"Kita 'Kan Menang" atau "We Shall Overcome" adalah sebuah lagu gospel dan lagu Gerakan Hak Sipil. Lagu tersebut umumnya diatributkan sebagai turunan lirik dari "I'll Overcome Some Day", sebuah kidung karya Charles Albert Tindley yang mula-mula diterbitkan pada 1900.

Catatan

Referensi
 Dunaway, David, How Can I Keep from Singing: Pete Seeger, (orig. pub. 1981, reissued 1990). Da Capo, New York, .
 ___, "The We Shall Overcome Fund". Highlander Reports, newsletter of the Highlander Research and Education Center, August–November 2004, p. 3.
 We Shall Overcome, PBS Home Video 174, 1990, 58 minutes.

Bacaan tambahan
 Sing for Freedom: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement Through Its Songs: Compiled and edited by Guy and Candie Carawan; foreword by Julian Bond (New South Books, 2007), comprising two classic collections of freedom songs:  We Shall Overcome (1963) and Freedom Is A Constant Struggle (1968), reprinted in a single edition. The book includes a major new introduction by Guy and Candie Carawan, words and music to the songs, important documentary photographs, and firsthand accounts by participants in the Civil Rights Movement. Available from Highlander Center.
 We Shall Overcome! Songs of the Southern Freedom Movement: Julius Lester, editorial assistant. Ethel Raim, music editor: Additional musical transcriptions: Joseph Byrd [and] Guy Carawan. New York: Oak Publications, 1963.
 Freedom is a Constant Struggle, compiled and edited by Guy and Candie Carawan. Oak Publications, 1968.
 Alexander Tsesis, We Shall Overcome: A History of Civil Rights and the Law. Yale University Press, 2008.
 We Shall Overcome: A Song that Changed the World, by Stuart Stotts, illustrated by Terrance Cummings, foreword by Pete Seeger. New York: Clarion Books, 2010.
 Sing for Freedom, Folkways Records, produced by Guy and Candie Carawan, and the Highlander Center. Field recordings from 1960–88, with the Freedom Singers, Birmingham Movement Choir, Georgia Sea Island Singers, Doc Reese, Phil Ochs, Pete Seeger, Len Chandler, and many others. Smithsonian-Folkways CD version 1990.
 We Shall Overcome: The Complete Carnegie Hall Concert, June 8, 1963, Historic Live recording June 8, 1963. 2-disc set, includes the full concert, starring Pete Seeger, with the Freedom Singers, Columbia # 45312, 1989. Re-released 1997 by Sony as a box CD set.
 Voices Of The Civil Rights Movement: Black American Freedom Songs 1960-1966. Box CD set, with the Freedom Singers, Fanny Lou Hammer, and Bernice Johnson Reagon. Smithsonian-Folkways CD ASIN: B000001DJT (1997).
 Durman, C 2015, 'We Shall Overcome: Essays on a Great American Song edited by Victor V. Bobetsky', Music Reference Services Quarterly, vol. 8, iss. 3, pp. 185–187
 Graham, D 2016, 'Who Owns 'We Shall Overcome'?', The Atlantic, 14 April, accessed 28 April 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2016/04/we-shall-overcome-lawsuit/478068/
 Clark, B. & Borchert, S 2015, 'Pete Seeger, Musical Revolutionary', Monthly Review, vol. 66, no. 8, pp. 20–29

Pranala luar

 Lyrics
 Authorized Profile of Guy Carawan with history of the song, "We Shall Overcome" from the Association of Cultural Equity
 Freedom in the Air: Albany Georgia. 1961-62. SNCC #101.  Recorded by Guy Carawan, produced for the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee by Guy Carawan and Alan Lomax. "Freedom In the Air ... is a record of the 1961 protest in Albany, Georgia, when, two weeks before Christmas, 737 people brought the town nearly to a halt to force its integration. The record's never been reissued and that's a shame, as it's a moving document of a community through its protest songs, church services, and experiences in the thick of the civil rights struggle."—Nathan Salsburg, host, Root Hog or Die, East Village Radio, January 2007.
 Susanne´s Folksong-Notizen, excerpts from various articles, liner notes, etc. about "We Shall Overcome".
 Musical Transcription  of "We Shall Overcome," based on a recording of Pete Seeger's version, sung with the SNCC Freedom Singers on the 1963 live Carnegie Hall recording, and the 1988 version by Pete Seeger sung at a reunion concert with Pete and the Freedom Singers on the anthology, Sing for Freedom, recorded in the field 1960-88 and edited and annotated by Guy and Candie Carawan, released in 1990 as Smithsonian-Folkways CD SF 40032.
 NPR news article including full streaming versions of Pete Seeger's classic 1963 live Carnegie Hall recording and Bruce Springsteen's tribute version.
 "Pete Seeger & the story of 'We Shall Overcome'" from 1968 interview on The Pop Chronicles.
 "Something About That Song Haunts You" , essay on the history of "We Shall Overcome," Complicated Fun, June 9, 2006.
 "Howie Richmond Views Craft Of Song: Publishing Giant Celebrates 50 Years As TRO Founder", by Irv Lichtman, Billboard, 8, 28, 1999. Excerpt: "Key folk songs in the [TRO] catalog, as arranged by a number of folklorists, are 'We Shall Overcome,' 'Kisses Sweeter Than Wine' 'On Top Of Old Smokey,' 'So Long, It's Been Good To Know You,' 'Goodnight Irene,' 'If I Had A Hammer,' 'Tom Dooley,' and 'Rock Island Line.'"

Lagu tahun 1903

Kita 'Kan Menang


Sequoia is a genus of redwood trees in the Cupressaceae family. It includes the largest trees in the world. The only living species of the genus is  Sequoia sempervirens, the coast redwood, in northern California and southern Oregon in the United States. Several other species have been named from fossils, but are now extinct. These include Sequoia affinis, Sequoia chinensis in China, Sequoia langsdorfii, Sequoia dakotensis of South Dakota, and Sequoia magnifica. Other related species of the subfamily Sequoioideae include Sequoiadendron Giganteum, the Giant Sequoia  and Metasequoia Glyptostroboides, the Dawn Redwood.

The oldest known fossils in the Sequoia genus are those of Sequoia jeholensis, which have been found in Jurassic deposits of southern Manchuria. By the late Cretaceous it had spread to other parts of China, Europe, and western North America.

Giant sequoia  are much more recent in the fossil record, appearing 25 million years ago. They grow only in 75 groups across 35,600 acres in California, near the Sierra Nevada mountains. These groups were formed as a protection from logging. The most famous area with giant sequoia trees is Sequoia National Park. The park was made as the second national park, after the Yellowstone in 1980. The Sequoia National Park is managed with Kings Canyon National Park. Together, the two parks are called Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. Several trees in Sequoia National Park have even been named, for example General Grant, the Grizzly Giant or General Sherman.

