David Cyril Geary (born June 7, 1957, in Providence, Rhode Island) is an American cognitive developmental and evolutionary psychologist with interests in mathematical learning and sex differences. He is currently a Curators' Professor and Thomas Jefferson Fellow in the Department of Psychological Sciences and Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Program at the University of Missouri in Columbia, Missouri.

Education
Geary received a BS degree in psychology from Santa Clara University (California) in 1979, and an MS from the clinical child/school psychology program at California State University at Hayward (now East Bay) in 1981.  After completing the MS degree, he worked for the emergency treatment center of the Mental Research Institute in Palo Alto, California, and began the Ph.D. program at the University of California, Riverside, in 1982. His initial interests were in hemispheric laterality and associated sex differences, but focused his dissertation work on mathematical cognition under the direction of Keith Widaman (now at UC, Davis).

Career
After completing his Ph.D. in developmental psychology in 1986, Geary took a one-year position at the University of Texas at El Paso and then moved to the University of Missouri, first at the Rolla campus (1987–1989) and then in Columbia. During this time, he served as chair of the Department of Psychological Sciences (2002–2005) and contributed heavily to the creation of the Ph.D. program in developmental psychology.

Research
Geary's wide-ranging interests are reflected in invited addresses in a variety of departments (anthropology, biology, behavior genetics, computer science, education, government, mathematics, neuroscience, physics, and psychology) and Universities throughout the United States, as well as in Canada, Europe, and East Asia.

Geary's research on mathematics learning, evolutionary psychology, and sex differences has been featured in many popular press outlets, including Discover, Education Week, Forbes, CBS News, and MSNBC among many others.

Geary's research on children's mathematical development resulted in a MERIT award from the National Institutes of Health (NIH). In 2005, the University of Missouri awarded Geary a Curators' Professorship, and the Thomas Jefferson Professorship in 2009. Among other distinctions, he is 2009 co-recipient of the George A. Miller Award for an Outstanding Recent Article on General Psychology for the 2007 Psychological Science in the Public Interest monograph on sex differences in mathematics and science, co-authored with Halpern, Benbow, Gur, Hyde, and Gernsbacher. He is a fellow of the Association for Psychological Science (2005) and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2011).

Geary's research interests are centered on his four books, Children's mathematical development (1994), Male, female (1998, 2010, second edition), Origin of mind (2005), and Evolution of vulnerability (2015); the latter was discussed in an interview with the Guardian. He is also co-author of the 2008 Sex differences: Summarizing more than a century of scientific research, and co-editor with Drs. Berch and Mann Koepke of a five-volume series on mathematical cognition and learning.

His research on mathematical development ranged from mathematical modeling of adults' processing of arithmetic problems;
the effects of aging on these processes;
and cross national and cross generational differences in mathematical abilities.
In this area, he is best known for his research on learning difficulties in mathematics and in 1993 published a theoretical and review article that outlined subtypes of disabilities and helped to organize subsequent research in this area. He currently directs the Missouri Longitudinal Study of Mathematical Learning and Disability.

Geary's research in evolutionary psychology also ranges across a variety of issues, from evolution of the hominid brain to men's hormonal responses while competing against members of their in-group or against an out-group. He has also written extensively on human paternal investment (fatherhood) and the evolution of the human family, and is one of the pioneers in evolutionary developmental psychology and evolutionary educational psychology.

His collaborators include former students, Drew H. Bailey and Benjamin Winegard with research focused in social signaling, among other topics.

Public service

Geary contributed to the 1998 Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools and in 2006 was appointed to the President's National Mathematics Advisory Panel. While serving on the panel, he chaired the learning processes task group. In 2007, he was appointed by President George W. Bush to the National Board of Directors, Institute of Education Sciences (IES), and served through 2010. He is also co-author of Developing effective fractions instruction for kindergarten through 8th grade: A practice guide and an on-line overview of learning disabilities in mathematics for parents and teachers.

Personal life
Geary is married to Yin Xia, an applied economist. He also has a son named Mick Licken.

Selected works
Geary has authored or co-authored and published over 200 articles in academic journals. His h-index according to Google Scholar is 54.

Books

Others

 Geary, D. C. (2005). Folk knowledge and academic learning. In B. J. Ellis & D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.), Origins of the social mind.  (pp. 493–519). New York: Guilford Publications. Full text
 Geary, D. C. (2004). Evolution and cognitive development. In R. Burgess & K. MacDonald (Eds.), Evolutionary perspectives on human development (pp. 99–133). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Full text

References

External links
David C. Geary website
David C. Geary profile at the University of Missouri

1957 births
Living people
Writers from Providence, Rhode Island
21st-century American psychologists
Evolutionary psychologists
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Fellows of the Association for Psychological Science
Missouri University of Science and Technology faculty
20th-century American psychologists

David C. Geary


Asia Media Group Berhad () is a broadcasting, advertising and digital media company in Malaysia. It operates the country's Largest Transit-TV Network. The company provides infotainment and advertising services such as program sponsorships and video advertising using digital electronic displays installed in various indoor and outdoor premises. Asia Media also provides entertainment services, including local news, sports, health, entertainment, and documentary content.

As of April 2012, its network included:
 3,993 screens on board the Malaysian Public Transportation System (Certified by the Malaysian Book of Records)

Asia Media TV

Asia Media TV, better known as AMTV, is Asia Media's flagship channel and is shown on its Transit-TV network. Contents include weekly programs on sales, marketing, technology, regional developments and news. According to Nielsen Research, AMTV has a daily viewership of 1.24 million. AMTV participates in two way conversations that occur within the context of social media and then creates its programming based on what the viewers say they want. A typical digital campaign includes interaction via mobile phones, on-line participation, viral videos, games, polls and sweepstakes.

Broadcasting
Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) awarded three (3) blocks of L-Band Spectrums, i.e. 1452.960, 1454.672 & 1456.384 MHz respectively to Asia Media.
 Asia Media is the first Malaysian company to be awarded digital broadcasting licenses covering both fixed and mobile broadcasting for free-to-air as well as subscription based models. The company opted for DMB-T technology for its mobile TV application.

Recent corporate history

2015
Asia Media Group has acquired DPO Plantations Sdn Bhd as a fully owned subsidiary on 20 January. Subsequently on 10 April, DPO Plantations has entered into an agreement to form a joint-venture company with the local state Government, Sarawak Land Custody Development Authority to cultivate oil palm. Under the agreement, a total of 4,361 hectares (10,776.3 acres) of land will be cultivated with an estimated investment of RM70 million (US$20 million). The market reacts positively with its share price rises 8.33% on the day of the announcement.

2014
In May, Asia Media Group won The BrandLaureate BestBrands Awards 2013-2014: Best Brand in Media - Transit TV Network.

2013
On 4 July, Asia Media proposed renounceable rights issue of up to 752,400,000 new ordinary shares of RM0.10 each on the basis of one rights share for every  existing share held, together with up to 188,100,000 free new warrants. An additional warrant will be issued for every four rights shares subscribed on the entitlement date. The rights issue was completed on 26 September with an acceptance rate of 88% raising RM50 million. Post-issue, the company's market capitalisation stands at RM130 million.  The funds raised are being used to finance the roll-out of live broadcasting across Asia Media's Transit-TV network.

In May, Asia Media Group won The BrandLaureate BestBrands Awards 2012-2013: Best Brand in Media - Transit TV Network. In the 30 March 2013 issue of Focus Malaysia Weekly, Dato' Ricky Wong appeared in the '40 CEOs under 40' list. It is the list of 40 powerful individuals aged 40 and below who are the next generation of movers and shakers of corporate Malaysia. In February 2013, Dato' Ricky Wong was listed in this year's Top 10 ACE Market millionaires by Malaysian Business magazine for the third year in a row. He moves up from number five(5) position to number four(4) in this year's ranking. On 18 February 2013, Bursa Malaysia Securities announced the transfer of the securities of Asia Media Group from the ACE Market to the Main Market of Bursa Malaysia Securities under the "Trading/Services" sector.

Asia Media Group received approval from the Securities Commission for its proposed listing transfer from the ACE Market to the Main Market of Bursa Malaysia. The company's securities were actively traded on 8 January 2013, the day the announcement was made. Its mother share closed 0.5 sen lower at 20 sen, with over 22 million shares traded. Asia Media warrants (AMEDIA-WA) were the most active traded security on Bursa Malaysia, rising seven sen or 1,400 per cent to close at 7.5 sen, with more than 59.5 million shares traded. At the same time, the issue of free warrants has been completed following the listing of and quotation for the 250,800,000 free warrants on the ACE Market of Bursa Malaysia.

2012
In December, Asia Media Group made an announcement regarding the new issue of securities. A total of 250,800,000 bonus shares will be listed and quoted on the ACE Market of Bursa Malaysia with effect from 9.00 a.m. on Monday, 31 December 2012.

In October, Asia Media Group Bhd has proposed a corporate exercise consisting of a bonus issue of 250.80 million new shares and a similar number of free warrants. It said the bonus issue would be on the basis of one bonus share for each share held and also one free warrant for every one share held. "For illustration purposes only, assuming the full exercise of 250.80 million warrants at the indicative exercise price of 51.1 sen, the proceeds to be raised by the company is approximately RM128.16mil," it said.

