Sleeping with the Enemy is a 1991 American psychological thriller movie. It is based on the novel of the same name. It stars Julia Roberts as Laura Burney, a victim of domestic violence. She moves from Cape Cod, Massachusetts to Cedar Falls, Iowa to escape her violent, controlling husband. This movie was released during February of 1991.

Other websites

1991 crime drama movies
1991 thriller movies
1990s psychological movies
American crime drama movies
American crime thriller movies
American psychological movies
1990s English-language movies
Movies set in Iowa
Movies about domestic violence
Movies based on books
Movies set in Massachusetts
Movies directed by Joseph Ruben
Movies about stalking

Sleeping with the Enemy


Rodney Rooke (born 7 April 1970) is an English former footballer who played in the Football League as a full-back for Colchester United and a number of English non-League clubs.

Career
Born in Orsett, Rooke joined the Colchester United Academy in 1986. During his second apprentice year, he was training with an athletic specialist in order to add extra pace to his skill. He did enough to be retained on a non-contract basis for the 1988–89 season, receiving his debut on 20 December 1988 in a 2–1 win over rivals Southend United in the Associate Members Cup.

Rooke failed to add to his solitary appearance during the season, generally confined to the reserve team. In pre-season for the 1989–90 season during a tour of Scotland, he displaced regular left-back Clive Stafford, impressing enough to earn him a run in the first-team during the opening games of the league season. However, after the defence leaked a number of goals, the inexperienced Rooke was one of the first players to be replaced. He made his final appearance for the club on 7 October 1989 in a heavy 4–0 away defeat to Aldershot. He made a total of four Football League appearances for the U's.

Shortly after the turn of the year, Rooke left Colchester for pastures new, joining neighbours Wivenhoe Town before signing with Chelmsford City, Dagenham, Grays Athletic and Stambridge United until he later made a return to Wivenhoe.

References

1970 births
Living people
People from Orsett
English men's footballers
Men's association football fullbacks
Colchester United F.C. players
Wivenhoe Town F.C. players
Chelmsford City F.C. players
Dagenham F.C. players
Grays Athletic F.C. players
Stambridge United F.C. players
English Football League players
Footballers from Essex

Rodney Rooke


This is a dynamic list of persons who have made major contributions to the (mainstream) development of general relativity, as acknowledged by standard texts on the subject.  Some related lists are mentioned at the bottom of the page.

A
 Peter C. Aichelburg (Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost, generalized symmetries),
 Miguel Alcubierre (numerical relativity, Alcubierre drives),
 Richard L. Arnowitt (ADM formalism),
 Abhay Ashtekar (Ashtekar variables, dynamical horizons)

B

 Robert M L Baker, Jr. (high-frequency gravitational waves),
 James M. Bardeen (Bardeen vacuum, black hole mechanics, gauge-invariant linear perturbations of Friedmann-Lemaître cosmologies),
 Barry Barish (LIGO builder, gravitational-waves observation),
 Robert Bartnik (existence of ADM mass for asymptotically flat vacuums, quasilocal mass),
 Jacob Bekenstein (black hole entropy),
 Vladimir A. Belinsky (BKL conjecture, inverse scattering transform solution generating methods),
 Peter G. Bergmann (constrained Hamiltonian dynamics),
 Bruno Bertotti (Bertotti–Robinson electrovacuum),
 Jiří Bičák (exact solutions of Einstein field equations),
 Heinz Billing (prototype of laser interferometric gravitational-wave detector),
 George David Birkhoff (Birkhoff's theorem),
 Hermann Bondi (gravitational radiation, Bondi radiation chart, Bondi mass–energy–momentum, LTB dust, maverick models),
 William B. Bonnor (Bonnor beam solution),
 Robert H. Boyer (Boyer–Lindquist coordinates),
 Vladimir Braginsky (gravitational-wave detector, quantum nondemolition (QND) measurement)
 Carl H. Brans (Brans–Dicke theory),
 Hubert Bray (Riemannian Penrose inequality),
 Hans Adolph Buchdahl (Buchdahl fluid, Buchdahl theorem),
 Claudio Bunster (BTZ black hole, Surface terms in Hamiltonian formulation),
 William L. Burke (Burke potential, textbook)

C

 Bernard Carr (self-similarity hypothesis, primordial black holes),
 Brandon Carter (no-hair theorem, Carter constant, black-hole mechanics, variational principle for Ernst vacuums),
 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (Chandrasekhar limit, colliding plane waves, quasinormal modes, relativistic stars, monograph),
 Jean Chazy (Chazy-Curzon vacuum),
 Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat (formerly Yvonne Bruhat; local existence and uniqueness of solutions to the vacuum Einstein equations, initial value formulations, textbook),
 Demetrios Christodoulou (naked singularity in LTB dust, stability of Minkowski vacuum),
 Orest Chwolson (gravitational lensing),
 Alejandro Corichi (fundamental contributions to quantum gravity and quantum loop gravity)

D

 Thibault Damour (gravitational radiation),
 Georges Darmois (matching conditions, Darmois vacuum),
 Stanley Deser (ADM initial value formulation, effective field theory),
 Bryce DeWitt (Wheeler–DeWitt equation),
 Robert H. Dicke (Brans–Dicke theory, parametrized post-Newtonian (PPN) formalism, background radiation),
 Paul A.M. Dirac (graviton, monograph),
 Tevian Dray (asymptotic structure, gravitational shock waves),
 Ronald Drever (LIGO, gravitational-wave detectors and observation)

E

 Arthur Stanley Eddington (early treatises, relativistic stars, Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates, role of curvature, parametrized post-Newtonian formalism, popularization of general relativity),
 Jürgen Ehlers (Ehlers vacuum family, symmetries of pp waves, spacetime view of gravitational lensing, Newtonian limit),
 Albert Einstein (creator of general relativity, principle of equivalence, Einstein field equations, gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift, gravitational lensing, gravitational waves, perihelion of Mercury, cosmological constant, Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations, Einstein–Rosen bridge),
 George F. R. Ellis (relativistic cosmological models, classification of curvature singularities, averaging problem in cosmology, gauge-invariant linear perturbations of spatially homogeneous cosmologies, "small universes," monograph, Virbhadra–Ellis lens equation),
 Frederick J. Ernst (Ernst vacuum family, Ernst equation, solution generating methods, Ernst–Wild electrovacuum),
 Loránd Eötvös (Weak Equivalence Principle experiment)

F

 Enrico Fermi (Fermi coordinates, Fermi–Walker transport),
 Richard Feynman (sticky bead argument [as 'Mr. Smith'], supermassive stars, derivation of the Einstein field equations from quantum field theory, Feynman Lectures on Gravitation),
 David Finkelstein (Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates),
 Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock (textbook, harmonic coordinates),
 Robert L. Forward (gravitational-wave detectors),
 William A. Fowler (relativistic stellar models, gravitational collapse),
 Alexander Friedmann (Friedmann cosmological models)

G
 Robert P. Geroch (Geroch group, singularity theorems, GHP formalism),
 Kurt Gödel (Gödel dust solution, closed timelike curves),
 Robert H. Gowdy (Gowdy solutions),
 Marcel Grossmann (taught Einstein the necessary mathematical tools for general relativity),
 Allvar Gullstrand (Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates)

H
 Yusuke Hagihara (Schwarzschild geodesics),
 Mustafa Halilsoy Nutku-Halil solution for colliding waves, On the Nutku—Halil solution for colliding impulsive gravitational waves
 James Hartle (quantum cosmology, textbook),
 Stephen W. Hawking (Hawking-Penrose singularity theorems, Hawking radiation, black-hole thermodynamics, monograph, Gibbons-Hawking-York boundary term),
 Charles W. Hellaby (cosmological models),
 David Hilbert (Hilbert's action principle),
 Banesh Hoffmann (EIH approximation),
 Fred Hoyle (steady-state cosmology),
 Russell Hulse (Hulse–Taylor pulsar)

I
 Leopold Infeld (Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations),
 Richard Isaacson (energy–momentum complex),
 James A. Isenberg (initial value formulations, gluing construction),
 Werner Israel (no-hair theorem, tidal forces around black hole singularities, black hole interiors and mass inflation)

J
 Theodore Jacobson (thermodynamic derivation of Einstein's field equation),
 Jørg Tofte Jebsen (Birkhoff's theorem),
 George Barker Jeffery (Baldwin–Jeffery plane wave),
 Pascual Jordan (Jordan–Brans–Dicke theory)

K

 Niky Kamran (Wave equations in black hole space-times),
 Ronald Kantowski (Kantowski-Sachs fluids),
 Anders Karlhede (Cartan–Karlhede classification),
 Edward Kasner (Kasner dust solution),
 Roy Patrick Kerr (Kerr vacuum, Kerr–Schild metrics, use of Lie groups in relativity, Kerr–Farnsworth ansatz),
 Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov (BKL conjecture),
 William Morris Kinnersley (photon rocket),
 Sergiu Klainerman (global stability of Minkowski vacuum),
 Oskar Klein (Klein fluid, Kaluza–Klein theories),
 Arthur Komar (Komar energy–momentum integrals),
 Erich Kretschmann (Kretschmann invariant),
 Martin Kruskal (Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates for Schwarzschild vacuum),
 Wolfgang Kundt (EK classification of symmetries of pp waves)

L

 Cornelius Lanczos (Lanczos tensor, Lanczos–van Stockum dust),
 Lev D. Landau (Landau–Lifshitz formulation, textbook),
 Georges-Henri Lemaître (cosmological model, LTB dust, Lemaître chart on Schwarzschild vacuum),
 Josef Lense (Lense–Thirring precession),
 Tullio Levi-Civita (static vacuums, C-metric; see also related list below),
 André Lichnerowicz (3+1 formalism, matching conditions, Lichnerowicz equation),
 Evgeny M. Lifshitz (Landau–Lifschitz gravitational energy–momentum complex, BKL conjecture, textbook),
 Alan P. Lightman (problem book),
 Casey Lilly (gravitational wave theory in general relativity)
 Hendrik Lorentz (Hamilton's principle, coordinate-free formulation),
 David Lovelock (Lovelock theory, Lovelock's theorem)

M

 R. G. McLenaghan (CM invariants),
 Reinhard Meinel (Neugebauer–Meinel dust disk solution),
 Hermann Minkowski (Minkowski spacetime),
 Charles W. Misner (mixmaster model, ADM initial value formulation, ADM mass, textbook)
 John Moffat (various classical gravitation theories)
 Vincent Moncrief (global properties of spatially compact dynamical vacuum spacetimes),
 C. Møller (energy–momentum complex),
 Moustafa Mosharafa (relation of radiation, mass and energy)

N
 Gernot Neugebauer (Neugebauer–Meinel dust disk solution),
 Ezra Ted Newman (Newman–Penrose formalism, Kerr–Newman black hole solution, Janis–Newman–Winicour solution, NUT vacuum, RT spacetimes, relation of lensing to Weyl tensor),
 Gunnar Nordström (Reissner–Nordström metric),
 Kenneth Nordtvedt (Nordtvedt effect, PPN formalism),
 Igor D. Novikov (Novikov chart in Schwarzschild vacuum, no-hair theorem, accretion disks around black holes, monograph)
 Yavuz Nutku Nutku-Halil solution for colliding waves, On the Nutku—Halil solution for colliding impulsive gravitational waves