References

Cupressaceae
Plants of North America

Sequoia (genus)


Angelica sylvestris or wild angelica is a species of flowering plant, native to Europe and central Asia. An annual or short-lived perennial growing to a maximum of , it has erect purplish stems and rounded umbels of minuscule white or pale pink flowers in late summer.

Habitat and ecology
The Latin specific epithet sylvestris means "growing in woodland". However it tolerates a range of conditions including fields, hedgerows, open woods, marshes and fens. It will grow in light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils.

It has recently been determined to be an invasive weed in New Brunswick and Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Canada. "According to the New Brunswick Invasive Species Council, unless this species is controlled, Woodland Angelica could spread throughout Canada, overwhelming other vegetation." The flowers are visited by a wide array of insects and are thus characterised by a generalised pollination system.

Adult wasps of Dolichovespula norwegica are known to feed off the nectar provided by A. sylvestris.

Cultivation and uses
A. sylvestris is cultivated in gardens. The cultivar 'Ebony', with pink flowers, has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

It was used as a vegetable until the 20th century. The plant can be stored. The stem was eaten fresh, and the leaves could be boiled to a stew for storage or cooked with milk. The plant has also been used for dyeing.

Gallery

References

sylvestris
Plants described in 1753
Plant dyes
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Angelica sylvestris


Kirsten Blinkenberg Hastrup (born 1948) is a Danish anthropologist and professor of anthropology at the University of Copenhagen. She has taken a special interest in the conjunction between the history and culture of both Iceland and Greenland, publishing widely on both, while also examining the relationship between the theatre and anthropology. Hastrup was president of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters from 2008 to 2016.

Biography
Born on 20 February 1948 in Copenhagen, Hastrup is one of the five daughters of the physician Bent Faurschou Hastrup (1922–85) and his wife Else Blinkenberg, an educator. After matriculating from Aarhus Cathedral School in 1965, she studied geography and biology at Aarhus University. She went on to study ethnography at Copenhagen University, receiving an M.Sc. in 1973. The following year, she was awarded the university's gold medal for researching the woman's place in anthropology.

In 1968, she married her colleague Jan Ovesen, with whom she had four children. She moved with her children to Oxford University in 1974, embarking on a doctorate course which took her to Assam in India. She was unable to complete the assignment as the area was soon closed off to visitors as a result of political conflicts. She therefore decided to join the staff of Aarhus University in 1976, hoping to undertake field work in Iceland. She learnt Icelandic and studied the country's history, taking a special interest in the Middle Ages. With the agreement of Oxford, she wrote her thesis on
Cultural Classification and History with Special Reference to Medieval Iceland (1979), earning a doctorate in 1980. The same year, her work led to the creation of historical anthropology as a new university subject in Denmark.

In 1982, she travelled to Iceland, where she spent half a year at the Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies where she comprehensively researched Iceland's history from 1400 to 1800 for the first time, showing that the general decline over the period was a result of the Icelanders' own approach and own management rather than external factors as had previously been thought. She published her findings as Nature and Policy in Iceland 1400–1800 which ultimately earned her a second doctorate as dr.scient.soc or doctor of social sciences from the University of Copenhagen in 1990. She spent a further period carrying out field work on a farm and in a fishing village in Iceland, examining the relationship between the social history and cultural identity. Her work was documented in a trilogy covering Culture and History (1985), Nature and Policy (1990) and A Place Apart (1998). Hastrup also initiated a larger, two-year research project which led to the publication of Den nordiske verden (The Nordic World) in 1992.

From 1985 to 1990, Hastrup was a professor of research at Aarhus University where her work focused on the relationship between the theatre and anthropology. This led to the partly auto-biographical play Talabot presented at Holsterbro's Odin Teatret and at other locations worldwide over a three-year period. In 1990, she was appointed professor at the University of Copenhagen where she continued her interest in theatre, arranging a large conference on theatre anthropology. In 1966, she travelled to England to research the history of the Shakespearean theatre tradition in collaboration with the Royal Shakespeare Company. Her interest in the relationship between human structures and the process of change resulted in her appointment as the first head of research at the Danish Centre for Human Rights in 1998. This, in turn, led to her presidency of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters from April 2008 to June 2016.

More recently, from 2009 to 2014, Hastrup ran Waterworlds, a major European research project analysing social responses to climate change, followed by fieldwork in Greenland, where she researched the effects of the modern world on a small community of hunters.

Awards
Hastrup has received a number of awards including:
2010: Ebbe Munck Award for her biography of the polar explorer Knud Rasmussen
2012: Gad Rausing Award for outstanding humanitarian research from the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities
Hastrup is a Fellow of the British Academy and a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters

Selected works
Hastrup has published some 40 books including:

References

External links
Kirsten Blinkenberg Hastrup's profile at the University of Copenhagen
Performance of Talabot from mid-1990s by Odin Teatret

1948 births
Living people
Scientists from Copenhagen
University of Copenhagen alumni
Academic staff of the University of Copenhagen
Danish anthropologists
Danish women scientists
Danish women anthropologists
21st-century Danish non-fiction writers
20th-century Danish non-fiction writers
Danish women academics
21st-century Danish scientists
20th-century Danish scientists
20th-century Danish women writers
21st-century Danish women writers
Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy

Kirsten Hastrup


Shikkari Shambhu is a 2018 Indian Malayalam-language comedy thriller film directed by Sugeeth and written by Nishad Koya. The film features Kunchacko Boban, Sshivada, Vishnu Unnikrishnan, Hareesh Kanaran and Alphy Panjikaran in lead roles. Produced and distributed by S. K. Lawrence through Angel Maria Cinemas.

Plot
The story revolves around three small-time fraudsters, Peelipose aka Peeli, Achu and Shaji. They overhear a conversation between a priest and his assistant and learn about a tiger unleashing terror in a village called Kurudimalakaavu and the region's panchayat member looking for a hunter.

Peeli and his friends were already in trouble where they were and sensing an opportunity, move to the village as hunters, eyeing the Rs 5 lakh reward as also the rare panchaloha idol in a temple. They become the darling of the villagers when they succeed in capturing the beast, though by a fortunate turn of events. Instead of bagging the cash prize, they request that they are allowed to stay in the village, obviously to pocket the idol that would make them rich. But there is another twist to the tale or is it better described as a tail? The unfolding events take the story forward.