Asia Media Group fell 4% to close at 82 sen on the news that it was queried by the Bursa Malaysia Securities over unusual market activity in the trading of the company's shares on 8 August 2012.  The company has seen in sharp rise in price and trading volume as it propose a transfer to the Main Market of Bursa Malaysia. Its shares has consistently been one of the most heavily traded stocks on the local bourse despite the company's listing on the secondary market. The stock has returned 227% in the past year. The company said it was unaware of any rumour or report concerning the business and affairs of the group that may account for the sudden rise, except for its recent announcements pertaining to the proposed transfer of its listing to the Main Market of Bursa Malaysia, which is still pending the approval from the relevant authorities.

In May, Asia Media Group won The BrandLaureate BestBrands Awards 2011-2012: Best Brand in Media - Transit TV Network.

In April 2012, Asia Media Group expects its proposed listing transfer to the Main Market of Bursa Malaysia to be completed by the third quarter of this year.
In a filing to Bursa Malaysia on 2 April 2012, the company said it has met the financial criteria for the transfer, having an aggregate audited consolidated net profit of RM28.65 million over the past three financial years to 30 December 2011.

In February 2012, Dato' Ricky Wong, CEO and founder of Asia Media, was again listed in this year's Top 10 ACE Market millionaires list by Malaysian Business magazine in its February 2012 issue. He moves up from number ten(10) position to number five (5) in this year's ranking. Also in the same month, Asia Media Group will seek regulatory approval to move to the Main Market of Bursa Malaysia. Asia Media Group plans to do so by the second quarter of 2012.

2011
In November 2011, Asia Media started testing live television broadcast on 30 buses in Klang Valley. Once the testing has been completed, Asia Media intends to use the technology on all the buses and trains.

In April 2011, Malaysia's Prime Minister, Dato' Sri Najib Razak announces that Asia Media will invest RM500 million in developing the 1st Digital Live Transit-TV Broadcasting infrastructure in Malaysia during the 5th Economic Transformation Programme (ETP) update. This project is expected to generate RM604 million in gross national income and create 400 jobs by 2020.

In March 2011, Dato' Ricky Wong, CEO of Asia Media Group announce its plan to expand its services to Singapore by year-end. Asia Media Group is planning to invest at least RM30 million to expand its digital-TV transit business across the causeway by year-end.  Besides Singapore, Asia Media Group is also interested in venturing to Indonesia next year.

In February 2011, Dato' Ricky Wong, CEO and founder of Asia Media, was listed in this year's Top 10 ACE Market millionaires list by Malaysian Business magazine in its February 2011 issue.

On 11 January 2011, Asia Media Group made a strong debut on the ACE Market opening at 40 sen, up 74% from its offer price of 23 sen. Subsequently, it closed at 28.5 sen, up 24% from its offer price with 40.92 million shares done.

In January 2011, Asia Media Group, the parent company of Asia Media, a digital out-of-home Transit-TV company, saw the public portion of its initial public offering (IPO) oversubscribed by 21.46 times. The company is en route to being listed on the Ace Market of Bursa Malaysia on 11 January 2011.

2010
In December 2010, Asia Media Group, the parent company of Asia Media, is expected to raise RM23 million en route to a listing on the Ace Market of Bursa Malaysia soon.

In September 2010, Dato' Ricky Wong was announced as the top 3 winner in the worldwide JCI - Creative Young Entrepreneur Award 2010.

In August 2010, Asia Media's CEO Dato' Ricky Wong was awarded the Malaysia JCI - Creative Young Entrepreneur Award 2010.

In July 2010,  Asia Media's CEO Dato' Ricky Wong picked up Asia Pacific Entrepreneurship Awards (APEA) 2010 under the category of the Most Promising Entrepreneur Awards.

In April 2010, Asia Media was awarded Three (3) licences from Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC). They are Network Facilities Providers (NFP Individual), Network Services Providers (NSP Individual) and Content Applications Services Providers (CASP Individual) licenses.

In March 2010, Asia Media featured at the ABU Digital Broadcasting Symposium. Minister of Information, Communication and Culture, Y.B. Dato' Seri Utama Dr. Rais Yatim attended the event.

In January 2010, Asia Media won the SME BrandLaureate Award.

2009
September 2009, Asia Media announced plans to be the first company in Malaysia to deploy Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) for Transit-TV. The company's DVB roll-out for Klang Valley is scheduled to be completed by 2010 and extended to Johor Bahru & Penang by 2011.

In September 2009, Asia Media announced plans to start Live Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) in 2010.

August 2009, Asia Media CEO Dato' Ricky Wong was awarded the 2009 Top 10 Creative Young Entrepreneur Award by Malaysia's Junior Chamber International for the second year running.

Asia Media and The Star (Malaysia)'s Largest Daily Circulating newspaper announced a Joint Media Collaboration in August 2009.

July 2009, Asia Media's CEO Dato' Ricky Wong picked up the 8th Asia Pacific International Entrepreneur Excellence Award 2009 under the category of Leadership Excellence.

In June 2009, Asia Media was awarded the SME100: Malaysia's Fast Moving Companies Award.

In February 2009, Asia Media TV Network was officially launched.

2008
In December 2008, Asia Media was awarded The SME Rising Star Award 2008 by SMI Association of Malaysia.

In October 2008, Asia Media won the best start-up company award by MSC Malaysia and AMTV was certified by the Malaysia Book of Records as "The Biggest Transit-TV Network".

September 2008, Installation of Transit-TV completed for 250 Causeway Link buses.

August 2008, Asia Media's CEO Dato' Ricky Wong received the JCI Creative Young Entrepreneur Award 2008 from Malaysia's Junior Chamber International.

June 2008, Asia Media acquired Transit Vision Holdings Sdn Bhd that operates LCD-TV screens in 200 luxury coaches of Konsortium Transnasional Berhad (Plusliner and Nice++ Express Fleets). Transit Vision Holdings Sdn Bhd was subsequently renamed as Transnet Express Sdn Bhd and operates under the brand of Transnet Ex.

May 2008, Asia Media was awarded the concession to operate Transit-TV in 250 Causeway Link stage buses in Johor Bahru owned by Handal Indah Sdn Bhd, the largest bus operator company in Johor and the only Malaysian company serving the Malaysian-Singapore Causeway.

February 2008, Transit-TV installation completed for the entire fleet of 1,050 RapidKL buses.

January 2008, Official launch of Transnet KL Transit-TV at Sime Darby Convention Centre.

2007
Asia Media began operations and in September 2007, Asia Media was awarded the concession in a deal worth RM 200 million (USD $62.5 million) to operate the Transit-TV system in 1,050 RapidKL stage buses, the largest integrated public transport company owned by the Ministry of Finance, Malaysia. In October 2007, Asia Media was awarded MSC status by the Multimedia Development Corporation of Malaysia.

Corporate Social Responsibility Initiatives

Asia Media is regularly involved in community projects and the company's Corporate Social Responsibility initiatives include:
 Crime Prevention Programs – Asia Media with Royal Malaysian Police has infused crime prevention programs that are aimed at informing and educating the public on safety procedures whilst in the home, travelling to and fro from work. Asia Media will also be co-producing programs and bulletins on missing persons and wanted persons and a most wanted list will be periodically released.

In January 2008, details of a local girl – Sharlinie Mohd Nashar – who went missing were flashed on Asia Media Transit-TV screens, with around 12 million commuters a month seeing the alerts.
 Public Announcements - Asia Media also works with several ministries and non-governmental organisations to give free public announcements through Asia Media Transit-TV.
 Airtime Sponsorship of Environmental Conservation Causes – Asia Media collaborates with various non-for-profit organisations to raise awareness and spread the word on environmental conservation via Asia Media Transit-TV screens. Reef Check Malaysia produced a short video-clip that was aired on the buses servicing around Klang Valley in December 2009. Airtime was sponsored by Asia Media in an effort to raise awareness of Coral Reef Conservation.
 Youth Entrepreneurship – Asia Media assist youths by taking part in speaking opportunities, sharing advice, comments and journeys; as well as collaborate with youth organisations to help create initiatives that encourage entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation.

See also
 RoadShow

References

2007 establishments in Malaysia
Mass media companies of Malaysia
Companies listed on Bursa Malaysia
Companies formerly listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
Marketing companies established in 2007
Malaysian companies established in 2007
Television channels and stations established in 2007

Asia Media Group


The Battle of Jutland was the most important naval battle during World War I.

The German fleet was under blockade by the larger Royal Navy of Britain and, for the most part, was kept in its base at Wilhelmshaven. The Battle of Jutland happened when the German Navy, led by Admiral Reinhard Scheer, tried to break out into the open sea. The German fleet consisted of 22 battleships, five battlecruisers, 11 cruisers and 61 torpedo boats. Scheer also had submarines with torpedos, which he arranged outside the main British bases.

The main British bases were in Scotland: the Orkney and Shetland Islands had a huge base at Scapa Flow, and bases on the main island were at Cromarty, on the Moray Firth, and at Rosyth, on the north bank of the Firth of Forth.

The British fleet steamed south-east from their bases and met the German Navy, which was steaming due north. The battle was fought over a wide area at Jutland Bank, west of the Skagerrak, between Norway and Denmark.

Codebooks
Scapa Flow is a long way from the Skagerrak, but the British fleet still knew about of the German ship movements. The British had cracked the German cipher, and when Scheer gave the order to sail, the Admiralty in London gave the Grand Fleet orders to sail from Orkney.p124

That was because the British had gotten hold of three codebooks from wrecked ships. One code, for smaller vessels, was from a German freighter. Another, for diplomatic messages, was taken from a wreck on the bottom of the North Sea. The code for the German High Seas Fleet was from a cruiser that was wrecked in the Baltic. The British did not make the best use of thse sources, but they had in their hands a priceless advantage.