O
 Robert Oppenheimer (gravitational collapse, Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) equation, Oppenheimer–Snyder model),
 Amos Ori (black hole interiors, time machines, radiation reaction, gravitational collapse)

P

 Achilles Papapetrou (chart for Ernst vacuum family, Majumdar–Papapetrou electrovacuums, Dixon–Papapetrou equations),
 Paul Painlevé (Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates),
 Roger Penrose (Hawking–Penrose singularity theorems, Penrose diagrams, techniques from algebraic geometry and differential topology, Penrose limits, cosmic censorship hypotheses, Penrose inequalities, geometry of gravitational plane waves, impulsive waves, Penrose–Khan colliding plane wave, Newman–Penrose formalism, Weyl curvature hypothesis, highly influential monograph),
 Alexei Zinovievich Petrov (Petrov classification of algebraic properties of Weyl curvature tensor),
 Tsvi Piran (gravitational collapse),
 Felix A. E. Pirani (gravitational radiation, Petrov–Pirani classification of algebraic properties of Weyl curvature tensor),
 Jerzy F. Plebański (Plebanski vacuum, Plebanski action),
 Eric Poisson (black hole interiors, mass inflation, post-Newtonian approximation, monographs),
 William H. Press (gravitational-wave astronomy, problem book),
 Frans Pretorius (numerical relativity simulation),
 Richard H. Price (Price's theorem, books)

R
 George Yuri Rainich (Rainich conditions),
 A. K. Raychaudhuri (Raychaudhuri equation),
 Tullio Regge (Regge calculus),
 Hans Reissner (Reissner–Nordström metric),
 Wolfgang Rindler (Rindler chart for Minkowski vacuum),
 Hans Ringström (strong cosmic censorship holds for T3-Gowdy vacuums),
 Howard Percy Robertson (role of curvature, parametrized post-Newtonian formalism, Robertson–Walker metric),
 Ivor Robinson (Bel–Robinson tensor, Bertotti–Robinson electrovacuum),
 Nathan Rosen (Erez–Rosen solution, Einstein–Rosen bridge, Einstein–Rosen gravitational waves),
 Remo Ruffini (particle motion in black holes, textbook)

S

 Rainer K. Sachs (peeling theorem, optical scalars, Kantowski–Sachs fluid solutions, Sachs–Wolfe effect, Bondi–Metzner–Sachs group),
 Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (vacuum fluctuations),
 Alfred Schild (Kerr–Schild metrics, Schild's ladder),
 Leonard Isaac Schiff (PPN formalism, textbook),
 Richard Schoen (positive energy theorem, gravitational shielding),
 Engelbert Schücking (Ozsváth–Schücking plane wave),
 Bernard F. Schutz (gravitational-wave detectors, textbook),
 Karl Schwarzschild (Schwarzschild solution, Schwarzschild radius, Event horizon, Schwarzschild vacuum, Schwarzschild fluid),
 Dennis William Sciama (Einstein–Cartan theory, role in legitimizing black hole concept),
 Roman Ulrich Sexl (Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost),
 Irwin I. Shapiro (Shapiro effect, observational tests),
 Harlow Shapley (rotating cosmologies),
 Willem de Sitter (de Sitter space, de Sitter precession),
 Hartland Snyder (Oppenheimer–Snyder model),
 Hans Stephani (Stephani dust solution, monograph, textbook),
 Willem Jacob van Stockum (Lanczos–van Stockum dust),
 John Lighton Synge (global structure of Schwarzschild vacuum, world function, O'Brien–Synge matching conditions),
 George Szekeres (Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates for Schwarzschild vacuum)

T

 Abraham Haskel Taub (Taub plane symmetric vacuum, Taub–NUT vacuum, vacuum solutions foliated by Bianchi manifolds, relativistic hydrodynamics),
 Joseph Taylor (Hulse–Taylor pulsar),
 Saul Teukolsky (Teukolsky's equations, numerical relativity, problem book),
 Hans Thirring (Lense–Thirring precession effect),
 Kip S. Thorne (relativistic multipoles, relativistic stars, hoop conjecture, membrane paradigm, gravitational-wave detectors, textbook, wormholes),
 Frank J. Tipler (classification of curvature singularities, Tipler cylinder),
 Richard Chase Tolman (Tolman surface brightness test, Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) equation, Tolman dust solutions, LTB dust),
 Andrzej Trautman (RT spacetimes)

U
 William G. Unruh (Unruh radiation)

V
 P. C. Vaidya (Vaidya metric, Vaidya–Patel metric),
 K. S. Virbhadra (Virbhadra–Ellis lens equation Virbhadra–Ellis lens equation, relativistic images , photon surfaces ,  observational test for the weak cosmic censorship hypothesis ),
 George Volkoff (Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation)

W

 Robert M. Wald (textbook, black-hole perturbations, black-hole thermodynamics, electric fields outside a black hole, quantum field theory in curved spacetimes),
 Arthur Geoffrey Walker (Fermi–Walker derivatives, Robertson–Walker metric),
 Mu-Tao Wang (quasilocal mass-energy),
 Joseph Weber (gravitational-wave detectors),
 Rainer Weiss (LIGO, gravitational-waves observation),
 Peter Westervelt (indirect evidence for gravitational waves),
 Hermann Weyl (Weyl vacuums; see also related list below),
 John Archibald Wheeler (coined the terms "black holes" and "wormholes," geometrodynamics, relativistic stars, Zerilli–Wheeler equation, Wheeler–DeWitt equation, textbook),
 Paul S. Wesson (relativistic cosmology, Kaluza–Klein theory)
 Clifford Martin Will (parametrized post-Newtonian formalism, relativistic astrophysics, textbook),
 Edward Witten (positive energy theorem),
 Louis Witten (Witten electrovacuum solutions)

X
 Basilis C. Xanthopoulos (Chandrasekhar–Xanthopoulos colliding plane wave)

Y
 Shing-Tung Yau (positive energy theorem),
 James W. York (initial value formulation, Gibbons–Hawking–York boundary term)

Z
 Vladimir E. Zakharov (inverse scattering transform solution generating method),
 Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich (early evidence for no-hair theorem, early evidence of black-hole radiation, relativistic astrophysics)

Notes

See also

 Contributors to the mathematical background for general relativity
 List of cosmologists
 List of loop quantum gravity researchers
 List of quantum gravity researchers
 Introduction to general relativity
 Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity

Physics-related lists

List of contributors to general relativity


Maggie Grace (born Margaret Grace Denig; September 21, 1983) is an American actress, best known for her roles as Shannon Rutherford on the ABC television series Lost and Kim Mills in the Taken trilogy. She has also appeared on The Twilight Saga as "Irina". Originally from Worthington, Ohio, she went on to earn a Young Artist Award nomination in 2002 with her portrayal of 15-year-old murder victim Martha Moxley in the television movie Murder in Greenwich. In 2004, Grace was cast as Shannon Rutherford in the television series Lost, on which she was a main cast member for the first two seasons, winning a Screen Actors Guild Award shared with the ensemble cast. Leaving the series, Grace was keen to work more prominently in film, she appeared in The Jane Austen Book Club (both 2007), and opposite Liam Neeson as Kim Mills in Taken in 2008. She reprised the role in Taken 2 (2012) and Taken 3 (2015).

She also played the lead role, Alice, in Malice in Wonderland, a modern take on Lewis Carroll's novel Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. Grace reprised the role of Shannon in two more episodes of Lost, including the series finale. In 2013, she appears in the sixth season of Californication. She portrays Faith, a groupie and a muse to the stars, who captures the eye of Hank Moody played by David Duchovny.

References

American television actors
American movie actors
Actors from Ohio
1983 births
Living people

Maggie Grace


Takeshi Hamano (浜野たけし, Hamano Takeshi, April 26, 1949 [age 72]; Shikoku) is a Japanese writer and musician. He became drummer for Yukio Miya (who he left the band after an argument with the music directors) and was about younger than Shin Okamoto, whom he was born on April 20th and lead member of The Jaguars.

Career
Hamano joined the the group as a drummer after Yukio Miya left in April 1968. In 1970, a mischievous fire broke out in his apartment, which caused him to leave the group and retire from the entertainment world.

1949 births
Living people
Japanese musicians

Takeshi Hamano


(, Pôther Pãchali; ) is a 1929 novel written by Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay and was later adapted into a 1955 film of the same name by Satyajit Ray. Considered to be one of the greatest literary works describing rural life,  deals with the life of the Roy family, both in their ancestral village in rural Bengal and later when they move to Varanasi in search of a better life, as well as the anguish and loss they face during their travels.

History
It first appeared as a serial in a Calcutta periodical in 1928 and was published as a book the next year; it was the first published novel written by the author. It was followed in 1932 by a sequel Aparajito, which was adapted into a 1956 film of the same name by Satyajit Ray.

Plot
Horihor Ray, an impoverished Brahmin, lives in the village of Nischindipur. Indir Thakrun, an old widowed woman, who had nobody to look after her, takes shelter in the house of Horihor, to whom she is distantly related. Horihor's wife Shorbojoya, an ill-tempered lady, cannot bear the sight of the old woman. She is therefore given a tumble-down thatched hut to live in. However, Durga, Shorbojoya's six-year-old daughter, is very fond of Indir Thakrun and stays with her for hours to listen to fairy-tales.

After some time, Shorbojoya gives birth to a son. Shorbojoya is jealous of Indir Thakrun as she thinks that Durga is more fond of the old woman than of her mother. Indir Thakrun is mercilessly turned out of the hut for a trifling reason. The helpless old woman implores for shelter in her dying moments but she is heartlessly refused; she passes away in a rice-barn.

Four or five years later, the boy named Apu grows up to be very inquisitive and sensitive to the beauty and mystery of nature. He and his elder sister Durga are always out for some new adventures like roaming through the forests, taking part in indigenous games and plucking flowers and fruits stealthily. Apu is admitted into the village school where many village elders assemble and talk on diverse subjects. Apu is taken by his father to a client's house. It is the first time that Apu gets a glimpse of the outside world which fills his mind with joy and excitement. The village festivity, the fair, and the Jatra performance, all bring variety and thrill to the monotonous flow of village life. Durga, restless yet innocent, dies suddenly, plunging the whole family into grief and leaving her little brother all alone. Horihor leaves home for a long period and struggles desperately to earn a livelihood. After returning home he decides to leave Nischindipur. They pack up and go to the railway station. As the train steams in, they board the train leaving behind Nischindipur forever with its many sweet and sour memories.