Cast
 Kunchacko Boban as Peelipose (Peeli)
 Sshivada as Anitha
 Vishnu Unnikrishnan as Achu
 Hareesh Kanaran as Shaji
 Alphy Panjikaran as Revathi
 Aji John as Victor
 Jaise Jose as Satheesh
 Maniyanpilla Raju as Sahadevan
 Salim Kumar as SI Joseph Michael
 Sadiq as Joji
 Spadikam George as Mathews
 Johny Antony as Priest Babu
 Krishna Kumar as Retd. Forest Ranger Vasu
 R. K. Suresh as Anitha's Father
 Maya Menon as Anitha's Mother
 Pauly Valsan as Anitha's Mother-in-Law

Soundtrack
The film's music is by Sreejith Edayana.

 "Mazha"- Haricharan, Roshini Suresh
 "Kaana Chembaka Poo" - Vijay Yesudas
 "Tharam" - Deepak
 "Tharaarathara Moolana" - Vineeth Sreenivasan, Sreejith Edayana
 "Puliyunde Nariyunde" - Renjith Unni, Sreejith Edayana, Ramshi Ahamed

Release
The film was released on 20 January 2018 over 100 theaters in Kerala.

Critical response
Filmibeat rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars saying that "If you are a fan of template-based entertainers, which will keep you entertained throughout with the right proportions of comedy, action, thrill, and suspense, then Shikkari Shambhu will definitely satisfy you completely".
Sify.com reviewed the film to be "one time watch". While the comic sequences in the film were widely appreciated, while rated the film 3 out of 5 stars. Cinema Express, in its review, wrote "Shikkari Shambu is definitely a watchable film, the film has an unpredictable climax twist, one that comes as a real surprise.

References

External links

2018 films
Indian comedy films
Films set in forests
2010s Malayalam-language films
2018 comedy films
Films directed by Sugeeth

Shikkari Shambhu


Parinamam (The Change) is a 2003 Indian Malayalam film, directed by P. Venu, starring Nedumudi Venu, Madampu Kunjukuttan and Kaviyoor Ponnamma in the lead roles.

Plot
Parinamam tackles the age old issue of loneliness and redundancy among the aged. Balakrishna Marar played by Madampu Kunjukuttan, faces callous treatment from his family after his retirement. Parallel to his story is that of the mentally disturbed and lonely former judge Damodaran Nambeeshan played by Nedumudi Venu, who goes to Kashi in search of peace. There are five other senior citizens whose problems form the basis of the film. The story revolves around the lives of these characters, who lose everything they hold dear, feel rejected, and develop a feeling of being a burden on their respective families and society.

Cast
 Kaviyoor Ponnamma
 Nedumudi Venu
 Ashokan
 Ambika Mohan
 Archana Menon
 Baby Nithya
 Madambu Kunjukuttan
 Ottappalam Pappan
 Ravi Menon
 Shalu Menon
 TP Madhavan

Awards and recognition
The film was shown in 2003 in the Malayalam Film Festival Dubai, Chennai International Film Festival, and the Indian Panorama section of the International Film Festival of India. In 2005, the film won the Best Screenplay Award at Ashdod International Film Festival held in Israel. In the year 2012-13 Parinamam was one of the film NFDC India released under the brand Cinemas of India along with highly acclaimed title, Gandhi by Richard Attenborough and Train to Pakistan by Pamela Rooks.

Parinamam has been recently showcased in the Indian Film Festival in Budapest (7–12 February 2014), celebrating the 100 years of Indian Cinema and was also the first Malayalam film to be shown in Hungary with Hungarian sub-titles. Parinamam has been showcased in The XXX International Festival Sarajevo, celebrating the 30th anniversary of Sarajevo Winter 2014 in the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina (7 February – 21 March 2014), held under the motto Peace, Art, Freedom.

References

External links

2003 films
2000s Malayalam-language films
Films directed by P. Venu
Films scored by Johnson

Parinamam


Marija Jurić (; 2 March 1873 – 30 November 1957), known by her pen name Zagorka (), was a Croatian journalist, writer and women's rights activist. She was the first female journalist in Croatia and is among the most read Croatian writers.

Early life and education
Marija Jurić was born on 2 March 1873 in the village of Negovec in the family of Ivan Jurić and Josipa Domin. She had two brothers and a sister. Baptized in a Catholic church on 3 March 1873, she was given the baptismal name Mariana. She later spoke of her family as being wealthy but unhappy. She spent her childhood in Hrvatsko Zagorje on the Golubovec estate owned by Baron Geza Rauch which her father managed. She was educated by private tutors alongside baron Rauch's children. Zagorka attended elementary school in Varaždin were she stood out as very intelligent and talented, finishing all grades with the highest marks. Although her father wanted to send her to Switzerland to attend high school, which baron Rauch agreed to pay, her mother objected so she eventually attended an all-girls high school at the Convent of the Sisters of Mercy in Zagreb. At her mother's insistence and with her father's objection, Zagorka married Slovak-Hungarian railway officer Andrija Matraja, 17 years her senior, in an arranged marriage held at the end of 1891. She disapproved of her husband's chauvinism against Croats. The couple lived in Szombathely for three years, during which she suffered a mental breakdown, but they eventually divorced. She learned Telegraphy and Hungarian during the time she spent in Hungary which helped her later in her career as a journalist. After dramatically escaping her abusive husband in 1895, Zagorka at first lived with her uncle in Sremska Mitrovica and afterwards in Zagreb. Matraja accused her of being mentally unstable so she was kept in an asylum for a period of time, but was eventually discharged when doctors realized that she was healthy. She managed to get a divorce with her father's help but was proclaimed guilty of marriage failure after her mother testified against her, so her former husband had no obligation to pay alimony or to return her personal belongings.

Journalist career
During high school, Zagorka edited her first newspaper - Samostanske novine [Convent Newspaper]. She had a single copy that she lent to other students. In 1891, she edited the only student newspaper in Krapina - Zagorsko proljeće [Spring of Zagorje] under the pseudonym M. Jurica Zagorski (implying she was a man). Following the publication of the first issue, it was banned because of what Zagorka wrote in the introduction titled "The Spirit of Matija Gubec Accuses - Later Generations Haven't Used Spilled Blood and Are Still Slaves". In 1896, she wrote unsigned articles for the Hrvatski branik and Hrvatska Posavina newspapers.