Battle

First skirmish
The first group of British ships to make contact were those from the Firth of Forth, commanded by Vice-Admiral David Beatty. He had six battlecruisers and four fast battleships, which got through the submarine cordon outside the Firth of Forth with no casualties.

Beatty's battlecruiser group met the German battlecruiser force, led by Rear-Admiral Franz Hipper. The German advantage in range-finding, with better optics, was important, but the British cruisers were saved by the arrival of the four battleships. Since the battleships were better in both armor and firepower, Hipper was forced to turn away from the east and the main German force of battleships.

Main forces
Finally, late in the day. the Grand Fleet from Scapa Flow, led by Admiral John Jellicoe, met the main German force of battleships, led by Scheer: "To Scheer's range-takers... the entire arc stretching from the north to the east was a sea of fire".p128 After ten minutes, Scheer signaled a simultaneous turnaway.

Also, 21 torpedos caused Jellico to turn away, and Scheer put 10 miles between the British battleships and himself. As darkness grew, there were a few more encounters until the German fleet managed to make it home. The Germans had sunk more ships, but the balance of power had not changed since since the British still controlled the seas..

References

Battles of World War I

Battle of Jutland


The little ground squirrel (Spermophilus pygmaeus) is a species of rodent in the Sciuridae family. It is found in Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

The Caucasian mountain ground squirrel, Spermophilus musicus, was previously a subspecies, but is now a separate species.

This species is diurnal and lives in grassland, uncultivated ground, field edges and roadside verges. It avoids areas with dense long vegetation. It lives in colonies and builds burrows. It makes permanent burrows for hibernation and reproduction and temporary burrows for shelter. Before hibernation, all exits from the burrow are plugged by soil. In March or April the entrances are opened, the burrows cleaned and new construction starts. It uses mounds on the surface as look-out points.

References

Squirrels
Mammals of Asia
Mammals of Europe

Little ground squirrel


The French Wars of Religion refers to the period of civil war between French Catholics and Protestants (called Huguenots) from 1562 to 1598. Between two and four million people died from violence, famine or disease directly caused by the conflict, and it severely damaged the power of the French monarchy. One of its most notorious episodes was the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572. The fighting ended with a compromise in 1598, when Henry of Navarre, who had converted to Catholicism in 1593, was proclaimed King Henry IV of France and issued the Edict of Nantes, which granted substantial rights and freedoms to the Huguenots. However, Catholics continued to disapprove of Protestants and of Henry, and his assassination in 1610 triggered a fresh round of Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s.

Tensions between the two religions had been building since the 1530s, exacerbating existing regional divisions. The death of Henry II of France in July 1559 initiated a prolonged struggle for power between his widow Catherine de' Medici and powerful nobles. These included a fervently Catholic faction led by the Guise and Montmorency families, and Protestants headed by the House of Condé and Jeanne d'Albret. Both sides received assistance from external powers, with Spain and Savoy supporting the Catholics, and England and the Dutch Republic backing the Protestants.

Moderates, also known as Politiques, hoped to maintain order by centralising power and making concessions to Huguenots, rather than the policies of repression pursued by Henry II and his father Francis I. They were initially supported by Catherine de' Medici, whose January 1562 Edict of Saint-Germain was strongly opposed by the Guise faction and led to an outbreak of widespread fighting in March. She later hardened her stance and backed the 1572 St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in Paris, which resulted in Catholic mobs killing between 5,000 and 30,000 Protestants throughout France.

The wars threatened the authority of the monarchy and the last Valois kings, Catherine's three sons Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III. Their Bourbon successor Henry IV responded by creating a strong central state and extending toleration to Huguenots; the latter policy would last until 1685, when Henry's grandson Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes.

Name and periodisation
Along with "French Wars of Religion" and "Huguenot Wars", the wars have also been variously described as the "Eight Wars of Religion", or simply the "Wars of Religion" (only within France).

The exact number of wars and their respective dates are subject to continued debate by historians: some assert that the Edict of Nantes (13 April 1598) and the Peace of Vervins (2 May 1598) concluded the wars, while the ensuing 1620s Huguenot rebellions lead others to believe the Peace of Alès in 1629 is the actual conclusion. However, the agreed upon beginning of the wars is the Massacre of Wassy in 1562, and the Edict of Nantes at least ended this series of conflicts. During this time, complex diplomatic negotiations and agreements of peace were followed by renewed conflict and power struggles.

American military historians Kiser, Drass & Brustein (1994) maintained the following divisions, periodisations and locations:
 Massacre of Vassy (1562) – Western France
 First War of Religion (1562–63) – Western and Southwestern France
 Second War of Religion (1567–68) – Western and Southwestern France
 Third War of Religion (1568–70) – Western and Southwestern France
 St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572) – Northeastern France
 Fourth War of Religion (1572–73) – Western and Southwestern France
 Fifth War of Religion (1575–76) – Western and Southwestern France
 Sixth War of Religion (1576–77) – Western and Southwestern France
 Seventh War of Religion (1580) – Western and Southwestern France
 Eighth War of Religion (1585–89) – Western and Southwestern France
 Ninth War of Religion (1589–98) – Western and Southwestern France

Both Kohn (2013) and Clodfelter (2017) followed the same counting and periodisation and noted that "War of the Three Henrys" was another name for the Eighth War of Religion, with Kohn adding "Lovers' War" as another name for the Seventh War. In her Michel de Montaigne biography (2014), Elizabeth Guild concurred with this chronology as well, except for dating the Seventh War of Religion to 1579–1580 rather than just 1580. Holt (2005) asserted a rather different periodisation from 1562 to 1629, writing of 'civil wars' rather than wars of religion, dating the Sixth War to March–September 1577, and dating the Eight War from June 1584 (death of Anjou) to April 1598 (Edict of Nantes); finally, although he didn't put a number on it, Holt regarded the 1610–1629 period as 'the last war of religion'.

Background

Introduction of Reformation ideas
Renaissance humanism began during the 14th century in Italy and arrived in France in the early 16th, coinciding with the rise of Protestantism in France. The movement emphasised the importance of ad fontes, or study of original sources, and initially focused on the reconstruction of secular Greek and Latin texts. It later expanded into the reading, study and translation of works by the Church Fathers and the New Testament, with a view to religious renewal and reform. Humanist scholars argued interpretation of the Bible required an ability to read the New Testament and Old Testaments in the original Greek and Hebrew, rather than relying on the 4th century Latin translation known as the "Vulgate Bible".

In 1495, the Venetian Aldus Manutius began using the newly invented printing press to produce small, inexpensive, pocket editions of Greek, Latin, and vernacular literature, making knowledge in all disciplines available for the first time to a wide audience. Cheap pamphlets and broadsides allowed theological and religious ideas to be disseminated at an unprecedented pace. In 1519, John Froben published a collection of works by Martin Luther and noted in his correspondence that 600 copies were being shipped to France and Spain and sold in Paris.

In 1521, a group of reformers including Jacques Lefèvre and Guillaume Briçonnet, recently appointed bishop of Meaux, formed the Circle of Meaux, aiming to improve the quality of preaching and religious life in general. They were joined by François Vatable, an expert in Hebrew,  along with Guillaume Budé, a classicist and Royal librarian. Lefèvre's Fivefold Psalter and his commentary on the Epistle to the Romans emphasised the literal interpretation of the Bible and the centrality of Jesus Christ. Many of the tenets behind Lutheranism first appeared in Luther's lectures, which in turn contained many of the ideas expressed in the works of Lefèvre.

Other members of the Circle included Marguerite de Navarre, sister of Francis I and mother of Jeanne d'Albret, as well as Guillaume Farel, who was exiled to Geneva in 1530 due to his reformist views and persuaded John Calvin to join him there. Both men were banished from Geneva in 1538 for opposing what they viewed as government interference with religious affairs; although the two fell out over the nature of the Eucharist, Calvin's return to Geneva in 1541 allowed him to forge the doctrine of Calvinism.

A key driver behind the Reform movement was corruption among the clergy which Luther and others attacked and sought to change. Such criticisms were not new but the printing press allowed them to be widely shared, such as the Heptameron by Marguerite, a collection of stories about clerical immorality. Another complaint was the reduction of Salvation to a business scheme based on the sale of Indulgences, which added to general unrest and increased the popularity of works such as Farel's translation of the Lord's Prayer, The True and Perfect Prayer. This focused on Sola fide, or the idea salvation was a free gift from God, emphasised the importance of understanding in prayer and criticised the clergy for hampering the growth of true faith.

Growth of Calvinism

The Italian revival of classical learning appealed to Francis I (1494-1547), who set up royal professorships in Paris to better understand ancient literature. However, this did not extend to religion, especially after the 1516 Concordat of Bologna when Pope Leo X increased royal control of the Gallican church, allowing Francis to nominate French clergy and levy taxes on church property. Unlike Germany, the French nobility also generally supported the status quo and existing policies.

Despite his personal opposition, Francis tolerated Luther's ideas when they entered France in the late 1520s, largely because the definition of Catholic orthodoxy was unclear, making it hard to determine precisely what was or was not heresy. He tried to steer a middle course in the developing religious schism,  but in January 1535, Catholic authorities made a definitive ruling by classifying "Lutherans" as heretical Zwinglians. Calvin, originally from Noyon in Picardy, went into exile in 1535 to escape persecution and settled in Basle, where he published the Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1538. This work contained the key principles of Calvinism, which became immensely popular in France and other European countries.