Translations
 was translated first to Telugu under the same name by Maddipatla Suri in 1960 and published. It was translated to Sinhalese under the name Mawathe Geethaya (Sinhala) by Chintha Lakshmi Sinhaarachchi and published in 1986. This was immensely popular in Sri Lanka and was followed by the translations of the other two books of the Apu trilogy by the same translator.

 was translated into Malayalam under the name, Pather Panchali - Paathayuday Sangeetham by Mr. M. K. N. Potty, which was first published in April 2009 by Green Books Pvt Ltd., Trichur, Kerala.

An English translation by T.W. Clark and Tarapada Mukherji was published in 1968 by Indiana University Press as part of the UNESCO Collection of Representative Works, and an abridged translation by K. Roy and Margaret Chatterjee followed in 1976.

An adaptation for radio by Tanika Gupta was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 24 February & 3 March 2013 as a "Classic Serial".

References

External links

  (English translation)

1929 novels
Novels set in Varanasi
Novels set in Bengal
20th-century Indian novels
Indian Bengali-language novels
Novels by Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay

Pather Panchali (novel)


Solid Globe is a Dutch progressive trance project by two members Nic Vegter (also involved in writing and producing in "The Classified Project" and "Nickelson") and Raz Nitzan (writer and producer behind "Perpetuous Dreamer" together with Armin van Buuren and Elles de Graaf) . The band took off in 2003 with the hit song "North Pole" which stayed at the top of Dutch dance charts for two consecutive weeks. The project is supported by leading DJs such as Armin van Buuren and Tiësto. "North Pole" was soon followed by "Sahara", which was nominated for Best Dance Song of the Year 2004.

Solid Globe is known for their sophisticated, progressive trance sound, their unique song titles, their contemplative ambient breakdowns, and their distinctive lead synths. Although they have not released a complete album, all of their songs are available on 12' vinyl. All their songs have been released on the Fundamental label.

List of Solid Globe songs (in order of release date):
 "South Pole"
 "North Pole"
 "Sahara"
 "Kalahari"
 "Lost Cities"
 "Found"
 "Black Wood"
 "Crystal Water (Woken)"

External links
 http://www.fundamentalrecordings.com
 https://archive.today/20030319031403/http://www.vitalvinyl.com/
 http://trance.nu/v3/news_show.php?id=1959

Dutch musical groups

Solid Globe


Joel Stanley Engel (born February 4, 1936) is an American electrical engineer who made fundamental contributions to the development of cellular networks.

Born in New York City, he obtained a B.Sc. in engineering at City College of New York (1957).  While working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the research staff at Draper Laboratory on inertial guidance and stabilization systems, he also obtained an M.Sc. in electrical engineering (1959). He then moved to New Jersey and worked for Bell Labs most of his active research career (1959–83), and also earned a Ph.D. from Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn on a thesis on data transmission over telephone lines (1964).

He then worked at Bellcomm on guidance systems for the Apollo Program (1965) and at Page Communications Engineers in Washington, D.C. (1965–67) before returning to Bell Labs where he joined the mobile phone system research group. He also lectured at Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. After the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) opened up new frequencies (1968), his engineering team developed the architecture for cellular network and its parametrization (1971), which was the basis for Advanced Mobile Phone System, eventually commercialized (1983).

After a rotation at AT&T (1973–75), Engel returned to Bell Labs as a Department Head with responsibilities for a broad range of projects.

Engel later joined Satellite Business Systems (1983–86) as VP of engineering, and became VP of research and development at MCI Communications (1986–87), when MCI acquired SBS.

He was VP of technology and Chief Technology Officer at Ameritech (1987–97).

Engel was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1996 for contributions to the theory and design of cellular telecommunications systems.

Awards
IEEE Fellow 1980 (life fellow) for contribution to the concept and to the implementation of spectrally efficient, cellular mobile telephone systems.
IEEE Alexander Micah Graham Bell Medal 1987 With Richard H. Frenkiel and William C. Jakes Nurse, Jr.
National Medal of Technology 1994 With Richard H. Frenkiel
National Academy of Engineering 1996
Charles Stark Draper Prize 2013

References

External links

 IEEE Biography of Joel S. Engel

Scientists at Bell Labs
American electrical engineers
City College of New York alumni
MIT School of Engineering alumni
Polytechnic Institute of New York University alumni
Polytechnic Institute of New York University faculty
National Medal of Technology recipients
Draper Prize winners
Fellow Members of the IEEE
1936 births
Scientists from New York City
Living people
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
American chief technology officers

Joel S. Engel


The freshwater fish of tropical South and Central America, represent one of the most diverse and extreme aquatic ecosystems on Earth, with more than 5,600 species, representing about 10% all living vertebrate species.  The exceptional diversity of species, adaptations, and life histories observed in the Neotropical ichthyofauna has been the focus of numerous books and scientific papers, especially the wonderfully complex aquatic ecosystems of the Amazon Basin and adjacent river basins (e.g., Goulding and Smith, 1996; Araujo-Lima and Goulding, 1997; Barthem and Goulding, 1997; Barthem, 2003; Goulding et al., 2003).  Many of the advances in Neotropical ichthyology have been summarized in three edited volumes: Malabarba et al. (1998); Reis et al. (2003);  Albert and Reis (2011).

Habitat
The Neotropical ichthyofauna extends throughout the continental waters of Central and South America, from south of the Mesa Central in southern Mexico (~ 16° N) to the La Plata estuary in northern Argentina (~ 34° S). The fishes of this region are largely restricted to the humid tropical portions of the Neotropical realm as circumscribed by Sclater (1858) and Wallace (1876), being excluded from the arid Pacific slopes of Peru and northern Chile, and the boreal regions of the Southern Cone in Chile and Argentina (Arratia, 1997; Dyer, 2000). The vast Neotropical ichthyofaunal region extends over more than 17 million square km of moist tropical lowland forests, seasonally flooded wetlands and savannahs, and also several arid peripheral regions (e.g., Northwest Venezuela; Northeast Brazil; Chaco of Paraguay, Argentina and Bolivia). At the core of this system lies Amazonia, the greatest interconnected freshwater fluvial system on the planet. This system includes the drainages of the Amazon Basin itself, and of two large adjacent regions, the Orinoco Basin and the Guiana Shield. The Amazon river is by any measure the largest in the world, discharging about 16% of the world's flowing freshwater into the Atlantic (Goulding et al., 2003b).

References

External Links
Information About All Fishes

Fish by habitat
Aquatic ecology
Ichthyology

Neotropical fish


The Treaty of Warsaw (, ) was a treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the People's Republic of Poland. It was signed by Chancellor Willy Brandt and Prime Minister Józef Cyrankiewicz at the Presidential Palace on 7 December 1970, and it was ratified by the West German Bundestag on 17 May 1972.

In the treaty, both sides committed themselves to nonviolence and accepted the existing border—the Oder-Neisse line, imposed on Germany by the Soviet Union in 1945 following the end of World War II. This had been a quite sensitive topic since then, as Poland was concerned that a German government might seek to reclaim some of the former eastern territories. From the Polish perspective, the transfer of these regions was considered to be a compensation for the former Polish territory east of the Curzon Line ("Kresy"), which had been annexed by the Soviet Union in 1939.

In West Germany, Brandt was heavily criticised by the conservative CDU/CSU opposition, who marked his policy as a betrayal of national interests. At the time the treaty was signed, West German commentators sought to maintain that this could not be a final settlement of the Polish border issue, because Article IV of this treaty stated that previous treaties like the Potsdam Agreement were not superseded by this latest agreement; so it might be argued that the provisions of this treaty could be changed by a final peace treaty between Germany and the Allies of World War II—as provided for in the Potsdam Agreement.

The Treaty of Warsaw was an important element of the Ostpolitik, put forward by Chancellor Brandt and supported by his ruling Social Democratic Party of Germany. In the aftermath of the 1990 Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, the Oder-Neisse line was reaffirmed without any reservation with the German-Polish Border Treaty, signed on 14 November 1990 by re-united Germany and Poland.

See also
 Treaty of Zgorzelec
 Warschauer Kniefall

References

External links

 (PDF file, )

1970 in Germany
1970 in Poland
1970s in Warsaw
Germany–Poland border
Germany–Poland relations
Treaties concluded in 1970
Treaties entered into force in 1972
Boundary treaties
Treaties of West Germany
Treaties of the Polish People's Republic
December 1970 events in Europe
Willy Brandt

Treaty of Warsaw (1970)


Mackenzy Bernadeau (born January 3, 1986) is a former American football guard. He was drafted with the 250th pick by the Carolina Panthers in the seventh round of the 2008 NFL Draft. He played college football at Bentley University.

Early years
Bernadeau attended Plympton Elementary School and  Waltham High School, where he practiced football, basketball and track.

He accepted a football scholarship from Bentley University in his hometown of Waltham, Massachusetts, where he was named the starting left tackle as a freshman. He was switched to the left guard position midway through his junior year. He started 37 straight games (25 at left tackle and 12 at left guard), before suffering a torn meniscus on his left knee during the sixth game of his senior season. He is the second Bentley player to ever be drafted and the only one to make an NFL roster. He majored in management.

In 2016, he was inducted into the Northeast-10 Conference Hall of Fame.

Professional career

Carolina Panthers
Bernadeau was selected in the seventh round (250th overall) of the 2008 NFL Draft. He was the first Northeast-10 Conference player ever drafted in the NFL. In 2009, he appeared in all 16 games, starting at left guard during the last 7 games, after left tackle Jordan Gross was lost for the season with an injury and Travelle Wharton was forced to move from guard to tackle.

His best season with the Panthers came the next year, when he started 12 games (5 at right guard and the last seven at left guard). In 2011, he lost his starting position to Wharton, playing in 15 games with one start at left guard.

Dallas Cowboys
On March 14, 2012, Bernadeau signed with the Dallas Cowboys as a free agent. After having hip and knee surgery in the offseason, his level of play suffered, even though he started 16 games (including his first two career starts at center) for the first time in his career.

The next year, he had another offseason surgery, this time in his right shoulder. After starting the first game of the 2013 season, the Cowboys signed former Pro Bowler Brian Waters to start in place of Bernadeau and improve the level of play on the offensive line. After Waters was lost for the season with a triceps injury in the eighth game, Bernadeau regained his starter role and went on to play his best football as a Cowboy.

Looking to improve the guard position, the team selected Zack Martin (named All-Pro as a rookie) in the first round of the 2014 NFL Draft and moved Bernadeau to compete for the left guard position, which eventually went to Ronald Leary. He only started one game in place of an injured Leary and remained as a backup for the rest of the season.

In 2015, he was used as a versatile backup that could play any of the interior positions of the offensive line, including center. He started in the second game of the season against the Philadelphia Eagles, replacing an injured Ronald Leary at left guard. He saw limited action until the last game of the season against the Washington Redskins, when he replaced an injured Leary in the third quarter.

Jacksonville Jaguars
On March 11, 2016, Bernadeau signed a two-year contract with the Jacksonville Jaguars. Although he began training camp as the starter at left guard, he was passed on the depth chart by Chris Reed and Patrick Omameh and was relegated to third-string center duties. He was released on September 3.

Personal life
Bernadeau is one of six siblings. Bernadeau enjoys karaoke as he is a world recognized champion in the activity. Competing in Berlin in 2012 and Montreal in 2013 Bernadeau took home gold in both events. He credits his mother for giving him his sweet sounding voice.