During the same year, Zagorka started working in Obzor, first as proofreader because the board of directors and editor-in-chief Šime Mazzuro objected to her for being a woman, but after bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer's intervention, as a journalist, although she had to sit in a separate room so no one would see her. She mostly wrote on politics, and occasionally travelogues from Zagorje, biographies, autobiographies, feuilletons, humoresques, short stories and novels in sequels. On 31 October 1896, her first article in Obzor titled Egy Percz (Hungarian for One Brief Moment) was published. In the article, Zagorka wrote about the exclusive usage of the Hungarian language - which the majority of Croats didn't understand - at the train stations in Croatia, which is why passengers didn't know where the trains were going. She later reported on political developments from the Croatian-Hungarian Parliament in Budapest and from Vienna, adding comments on politicians, and interviews and notes on unofficial political talks and general political atmosphere, which significantly contributed to the increase of Obzor's circulation. After Obzor's editor-in-chief J. Pasarić and his deputy M. Heimerl were imprisoned in 1903 during Khuen-Héderváry's strongest oppression of Croats, Zagorka edited Obzor for five months by herself. A vocal opponent of magyarization and germanization of Croatia, she was imprisoned in solitary confinement for ten days for organizing demonstrations against Khuen-Héderváry.  However, her editorial work in Obzor wasn't mentioned in 1936 Obzor's Memorial Book which deeply offended her. During this time, she also wrote articles for Hungarian opposition newspapers Népszava and Magyarország. In 1910, she participated in the founding of the Croatian Journalists' Association. During the same year, she married her fellow journalist Slavko Amadej Vodvařka. They divorced in 1914.

In 1917, Zagorka left Obzor and started her own magazine - Zabavnik and also wrote articles for Jutarnji list. Afterward, she published and edited the first Croatian women's magazine Ženski list [Womans' Paper] (1925–38), personally writing most of the articles, which had a feminist and patriotic note. Zagorka also wrote articles for dozens of other prominent newspapers, including Vijenac and Novi list.
 She participated in the foundation of the Croatian Female Writers' Association in 1936.

In 1938, she left Ženski list dissatisfied with the majority of the editorial staff that had become supporters of conservatism and clericalism contrary to their original support for liberalism and feminism. In 1939, she founded magazine Hrvatica [Croatian Woman] (1939–41). All of the proceedings acquired from the subscribers were spent on the printing, while Zagorka volunteered. During World War II, she was persecuted by Ustaše who forbid her from publishing Hrvatica, seized all the existing magazine copies, subscription money, and even furniture from her apartment. Faced with constant harassment, she attempted suicide. In 1944, she tried to join the Yugoslav Partisans but was rejected. Following the end of the war, she became excluded from the cultural scene for which she blamed some of her former, misogynist colleges from Obzor who believed that women should only write romance novels. Since she didn't have a pension and was therefore dependent on the help of acquaintances and readers, she decided to publish an advertisement in which she sought someone who would regularly bring her food. Among several candidates, she selected two younger men, Nikola Smolčić and Leo Car, who introduced themselves as cousins but were, in fact, a couple. She eventually asked them to move in with her. It was later revealed from the letters she secretly sent to her friends that she was heavily mistreated by Smolčić and Car.  Zagorka joined the Women's Antifascist Front of Croatia, Slobodna Dalmacija purchased the copyright to her works, and in 1952, she became an independent publisher collaborating with the Otokar Keršovani Printing Office.

Death
Zagorka died in Zagreb at the age of 84. She was buried on Mirogoj Cemetery by the chapel on the right side from the entrance, but not long after, her body was moved to the arcades on the left, away from the entrance.

Legacy
Zagorka's property was inherited by Smolčić, who died not long after, passing the property to his partner, Car. Although Zagorka wanted her apartment on Dolac Market to be turned into a memorial center, Car did not respect her last wish, renovated the apartment and continued to live in it until his death in September 1986. In 2009, City of Zagreb bought the apartment from Car's heirs and turned it into a Memorial apartment of Marija Jurić Zagorka - operated by the educational NGO Centre for Women's Studies Zagreb - in which visitors can learn more about Zagorka and other influential women in the fields of culture, politics, science, and human rights. Every year, at the end of November, the Center organizes a cultural and scientific event entitled Days of Marija Jurić Zagorka. Every third Thursday of the month, the Center organizes public lectures on Zagorka and women's literature.

In a 2005 poll compiled by Vjesnik, a Zagreb daily newspaper, Zagorka came second in the list of most popular Croatian writers of all time. The Croatian Journalists' Association awards the annual Marija Jurić Zagorka Award for excellence in written, radio, television, online and investigative journalism. She is one of the principal subjects of the essay collection No Man's Lands: eight extraordinary women in Balkan history, by the British-Kosovan writers Elizabeth Gowing and Robert Wilton.

Works

None of her novels have been translated into English, but two are available in German: The Witch of Gric (1995) and Malleus Maleficarum (1972). The latter title is the same as that of the "textbook" published in 1486 about how to find the witches, though Zagorka's novel is a fictional tale, not a witch-hunting manual. 11 of her novels, published in Croatian, are found in the Library of Congress.

Novels
 Roblje (Slaves) (1899)
 Vladko Šaretić (1903)
 Kneginja iz Petrinjske ulice (The Princess from Petrinjska Street) (1910): Zagorka's first murder mystery.
 Crveni ocean (The Red Ocean) (written under the name Jurić Vodvařka) (1918) - A utopian social novel about the 1917 October Revolution of Soviet Union. It was inspired by the inventions of Nikola Tesla.
 Tozuki (1922) - a social novel with themes from contemporary life, in which a secret society of criminals, murderers, smugglers and bribed politicians named Tozuki that arose in the first years of Yugoslavia .
 Republikanci (Republicans) (1924) deals with the Jacobin conspiracy and Napoleonic wars and the pro-Illyrian nationalistic movement led by Croatian Ban Maksimilijan Vrhovac.
 Modri đavo (The Blue Devil) (1926)
 Plameni inkvizitori (The Flaming Inquisitors) also called Kameni križari (The Stone Crusaders) (1928).  The story centres around the 13th century historical heroes "Knight Sokol" and the infamous robber Tomo Crni (Black Tomo).
 Krijeposni griješnici (The Virtuous Sinners) (1929)
 Kamen na cesti (A Stone on the Road) (1934) - An autobiographical novel detailing the author's early life. The main themes are the authors own undying patriotism in which she finds the comfort and reason to overcome all tragedies and obstacles in her life. The story starts in the authors tragic childhood filled with physical abuse from her mother and the neglect of her father. It describes a wealthy jet unhappy family, where the author herself, though being casually abused by her mother both physically and verbally, is the least mistreated child. Although told in a romanticized style, the book does a lot of psychological introspective of the narrator, analyzing both herself and others. It deals with each situation, opinion, ideal and theory by showing that things aren't how they present themselves. The center of the plot deals with her mothers decision of marrying her daughter to a 26-year older man, who eventually demands that she abandons her nationality and writes in the Hungarian spirit. The marriage ends with Mirijana refusing to abandon her nationality and becoming a "traitor", after which she elopes to her homeland Croatia, where she received the protection of her friends and father. The tragic deaths of her loved ones are the constant curse the author has to face, which gradually destroys her health and will for life. She eventually finds her cause in serving her nation, and through time gains stronger support. The novel deals with the themes of marriage, family abuse, discrimination and love, where the author concludes that her greatest love and devotion goes to her Croatian country for which she was prepared to sacrifice her wealth, good name, career offers and life, jet sees Croatia's freedom as her greatest joy and treasure.
 Vitez slavonske ravni (The Knight of the Slavonian Plain) (1938) - Set in the time of Maria Theresa. It tells the story of an impoverished noblewoman Krasanka and a masked knight who threatens the plundering bands by the use of what they see as "magic". He soon becomes a legend among the lands of Slavonia gaining nicknames such as "The Elf Knight" due to his use of pyrotechnics to frighten the superstitious bandits. It stands out as Zagorka's only literary work that's not thematically connected with Zagreb.
 Mala revolucionarka (The Little Revolutionary) (1939)
 Jadranka (1943) - Zagorka's final novel before her demise, dealing with the repression of Croatian nationalist movements under the reign of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.
 Nevina u ludnici (The Innocent in the Madhouse) (1957)