While Lutheranism was widespread within the French commercial class, the rapid growth of Calvinism was driven by the nobility. It is believed to have started when Condé passed through Geneva while returning home from a military campaign and heard a Calvinist sermon. Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre, converted to Calvinism in 1560, possibly due to the influence of Theodore de Beze. Along with Condé and her husband Antoine of Navarre, she and their son Henry of Navarre became Huguenot leaders.

Rise in factionalism
The crown continued efforts to remain neutral in the religious debate until the Affair of the Placards in October 1534, when Protestant radicals put up posters in Paris and other provincial towns that rejected the Catholic doctrine of the "Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist". This allowed Protestantism to be clearly defined as heresy, while Francis was furious at the breach of security which had allowed one of the posters to be placed on the door of his bedchamber. Having been severely criticised for his initial tolerance, he was now encouraged to punish those responsible. On 21 February 1535, a number of those implicated in the Affair were executed in front of Notre-Dame de Paris, an event attended by Francis and members of the Ottoman embassy to France.

The fight against heresy intensified in the 1540s, forcing Protestants to worship in secret. In October 1545, Francis ordered the punishment of Waldensians based in the south-eastern village of Mérindol. A long-standing Proto-Protestantism tradition dating back to the 13th century, the Waldensians had recently affiliated with the Reformed church and became increasingly militant in their activities. In what became known as the Massacre of Mérindol, Provençal troops killed numerous residents and destroyed another 22 to 28 nearby villages, while hundreds of men were forced to become Galley slaves.

Francis I died on 31 March 1547 and was succeeded by his son Henry II, who continued the religious repression pursued by his father in the last years of his reign. His policies were even more severe since he sincerely believed all Protestants were heretics; on 27 June 1551, the Edict of Châteaubriant sharply curtailed their right to worship. Prohibitions were placed upon the distribution of 'heretical' literature, with the property of 'heretics' seizable by the crown.

From his base in Geneva, Calvin provided leadership and organisational structures for the Reformed Church of France. Calvinism proved attractive to people from across the social hierarchy and occupational divides and was highly regionalised, with no coherent pattern of geographical spread. Despite persecution, their numbers and power increased markedly, driven by the conversion to Calvinism of large sections of the nobility. Historians estimate that by the outbreak of war in 1562, there were around two million French Calvinists, including more than half of the nobility, backed by 1,200–1,250 churches. This constituted a substantial threat to the monarchy.

Amboise conspiracy

The death of Henry II in July 1559 created a political vacuum and an internal struggle for power between rival factions, which the 15 year old Francis II lacked the ability to control. Francis, Duke of Guise, whose niece Mary, Queen of Scots, was married to the king, exploited the situation to establish dominance over their rivals, the House of Montmorency.  Within days of the King's accession, the English ambassador reported "the house of Guise ruleth and doth all about the French King".

On 10 March 1560, a group of disaffected nobles led by Jean du Barry, attempted to break the power of the Guise by abducting the young king. Their plans were discovered before being carried out and hundreds of suspected plotters executed, including du Barry.  The Guise suspected Condé of involvement in the plot and he was arrested and sentenced to death before being freed in the political chaos that followed the sudden death of Francis II, adding to the tensions of the period.

In the aftermath of the plot, the term "Huguenot" for France's Protestants came into widespread usage. Shortly afterwards, the first instances of Protestant iconoclasm or the destruction of images and statues in Catholic churches, occurred in Rouen and La Rochelle. This continued throughout 1561 in more than 20 cities and towns, sparking attacks on Protestants by Catholic mobs in Sens, Cahors, Carcassonne, Tours and elsewhere.

Regency of Catherine de' Medici

When Francis II died on 5 December 1560, his mother Catherine de' Medici became regent for her second son, the nine year old Charles IX. With the state financially exhausted by the Italian Wars, Catherine had to preserve the independence of the monarchy from a range of competing factions led by powerful nobles, each of whom controlled what were essentially private armies. To offset the Guise or "Guisard", she agreed a deal in which Antoine of Navarre renounced any claim to the regency in return for Condé's release and the position of Lieutenant-General of France.

Catherine had several options for dealing with "heresy", including continuing Henry's II's failed policy of eradication, an approach backed by Catholic ultras such as François de Tournon, or converting the monarchy to Calvinism, as preferred by de Bèze. A middle path between these two extremes was allowing both religions to be openly practised in France at least temporarily, or the Guisard compromise of scaling back persecution but not permitting toleration. For the moment she held to the Guisard line.

Before his death, Francis II had called the first Estates General held since 1484, which in December 1560 assembled in Orléans to discuss topics which included taxation and religion. It made little progress on the latter, other than agreeing to pardon those convicted of religious offences in the prior year. Since this was clearly unacceptable to Condé and his followers, Catherine bypassed the Estates and enacted conciliatory measures such as the Edict of 19 April 1561 and the Edict of July. This recognised Catholicism as the state religion but confirmed previous measures reducing penalties for "heresy".

The Estates then approved the Colloquy of Poissy, which began its session on 8 September 1561, with the Protestants led by de Bèze and the Catholics by Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine, brother of the Duke of Guise. The two sides initially sought to accommodate Protestant forms of worship within the existing church but this proved impossible. By the time the Colloquy ended on 8 October, it was clear the divide between Catholic and Protestant theology was too wide to be bridged. With their options narrowing, the government attempted to quell escalating disorder in the provinces by passing the Edict of Saint-Germain, which allowed Protestants to worship in public outside towns and in private inside them. On 1 March, Guise family retainers attacked a Calvinist service in Champagne, leading to what became known as the massacre of Vassy. This seemed to confirm Huguenot fears that the Guisards had no intention of compromising and is generally seen as the spark which led to open hostilities between the two religions.

Turn to violence
Guyenne was the epicentre of the turn to religious violence in late 16th-century France. Many explanations have been proffered for the rise of violence. Traditional explanations focus on the influence of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine of Navarre. Other explanations focus on the rise of seigneurialism in the 1550s and see the turn to violence as a response of the peasant class. The murder of the baron of  by a Protestant mob in 1561 is often cited as an example. Recent analyses, on the other hand, have turned the focus on religious explanations. Denis Crouzet fingers the fiery eschatological preaching of the Franciscan Thomas Illyricus, who toured the region in the 1510s and 1520s. Stuart Carroll, however, argues for politicization: "the violence was directly caused by politicized factions and was not the result of a spontaneous intercommunal eruption."

1562–1570

The "first" war (1562–1563)

Although the Huguenots had begun mobilising for war before the Vassy massacre, many claimed that the massacre confirmed claims that they could not rely on the Edict of Saint Germain. In response, a group of nobles led by Condé proclaimed their intention of "liberating" the king from "evil" councillors and seized Orléans on 2 April 1562. This example was quickly followed by Protestant groups around France, who seized and garrisoned Angers, Blois and Tours along the Loire and assaulted Valence in the Rhône River. After capturing Lyon on 30 April, the attackers first sacked, then demolished all Catholic institutions in the city.

Hoping to turn Toulouse over to Condé, local Huguenots seized the Hôtel de ville but met resistance from angry Catholic mobs which resulted in street battles and over 3,000 deaths, mostly Huguenots. On 12 April 1562, there were massacres of Huguenots at Sens, as well as at Tours in July. As the conflict escalated, the Crown revoked the Edict under pressure from the Guise faction.

The major engagements of the war occurred at Rouen, Dreux, and Orléans. At the Siege of Rouen (May–October 1562), the crown regained the city, but Antoine of Navarre died of his wounds. In the Battle of Dreux (December 1562), Condé was captured by the crown, and the constable Montmorency was captured by those opposing the crown. In February 1563, at the Siege of Orléans, Francis, Duke of Guise, was shot and killed by the Huguenot Jean de Poltrot de Méré. As he was killed outside of direct combat, the Guise considered this an assassination on the orders of the duke's enemy, Admiral Coligny. The popular unrest caused by the assassination, coupled with the resistance by the city of Orléans to the siege, led Catherine de' Medici to mediate a truce, resulting in the Edict of Amboise on 19 March 1563.

The "Armed Peace" (1563–1567) and the "second" war (1567–1568)

The Edict of Amboise was generally regarded as unsatisfactory by all concerned, and the Guise faction was particularly opposed to what they saw as dangerous concessions to heretics. The crown tried to re-unite the two factions in its efforts to re-capture Le Havre, which had been occupied by the English in 1562 as part of the Treaty of Hampton Court between its Huguenot leaders and Elizabeth I of England. That July, the French expelled the English. On 17 August 1563, Charles IX was declared of age at the Parlement of Rouen ending the regency of Catherine de Medici. His mother continued to play a principal role in politics, and she joined her son on a Grand Tour of the kingdom between 1564 and 1566, designed to reinstate crown authority. During this time, Jeanne d'Albret met and held talks with Catherine at Mâcon and Nérac.

Reports of iconoclasm in Flanders led Charles IX to lend support to the Catholics there; French Huguenots feared a Catholic re-mobilisation against them. Philip II of Spain's reinforcement of the strategic corridor from Italy north along the Rhine added to these fears, and political discontent grew. After Protestant troops unsuccessfully tried to capture and take control of King Charles IX in the Surprise of Meaux, a number of cities, such as La Rochelle, declared themselves for the Huguenot cause. Protestants attacked and massacred Catholic laymen and clergy the following day in Nîmes, in what became known as the Michelade.