References

External links

Dallas Cowboys bio
Northeast-10 Hall of Fame bio

1986 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Waltham, Massachusetts
Players of American football from Middlesex County, Massachusetts
American football offensive guards
American sportspeople of Haitian descent
Bentley Falcons football players
Carolina Panthers players
Dallas Cowboys players
Jacksonville Jaguars players
Waltham High School alumni

Mackenzy Bernadeau


Amniotes are animals belonging to the clade Amniota, a large group of tetrapod vertebrates that comprises the vast majority of living terrestrial vertebrates. Amniotes evolved from amphibian ancestors during the Carboniferous period and further diverged into two groups, namely the sauropsids (including all reptiles and birds) and synapsids (including mammals and extinct ancestors like "pelycosaurs" and therapsids). They are distinguished from the other living tetrapod clade — the lissamphibians (frogs/toads, salamanders, newts and caecilians) — by the development of three extraembryonic membranes (amnion for embryonic protection, chorion for gas exchange, and allantois for metabolic waste disposal or storage), thicker and keratinized skin, and costal respiration (breathing by expanding/constricting the rib cage).

All three main amniote features listed above, namely the presence of an amniotic buffer, water-impermeable cutes and a robust air-breathing respiratory system, are very important for living on land as true terrestrial animals — the ability to survive and procreate in locations away from water bodies, better homeostasis in drier environments, and more efficient non-aquatic gas exchange to power terrestrial locomotions, although they might still require regular access to drinking water for rehydration like the semiaquatic amphibians do. Because the amnion and the fluid it secretes shields the embryo from environmental fluctuations, amniotes can reproduce on dry land by either laying shelled eggs (reptiles, birds and monotremes) or nurturing fertilized eggs within the mother (marsupial and placental mammals), unlike anamniotes (fish and amphibians) that have to spawn in or closely adjacent to aquatic environments. Additional unique features are the presence of adrenocortical and chromaffin tissues as a discrete pair of glands near their kidneys, which are more complex, the presence of an astragalus for better extremity range of motion, and the complete loss of metamorphosis (which includes an egg and aquatic larval stage), gill and skin breathing, and any lateral line system.

The first amniotes, referred to as "basal amniotes", resembled small lizards and evolved from semiaquatic reptiliomorphs about 312 million years ago during the Carboniferous period. After the Carboniferous rainforest collapse, amniotes spread around Earth's land and became the dominant land vertebrates, and soon diverged into the synapsids and sauropsids, whose lineages both still persist today. The oldest known fossil synapsid is Protoclepsydrops from about 312 million years ago, while the oldest known sauropsid are probably Hylonomus and Paleothyris in the order Captorhinida, from the Middle Pennsylvanian epoch (c. 306–312 million years ago). Older sources, particularly before the 20th century, may refer to amniotes as "higher vertebrates" and anamniotes as "lower vertebrates", based on the antiquated idea of the evolutionary great chain of being.

Etymology
The term amniote comes from the amnion, which derives from Greek ἀμνίον (amnion), which denoted the membrane that surrounds a fetus. The term originally described a bowl in which the blood of sacrificed animals was caught, and derived from ἀμνός (amnos), meaning "lamb".

Description

Zoologists characterize amniotes in part by embryonic development that includes the formation of several extensive membranes, the amnion, chorion, and allantois. Amniotes develop directly into a (typically) terrestrial form with limbs and a thick stratified epithelium (rather than first entering a feeding larval tadpole stage followed by metamorphosis, as amphibians do). In amniotes, the transition from a two-layered periderm to a cornified epithelium is triggered by thyroid hormone during embryonic development, rather than by metamorphosis. The unique embryonic features of amniotes may reflect specializations for eggs to survive drier environments; or the increase in size and yolk content of eggs may have permitted, and coevolved with, direct development of the embryo to a large size.

Adaptation for terrestrial living
Features of amniotes evolved for survival on land include a sturdy but porous leathery or hard eggshell and an allantois that facilitates respiration while providing a reservoir for disposal of wastes. Their kidneys (metanephros) and large intestines are also well-suited to water retention. Most mammals do not lay eggs, but corresponding structures develop inside the placenta.

The ancestors of true amniotes, such as Casineria kiddi, which lived about 340 million years ago, evolved from amphibian reptiliomorphs and resembled small lizards. At the late Devonian mass extinction (360 million years ago), all known tetrapods were essentially aquatic and fish-like. Because the reptiliomorphs were already established 20 million years later when all their fishlike relatives were extinct, it appears they separated from the other tetrapods somewhere during Romer's gap, when the adult tetrapods became fully terrestrial (some forms would later become secondarily aquatic). The modest-sized ancestors of the amniotes laid their eggs in moist places, such as depressions under fallen logs or other suitable places in the Carboniferous swamps and forests; and dry conditions probably do not account for the emergence of the soft shell. Indeed, many modern-day amniotes require moisture to keep their eggs from desiccating. Although some modern amphibians lay eggs on land, all amphibians lack advanced traits like an amnion.

The amniotic egg formed through a series of evolutionary steps. After internal fertilization and the habit of laying eggs in terrestrial environments became a reproduction strategy amongst the amniote ancestors, the next major breakthrough appears to have involved a gradual replacement of the gelatinous coating covering the amphibian egg with a fibrous shell membrane. This allowed the egg to increase both its size and in the rate of gas exchange, permitting a larger, metabolically more active embryo to reach full development before hatching. Further developments, like extraembryonic membranes (amnion, chorion, and allantois) and a calcified shell, were not essential and probably evolved later. It has been suggested that shelled terrestrial eggs without extraembryonic membranes could still not have been more than about 1 cm (0.4-inch) in diameter because of diffusion problems, like the inability to get rid of carbon dioxide if the egg was larger. The combination of small eggs and the absence of a larval stage, where posthatching growth occurs in anamniotic tetrapods before turning into juveniles, would limit the size of the adults. This is supported by the fact that extant squamate species that lay eggs less than 1 cm in diameter have adults whose snout-vent length is less than 10 cm. The only way for the eggs to increase in size would be to develop new internal structures specialized for respiration and for waste products. As this happened, it would also affect how much the juveniles could grow before they reached adulthood.

A similar pattern can be seen in modern amphibians. Frogs that have evolved terrestrial reproduction and direct development have both smaller adults and fewer and larger eggs compared to their relatives that still reproduce in water.

The egg membranes
Fish and amphibian eggs have only one inner membrane, the embryonic membrane. Evolution of the amniote egg required increased exchange of gases and wastes between the embryo and the atmosphere. Structures to permit these traits allowed further adaption that increased the feasible size of amniote eggs and enabled breeding in progressively drier habitats. The increased size of eggs permitted increase in size of offspring and consequently of adults. Further growth for the latter, however, was limited by their position in the terrestrial food-chain, which was restricted to level three and below, with only invertebrates occupying level two. Amniotes would eventually experience adaptive radiations when some species evolved the ability to digest plants and new ecological niches opened up, permitting larger body-size for herbivores, omnivores and predators.

Amniote traits
While the early amniotes resembled their amphibian ancestors in many respects, a key difference was the lack of an otic notch at the back margin of the skull roof. In their ancestors, this notch held a spiracle, an unnecessary structure in an animal without an aquatic larval stage. There are three main lines of amniotes, which may be distinguished by the structure of the skull and in particular the number of temporal fenestrae (openings) behind each eye. In anapsids, the ancestral condition, there are none, in synapsids (mammals and their extinct relatives) there is one, and most diapsids (including birds, crocodilians, squamates, and tuataras), have two. Turtles were traditionally classified as anapsids because they lack fenestrae, but molecular testing firmly places them in the diapsid line of descent – they therefore secondarily lost their fenestrae.

Post-cranial remains of amniotes can be identified from their Labyrinthodont ancestors by their having at least two pairs of sacral ribs, a sternum in the pectoral girdle (some amniotes have lost it) and an astragalus bone in the ankle.

Definition and classification
Amniota was first formally described by the embryologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866 on the presence of the amnion, hence the name. A problem with this definition is that the trait (apomorphy) in question does not fossilize, and the status of fossil forms has to be inferred from other traits.

Traditional classification
Classifications of the amniotes have traditionally recognised three classes based on major traits and physiology:

 Class Reptilia (reptiles)
 Subclass Anapsida ("proto-reptiles", possibly including turtles)
 Subclass Diapsida (majority of reptiles, progenitors of birds)
 Subclass Euryapsida (plesiosaurs, placodonts, and ichthyosaurs)
 Subclass Synapsida (stem or proto-mammals, progenitors of mammals)
 Class Aves (birds)
 Subclass Archaeornithes (reptile-like birds, progenitors of all other birds)
 Subclass Enantiornithes (early birds with an alternative shoulder joint)
 Subclass Hesperornithes (toothed aquatic flightless birds)
 Subclass Ichthyornithes (toothed, but otherwise modern birds)
 Subclass Neornithes (all living birds)
 Class Mammalia (mammals)
 Subclass Prototheria (Monotremata, egg-laying mammals)
 Subclass Theria (metatheria (such as marsupials) and eutheria (such as placental mammals))

This rather orderly scheme is the one most commonly found in popular and basic scientific works. It has come under critique from cladistics, as the class Reptilia is paraphyletic—it has given rise to two other classes not included in Reptilia.

Most species described as microsaurs, formerly grouped in the extinct and prehistoric amphibian group lepospondyls, has been placed in the newer clade Recumbirostra, and shares many anatomical features with amniotes which indicates they were amniotes themselves.

Classification into monophyletic taxa
A different approach is adopted by writers who reject paraphyletic groupings. One such classification, by Michael Benton, is presented in simplified form below.

 Series Amniota
 Class Synapsida
 A series of unassigned families, corresponding to Pelycosauria †
 Order Therapsida
 Class Mammalia – mammals
 Class Sauropsida
 Subclass Parareptilia †
 Family Mesosauridae †
 Family Millerettidae †
 Family Bolosauridae †
 Family Procolophonidae †
 Order Pareiasauromorpha
 Family Nycteroleteridae †
 Family Pareiasauridae †
 Subclass Eureptilia
 Family Captorhinidae †
 Infraclass Diapsida
 Family Araeoscelididae †
 Family Weigeltisauridae †
 Order Younginiformes †
 Infraclass Neodiapsida
 Order Testudinata
 Suborder Testudines – turtles
 Infraclass Lepidosauromorpha
 Unnamed infrasubclass
 Infraclass Ichthyosauria †
 Order Thalattosauria †
 Superorder Lepidosauriformes
 Order Sphenodontida – tuatara
 Order Squamata – lizards & snakes
 Infrasubclass Sauropterygia †
 Order Placodontia †
 Order Eosauropterygia †
 Suborder Pachypleurosauria †
 Suborder Nothosauria †
 Order Plesiosauria †
 Infraclass Archosauromorpha
 Family Trilophosauridae †
 Order Rhynchosauria †
 Order Protorosauria †
 Division Archosauriformes
 Subdivision Archosauria
 Infradivision Crurotarsi
 Order Phytosauria†
 Family Ornithosuchidae †
 Family Stagonolepididae †
 Family Rauisuchidae †
 Superfamily Poposauroidea †
 Superorder Crocodylomorpha
 Order Crocodylia – crocodilians
 Infradivision Avemetatarsalia
 Infrasubdivision Ornithodira
 Order Pterosauria †
 Family Lagerpetidae †
 Family Silesauridae †
 Superorder Dinosauria – dinosaurs
 Order Ornithischia †
 Order Saurischia
 Suborder Theropoda – theropods
 Class Aves – birds

Phylogenetic classification

With the advent of cladistics, other researchers have attempted to establish new classes, based on phylogeny, but disregarding the physiological and anatomical unity of the groups. Unlike Benton, for example, Jacques Gauthier and colleagues forwarded a definition of Amniota in 1988 as "the most recent common ancestor of extant mammals and reptiles, and all its descendants". As Gauthier makes use of a crown group definition, Amniota has a slightly different content than the biological amniotes as defined by an apomorphy. Though traditionally considered reptiliomorphs, some recent research has recovered diadectomorphs as the sister group to Synapsida within Amniota, based on inner ear anatomy.