Short Story Collection
Zagrebačke silhouette (The Silhouettes of Zagreb) (1911)

Series
 Grička vještica (The Witch of Grič) (1912-26) - cycle of 6 novels in 7 volumes:
Tajna krvavog mosta (The Secret of the Bloody Bridge) (1912)
Kontesa Nera (Countess Nera) (1913-14)
Malleus Maleficarum (1918) - The Latin title means "The Hammer of the Witches".
Suparnica Marije Terezije (The Rival of Maria Theresa) (1918) - 2 volumes
Dvorska kamarila Marije Terezije (The Court Chambers of Maria Theresa) (1926)
Buntovnik na prijestolju (The Rebel on the Throne) (1918)
Zagorka's most popular work, combining genres of a historical novel, romance and adventure. Set in the second half of the 18th century, it tells the story of a beautiful young Countess Nera Keglević, who was raised isolated from society by her grandmother. Famed for her beauty and open-minded conduct, she becomes the jewel of Zagrebian aristocracy, but her popularity among men causes strong discountenance among envious women who see her as a threat. Due to Nera's attempts of saving unfortunate low class women from witch-burnings, she herself gets accused of witchcraft, which opens a protest of the aristocracy against the law for condemning a member of their society. All complaints to the Queen are soon hindered by the female society, leaving Nera at the mercy of the corrupted law. She is soon saved by the infamous fiery pandur Captain Siniša, who dressed up as the Devil in order to frighten the crowd and abduct her. Eventually Empress Maria Theresa gets informed of the scandalous condemnation of her friend's granddaughter and, by the persuasion of her son Joseph, reverses the process against Nera. Nera and Siniša are soon caught by a new set of social and imperial intrigues threatening the happiness they fought so hard to obtain. The story ends with a look into the tragic life and reign of Emperor Joseph II, the "Rebel on the Throne". The first book, "Secret of the Bloody Bridge", is set in the same period but works as an independent story, unlike the later novels which are thematically tied to the story "Countess Nera". The characters from the first book appear again in the later books. Despite the greater popularity of the second story, this book is widely considered by experts to be Zagorka's best literary work. Part of the story with Maria Theresa has been inspired by the life of Magda Logomer, the last woman condemned to death for witchcraft in Zagreb.  The book starts with a set of mysterious serial murders, each body found under the Bloody Bridge that connects Grič and Kaptol. The story revolves around Count Juraj Meško who is set on unmasking Baron Makar for the murder of his wife, and a poor servant girl Stanka whom her mistress dresses in the manner of a boy and presents to the society as her young nephew: Lieutenant Stanko. Meško soon grows fond of the little lieutenant and asks for his friendship and help, which Stanka accepts. The girl falls in love with the Count, risking her employment and head by the Baroness. She keeps on assisting the Count who does not recognize or return her love due to his conviction that his little friend is a boy. The story involves genres of adventure, romance, and history present in all of her novels but stands out as the only crime novel next to the Princess of Petrinjska Street.

The Antichrist
 Kći Lotrščaka (The Daughter of the Lotrščak) (1921-22) - A historical romance novel that deals with the 16th century nationalist uprising of the Croatian nobility against the pillaging practices of Margrave Georg von Brandenburg. The book is exceptional for reflecting on numerous old Zagrebian legends and fairy tales, presenting elements of the supernatural and religious miracles. It reflects on the famous painting of the "Madonna of the Stone Gate" which became the Holy patron of Zagreb after miraculously surviving a fire while all else, including the painting frame, burned down. The story is centered on the Grič princess Manduša, daughter of the Lotršćak, famed for her gentile kindness, religious upbringing and beauty. When a man named the "Antichrist" arrives at Grič, the clergy condemns him to be executed. After Manduša becomes a social outcast after being accused by the bishop and his mistress of being a child left on her father's doorstep, she decides to sacrifice herself by saving the Antichrist from execution by offering her hand in marriage. They are both banished from the city, at which point the story starts to unfold through the open battle of nobles with The Margrave and the Kaptolian clerics. The story deals with numerous issues such as the nature of marriage bringing up controversial questions such as the marriage of Catholic priests.
Kaptolski antikrist (The Antichrist of Kaptol) (1925)

 Gordana
 Gordana (1934-35) - Zagorka's longest work, dealing with the death of Arpad King Matthias Corvinus, the struggle between Corvinus's widow Beatrice of Naples and his illegitimate son Janos for the throne, and the events leading up to the Battle of Mohács in the early 16th century.  The novel tells the story of the Croatian spirit through the fictional heroine Gordana Brezovačka and her undying national pride.
Proročanstvo na Kamenitim vratima (The Prophecy at the Stone Gate)
Pakao prijestolja (The Hell of Thrones)
Veliki sud (The Great Court)
 Gordana Kraljica Hrvatâ (Gordana, the Queen of the Croats) (1937-39) - The sequel to Gordana.