This provoked the second war and its main military engagement, the Battle of Saint-Denis, where the crown's commander-in-chief and lieutenant general, the 74-year-old Anne de Montmorency, died. The war was brief, ending in another truce, the Peace of Longjumeau (March 1568), which was a reiteration of the Peace of Amboise of 1563 and once again granted significant religious freedoms and privileges to Protestants. News of the truce reached Toulouse in April, but such was the antagonism between the two sides that 6,000 Catholics continued their siege of Puylaurens, a notorious Protestant stronghold in the Lauragais, for another week.

The "third" war (1568–1570)
In reaction to the Peace, Catholic confraternities and leagues sprang up across the country in defiance of the law throughout the summer of 1568. Huguenot leaders such as Condé and Coligny fled court in fear for their lives, many of their followers were murdered, and in September, the Edict of Saint-Maur revoked the freedom of Huguenots to worship. In November, William of Orange led an army into France to support his fellow Protestants, but, the army being poorly paid, he accepted the crown's offer of money and free passage to leave the country.

The Huguenots gathered a formidable army under the command of Condé, aided by forces from south-east France, led by Paul de Mouvans, and a contingent of fellow Protestant militias from Germanyincluding 14,000 mercenary reiters led by the Calvinist Duke of Zweibrücken. After the Duke was killed in action, his troops remained under the employ of the Huguenots who had raised a loan from England against the security of Jeanne d'Albret's crown jewels. Much of the Huguenots' financing came from Queen Elizabeth of England, who was likely influenced in the matter by Sir Francis Walsingham. The Catholics were commanded by the Duke d'Anjoulater King Henry IIIand assisted by troops from Spain, the Papal States, and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.

The Protestant army laid siege to several cities in the Poitou and Saintonge regions (to protect La Rochelle), and then Angoulême and Cognac. At the Battle of Jarnac (16 March 1569), the prince of Condé was killed, forcing Admiral de Coligny to take command of the Protestant forces, nominally on behalf of Condé's 16-year-old son, Henry, and the 15
-year-old Henry of Navarre, who were presented by Jeanne d'Albret as the legitimate leaders of the Huguenot cause against royal authority. The Battle of La Roche-l'Abeille was a nominal victory for the Huguenots, but they were unable to seize control of Poitiers and were soundly defeated at the Battle of Moncontour (30 October 1569). Coligny and his troops retreated to the south-west and regrouped with Gabriel, comte de Montgomery, and in spring of 1570, they pillaged Toulouse, cut a path through the south of France, and went up the Rhone valley up to La Charité-sur-Loire. The staggering royal debt and Charles IX's desire to seek a peaceful solution led to the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (8 August 1570), negotiated by Jeanne d'Albret, which once more allowed some concessions to the Huguenots.

St. Bartholomew's Day massacre and the "fourth" war (1572–1573)

With the kingdom once more at peace, the crown began seeking a policy of reconciliation to bring the fractured polity back together. One key part of this was to be a marriage between Navarre the son of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine of Navarre, and Margaret of Valois the king's sister. Albret was hesitant, worried it might lead to the abjuration of her son, and it took until March 1572 for the contract to be signed.

Coligny, who had a price on his head during the third civil war, was restored to favour through the peace, and received lavishly at court in August 1571. He firmly believed that France should invade the Spanish Netherlands to unify the Catholics and Huguenots behind the king. Charles, however, was unwilling to provide more than covert support to this project, not wanting open war with Spain. The council was unanimous in rejecting Coligny's policy and he left court, not finding it welcoming.

In August the wedding was at last held, and all the most powerful Huguenot aristocracy had entered Paris for the occasion. A few days after the wedding, Coligny was shot on his way home from council. The outraged Huguenot nobility demanded justice which the king promised to provide. Catherine, Guise, Anjou, Alba were all variously suspected, though the Huguenot nobility directed their anger primarily at Guise, threatening to kill him in front of the king.

The court, increasingly alarmed at the possibility of Protestant forces marching on the capital, or a new civil war, decided to pre-emptively strike at the Huguenot leadership. On the morning of 24 August, several kill squads were formed, one going out under Guise, which killed Coligny around 4am, leaving his body on the street where it was mutilated by Parisians and thrown into the Seine.

By dawn it was clear the assassinations had not gone according to plan, with militant factions of the population slaughtering their Huguenot neighbours under the claim that 'the king willed it'. For the next five days, the violence continued as Catholics massacred Calvinist men, women, and children and looted their houses. King Charles IX informed ambassadors that he had ordered the assassinations to prevent a Huguenot coup and proclaimed a day of jubilee in celebration even as the killings continued. Over the next few weeks, the disorder spread to more than a dozen cities across France. Historians estimate that 2,000 Huguenots were killed in Paris and thousands more in the provinces; in all, perhaps 10,000 people were killed. Henry of Navarre and his cousin, the young Prince of Condé, managed to avoid death by agreeing to convert to Catholicism. Both repudiated their conversions after they escaped Paris.

The massacre provoked horror and outrage among Protestants throughout Europe, but both Philip II of Spain and Pope Gregory XIII, following the official version that a Huguenot coup had been thwarted, celebrated the outcome. In France, Huguenot opposition to the crown was seriously weakened by the deaths of many of the leaders. Many Huguenots emigrated to Protestant countries. Others reconverted to Catholicism for survival, and the remainder concentrated in a small number of cities where they formed a majority.

The "fourth" war (1572–1573)
The massacres provoked further military action, which included Catholic sieges of the cities of Sommières (by troops led by Henri I de Montmorency), Sancerre, and La Rochelle (by troops led by the duke of Anjou). The end of hostilities was brought on by the election (11–15 May 1573) of the Duke of Anjou to the throne of Poland and by the Edict of Boulogne (signed in July 1573), which severely curtailed many of the rights previously granted to French Protestants. Based on the terms of the treaty, all Huguenots were granted amnesty for their past actions and the freedom of belief. However, they were permitted the freedom to worship only within the three towns of La Rochelle, Montauban, and Nîmes, and even then only within their own residences. Protestant aristocrats with the right of high-justice were permitted to celebrate marriages and baptisms, but only before an assembly limited to ten persons outside of their family.

1574–1580

Death of Charles IX and the "fifth" war (1574–1576)
In the absence of the duke of Anjou, disputes between Charles and his youngest brother, the duke of Alençon, led to many Huguenots congregating around Alençon for patronage and support. A failed coup at Saint-Germain (February 1574), allegedly aiming to release Condé and Navarre who had been held at court since St Bartholemew's, coincided with rather successful Huguenot uprisings in other parts of France such as Lower Normandy, Poitou, and the Rhône valley, which reinitiated hostilities.

Three months after Henry of Anjou's coronation as King of Poland, his brother Charles IX died (May 1574) and his mother declared herself regent until his return. Henry secretly left Poland and returned via Venice to France, where he faced the defection of Montmorency-Damville, ex-commander in the Midi (November 1574). Despite having failed to have established his authority over the Midi, he was crowned King Henry III, at Rheims (February 1575), marrying Louise Vaudémont, a kinswoman of the Guise, the following day. By April, the crown was already seeking to negotiate, and the escape of Alençon from court in September prompted the possibility of an overwhelming coalition of forces against the crown, as John Casimir of the Palatinate invaded Champagne. The crown hastily negotiated a truce of seven months with Alençon and promised Casimir's forces 500,000 livres to stay east of the Rhine, but neither action secured a peace. By May 1576, the crown was forced to accept the terms of Alençon, and the Huguenots who supported him, in the Edict of Beaulieu, known as the Peace of Monsieur.

The Catholic League and the "sixth" war (1576–1577)

The Edict of Beaulieu granted many concessions to the Calvinists, but these were short-lived in the face of the Catholic League – which the ultra-Catholic, Henry I, Duke of Guise, had formed in opposition to it. The House of Guise had long been identified with the defense of the Roman Catholic Church and the Duke of Guise and his relations – the Duke of Mayenne, Duke of Aumale, Duke of Elbeuf, Duke of Mercœur, and the Duke of Lorraine – controlled extensive territories that were loyal to the League. The League also had a large following among the urban middle class.

King Henry III at first tried to co-opt the head of the Catholic League and steer it towards a negotiated settlement. This was anathema to the Guise leaders, who wanted to bankrupt the Huguenots and divide their considerable assets with the King. A test of King Henry III's leadership occurred at the meeting of the Estates-General at Blois in December 1576. At the meeting of the Estates-General, there was only one Huguenot delegate present among all of the three estates; the rest of the delegates were Catholics with the Catholic League heavily represented. Accordingly, the Estates-General pressured Henry III into conducting a war against the Huguenots. In response Henry said he would reopen hostilities with the Huguenots but wanted the Estates-General to vote him the funds to carry out the war. Yet, the Third Estate refused to vote for the necessary taxes to fund this war.

The Estates General of 1576 failed to resolve matters, and by December, the Huguenots had already taken up arms in Poitou and Guyenne. While the Guise faction had the unwavering support of the Spanish Crown, the Huguenots had the advantage of a strong power base in the southwest; they were also discreetly supported by foreign Protestant governments, but in practice, England or the German states could provide few troops in the ensuing conflict. After much posturing and negotiations, Henry III rescinded most of the concessions that had been made to the Protestants in the Edict of Beaulieu with the Treaty of Bergerac (September 1577), confirmed in the Edict of Poitiers passed six days later.