Cladogram
The cladogram presented here illustrates the phylogeny (family tree) of amniotes, and follows a simplified version of the relationships found by Laurin & Reisz (1995), with the exception of turtles, which more recent morphological and molecular phylogenetic studies placed firmly within diapsids. The cladogram covers the group as defined under Gauthier's definition.

References

Extant Pennsylvanian first appearances
Taxa named by Ernst Haeckel
Zoological nomenclature

Amniote


Asterolasia rivularis is a small, upright shrub, with narrow leaves and yellow flowers. It has a restricted distribution in New South Wales.

Description
Asterolasia rivularis is a small shrub to  high with young branches covered in brown to grey star-shaped, short matted hairs. The leaves may be narrowly oblong,  narrow-oblong to wedge shaped and tapering at the base,  long,  wide. The leaf upper surface has occasional star-shaped hairs, underside brownish star-shaped to short matted hairs, margins slightly rolled under and narrowing to a short petiole. The flowers are either borne from leaf axils or at the end of branches in small clusters of 1-3, yellow petals about  long, upper surface with rusty star-shaped to short matted hairs. The pedicels are up to   long when in flower. Flowering occurs in early spring.

Taxonomy
The species was first formally described by Paul G. Wilson in 1998 and the description was published in the journal Nuytsia.

Distribution and habitat
Asterolasia rivularis  has a restricted distribution, it is  found growing along streams near Buxton.

References

rivularis
Flora of New South Wales
Sapindales of Australia
Taxa named by Paul G. Wilson

Asterolasia rivularis


Angélica Gavaldón Loaiza (born 3 October 1973) is a Mexican retired tennis player.

Gavaldón has dual nationality, was born in the United States and comes from a Mexican family, and turned pro in 1990. That same year, she qualified for the quarterfinals in the 1990 Australian Open, from which she was eliminated in a match against Claudia Porwik. Her greatest career achievement is widely considered to be the 1995 Australian Open, when she again came through the qualifying tournament to reach the quarter-finals; this helped raise her year-end ranking for 1995 to 36th in the world and marked the peak of her Grand Slam. Her one tournament win came in Tashkent in June 1997. She played for Mexico in the Federation Cup from 1990 to 1997, and at the Olympic Games in 1992 and 1996.

Since retiring in 2000, Gavaldon has become a coach to other tennis players, and she released her own clothing label Angalo Activewear in 2007.

ITF finals

Singles: 4 (3-1)

Doubles: 1 (1-0)

References

External links

1973 births
Living people
Mexican female tennis players
American emigrants to Mexico
Tennis players at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Olympic tennis players for Mexico

Angélica Gavaldón


Ketan Mulmuley is a professor in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Chicago, and a sometime visiting professor at IIT Bombay. He specializes in theoretical computer science, especially computational complexity theory, and in recent years has been working on "geometric complexity theory", an approach to the P versus NP problem through the techniques of algebraic geometry, with Milind Sohoni of IIT Bombay. He is also known for his result with Umesh Vazirani and Vijay Vazirani that showed that "Matching is as easy as matrix inversion", in a paper that introduced the isolation lemma.

He earned his PhD in computer science from Carnegie Mellon University in 1985 under Dana Scott, winning the 1986 ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award for his thesis Full Abstraction and Semantic Equivalence. He also won a Miller fellowship at the University of California, Berkeley for 1985–1987, and a Guggenheim Foundation Fellowship for the year 1999–2000.

Books

References

External links
 Faculty page
 List of recent publications

Living people
Theoretical computer scientists
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ketan Mulmuley


Walter O'Keefe (August 18, 1900 – June 26, 1983) was an American songwriter, actor, syndicated columnist, Broadway composer, radio legend, screenwriter, musical arranger and TV host.

Biography
O'Keefe was born in Hartford, Connecticut. He attended the College of the Sacred Heart in Wimbledon, London before entering the University of Notre Dame in South Bend, Indiana in 1916. At Notre Dame, he was a member of the Glee Club and a Class Poet. He graduated cum laude in 1921.

O'Keefe began as a vaudeville performer in the midwest for several years. In 1925, he went to New York City and became a Broadway performer. By 1937, he wrote a syndicated humor column and filled-in for such radio personalities as Walter Winchell, Edgar Bergen, Don McNeill and Garry Moore. He became the long-time master of ceremonies of the NBC show Double or Nothing and was a regular on that network's Monitor series.

O'Keefe also worked in television, presiding over talk shows and quiz shows for the CBS network. Producers Mark Goodson and Bill Todman hired him for their game show Two for the Money. When the show's usual host Herb Shriner had other commitments during the summer of 1954, O'Keefe took over for three months. He was the host for the first Emmy Awards ceremony, held on January 25, 1949 at the Hollywood Athletic Club. He replaced the original host, Rudy Vallée after he left town at the last minute.

O'Keefe wrote the musical scores of several Hollywood films. He introduced the popular song "The Daring Young Man on the Flying Trapeze" in 1934, and it became permanently associated with him.

O'Keefe became addicted to alcohol, and sought treatment in Cleveland, Ohio during the late 1960s.

Death and legacy
He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the category of radio. He died in Torrance, California of congestive heart failure at the age of 82.

Filmography
 1929 The Sophomore - actor and music composer
 1929 Red Hot Rhythm - actor, music composer and lyricist
 1930 Dancing Sweeties - music composer
 1930 Sweet Kitty Bellairs - music composer
 1931 The Smart Set-Up - actor
 1935 Vagabond Lady - music composer and lyricist
 1936 Prison Shadows - actor
 1938 Go Chase Yourself - screenwriter
 1941 Too Many Blondes - music arranger
 1952 Two for the Money (TV Series) - guest host
 1954 Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Stars on Parade - himself
 1956 The NBC Comedy Hour (Episode #1.16) - actor (himself)

References

External links
 Prelinger Film Collection - Walter O'Keefe serving as an announcer in a 1940 screen ad, archive.org; accessed October 6, 2017.

1900 births
1983 deaths
American film score composers
Songwriters from Connecticut
American radio personalities
American male radio actors
American male film actors
American game show hosts
Male actors from Hartford, Connecticut
Musicians from Hartford, Connecticut
Songwriters from New York (state)
University of Notre Dame alumni
Vaudeville performers
Writers from Hartford, Connecticut
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American composers
American male film score composers
20th-century American male musicians
American male songwriters

Walter O'Keefe


Harvest Automation, Inc. is a robotics company headquartered in Billerica, Massachusetts, that manufactures small, mobile material handling robots for nursery, greenhouse and eCommerce fulfillment applications.

History
Harvest Automation Inc. was founded in 2009 by former iRobot employees on the premise that there are many examples of work in the world that are repetitive, strenuous and dangerous and that can benefit from robotic automation. Roomba inventors Joseph Jones and Paul Sandin, and Roomba engineer Clara Vu, founded the company along with CEO Charles Grinnell, who served as Lead Engineer of a $300 million particle detector at CERN – Europe's international physics research center.

Since the formation of Harvest Automation, Inc., the company has received funding from various investors totaling at $30.6 million. The company competes with Kiva Systems, the manufacturer of warehouse robots that was acquired by Amazon in 2012.

Products & Markets

OmniVeyor HV-100

Harvest Automation's first product is the OmniVeyor HV-100, providing automated material handling for the nursery and greenhouse market. OmniVeyor HV-100 units are designed for operation in both indoor and outdoor environments as typically seen on wholesale  greenhouses, hoop houses and nurseries. The robots are intended to reduce production costs and increase overall productivity.

OmniVeyor HV-100 robots automate the task of spacing containerized plants, common to wholesale Nursery and Greenhouse operations. When plants are young they are placed in close proximity to one another on fields in order to conserve resources such as land, water and pesticides. As the plants grow their containers must be spaced apart to allow the plants to develop a uniform and consistent canopy. The task of spacing plants has historically been completed with manual labor.

OmniVeyor TM-100

The OmniVeyor TM-100 robot is designed to automate material handling for the eCommerce market. OmniVeyor TM-100 robots are designed to work with and among existing workforces and infrastructure.

The OmniVeyor TM-100 robots work by autonomously handling material movement and sortation and thereby eliminating the need for workers to walk long distances between picking products for order fulfillment. By virtue of its small size and weight and integrated obstacle detection and collision avoidance systems the robot is able to work in the same space as people. The OmniVeyor TM-100 robot is designed to allow for batch and single order processing as well as interleaved replenishment and returns processing.

References

External links

Robotics companies of the United States
Agricultural robotics

Harvest Automation


The English Climate Emergency Education Bill was the first ever student-written education bill in the UK, it is a draft bill and has not been introduced to parliament.

History
The bill was written by the student campaigners of Teach the Future - a campaign pushing pushing for broad climate education in the UK - with the help of a lawyer. The bill is a one of the organisation's three, asks of the English government.

After its completion on 12th of February 2020, the campaign group held a parliamentary reception on 26th February whereby they gathered the support of over 70 politicians - from both the Houses of Commons and Lords - the event was sponsored by Nadia Whittome.

Contents
 An obligation for all schools (from primary to tertiary; academy or state) to educate and prepare young people on the anthropogenic causes and consequences of the climate emergency and ecological crisis as well as methods of mitigation
 The provision of funding for:
 The training of teachers and lecturers
 Developing new resources
 Creating centres to teach practical environmental skills
 Creating boards so young people can express their opinions on action
 More youth-led social actions
 Support for eco-anxiety
 Require all new schools to be build carbon neutral by 2022 and all current schools to be converted to carbon neutral grids by 2030

References

English law

English Climate Emergency Education Act


Basilica minor is a title given to important church buildings of the Roman Catholic Church. Popes have given the title to churches since the 18th century. Many churches that are important for pilgrimage are basilicae minores. The name is in contrast to the four basilicae majores in or around Rome.