Non-Fiction
Poznata hrvatska spisateljica (Famous Croatian Writer) (1932) - Autobiography
Neznana junakinja hrvatskog naroda (The Unknown Heroine of the Croatian Nation) (1939) - a study
Što je moja krivnja (What's my Fault?) (1947)
Memoirs (1952-53)

Drama
Kalista i Doroteja (Callisto and Dorotheus) - written in 1887 at the age of 14, inspired by Roman history.
Katarina Zrinska (1887 or 1888)
Filip Košenski
Evica Gupčeva

References

Further reading

External links

 Translation of a chapter of Zagorka's The Secret of the Bloody Bridge
 Obilježavanje 50. obljetnice smrti Marije Jurić Zagorke

1873 births
1957 deaths
Croatian feminists
People from Vrbovec
20th-century Croatian women writers
20th-century Croatian writers
Burials at Mirogoj Cemetery
Croatian journalists
Croatian women journalists
Croatian novelists
Croatian women novelists

Marija Jurić Zagorka


Henrietta Maria of France (; 25 November 1609 – 10 September 1669) was Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland from her marriage to King Charles I on 13 June 1625 until Charles was executed on 30 January 1649. She was mother of his sons Charles II and James II and VII. Contemporaneously, by a decree of her husband, she was known in England as 'Queen Mary', but she did not like this name and signed her letters "Henriette R" or "Henriette Marie R" (the "R" standing for regina, Latin for "queen").

Henrietta Maria's Roman Catholicism made her unpopular in England, and also prohibited her from being crowned in a Church of England service; therefore, she never had a coronation. She immersed herself in national affairs as civil war loomed, and in 1644, following the birth of her youngest daughter, Henrietta, during the height of the First English Civil War, was compelled to seek refuge in France. The execution of Charles I in 1649 left her impoverished. She settled in Paris and returned to England after the Restoration of Charles II to the throne. In 1665, she moved back to Paris, where she died four years later.

The North American Province of Maryland, a major haven for Roman Catholic settlers, was named in honour of Queen Henrietta Maria. The name was carried over into the current U.S. state of Maryland.

Childhood

Henrietta Maria was the youngest daughter of Henry IV of France (Henry III of Navarre) and his second wife, Marie de' Medici, and was named after her parents. She was born at the Palais du Louvre on 25 November 1609, but some historians give her a birthdate of 26 November. In England, where the Julian calendar was still in use, her date of birth is often recorded as 16 November. Henrietta Maria was brought up as a Roman Catholic. As a daughter of the Bourbon king of France, she was a Fille de France and a member of the House of Bourbon. She was the youngest sister of the future Louis XIII of France. Her father was assassinated on 14 May 1610, when she was less than a year old. As a child, she was raised under the supervision of the royal governess Françoise de Montglat.

Henrietta Maria was trained, along with her sisters, in riding, dancing, and singing, and took part in court plays. Although tutored in reading and writing, she was not known for her academic skills. As part of her religious training, the princess was heavily influenced by the Carmelites at the French court. By 1622, Henrietta Maria was living in Paris with a household of some 200 staff, and marriage plans were being discussed.

Marriage negotiations

Henrietta Maria first met her future husband in 1623 at a court entertainment in Paris, when he was on his way to Spain with the Duke of Buckingham to discuss a possible marriage with Maria Anna of Spain. The proposal fell through when Philip IV of Spain demanded Charles convert to the Catholic Church and live in Spain for a year as pre-conditions for the marriage. As Philip was aware, such terms were unacceptable, and when Charles returned to England in October, he and Buckingham demanded King James declare war on Spain. Searching elsewhere for a bride, Charles sent his close friend Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland, to Paris in 1624. A Francophile and godson of Henry IV of France, Holland strongly favoured a marriage with Henrietta Maria, the terms of which were negotiated by James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle.

Henrietta Maria was aged fifteen at the time of her marriage, which was not unusual for royal princesses of the period. Opinions on her appearance vary; her niece Sophia of Hanover commented that the "beautiful portraits of Van Dyck had given me such a fine idea of all the ladies of England that I was surprised to see that the queen, who I had seen as so beautiful and lean, was a woman well past her prime. Her arms were long and lean, her shoulders uneven, and some of her teeth were coming out of her mouth like tusks.... She did, however, have pretty eyes, nose, and a good complexion..."

Queenship

A proxy marriage was held at Notre-Dame de Paris on 1 May 1625, where Duke Claude of Chevreuse stood as proxy for Charles, shortly after Charles succeeded as king, with the couple spending their first night together at St Augustine's Abbey near Canterbury on 13 June 1625. As a Roman Catholic, Henrietta Maria was unable to participate in the Church of England ceremony on 2 February 1626 when Charles was crowned in Westminster Abbey. A suggestion she be crowned by Daniel de La Mothe-Houdancourt, the bishop of Mende who accompanied her to England, was unacceptable, although she was allowed to watch her husband's coronation at a discreet distance. This went down badly with the London crowds, while England's pro-French policy gave way rapidly to a policy of supporting French Huguenot uprisings, and then a disengagement from European politics, as internal problems grew.

After an initially difficult period, she and Charles formed a close partnership and were devoted to each other, but Henrietta Maria never fully assimilated into English society. She did not speak English before her marriage, and as late as the 1640s had difficulty writing or speaking the language. Combined with her Catholicism, this made her unpopular among English contemporaries who feared "Papist" subversion and conspiracies such as the Gunpowder Plot. Henrietta Maria has been criticised as being an "intrinsically apolitical, undereducated and frivolous" figure during the 1630s; others have suggested that she exercised a degree of personal power through a combination of her piety, her femininity, and her sponsorship of the arts.

Catholicism and household

A devout Roman Catholic, her religion heavily influenced Henrietta Maria's time as queen, particularly the early years of her marriage. In July 1626, she caused huge controversy by stopping at Tyburn to pray for Catholics executed there and later tried to convert her Calvinist nephew Prince Rupert during his stay in England.

At first, there was uncertainty about the new Queen's name, and one historian has said of this "... Henriette or Henrietta seeming altogether too fanciful for English taste". After prayers had been offered for her as "Queen Henry", the king determined the question by announcing that she was to be known publicly as "Queen Mary". He himself liked to call her "Maria". In using the name of Queen Mary, the English would also have been reminded of Charles's grandmother, Mary, Queen of Scots.

Henrietta Maria was open about her beliefs, obstructing plans to require the eldest sons of Catholic families to be raised as Protestants, and also facilitated Catholic marriages, a criminal offence under English law at the time.

An extension of this openness resulted in the Queen beginning to practise a sub-religion within her friend group, that being Précieuses. This was heavily inspired by the French's version of Devout Humanism, "whose proponents drew on the romance tradition in their writings in order to spread the influence of religion."