The "seventh" war (1579–1580)
Despite Henry according his youngest brother Francis the title of Duke of Anjou, the prince and his followers continued to create disorder at court through their involvement in the Dutch Revolt. Meanwhile, the regional situation disintegrated into disorder as both Catholics and Protestants armed themselves in 'self defence'. In November 1579, Condé seized the town of La Fère, leading to another round of military action, which was brought to an end by the Treaty of Fleix (November 1580), negotiated by Anjou.

War of the Three Henrys (1585–1589)

Death of Anjou and ensuing succession crisis (1584–1585)
The fragile compromise came to an end in 1584, when the Duke of Anjou, the King's youngest brother and heir presumptive, died. As Henry III had no son, under Salic Law, the next heir to the throne was the Calvinist Prince Henry of Navarre, a descendant of Louis IX. When it became clear that Henry of Navarre would not renounce his Protestantism, the Duke of Guise signed the Treaty of Joinville (31 December 1584) on behalf of the League, with Philip II of Spain, who supplied a considerable annual grant to the League over the following decade to maintain the civil war in France, with the hope of destroying the French Calvinists. Under pressure from the Guise, Henry III reluctantly issued the Treaty of Nemours (7 July 1585) and an edict suppressing Protestantism (18 July 1585) and annulling Henry of Navarre's right to the throne.

Escalation into war (1585)

The situation degenerated into open warfare even without the King having the necessary funds. Henry of Navarre again sought foreign aid from the German princes and Elizabeth I of England. Meanwhile, the solidly Catholic people of Paris, under the influence of the Committee of Sixteen, were becoming dissatisfied with Henry III and his failure to defeat the Calvinists. On 12 May 1588, the Day of the Barricades, a popular uprising raised barricades on the streets of Paris to defend the Duke of Guise against the alleged hostility of the king, and Henry III fled the city. The Committee of Sixteen took complete control of the government, while the Guise protected the surrounding supply lines. The mediation of Catherine de'Medici led to the Edict of Union, in which the crown accepted almost all the League's demands: reaffirming the Treaty of Nemours, recognizing Cardinal de Bourbon as heir, and making Henry of Guise Lieutenant-General.

The Estates-General of Blois and assassination of Henry of Guise (1588)

Refusing to return to Paris, Henry III called for an Estates General to meet at Blois. During the Estates-General, Henry III suspected that the members of the third estate were being manipulated by the League and became convinced that Guise had encouraged the duke of Savoy's invasion of Saluzzo in October 1588. Viewing the House of Guise as a dangerous threat to the power of the Crown, Henry III decided to strike first. On 23 December 1588, at the Château de Blois, Henry of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal de Guise, were lured into a trap by the King's guards. The Duke arrived in the council chamber where his brother the Cardinal waited. The Duke was told that the King wished to see him in the private room adjoining the royal chambers. There guardsmen seized the duke and stabbed him in the heart, while others arrested the Cardinal who later died on the pikes of his escort. To make sure that no contender for the French throne was free to act against him, the King had the Duke's son imprisoned. The Duke of Guise had been highly popular in France, and the Catholic League declared open war against King Henry III. The Sorbonne declared Henri deposed. Henri for his part now joined forces with his cousin, the Huguenot, Henry of Navarre, to war against the League.

The assassination of Henry III (1589)

It thus fell upon the younger brother of the Duke of Guise, the Duke of Mayenne, to lead the Catholic League. The League presses began printing anti-royalist tracts under a variety of pseudonyms, while the Sorbonne proclaimed on 7 January 1589, that it was just and necessary to depose Henry III, and that any private citizen was morally free to commit regicide. In July 1589, in the royal camp at Saint-Cloud, a Dominican friar named Jacques Clément gained an audience with the King and drove a long knife into his spleen. Clément was killed on the spot, taking with him the information of who, if anyone, had hired him. On his deathbed, Henry III called for Henry of Navarre, and begged him, in the name of statecraft, to become a Catholic, citing the brutal warfare that would ensue if he refused. In keeping with Salic Law, he named Henry as his heir. However, many Catholics considered Navarre's Protestantism to be unacceptable. Navarre later declared that he would uphold the Catholic faith without changes.

Henry IV's "conquest of the kingdom" (1589–1593)

The state of affairs in 1589 was that Henry of Navarre, now Henry IV of France, held the south and west, and the Catholic League the north and east. The leadership of the Catholic League had devolved to the Duke de Mayenne, who was appointed Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. He and his troops controlled most of rural Normandy. However, in September 1589, Henry inflicted a severe defeat on the Duke at the Battle of Arques. Henry's army swept through Normandy, taking town after town throughout the winter.

The King knew that he had to take Paris if he stood any chance of ruling all of France. This, however, was no easy task. The Catholic League's presses and supporters continued to spread stories about atrocities committed against Catholic priests and the laity in Protestant England (see Forty Martyrs of England and Wales). The city prepared to fight to the death rather than accept a Calvinist king.

The Battle of Ivry, fought on 14 March 1590, was another decisive victory for Henry against forces led by the Duke of Mayenne. Henry's forces then went on to besiege Paris, but after a long and desperately fought resistance by the Parisians, Henry's siege was lifted by a Spanish army under the command of the Duke of Parma. Then, what had happened at Paris was repeated at Rouen (November 1591 – March 1592).

Parma was subsequently wounded in the hand during the Siege of Caudebec whilst trapped by Henry's army. Having then made a miraculous escape from there, he withdrew into Flanders, but with his health quickly declining, Farnese called his son Ranuccio to command his troops. He was, however, removed from the position of governor by the Spanish court and died in Arras on 3 December. For Henry and the Protestant army at least, Parma was no longer a threat.

War in Brittany

Meanwhile, Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur, whom Henry III had made governor of Brittany in 1582, was endeavouring to make himself independent in that province. A leader of the Catholic League, he invoked the hereditary rights of his wife, Marie de Luxembourg, who was a descendant of the dukes of Brittany and heiress of the Blois-Brosse claim to the duchy as well as Duchess of Penthièvre in Brittany, and organized a government at Nantes. Proclaiming his son "prince and duke of Brittany", he allied with Philip II of Spain, who sought to place his own daughter, infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, on the throne of Brittany. With the aid of the Spanish under Juan del Águila, Mercœur defeated Henry IV's forces under the Duke of Montpensier at the Battle of Craon in 1592, but the royal troops, reinforced by English contingents, soon recovered the advantage; in September 1594, Martin Frobisher and John Norris with eight warships and 4,000 men besieged Fort Crozon, also known as the "Fort of the Lion (El León)" near Brest and captured it on November 7, killing 400 Spaniards including women and children as only 13 survived.

Toward peace (1593–1598)

Conversion

Despite the campaigns between 1590 and 1592, Henry IV was "no closer to capturing Paris". Realising that Henry III had been right and that there was no prospect of a Protestant king succeeding in resolutely Catholic Paris, Henry agreed to convert, reputedly stating "Paris vaut bien une messe" ("Paris is well worth a Mass"). He was formally received into the Catholic Church in 1593, and was crowned at Chartres in 1594 as League members maintained control of the Cathedral of Reims, and, sceptical of Henry's sincerity, continued to oppose him. He was finally received into Paris in March 1594, and 120 League members in the city who refused to submit were banished from the capital. Paris' capitulation encouraged the same of many other towns, while others returned to support the crown after Pope Clement VIII absolved Henry, revoking his excommunication in return for the publishing of the Tridentine Decrees, the restoration of Catholicism in Béarn, and appointing only Catholics to high office. Evidently Henry's conversion worried Protestant nobles, many of whom had, until then, hoped to win not just concessions but a complete reformation of the French Church, and their acceptance of Henry was by no means a foregone conclusion.

War with Spain (1595–1598)
By the end of 1594, certain League members still worked against Henry across the country, but all relied on Spain's support. In January 1595, the king declared war on Spain to show Catholics that Spain was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French stateand to show Protestants that his conversion had not made him a puppet of Spain. Also, he hoped to reconquer large parts of northern France from the Franco-Spanish Catholic forces. The conflict mostly consisted of military action aimed at League members, such as the Battle of Fontaine-Française, though the Spanish launched a concerted offensive in 1595, taking Le Catelet, Doullens and Cambrai (the latter after a fierce bombardment), and in the spring of 1596 capturing Calais by April. Following the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597 the French crown laid siege until its surrender in September. With that victory Henry's concerns then turned to the situation in Brittany where he promulgated the Edict of Nantes and sent Bellièvre and Brulart de Sillery to negotiate a peace with Spain. The war was drawn to an official close after the Edict of Nantes, with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598.

Resolution of the war in Brittany (1598–1599)
In early 1598, the king marched against Mercœur in person, and received his submission at Angers on 20 March 1598. Mercœur subsequently went to exile in Hungary. Mercœur's daughter and heiress was married to the Duke of Vendôme, an illegitimate son of Henry IV.

