NMR spectrum of this compound shows only one signal for the methyl groups.

DMF is miscible with water. The vapour pressure at 20 °C is 3.5 hPa. A Henry's law constant of 7.47 × 10−5 hPa m3 mol−1 can be deduced from an experimentally determined equilibrium constant at 25 °C. The partition coefficient log POW is measured to −0.85. Since the density of DMF (0.95 g cm−3 at 20 °C) is similar to that of water, significant flotation or stratification in surface waters in case of accidental losses is not expected.

Reactions
DMF is hydrolyzed by strong acids and bases, especially at elevated temperatures.  With sodium hydroxide, DMF converts to formate and dimethylamine.  DMF undergoes decarbonylation near its boiling point to give dimethylamine.  Distillation is therefore conducted under reduced pressure at lower temperatures.

In one of its main uses in organic synthesis, DMF was a reagent in the Vilsmeier–Haack reaction, which is used to formylate aromatic compounds.  The process involves initial conversion of DMF to a chloroiminium ion, [(CH3)2N=CH(Cl)]+, known as a Vilsmeier reagent, which attacks arenes.

Organolithium compounds and Grignard reagents react with DMF to give aldehydes after hydrolysis in a reaction called Bouveault aldehyde synthesis.

Dimethylformamide forms 1:1 adducts with a variety of Lewis acids such as the soft acid I2, and the hard acid phenol. It is classified as a hard Lewis base and its ECW model base parameters are EB= 2.19 and CB= 1.31. Its relative donor strength toward a series of acids, versus other Lewis bases, can be illustrated by C-B plots.

Production
DMF was first prepared in 1893 by the French chemist Albert Verley (8 January 1867 – 27 November 1959), by distilling a mixture of dimethylamine hydrochloride and potassium formate.

DMF is prepared by combining methyl formate and dimethylamine or by reaction of dimethylamine with carbon monoxide.

Although currently impractical, DMF can be prepared from supercritical carbon dioxide using ruthenium-based catalysts.

Applications
The primary use of DMF is as a solvent with low evaporation rate. DMF is used in the production of acrylic fibers and plastics. It is also used as a solvent in peptide coupling for pharmaceuticals, in the development and production of pesticides, and in the manufacture of adhesives, synthetic leathers, fibers, films, and surface coatings.

It is used as a reagent in the Bouveault aldehyde synthesis and in the Vilsmeier-Haack reaction, another useful method of forming aldehydes.
It is a common solvent in the Heck reaction.
It is also a common catalyst used in the synthesis of acyl halides, in particular the synthesis of acyl chlorides from carboxylic acids using oxalyl or thionyl chloride. The catalytic mechanism entails reversible formation of an imidoyl chloride (also known as the 'Vilsmeier reagent'):

DMF penetrates most plastics and makes them swell. Because of this property DMF is suitable for solid phase peptide synthesis and as a component of paint strippers.
DMF is used as a solvent to recover olefins such as 1,3-butadiene via extractive distillation.
It is also used in the manufacturing of solvent dyes as an important raw material. It is consumed during reaction.
Pure acetylene gas cannot be compressed and stored without the danger of explosion. Industrial acetylene is safely compressed in the presence of dimethylformamide, which forms a safe, concentrated solution. The casing is also filled with agamassan, which renders it safe to transport and use.

As a cheap and common reagent, DMF has many uses in a research laboratory.
DMF is effective at separating and suspending carbon nanotubes, and is recommended by the NIST for use in near infrared spectroscopy of such.
DMF can be utilized as a standard in proton NMR spectroscopy allowing for a quantitative determination of an unknown compound.
In the synthesis of organometallic compounds, it is used as a source of carbon monoxide ligands.
DMF is a common solvent used in electrospinning.
DMF is commonly used in the solvothermal synthesis of metal–organic frameworks.
DMF-d7 in the presence of a catalytic amount of KOt-Bu under microwave heating is a reagent for deuteration of polyaromatic hydrocarbons.

Safety
Reactions including the use of sodium hydride in DMF as a solvent are somewhat hazardous; exothermic decompositions have been reported at temperatures as low as 26 °C. On a laboratory scale any thermal runaway is (usually) quickly noticed and brought under control with an ice bath and this remains a popular combination of reagents. On a pilot plant scale, on the other hand, several accidents have been reported.

Dimethylformamide vapor exposure has shown reduced alcohol tolerance and skin irritation in some cases.

On the 20 of June 2018, the Danish Environmental Protective Agency published an article about the DMF's use in squishies. The density of the compound in the toy resulted in all squishies being removed from the Danish market. All squishies were recommended to be thrown out as household waste.

Toxicity
The acute LD50 (oral, rats and mice) is 2.2–7.55 g/kg. Hazards of DMF have been examined.

References

External links

Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 31: N,N-Dimethylformamide

Formamides
Amide solvents
Hepatotoxins

Dimethylformamide


Pype Hayes Park is one of the larger parks in Birmingham, England. The park is in Erdington Constituency and straddles the boundary between Pype Hayes and Erdington (now Tyburn ward. It covers B72 and B24.  The northern boundary of the park is the traditional boundary between Erdington and Sutton Coldfield.  Pype Hayes Park reaches from the corner where Eachelhurst Road joins Chester Road to a point close to Park Close off Chester Road and in places borders Pitts Farm estate. It also leads to Berwood Farm Road and Welwyndale Road.

The main park entrance is on Chester Road and by that entrance is the lodge where the head gardener lives, like Pype Hayes Hall this is a grade II listed building.  To the left of the main drive to Pype Hayes Hall is a car parking area and further on towards Pype Hayes Hall is a children's play area with swings and other attractions.  Returning to the main drive one can get to the front entrance of Pype Hayes Hall and round there are gardens.  The older gardens have a traditional layout with many fairly straight flower beds and dwarf yew hedges.  To the north of the traditional garden is a modern garden planted for the millennium. A fountain that was the centrepiece of this garden was vandalised and has been left unrepaired for several years.

To the west of the gardens is a fish pond which is also a duck pond with a duck island, many species of water birds can be found there, notably Mallard ducks, Canada geese and frequently a pair of resident mute swan.

By the corner where Chester Road meets Eachelhurst Road is the area where the annual bonfire and Funfair are held on 5 November, fairs are also held there at other times of the year.

To the north of the section above is mown grass with young trees planted in groups and mature trees, later the land starts to slope downwards to a valley where Plants Brook flows, the brook was culverted during the 1960s due to flooding.  Many young trees have been planted in the flattish area round Plants Brook which is near the border of the park.

After World War II  single-storey prefabricated buildings were built round the park between Chester Road and Eachelhurst Road; each prefab had a small garden to the front and another small garden to the rear.  Several decades later these homes were removed, giving a better view of the park and the Manor house but if visitors to the park look closely there is still a level area where the prefabs once stood.

During the 1990s there was a problem with travellers who parked caravans without permission, but this was prevented by erecting metal railings round the part of the perimeter of the park where there are no houses, round the car park, along the main driveway, these railings separate areas where vehicles are permitted from areas where vehicles are not permitted.  There are gates in these railings which are unlocked for permitted vehicles, for example when the funfair arrives.

External links

 Pype Hayes Park, Erdington

Geography of Birmingham, West Midlands
Erdington
History of Birmingham, West Midlands
Parks and open spaces in Birmingham, West Midlands

Pype Hayes Park