The new queen brought with her a huge quantity of expensive possessions, including jewellery, ornate clothes, 10,000 livres' worth of plate, chandeliers, pictures and books. She was also accompanied by a large and costly retinue, including her ladies-in-waiting, twelve Oratorian priests, and her pages. Charles blamed the poor start to his marriage on these advisors, primarily her principal confidante Madame St. George. He ordered their dismissal on 26 June 1626, greatly upsetting Henrietta Maria, while some refused to leave, including the Bishop of Mendes who cited orders from the French king. In the end, they were physically ejected, but she managed to retain her chaplain and confessor, Robert Phillip, along with seven of her French staff, her nurse Françoise de Monbodiac, Madame Garnier, her dresser Marguerite Courtin, Madame de Vantelet, a cook, a baker, a pantler, and a tailor.

Their removal was part of a plan to control her extravagant expenditure, which resulted in debts that were still being paid off several years later. Charles appointed Jean Caille as her treasurer; he was succeeded by George Carew, then by Sir Richard Wynn in 1629. Despite these reforms and gifts from the king, her spending continued at a high level; in 1627, she was secretly borrowing money, and her accounts show large numbers of expensive dresses purchased during the pre-war years.

There were fears over her health, and in July 1627 she travelled with her physician Théodore de Mayerne to take the medicinal spring waters at Wellingborough in Northamptonshire, while Charles visited Castle Ashby House.

Over the next few years, the Queen's new household began to form around her. Henry Jermyn became her favourite and vice-chamberlain in 1628. The Countess of Denbigh became the Queen's Head of the Robes and confidante. She acquired several court dwarves, including Jeffrey Hudson and "little Sara". Henrietta Maria established her presence at Somerset House, Greenwich Palace, Oatlands, Nonsuch Palace, Richmond Palace and Holdenby as part of her jointure lands by 1630. She added Wimbledon House in 1639, which was bought for her as a present by Charles. She also acquired a menagerie of dogs, monkeys and caged birds.

Relationship with Charles

Henrietta Maria's marriage to Charles did not begin well and his ejection of her French staff did not improve it. Initially, their relationship was frigid and argumentative, and Henrietta Maria took an immediate dislike to the Duke of Buckingham, the King's favourite.

One of Henrietta Maria's closest companions in the early days of her marriage was Lucy Hay, wife of James Hay who helped negotiate the marriage and who was now a gentleman of the bedchamber to Charles. Lucy was a staunch Protestant, a noted beauty and a strong personality. Many contemporaries believed her to be a mistress to Buckingham, rumours which Henrietta Maria would have been aware of, and it has been argued that Lucy was attempting to control the new queen on his behalf. Nonetheless, by the summer of 1628 the two were extremely close friends, with Hay one of the queen's ladies-in-waiting.

In August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated, leaving a gap in the royal court. Henrietta Maria's relationship with her husband promptly began to improve and the two forged deep bonds of love and affection, marked by various jokes played by Henrietta Maria on Charles. Henrietta Maria became pregnant for the first time in 1628 but lost her first child shortly after birth in 1629, following a very difficult labour. In 1630, the future Charles II was born successfully, however, following another complicated childbirth aided by the noted physician Theodore de Mayerne. By now, Henrietta Maria had effectively taken over Buckingham's role as Charles's closest friend and advisor. Despite the ejection of the French staff in 1626, Charles's court was heavily influenced by French society; French was usually used in preference to English, being considered a more polite language. Additionally, Charles would regularly write letters to Henrietta Maria addressed "Dear Heart." These letters showcase the loving nature of their relationship. For example, on 11 January 1645 Charles wrote, "And dear Heart, thou canst not but be confident that there is no danger which I will not hazzard, or pains that I will not undergo, to enjoy the happiness of thy company".

Henrietta Maria, as her relationship with her husband grew stronger, split with Lucy Hay in 1634. The specific reasons are largely unclear although the two had had their differences before. Hay was an ardent Protestant, for example, and led a rather more dissolute life than the Queen; Henrietta Maria may also have felt rather overshadowed by the confident and beautiful Hay and because she now had such a close bond with her husband, such confidants were no longer as necessary.

Art patronage

Henrietta Maria had a strong interest in the arts, and her patronage of various activities was one of the various ways in which she tried to shape court events. She and Charles were "dedicated and knowledgeable collectors" of paintings. Henrietta Maria was particularly known for her patronage of the Italian painter Orazio Gentileschi, who came to England in 1626 in the entourage of her favorite François de Bassompierre. Orazio and his daughter Artemisia Gentileschi were responsible for the huge ceiling paintings of the Queen's House at Greenwich. The Italian Guido Reni was another favourite artist, along with the miniature painters Jean Petitot and Jacques Bourdier. Anthony van Dyck was another very important painter she would often commission, either as gifts for others or for personal appreciation.

Henrietta Maria became a key patron in Stuart masques, complementing her husband's strong interest in paintings and the visual arts. She performed in various works herself, including as an Amazon in William Davenant's 1640 "Salmacida Spolia". She was also a patron of English composer Nicholas Lanier, and was responsible for Davenant being appointed the Poet Laureat in 1638.

The queen liked physical sculpture and design too, and retained the designer Inigo Jones as her surveyor of works during the 1630s. Like Charles, she was enthusiastic about garden design, although not horticulture itself, and employed André Mollet to create a baroque garden at Wimbledon House. She patronized Huguenot sculptor Hubert Le Sueur, while her private chapel was plain on the outside, but its interior included gold and silver reliquaries, paintings, statues, a chapel garden and a magnificent altarpiece by Rubens. It also had an unusual monstrance, designed by François Dieussart to exhibit the Holy Sacrament.

Henrietta Maria also had quite an interest in commercial theatre and, much like paintings and sculptures, was a prime patronage to many actors, their companies, and the theaters they performed in. A prime name in regards to her theatrical patronages is Christopher Beeston, who had not only run his own company of actors known by the Beeston's Boys, but others such as Queen Henrietta's Men. The latter group performed in many courts, such as Hampton Court or the Denmark House. These plays would often be to critical acclaim and great reception of the time, especially from other theatrical figures like Thomas Heywood. In the end – again, such as with other art forms – those who received Henrietta Maria's patronages were always appreciated, and in turn made certain to perform much appreciated shows.