The Edict of Nantes (1598)

Henry IV was faced with the task of rebuilding a shattered and impoverished kingdom and uniting it under a single authority. Henry and his advisor, the Duke of Sully saw that the essential first step in this was the negotiation of the Edict of Nantes, which  to promote civil unity granted the Huguenots substantial rightsbut rather than being a sign of genuine toleration, was in fact a kind of grudging truce between the religions, with guarantees for both sides. The Edict can be said to mark the end of the Wars of Religion, though its apparent success was not assured at the time of its publication. Indeed, in January 1599, Henry had to visit the parlement in person to have the Edict passed. Religious tensions continued to affect politics for many years to come, though never to the same degree, and Henry IV faced many attempts on his life; the last succeeding in May 1610.

Aftermath

Although the Edict of Nantes concluded the fighting during Henry IV's reign, the political freedoms it granted to the Huguenots (seen by detractors as "a state within the state") became an increasing source of trouble during the 17th century. The damage done to the Huguenots meant a decline from 10% to 8% of the French population. The decision of King Louis XIII to reintroduce Catholicism in a portion of southwestern France prompted a Huguenot revolt. By the Peace of Montpellier in 1622, the fortified Protestant towns were reduced to two: La Rochelle and Montauban. Another war followed, which concluded with the Siege of La Rochelle, in which royal forces led by Cardinal Richelieu blockaded the city for fourteen months. Under the 1629 Peace of La Rochelle, the brevets of the Edict (sections of the treaty that dealt with military and pastoral clauses and were renewable by letters patent) were entirely withdrawn, though Protestants retained their prewar religious freedoms.

Over the remainder of Louis XIII's reign, and especially during the minority of Louis XIV, the implementation of the Edict varied year by year. In 1661 Louis XIV, who was particularly hostile to the Huguenots, started assuming control of his government and began to disregard some of the provisions of the Edict. In 1681, he instituted the policy of dragonnades, to intimidate Huguenot families to convert to Roman Catholicism or emigrate. Finally, in October 1685, Louis issued the Edict of Fontainebleau, which formally revoked the Edict and made the practice of Protestantism illegal in France. The revocation of the Edict had very damaging results for France. While it did not prompt renewed religious warfare, many Protestants chose to leave France rather than convert, with most moving to the Kingdom of England, Brandenburg-Prussia, the Dutch Republic, Switzerland and the Americas.

At the dawn of the 18th century, Protestants remained in significant numbers in the remote Cévennes region of the Massif Central. This population, known as the Camisards, revolted against the government in 1702, leading to fighting that continued intermittently until 1715, after which the Camisards were largely left in peace.

List of events

 17 January 1562: Edict of Saint-Germain, often called the "Edict of January"
 1 March 1562: Massacre of Vassy (Wassy)
 March 1562 – March 1563: usually known as the "First War", ended by the Edict of Amboise
 19 December 1562: Battle of Dreux
 September 1567 – March 1568: usually known as the "Second War", ended by the Peace of Longjumeau
 10 November 1567: Battle of Saint Denis
 7 April 1568: Siege of Puylaurens
 1568–1570: usually known as the "Third War", ended by the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye
 March 1569: Battle of Jarnac
 June 1569: Battle of La Roche-l'Abeille
 October 1569: Battle of Moncontour
 1572: St. Bartholomew's Day massacre
 June 1572: Death of Jeanne d'Albret
 1572–1573: usually known as the "Fourth War", ended by the Edict of Boulogne
 November 1572 – July 1573: Siege of La Rochelle
 May 1573: Henry d'Anjou elected King of Poland
 1574: Death of Charles IX
 1574–1576: usually known as the "Fifth War", ended by the Edict of Beaulieu
 1576: Formation of the first Catholic League in France
 1576–1577: usually known as the "Sixth War", ended by the Treaty of Bergerac (also known as the "Edict of Poitiers")
 1579–1580: usually known as the "Seventh War", ended by the Treaty of Fleix. Sometimes also known as the "Lovers' War"
 June 1584: Death of François, Duke of Anjou, heir presumptive
 December 1584: Treaty of Joinville
 7 July 1585: Treaty of Nemours
 1585: Pope Sixtus V excommunicated Henry of Navarre and Henri, Prince of Condé (1552–1588)
 1585–1598: sometimes known as the "Eighth War". It can be subdivided in three periods:
 1585–1589: usually known as the War of the Three Henrys, sometimes also known as the "Eighth War"
 1585: Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur invaded Poitou, was defeated by Condé in the Battle of Fontenay-le-Comte
 October 1585: Failed Siege of Brouage by Condé
 October 1585: Castle of Angers fell in royalist hands, Condé's army scattered
 January 1586: Henry of Navarre issued pacifist proclamations while rebuilding his army
 February 1586: Condé captured La Rochelle and Oléron
 April 1586: Failed royalist attack on La Rochelle
 Late 1586: Royalist Siege of Marans
 Late 1586: Henry III called on parties to cease hostilities for peace talks, which broke down
 19 August 1587:
 20 October 1587: Battle of Coutras
 26 October 1587: Battle of Vimory
 1587: Battle of Auneau
 12 May 1588: Day of the Barricades. Catholic League seized control of Paris from Henry III, who fled to Chartres
 1588: Henry III's submission to Henry of Guise
 December 1588: Assassination of the Duke Henry of Guise and his brother Cardinal Louis of Guise on the orders of Henry III
 3 April 1589: Henry III and Henry of Navarre signed a truce and an alliance against the Catholic League, and started besieging Paris
 1 August 1589: Assassination of Henry III; by Salic Law, Henry of Navarre formally became king Henry IV of France, but most Catholics initially refused to recognise him as such
 1589–1594: sometimes known as the Succession of Henry IV of France, sometimes also taken together with the 1594–1598 period as the "Ninth War"
 21 September 1589: Battle of Arques
 March 1590: Battle of Ivry,
 7 April – 30 August 1590: Siege of Paris by Henry IV
 9 May 1590: Charles de Bourbon (cardinal), considered the rightful king Charles X of France by the Catholic League, died in Henry IV's custody
 19 September 1590: Spanish general Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma intervened and relieved Paris; this allowed the Dutch Republic to go on the offensive in the Habsburg Netherlands
 March 1591: Pope Gregory XIV excommunicated Henry IV for a second time
 November 1591 – April 1592: Siege of Rouen (1591–1592)
 24 April – 21 May 1592: Siege of Caudebec
 25 July 1593: Henry IV abjured Protestantism and reconverted to Catholicism
 27 February 1594: Henry IV crowned in Chartres
 22 March 1594: Paris surrendered to Henry IV
 1595–1598: sometimes known simply as the "Franco-Spanish War of 1595–1598", sometimes also taken together with the 1589–1594 period as the "Ninth War"
 17 January 1595: Henry IV of France declared war on Philip II of Spain after discovering another Spanish plot to invade France
 June 1595: Battle of Fontaine-Française
 April–September 1597: Siege of Amiens
 April 1598: Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV
 2 May 1598: Peace of Vervins between France and Spain

Epilogue
 1610: Assassination of Henry IV of France
 1621–1629: Huguenot rebellions, sometimes also known as the "Ninth War" or the "Ninth and Tenth Wars"
 October 1685: Edict of Fontainebleau issued by Louis XIV, revoking the Edict of Nantes

See also
 Edict of toleration
 List of wars and disasters by death toll
 Monarchomachs
 Religion in France
 Virtual Museum of Protestantism
 Siege of Paris (1590)
 Catholic League (French)
 Battle of Craon
 Franco-Spanish War

Notes

References

Sources

  New edition, two volumes, New York, 1907.

 De Caprariis, Vittorio (1959). Propaganda e pensiero politico in Francia durante le guerre di religione (1559–1572). Napoli: Società Editrice Italiana.

 Pearson, Hesketh, Henry of Navarre: The King Who Dared (New York: Harper & Rowe, Publishers, 1963).

 Sutherland, N. M. Catherine de Medici and the Ancien Régime. London: Historical Association, 1966. OCLC 1018933.

Historiography

 Frisch, Andrea Forgetting Differences: Tragedy, Historiography, and the French Wars of Religion (Edinburgh University Press, 2015). x + 176 pp. full text online' online review
 Christian Mühling: Die europäische Debatte über den Religionskrieg (1679–1714). Konfessionelle Memoria und internationale Politik im Zeitalter Ludwigs XIV. (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Europäische Geschichte Mainz, 250) Göttingen, Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht, , 2018.

Primary sources

 Salmon, J.H.M., ed. French Wars of Religion, The How Important Were Religious Factors? (1967) short excerpts from primary and secondary sources

External links

 The Wars of Religion, Part I
 The Wars of Religion, Part II
 French Religious Wars
 The Wars of Religion
 The eight wars of religion (1562–1598) in The Virtual Museum of Protestantism

16th century in France
16th-century conflicts
European wars of religion
History of Catholicism in France
History of Protestantism in France
Huguenot history in France
Counter-Reformation
1560s conflicts
1570s conflicts
1580s conflicts
1590s conflicts
1560s in France
1570s in France
1580s in France
1590s in France
16th-century military history of France
Religion-based civil wars

French Wars of Religion


Thore Jederby (October 15, 1913, Stockholm - January 10, 1984, Stockholm) was a Swedish jazz double-bassist, record producer, and radio broadcaster.

Jederby received formal training in music at the Royal Swedish Academy of Music and began playing jazz in the mid-1930s. He played with Arne Hülphers's band from 1934 to 1938, and then with Thore Ehrling's ensemble from 1938 through the end of World War II. He also led his own group, the Swing Swingers, for studio recordings in the mid-1930s, and led smaller ensembles for recording sessions in the 1940s.