Roman Catholic churches

Basilica minor


Pierre-Claude Foucquet (1694 – February 13, 1772) was a French organist and harpsichordist.

Foucquet was born in Paris, the son of Pierre Foucquet and Anna-Barbe Domballe.  He was born into a family of musicians.  At age 18, he was appointed as the organist at Saint Honoré church in Paris. Following this appointment he was the organist in several important churches: the Royal Abbey of St Victor (destroyed during the French Revolution), the St Eustache church, the Chapel Royal where he succeeded François d'Agincourt (1758), and the Notre-Dame Cathedral. At the end of his life he had to resign his appointment as organist due to illness, but was given a pension by the King.

His output includes:
Three harpsichord books (before 1751)
 Pièces de clavecin – Oeuvre première - Les Caractères de la Paix in C:
La Renommée
Marche en rondeau
Fanfare
Le Feu
Les Grâces pour musette
2ème Musette
Les Ris: rondeau
Tambourin
Les Jeux: rondeau
Second Livre de Pièces de clavecin
Les Forgerons, le Concert des faunes et autres pièces de clavecin. Troisième Livre
Several arias for two parts and continuo (La belle Silvie etc.)

See also
French baroque harpsichordists

External links

1694 births
1772 deaths
French classical organists
French male organists
Cathedral organists
French harpsichordists
French male classical composers
French Baroque composers
18th-century keyboardists
18th-century classical composers
18th-century French composers
18th-century French male musicians
Male classical organists

Pierre-Claude Foucquet


Joseph Antoine Émile Bourdon (; 14 February 1884 – 11 July 1974) was a 20th-century French organist and composer.

Biography
Bourdon was the son of Magdelaine Louise Villate de Peufeilhoux (of noble descent) and Victor-Louis-Gabriel Bourdon (a financier). Later, he became a pupil of Alexandre Guilmant in the Conservatoire de Paris, Bourdon was a condisciple and friend of Marcel Dupré.

He was the organist of the great organ of the Saint Nicholas Cathedral of Monaco from 1922 to 1968, before canon Henri Carol succeeded him.

In addition, he was professor of organ at the Académie de Musique Fondation Prince Rainier III until 1968.

His wife Jeanne Barbezat passed away on 17 August 1974, and Bourdon himself died on 11 July of that year.

Works
Bourdon is the author of several pieces for pipe organ including:
 Dix Pièces Op. 7 (Paris, Leduc, 1921) :
 Offertoire pour la Fête de l'Assomption
 Carillons (popularised by Marcel Dupré)
 Méditation sur un Psaume d'Introït
 Sortie sur l'Hymne Veni Creator Spiritus
 Bénédiction nuptiale
 In memoriam
 Sur l'Alleluia de la Fête de saint Louis
 Légende pour la Toussaint
 Triptyque sur la Prose de la Fête-Dieu
 Toccata sur deux noëls
 Six Pièces (1926) (Delatour, 2009) :
 Thème développé
 Final en Ré
 Complainte
 Communion sur "Dic nobis, Maria" de la prose de Pâques
 Allegro symphonique
 Elégie
 Première symphonie Op.10 (Paris, Leduc, 1925)
 Marche Solennelle Op. 19 (Paris, Bornemann, 1947)
 Cortège Nuptial Op. 38, dedicated to H.R.H. Prince Rainier III and to Madame la Princesse Grace de Monaco, for the celebration of their marriage on 19 April 1956 (unpublished).

Other:
 Andantino religioso for organ and cello (or alto)
 Tantum ergo for choir, organ and horn
 Idylle for orchestra
 Poème élégiaque for cello and orchestra
 Trio en mi mineur for piano, violin and cello
 Sacred motets.

Sources
 Bourdon (1884-1974) organiste et compositeur, Louis Sauvé. - preface by Marie-Claire Alain, Éditions De L'officine, 2004, 342 p.
 Émile Bourdon, Six Pièces pour orgue

External links
 Amis de Marcel Dupré
 Émile BOURDON on Delatour France
 Émile BOURDON (1884-1974), organiste et compositeur l'Éducation musicale
 Méditation, Émile Bourdon on YouTube

Conservatoire de Paris alumni
Composers for pipe organ
20th-century classical composers
French classical organists
French male organists
French classical composers
French male classical composers
1884 births
1974 deaths
People from Allier
20th-century organists
20th-century French composers
20th-century French male musicians
Male classical organists

Émile Bourdon


The New Zealand cricket team toured England in the 1949 season. The team was the fourth official touring side from New Zealand, following those in 1927, 1931 and 1937, and was by some distance the most successful to this date. The four-match Test series with England was shared, every game ending as a draw, and of 35 first-class fixtures, 14 were won, 20 drawn and only one lost.

Background
New Zealand had had very limited Test cricket in recent years. The last full tour of England had been in 1937, and since the Second World War there had been only two single matches, one against Australia in 1945-46 and the other the following season against the touring MCC team led by Wally Hammond. Consequently, many of the New Zealand players were untested at the highest level of the game.

By contrast, England had played full series both at home and abroad in every summer and winter since the end of the war, though with mixed results. The team had been comprehensively outplayed twice by Australia, and though other results against India, South Africa and West Indies had been better, there had been considerable experimentation with new players, and only a handful of players could consider themselves certainties for selection were England to choose to field its strongest side.

The New Zealand team
The side consisted of 15 players and was led by Walter Hadlee, who was one of four players – the others were Merv Wallace, Martin Donnelly and Jack Cowie – who had toured with the 1937 team.

The side was:
Walter Hadlee (captain)
Merv Wallace (vice-captain)
Cecil Burke
Tom Burtt
Harry Cave
Jack Cowie
Fen Cresswell
Martin Donnelly
Johnny Hayes
Frank Mooney (wicketkeeper)
Geoff Rabone
John Reid
Verdun Scott
Brun Smith
Bert Sutcliffe

Jack Phillipps, the tour manager, played in one minor match against Durham (not then first-class). Reid, a lively fast bowler as well as a batsman, was used as the second wicketkeeper and had to deputise in the fourth Test for Mooney, who was unfit. Of the 15 players, 13 appeared in the Test matches. The exceptions were Burke, who had played his only Test match in the game against Australia in 1945–46, and Hayes, who was injured for much of this tour but became a regular player for New Zealand across much of the 1950s, touring England again in 1958. Cave, Reid and Sutcliffe also toured with the 1958 side.

Test series
The four Test matches were allocated only three days each. After the first two matches ended in draws, the New Zealanders were asked if they would add an extra day to each of the last two matches. After consulting with their domestic cricket board, the tourists turned the idea down, arguing that this would have disrupted their commitments to county matches.

1st Test
New Zealand, with only four front-line bowlers, were able to contain England's batsmen but struggled to dismiss them. Centuries by Len Hutton and Denis Compton ensured a large score, but England made only 307 runs on the first day, Cowie taking five wickets, and Burtt mopped up the tail on the Monday morning to claim five also. Trevor Bailey, in his first Test, troubled the early batsmen with his pace, and the fourth wicket was down at 80. But Donnelly and Smith put on 120 and Smith went on to score 96. A last-wicket partnership between Mooney and Cowie put on 57 and went into the last morning, but Cowie was injured and could not bowl in England's second innings. Fast scoring by Bill Edrich and George Mann, and less fast by an injured Cyril Washbrook, who scored 103, led to a declaration. But 299 to win in 150 minutes was too much to ask and Sutcliffe, Scott and Smith got batting practice as the game petered out.

2nd Test
England lost five wickets for 112, but the pitch got easier and Compton (116) and Bailey (93) put on 189 for the sixth wicket. England's declaration, with 20 minutes of the first day's play still to go, was technically incorrect, but New Zealand did not object. New Zealand opened with 89 from Sutcliffe and Scott, and then Donnelly, making 206 out of 347, the highest score for New Zealand at this point, took the game out of England's reach. Hutton and Jack Robertson opened with a stand of 143 to almost clear the arrears, and Robertson went on to score 121.

3rd Test
New England captain Freddie Brown put New Zealand in to bat, and Bailey took early wickets in humid conditions. There was also a debut wicket for 18-year-old Brian Close. But Donnelly, with 75, and Reid (50) added 116, and the innings went into the second day. Bailey finished with six for 84. England found it difficult to force the pace against tight bowling and fielding. All the top seven batsmen made runs, with Hutton making 73 and Edrich 78, and Reg Simpson took advantage of a tiring attack to score his first Test century, with 103. Bailey was 72 not out when Brown declared. At 109 for three, New Zealand were vulnerable, but 101 from Sutcliffe and 80 from Donnelly saw them save the match comfortably.

4th Test
New Zealand, without Mooney, for whom Reid deputised as wicketkeeper, and with Rabone unable to bowl, won the toss for the first time in the series and batted. Sutcliffe and Scott put on 121 for the first wicket, and Wallace passed 50 as well, but the later batsmen were more defensive. The innings lasted into the second day, and then Hutton and Simpson put on 147, and Hutton and Edrich followed up with a second wicket stand of 218 before Hutton was out for 206. Edrich went on to exactly 100, but from 365 for one the innings subsided. Cresswell took six for 168 with inswingers and leg cutters. Though Sutcliffe made 54, four New Zealand wickets went before the arrears were cleared, but Reid, who made 93, and Wallace, with his second 50 of the match, stood firm and the match was saved.

First-class matches
In 32 first-class matches, the New Zealand tourists won 13 times and lost only once, when they were caught on a drying pitch at Oxford without Cowie, their player best able to exploit such conditions. The team's success was built on the weight of runs that its batsmen provided, and the bowling figures, Burtt apart, were modest.

After a draw against Yorkshire in which both Wallace and Len Hutton scored centuries, New Zealand reeled off victories against Worcestershire and Surrey, and Wallace made it four centuries in five matches in the drawn match with Leicestershire and the victory over Cambridge University.

The MCC match, one of the set-pieces of the cricket calendar, saw a slow draw with New Zealand rescued by a seventh wicket partnership of 176 by Mooney and Rabone. Then came the defeat by Oxford University in a low-scoring match, but the threat of a repeat in the following fixture, against Sussex, when New Zealand trailed by 116 on the first innings, disappeared through good bowling by Cowie and good batting by Reid, Sutcliffe and Donnelly in a successful run-chase. Drawn matches with Somerset and Glamorgan led up to the first Test.

Weakness in bowling showed in the two first-class matches between the first two Tests. In the first game, Hampshire were dismissed for 129 and then centuries for Scott and Donnelly gave the New Zealanders a first innings lead of 301 before a declaration with only five wickets down. But Hampshire recovered to set the tourists 109 to win in just 35 minutes, a target that was achieved with five minutes to spare. Against Surrey, a New Zealand first innings of 465, of which Sutcliffe made 187, the county replied with 645 for nine declared, and Jack Parker scored 255.