Later in his life, Jederby became active in the capturing of the history of Swedish jazz. He was involved in reissues of early Swedish recordings, curated radio shows devoted to Swedish jazz, and participated in a national commission on the history of jazz in Sweden.

References
Erik Kjellberg, "Thore Jederby". The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz. 2nd edition, ed. Barry Kernfeld.

Musicians from Stockholm
Swedish jazz double-bassists
1913 births
1984 deaths
20th-century double-bassists

Thore Jederby


Barbie Wilde is a Canadian-born British actress and writer, perhaps best known for appearing as the Female Cenobite in Hellbound: Hellraiser II (1988) – the second of ten Hellraiser films based on Clive Barker's novella, The Hellbound Heart.

Early life and career
Wilde was born on 21 January 1960 in Canada and raised in the United States, she studied classical mime with Desmond Jones in London and in 1978 joined his company, SILENTS, at that time the largest mime company in Britain. In 1979, along with Robert Pereno, LA Richards, Carole Caplin, Tim Dry and Sean Crawford (Tik and Tok), Miss Wilde formed SHOCK: a rock/mime/burlesque/music troupe.  SHOCK toured with Depeche Mode and Classix Nouveaux in the early 1980s and supported Adam and the Ants at The Venue (London), Ultravox at The Rainbow Theatre (London) and Gary Numan at Wembley Arena (April 1981). SHOCK released two singles with RCA Records: 'Angel Face' and 'Dynamo Beat' produced by Richard James Burgess of Landscape.

In 1986 she robotically mimed with British TV legends Morecambe and Wise in their Christmas TV Special of 1983 and appeared as a robotic mime as part of the duo Technical Glamour on The Sooty Show, the longest running children's TV program in the UK. As well as Hellbound: Hellraiser II, her other film appearances include Death Wish 3 (1985) starring Charles Bronson and Grizzly II: The Predator (1987) starring Charlie Sheen, George Clooney and Laura Dern.

In the 1980s, Miss Wilde wrote and hosted 'The American Hot 100' (Skytrax TV) as well as 'The Morning Show' & 'Supersonic' for Music Box, where she interviewed Jimmy Somerville from Bronski Beat, Roger Taylor of Queen and The Sisters of Mercy. In 1987, Miss Wilde presented a long-running music show for Granada Television called 'Hold Tight', where she interviewed such pop personalities as Cliff Richard, John Lydon (AKA Johnny Rotten of the Sex Pistols), Iggy Pop, The B-52's, Black, Pepsi & Shirlie and Lisa Stansfield. In 1988, she wrote and presented 'The Small Screen', a film review program for the Night Network on London Weekend Television, where she interviewed actor Hugh Grant. In the 1990s, Miss Wilde hosted a live music program, 'The Gig', for London Weekend Television and the movie history program, 'Sprockets' for Sky Digital Television.

Barbie Wilde has also worked as an assistant casting director for the BBC production of The Buddha of Suburbia (1993) and as a casting director for MTV's London production of The Real World (1995).

Writing
Short horror stories by Barbie Wilde include 'Sister Cilice' for the anthology 'Hellbound Hearts' (Pocket Books September 2009), edited by Paul Kane and Marie O'Regan and inspired by Clive Barker's Hellraiser universe; 'U for Uranophobia' for the anthology 'Phobophobia'  (Dark Continents 2011), 'American Mutant: Hands of Dominion' for 'Mutation Nation: Tales of Genetic Mishaps, Monsters, and Madness' (Rainstorm Press 2011) and 'Polyp' for 'The Mammoth Book of Body Horror' (Constable & Robinson 2012).

Barbie Wilde's first dark crime novel, 'The Venus Complex', was published by Comet Press on 1 November 2012. (The cover art for 'The Venus Complex' is by award-winning artist Daniele Serra.) Wilde has been called "...one of the finest purveyors of erotically charged horror fiction around" by Fangoria Magazine, Issue No. 320. And Gabino Iglesias of Horror Talk placed 'The Venus Complex' in his Top Books of 2012, saying: "A novel by a female Cenobite that gives the world a smart, artistic, cynical, cultured serial killer who could give Hannibal Lecter a run for his money. On top of that, this is a poignant, funny, sexually-charged, hardcore critique of popular culture and a deconstruction of relationships, academia, and art."

Sources
Interview with Barbie Wilde for 3:AM Magazine
Interview with Barbie Wilde for Horror News
Interview with Barbie Wilde for That Horror Thing
Interview with Barbie Wilde for Fatally Yours
Reviews for Sister Cilice in All Things Horror, Fatally Yours, Fangoria, SFX Magazine and Darkling Tales
Interview With The Ginger Nuts of Horror
Interview with The Death Rattle
Interview with Gabriel Ricard (Drunk Monkeys Website)
Interview with The Horror Society
Interview with Fangoria's Editor-in-Chief, Chris Alexander
Author's biog on the Comet Press website

External links

The Barbie Wilde Web Site

1960 births
21st-century British novelists
British women singers
British film actresses
British women short story writers
British television actresses
British women novelists
Living people
21st-century British women writers
21st-century British short story writers
Canadian emigrants to the United States

Barbie Wilde


Barin Mazumder (15 February 19213 October 2001) was a Bangladeshi classical musician and educationist.  He was awarded Ekushey Padak in 1983 by the Government of Bangladesh.

Early life
Mazumder was born into a Jamindar family at Radhanagar in Pabna District. His father Nishendra Mazumder was an artist and dramatist. His mother used to play sitar.

To nurture his interest in music his father took him to Kolkata where he first learned music from Vishmadev Chatterjee. The first Raag that he learned was "Raag Bhupali". Two years later when his guru became shonnasi he came back to Pabna, but Mazumder was not satisfied and wanted to go to Lucknow to study music in Maurice Music School. But his uncle who was the patriarch (korta) of the family did not allow him to go. Instead, he brought Ustad Roghurangan Gushwami from Lucknow to teach him music at home. At home, he managed to finish the Maurice College course, but his desire to go to Lucknow made him decide to leave home.

When he reached Lucknow, some Bengali boys helped to take him to the Bengali hotel. At the time, Uday Shankar and Ravi Shankar were also in that hotel. At the college, he met with his friend and fellow musician Chinmoy Lahiri. Lahiri took him to the principal of the Maurice Music School and he was admitted into the third year. Lahiri taught him music beside college classes. Later, Mazumder was attracted o Foiaz Khan and became his novice.

One day when he was in a debate about a topic with Sunil, suddenly Sunil said that Mazumder could not sing. This seemed to be the turning point of his career as he challenged him and said he would become better than him in three months. After that, he continued with his rewaz (musical practice) and soon his song was faster than Sunil's. Then one day as Sunil was in a show he went and performed the Raag of Sunil faster and this made Sunil understand his fault. As he continued to prepare him for music the time of partition came closer. During that time the fees that came from home stopped and he had to struggle hard to even manage the money to return home. He mortgaged his favorite tanpura and returned to Pabna during that very turbulent period.

Career
Majumder came to Dhaka in 1957 and joined as a professor of Classical Music in Bulbul Lalitakala Academy.  In 1963, he decided to establish a college of music with 75 taka. He performed classical music on Bangladesh Television since 1965. He had incorporated Music College into University of Dhaka and served as a Chairman of the Examination Body concerning music of Dhaka University till 1977.

After the partition of India when most of his neighbors had to cross the border, he stayed for the love of his homeland, but the riches and wealth which were made over the generations were mostly looted and hunted by the miscreants. The real admirer of his talent was also nowhere to be seen as he had not had the opportunity. The toughness and loneliness at that time made him frustrated and depressed.

With most of his family property long gone Mazumder had to work hard. He once even bought a camera and related equipment to run a photography business, but soon lost interest and left the business. Fighting with severe frustration and depression, Mazumder had to pass his time only with his favorite hunting. He was really fond of hunting, and according to his wife Ila Mazumder, his story would not be completed if it does not include a lot of things about his hunting.

Personal life
Mazumder was married to Ila Majumder, a classical musician.   They lost their child Modhumita Majumdar died in 1971. They had three sons, Partha Pratim Mojumdar (whom they adopted), Partha Sharothi Mojumdar and Bappa Mazumder.

Awards
 Tamgha-e-Imtiaz (1970)
 Ekushey Padak (1983)
 Shidhu Bhai Memorial Award (1988)
 Rabindra Award (1993)
 Best Performer Award (1995)
 Fellowship of Bangla Academy (1997)
 Janakantha Pioneer Award (1998)
 the Liberation Award (2001)

References

1921 births
2001 deaths
People from Pabna District
Recipients of the Ekushey Padak in arts
Recipients of Tamgha-e-Imtiaz
Honorary Fellows of Bangla Academy
Bengali Hindus
Bangladeshi Hindus

Barin Mazumder


The Red Scare was the fear of communism taking over.

The term is most often used to refer to two periods in the history of the United States, although "Red Scares" also happened in other parts of the world.

The First Red Scare happened after the Bolshevik October Revolution of 1917, that lasted from the late 1910s to the late 1920s. It lead to an increased fear and perceived threat of revolution and political radicalism from national and foreign anarchists and from the American labor movement, which is mainly leftist.

The Second Red Scare happened after the Second World War, during the start of the Cold War, that lasted from the late 1940s to the mid to late 1950s. It led to a fear of national or foreign communist spies infiltrating and taking over U.S. society, institutions and the federal government. The Second Red Scare is known as McCarthyism.

Communism

Red scare