The second Test was followed by an easy victory over the Combined Services, and then came 11 wickets for Burtt in the victory over Gloucestershire, a match in which the county's spin bowling pair of Tom Goddard and Sam Cook bowled unchanged through the 90 overs of the New Zealand first innings. Lancashire made the touring team follow on for the first time in the season, but New Zealand salvaged a draw, and then the match with Derbyshire followed the Hampshire pattern, with a big first-innings lead whittled down by a second-innings recovery for the county, leaving the tourists with a successful run-chase to win. Northamptonshire eked a draw out of a high-scoring match, but New Zealand dominated the game in Glasgow against Scotland and Cowie's six second-innings wickets were clean bowled.

After the third Test, the return match with Yorkshire was very tight, with the county left to score 169 in 100 minutes and hanging on 61 short with the last available batsmen together when time ran out. The second match with Glamorgan was badly affected by rain with the New Zealanders in a commanding position, thanks to a big century by Wallace and six wickets for Cresswell. Games with Warwickshire, Nottinghamshire and Essex all ended in batsman-dominated draws. In the Essex game, Sutcliffe scored 243 in the first innings and an unbeaten 100 in the second innings, the first time a New Zealander had scored two hundreds in a match outside New Zealand.

The final Test was followed by a two-day match with Durham, and then the New Zealanders won the return match with Lancashire by scoring 153 to win in 75 minutes. Kent scraped a draw after Hadlee did not enforce the follow-on, and joint county champions Middlesex batted very unevenly, and lost by nine wickets as Sutcliffe scored 110 out of 157 in 95 minutes. The end-of-season festival matches saw a South of England side beaten by an innings and at Scarborough a H. D. G. Leveson Gower's XI side composed entirely of Test players lost by six wickets, though the New Zealanders were helped by generous declarations.

Leading players
The batsmen were the big successes of the New Zealand side and Donnelly and Sutcliffe finished fifth and eighth in the English first-class averages for the season. In first-class matches, Donnelly scored 2287 runs at an average of 61.81 and Sutcliffe scored 2627 runs at 59.70. Sutcliffe led by seven to five in centuries, and Scott and Wallace also scored five centuries each. Six other batsmen apart from the leading pair passed 1,000 runs for the season, and Wallace, Reid and Scott all averaged more than 40. In the Tests, Smith, who played in only two matches, headed the averages, but again the aggregates were dominated by Donnelly and Sutcliffe, each scoring more than 400 runs when no other batsman managed 200.

The bowling was less successful. In a hot and dry summer, Burtt bowled almost twice as many overs as anyone else on the touring side, and took 128 wickets at an average of 22.88. No other bowler managed more than the 62 of Cresswell, though Wisden reckoned Cowie, whose 59 wickets cost 27 runs each, was the only really menacing bowler in the side. Burtt and Cowie were the only successes at Test level, and in both cases their average runs per wicket was over 30.

Verdict and aftermath
The tour was counted as a success, and the New Zealanders won praise for their batting. The side scored more runs in first-class matches than Donald Bradman's 1948 Australian tourists, the so-called Invincibles. The power of the batting left the England cricket team no nearer finding a settled line-up for its bowlers, and the big bonus from England's perspective was the emergence of Trevor Bailey as a genuine Test-class all-rounder.

New Zealand's lack of international fixtures before the 1949 series was not repeated and the nucleus of the side remained in place for matches through to 1952 against West Indies and South Africa, as well as for the MCC visit in 1950–51. But Cowie retired after the 1949 series and a thin bowling attack was rendered even thinner by his departure.

One consequence of the domination of bat over ball in the 1949 series was that, from 1950 onwards, Test matches in England were lengthened to five days against all opponents.

References

 Wisden Cricketers' Almanack 1950 edition is the primary reference, with other editions also consulted.

Further reading
 Halo for Hadlee by George A. Wycherley (Otago Times, 1950)
 Gone with the Cricketers by John Arlott (Longmans, Green & Co, 1950)
 Cricket Companions by Alan W. Mitchell (T. Werner Laurie, 1950)
 The Skipper's Diary by Walter Hadlee, edited by Richard Hadlee (Cricket Publishing Company, 2017)

External links
 New Zealand in British Isles 1949 at CricketArchive
 New Zealand in England, 1949 at Cricinfo
 British Pathe highlights from the Lord's Test
 New Zealand to England 1949 at Test Cricket Tours

1949 in English cricket
1949 in New Zealand cricket
June 1949 sports events in the United Kingdom
July 1949 sports events in the United Kingdom
August 1949 sports events in the United Kingdom
International cricket competitions from 1945–46 to 1960
1949

New Zealand cricket team in England in 1949


The Vall d'Hebron University Hospital is a public and university affiliated hospital founded in 1955. It belongs to the Catalan Health Institute and is the hospital complex with the highest volume of interventions in Catalonia, Spain. It is located at the bottom of Collserola, at the north of Barcelona, and its influence area includes the districts of Horta-Guinardó, Nou Barris and Sant Andreu.

In actuality, it is the most important hospital complex in Catalonia. A study from 2009 places the Vall d'Hebron University Hospital among the four most important reference centers in Spain, and one of the twenty most important hospitals in the country.

The hospital complex is divided into three separate areas: the general hospital, the maternity hospital, and the orthopedics and rehabilitation hospital. It also has an outpatient surgical unit at Parc Sanitari Pere Virgili.

It currently employs over 7.000 professionals and has an annual budget of 580 million euros (2012). The hospital has 1.146 beds (182 reserved for critical patients), 45 operating rooms, 381 outpatient offices, and 3 emergency departments.

References

Hospitals in Barcelona
Teaching hospitals in Spain
Hospitals established in 1955
1955 establishments in Spain

Vall d'Hebron University Hospital


The Arrowhead Region is in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Minnesota. It got its name from its pointed shape.  The mainly rural region is 27,575.19 km² (10,635.26 sq mi) of land area and comprises Carlton, Cook, Lake and St. Louis Counties. At the 2000 census 248,425 people lived there.

References
Counties of the Arrowhead Region, Minnesota  United States Census Bureau

Other websites
Northland Connection Local website

Geography of Minnesota

Arrowhead Region


Kristy Starling is a contemporary Christian music singer, born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. After marrying husband Adam Starling in the late 2002, she came second in a national singing competition, Today's Superstar, NBC News' morning show. She signed to Warner Bros. Records, working with successful producer David Foster, and released her eponymous debut album on 22 April 2003, the album features a cover of LeAnn Rimes' "I Need You". This album peaked at No. 19 on Billboards Heatseekers charts and No. 24 on its Top Contemporary Christian Albums chart. In 2005, her single "Coming Home for Christmas" peaked at No. 32 on the Adult Contemporary chart.

Kristy Starling's collaboration "Sending You a Little Christmas" with Jim Brickman was featured on Brickman's album, Peace, which was nominated for the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Album. "Sending You a Little Christmas" reached No. 1 on the Adult Contemporary Radio Charts Christmas 2003.

Starling's song, "As Long As We're Here", was released on American Idol runner up Clay Aiken's album, On My Way Here, on May 6, 2008.

Starling also has been a part of Victory Church music, known as VMusic at Victory Church in Oklahoma. In 2011, the group signed on with Dream Records and changed its name to Warr Acres based on the city in Oklahoma. Warr Acres also released a self-titled CD in 2011 that features several songs with Starling, including "Undignified", "Maker of Miracles", "Hymn of Remembrance", "Savior, Crucified" and "Hold to This Truth".

Discography
Studio
Kristy Starling (2003)
Warr Acres (2011)
Hope Will Rise (2013)

References

External links

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American women singers
American performers of Christian music
Singers from Oklahoma
Warner Music Group artists
21st-century American women

Kristy Starling


Creatine ( or ) is an organic compound with the nominal formula . It exists in various tautomers in solutions (among which are neutral form and various zwitterionic forms). Creatine is found in vertebrates where it facilitates recycling of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), primarily in muscle and brain tissue. Recycling is achieved by converting adenosine diphosphate (ADP) back to ATP via donation of phosphate groups. Creatine also acts as a buffer.

History
Creatine was first identified in 1832 when Michel Eugène Chevreul isolated it from the basified water-extract of skeletal muscle. He later named the crystallized precipitate after the Greek word for meat, κρέας (kreas). In 1928, creatine was shown to exist in equilibrium with creatinine. Studies in the 1920s showed that consumption of large amounts of creatine did not result in its excretion. This result pointed to the ability of the body to store creatine, which in turn suggested its use as a dietary supplement.

In 1912, Harvard University researchers Otto Folin and Willey Glover Denis found evidence that ingesting creatine can dramatically boost the creatine content of the muscle. In the late 1920s, after finding that the intramuscular stores of creatine can be increased by ingesting creatine in larger than normal amounts, scientists discovered phosphocreatine (creatine phosphate), and determined that creatine is a key player in the metabolism of skeletal muscle. The substance creatine is naturally formed in vertebrates.

The discovery of phosphocreatine was reported in 1927. In the 1960s, creatine kinase (CK) was shown to phosphorylate ADP using phosphocreatine (PCr) to generate ATP. It follows that ATP, not PCr is directly consumed in muscle contraction. CK uses creatine to "buffer" the ATP/ADP ratio.

While creatine's influence on physical performance has been well documented since the early twentieth century, it came into public view following the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona. An August 7, 1992 article in The Times reported that Linford Christie, the gold medal winner at 100 meters, had used creatine before the Olympics (however, it should also be mentioned that Linford Christie was found guilty of doping later in his career.) . An article in Bodybuilding Monthly named Sally Gunnell, who was the gold medalist in the 400-meter hurdles, as another creatine user. In addition, The Times also noted that 100 meter hurdler Colin Jackson began taking creatine before the Olympics.

At the time, low-potency creatine supplements were available in Britain, but creatine supplements designed for strength enhancement were not commercially available until 1993 when a company called Experimental and Applied Sciences (EAS) introduced the compound to the sports nutrition market under the name Phosphagen. Research performed thereafter demonstrated that the consumption of high glycemic carbohydrates in conjunction with creatine increases creatine muscle stores.

Metabolic role
Creatine is a naturally occurring non-protein compound and the primary constituent of phosphocreatine, which is used to regenerate ATP within the cell. 95% of the human body's total creatine and phosphocreatine stores are found in skeletal muscle, while the remainder is distributed in the blood, brain, testes, and other tissues. The typical creatine content of skeletal muscle (as both creatine and phosphocreatine) is 120 mmol per kilogram of dry muscle mass, but can reach up to 160 mmol/kg through supplementation. Approximately 1–2% of intramuscular creatine is degraded per day and an individual would need about 1–3 grams of creatine per day to maintain average (unsupplemented) creatine storage. An omnivorous diet provides roughly half of this value, with the remainder synthesized in the liver and kidneys.

Creatine is not an essential nutrient. It is an amino acid derivative, naturally produced in the human body from the amino acids glycine and arginine, with an additional requirement for S-Adenosyl methionine (a derivative of methionine) to catalyze the transformation of guanidinoacetate to creatine. In the first step of the biosynthesis, the enzyme arginine:glycine amidinotransferase (AGAT, EC:22.214.171.124) mediates the reaction of glycine and arginine to form guanidinoacetate. This product is then methylated by guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase (GAMT, EC:220.127.116.11), using S-adenosyl methionine as the methyl donor. Creatine itself can be phosphorylated by creatine kinase to form phosphocreatine, which is used as an energy buffer in skeletal muscles and the brain. A cyclic form of creatine, called creatinine, exists in equilibrium with its tautomer and with creatine.

Phosphocreatine system

Creatine is transported through the blood and taken up by tissues with high energy demands, such as the brain and skeletal muscle, through an active transport system. The concentration of ATP in skeletal muscle is usually 2–5 mM, which would result in a muscle contraction of only a few seconds. During times of increased energy demands, the phosphagen (or ATP/PCr) system rapidly resynthesizes ATP from ADP with the use of phosphocreatine (PCr) through a reversible reaction catalysed by the enzyme creatine kinase (CK). The phosphate group is attached to an NH center of the creatine. In skeletal muscle, PCr concentrations may reach 20–35 mM or more. Additionally, in most muscles, the ATP regeneration capacity of CK is very high and is therefore not a limiting factor. Although the cellular concentrations of ATP are small, changes are difficult to detect because ATP is continuously and efficiently replenished from the large pools of PCr and CK. A proposed representation has been illustrated by Krieder et al. Creatine has the ability to increase muscle stores of PCr, potentially increasing the muscle's ability to resynthesize ATP from ADP to meet increased energy demands.

Creatine supplementation appears to increase the number of myonuclei that satellite cells will 'donate' to damaged muscle fibers, which increases the potential for growth of those fibers. This increase in myonuclei probably stems from creatine's ability to increase levels of the myogenic transcription factor MRF4.

Genetic deficiencies
Genetic deficiencies in the creatine biosynthetic pathway lead to various severe neurological defects. Clinically, there are three distinct disorders of creatine metabolism. Deficiencies in the two synthesis enzymes can cause L-arginine:glycine amidinotransferase deficiency caused by variants in GATM and guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency, caused by variants in GAMT. Both biosynthetic defects are inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. A third defect, creatine transporter defect, is caused by mutations in SLC6A8 and inherited in a X-linked manner. This condition is related to the transport of creatine into the brain.

Vegetarians
Some studies suggest that total muscle creatine is significantly lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians. It is postulated that this finding is due to an omnivorous diet being the primary source of creatine. Research shows that supplementation is needed to raise the concentration of creatine in the muscles of lacto-ovo vegetarians and vegans up to non-vegetarian levels.
Studies have shown that they have lower creatine concentrations in muscle and blood, but not brain.

Pharmacokinetics
Most of the research to-date on creatine has predominantly focused on the pharmacological properties of creatine, yet there is a lack of research into the pharmacokinetics of creatine. Studies have not established pharmacokinetic parameters for clinical usage of creatine such as volume of distribution, clearance, bioavailability, mean residence time, absorption rate, and half life. A clear pharmacokinetic profile would need to be established prior to optimal clinical dosing.

Dosing

Loading phase

An approximation of 0.3 g/kg/day divided into 4 equal spaced intervals has been suggested since creatine needs may vary based on body weight. It has also been shown that taking a lower dose of 3 grams a day for 28 days can also increase total muscle creatine storage to the same amount as the rapid loading dose of 20 g/day for 6 days. However, a 28 day loading phase does not allow for ergogenic benefits of creatine supplementation to be realized until fully saturated muscle storage.

Supplementing creatine with carbohydrates or carbohydrates and protein has been shown to augment creatine retention.

This elevation in muscle creatine storage has been correlated with ergogenic benefits discussed in the research section. However, higher doses for longer periods of time are being studied to offset creatine synthesis deficiencies and mitigating diseases.

Maintenance phase
After the 5–7 day loading phase, muscle creatine stores are fully saturated and supplementation only needs to cover the amount of creatine broken down per day. This maintenance dose was originally reported to be around 2–3 g/day (or 0.03 g/kg/day), however, some studies have suggested 3–5 g/day maintenance dose to maintain saturated muscle creatine.

Absorption

Endogenous serum or plasma creatine concentrations in healthy adults are normally in a range of 2–12 mg/L. A single 5 gram (5000 mg) oral dose in healthy adults results in a peak plasma creatine level of approximately 120 mg/L at 1–2 hours post-ingestion. Creatine has a fairly short elimination half life, averaging just less than 3 hours, so to maintain an elevated plasma level it would be necessary to take small oral doses every 3–6 hours throughout the day.

Clearance
It has been shown that once supplementation of creatine stops, muscle creatine stores return to baseline in 4–6 weeks.

Exercise and sport
Creatine supplements are marketed in ethyl ester, gluconate, monohydrate, and nitrate forms.

Creatine supplementation for sporting performance enhancement is considered safe for short-term use but there is a lack of safety data for long term use, or for use in children and adolescents.

A 2018 review article in the Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition said that creatine monohydrate might help with energy availability for high-intensity exercise.

Creatine use can increase maximum power and performance in high-intensity anaerobic repetitive work (periods of work and rest) by 5% to 15%. Creatine has no significant effect on aerobic endurance, though it will increase power during short sessions of high-intensity aerobic exercise.

A survey of 21,000 college athletes showed that 14% of athletes take creatine supplements to try to improve performance. Non-athletes report taking creatine supplements to improve appearance.

Research

Cognitive performance

Creatine is reported to have a beneficial effect on brain function and cognitive processing, although the evidence is difficult to interpret systematically and the appropriate dosing is unknown. The greatest effect appears to be in individuals who are stressed (due, for instance, to sleep deprivation) or cognitively impaired.

A 2018 systematic review found that "generally, there was evidence that short term memory and intelligence/reasoning may be improved by creatine administration", whereas for other cognitive domains "the results were conflicting". Another 2023 review initially found evidence of improved memory function. However, it was later determined that faulty statistics lead to the stastical significance and after fixing the "double counting", the effect was only significant in older adults.

Muscular disease
A meta-analysis found that creatine treatment increased muscle strength in muscular dystrophies, and potentially improved functional performance. Creatine treatment does not appear to improve muscle strength in people who have metabolic myopathies. High doses of creatine lead to increased muscle pain and an impairment in activities of daily living when taken by people who have McArdle disease.

According to a clinical study focusing on people with various muscular dystrophies, using a pure form of creatine monohydrate can be beneficial in rehabilitation after injuries and immobilization.

Mitochondrial diseases

Parkinson's disease
Creatine's impact on mitochondrial function has led to research on its efficacy and safety for slowing Parkinson's disease. As of 2014, the evidence did not provide a reliable foundation for treatment decisions, due to risk of bias, small sample sizes, and the short duration of trials.

Huntington's disease
Several primary studies have been completed but no systematic review on Huntington's disease has been completed yet.

ALS
It is ineffective as a treatment for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Testosterone
A 2021 systemic review of studies found that "the current body of evidence does not indicate that creatine supplementation increases total testosterone, free testosterone, DHT or causes hair loss/baldness".

Adverse effects
Side effects include:

 Weight gain due to extra water retention to the muscle
 Potential muscle cramps / strains / pulls
 Upset stomach
 Diarrhea
 Dizziness

One well-documented effect of creatine supplementation is weight gain within the first week of the supplement schedule, likely attributable to greater water retention due to the increased muscle creatine concentrations by means of osmosis.

A 2009 systematic review discredited concerns that creatine supplementation could affect hydration status and heat tolerance and lead to muscle cramping and diarrhea.

Renal function
Long-term creatine supplementation has not been proven safe for kidney patients.

A 2019 systematic review published by the National Kidney Foundation investigated whether creatine supplementation had adverse effects on renal function. They identified 15 studies from 1997–2013 that looked at standard creatine loading and maintenance protocols of 4–20 g/day of creatine versus placebo. They utilized serum creatinine, creatinine clearance, and serum urea levels as a measure of renal damage. While in general creatine supplementation resulted in slightly elevated creatinine levels that remained within normal limits, supplementation did not induce renal damage (P value< 0.001). Special populations included in the 2019 Systematic review included type 2 diabetic patients and post-menopausal women, bodybuilders, athletes, and resistance trained populations. The study also discussed 3 case studies where there were reports that creatine affected renal function.

In a joint statement between the American College of Sports Medicine, Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, and Dietitians in Canada on performance enhancing nutrition strategies, creatine was included in their list of ergogenic aids and they do not list renal function as a concern for use.

The most recent position stand on creatine from the Journal of International Society of Sports Nutrition states that creatine is safe to take in healthy populations from infants to the elderly to performance athletes. They also state that long term (5 years) use of creatine has been considered safe.

It is important to mention that kidneys themselves, for normal physiological function, need phosphocreatine and creatine and indeed kidneys express significant amounts of creatine kinases (BB-CK and u-mtCK isoenzymes). At the same time, the first of two steps for endogenous creatine synthesis takes place in the kidneys themselves. Patients with kidney disease and those undergoing dialysis treatment generally show significantly lower levels of creatine in their organs, since the pathological kidneys are both hampered in creatine synthesis capability and are in back-resorption of creatine from the urine in the distal tubules. In addition, dialysis patients lose creatine due to wash out by the dialysis treatment itself and thus become chronically creatine depleted. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that dialysis patients generally consume less meat and fish, the alimentary sources of creatine. Therefore, to alleviate chronic creatine depletion in these patients and allow organs to replenish their stores of creatine, it was proposed in a 2017 article in Medical Hypotheses to supplement dialysis patients with extra creatine, preferably by intra-dialytic administration. Such a supplementation with creatine in dialysis patients is expected to significantly improve the health and quality of the patients by improving muscle strength, coordination of movement, brain function and to alleviate depression and chronic fatigue that are common in these patients.

Safety

Contamination

A 2011 survey of 33 supplements commercially available in Italy found that over 50% of them exceeded the European Food Safety Authority recommendations in at least one contaminant. The most prevalent of these contaminants was creatinine, a breakdown product of creatine also produced by the body. Creatinine was present in higher concentrations than the European Food Safety Authority recommendations in 44% of the samples. About 15% of the samples had detectable levels of dihydro-1,3,5-triazine or a high dicyandiamide concentration. Heavy metals contamination was not found to be a concern, with only minor levels of mercury being detectable. Two studies reviewed in 2007 found no impurities.

Interactions
A National Institutes of Health study suggests that caffeine interacts with creatine to increase the rate of progression of Parkinson's Disease.

Food and cooking
When creatine is mixed with protein and sugar at high temperatures (above 148 °C), the resulting reaction produces carcinogenic heterocyclic amines (HCAs). Such a reaction happens when grilling or pan-frying meat. Creatine content (as a percentage of crude protein) can be used as an indicator of meat quality.

Dietary considerations
Creatine-monohydrate is suitable for vegetarians and vegans, as the raw materials used for the production of the supplement have no animal origin.

See also
 Beta-Alanine
 Creatine methyl ester

References

External links

 Creatine bound to proteins in the PDB

Alpha-Amino acids
Bodybuilding supplements
Dietary supplements
Ergogenic aids
Guanidines
Myostatin inhibitors

Creatine