English Civil War

During the 1640s, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were dominated by a sequence of conflicts termed the English Civil War or the Wars of the Three Kingdoms; within England, the conflict centred on the rival Royalist and Parliamentarian factions. Queen Henrietta Maria became heavily involved in this conflict that resulted in her husband's death and her exile in France. There have been various schools of thought as to Henrietta Maria's role in the civil war period and the degree of her responsibility for the ultimate Royalist defeat. The traditional perspective on the Queen has suggested that she was a strong-willed woman who dominated her weaker-willed husband for the worse; the historian Wedgwood, for example, highlights Henrietta Maria's steadily increasing ascendancy over Charles, observing that "he sought her advice on every subject, except religion" and indeed complained that he could not make her an official member of his council. Some recounting from the 1670s back Wedgwood's case somewhat, as there is documentation of Henrietta Maria's rather forward trades with France for money and arms. Reinterpretation in the 1970s argued that Henrietta Maria's political role was more limited, suggesting that the King took more decisions himself personally. Quinton Bone concludes, for example, that despite having a very close personal relationship with Henrietta Maria, Charles rarely listened to her on matters of state politics. A third, more recent model argues that Henrietta Maria did indeed exercise political power and influence during the conflict, less so directly but more as a result of her public actions and deeds, which constrained and influenced the choices available to Charles.

Pre-war years

By the end of the 1630s, relations between the English factions had become increasingly tense. Arguments over religion, society, morals, and political power became increasingly evident in the years before war broke out. Henrietta Maria's strong views on religion and social life at the court meant that, by 1642, she had become a "highly unpopular queen who apparently never successfully commanded intense personal respect and loyalty from most of her subjects".

Henrietta Maria remained sympathetic to her fellow Catholics, and in 1632 began construction of a new Catholic chapel at Somerset House. The old chapel had been deeply unpopular amongst Protestants, and there had been much talk amongst London apprentices of pulling it down as an anti-Catholic gesture. Although modest externally, Henrietta Maria's chapel was much more elaborate inside and was opened in a particularly grand ceremony in 1636. This caused great alarm amongst many in the Protestant community. Henrietta Maria's religious activities appear to have focused on bringing a modern, 17th-century European form of Catholicism to England. To some extent, it worked, with numerous conversions amongst Henrietta Maria's circle; historian Kevin Sharpe argues that there may have been up to 300,000 Catholics in England by the late 1630s – they were certainly more open in court society. Charles came under increasing criticism for his failure to act to stem the flow of high-profile conversions. Henrietta Maria even gave a requiem mass in her private chapel for Father Richard Blount, S.J. upon his death in 1638. She also continued to act in Masque plays throughout the 1630s, which met with criticism from the more Puritan wing of English society. In most of these masques she chose roles designed to advance ecumenism, Catholicism and the cult of Platonic love.

The result was an increasing intolerance of Henrietta Maria in Protestant English society, gradually shifting towards hatred. In 1630, Alexander Leighton, a Scottish doctor, was flogged, branded and mutilated for criticising Henrietta Maria in a pamphlet, before being imprisoned for life. In the late 1630s, the lawyer William Prynne, popular in Puritan circles, also had his ears cut off for writing that women actresses were notorious whores, a clear insult to Henrietta Maria. London society would blame Henrietta Maria for the Irish Rebellion of 1641, believed to be orchestrated by the Jesuits to whom she was linked in the public imagination. Henrietta Maria herself was rarely seen in London, as Charles and she had largely withdrawn from public society during the 1630s, both because of their desire for privacy and because of the cost of court pageants.

By 1641, an alliance of Parliamentarians under John Pym had begun to place increasing pressure on Charles, himself embattled after the failure of several wars. The Parliamentary faction achieved the arrest and subsequent execution of the king's advisers, Archbishop William Laud and Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford. Pym then turned his attention to Henrietta Maria as a way of placing further pressure on Charles. The Grand Remonstrance, passed by Parliament at the end of 1641, for example, did not mention the Queen by name, but it was clear to all that she was part of the Roman Catholic conspiracy the remonstrance referred to and condemned. Henrietta Maria's confidant Henry Jermyn, who had himself converted to Catholicism in the 1630s, was forced to flee to the Continent after the First Army Plot of 1641.

Henrietta Maria encouraged Charles to take a firm line with Pym and his colleagues. She was widely believed to have encouraged Charles to arrest his Parliamentary enemies in January 1642, although no hard proof of this exists. The Marquis de La Ferté-Imbault, the French ambassador, was keen to avoid any damage to French prestige by an attack on the Queen, but was equally unimpressed by Charles's record on relations with France. He advised caution and reconciliation with Pym. The arrest was bungled, and Pym and his colleagues escaped Charles's soldiers, possibly as a result of a tip-off from Henrietta Maria's former friend Lucy Hay. With the anti-royalist backlash now in full swing, Henrietta Maria and Charles retreated from Whitehall to Hampton Court.

The situation was steadily moving towards open war, and in February Henrietta Maria left for The Hague, both for her own safety and to attempt to defuse public tensions about her Catholicism and her closeness to the king. The Hague was the seat of Henrietta's prospective son-in-law, William II of Orange, and the queen was to accompany the bride, her 10-year-old daughter Mary, to her new home. Also, her widowed sister-in-law Elizabeth, mother of the queen's old favourite, Prince Rupert, had already been living in The Hague for some years. The Hague was a major centre for banking and finance; the queen intended to raise funds in aid of her husband there.

First English Civil War (1642–1646)

In August 1642, when the Civil War finally began, Henrietta Maria was in Europe at The Hague, raising money for the Royalist cause. Henrietta Maria focused on raising money on the security of the royal jewels, and on attempting to persuade Prince Frederick Henry of Orange and King Christian IV of Denmark to support Charles's cause. Henrietta would regularly send letters to Charles from her time in The Hague to her eventual return to England. This was to maintain the couple's dual decision-making beyond simply keeping in touch.She was not well during this period, suffering from toothache, headaches, a cold and coughs. Henrietta Maria's negotiations were difficult; the larger pieces of jewellery were both too expensive to be sold easily, and politically risky – many buyers were deterred in case a future English Parliament attempted to reclaim them, arguing they had been illegally sold by Henrietta Maria. Henrietta Maria was finally partially successful in her negotiations, particularly for the smaller pieces, but she was portrayed in the English press as selling off the crown jewels to foreigners to buy guns for a religious conflict, adding to her unpopularity at home. She urged Charles, then in York, to take firm action and secure the strategic port of Hull at the earliest opportunity, angrily responding to his delays in taking action.

At the beginning of 1643, Henrietta Maria attempted to return to England. Part of the rashness of the following decisions were partially due to the desire to rejoin Charles I in person, as his recent decision-making and disregard of her advising caused her to grow very concerned. The first attempt to cross from The Hague was not an easy one; battered by storms, her ship came close to sinking and was forced to return to port. Henrietta Maria used the delay to convince the Dutch to release a shipload of arms for the king, which had been held at the request of Parliament. Defying her astrologers, who predicted disaster, she set to sea again at the end of February. This second attempt was successful and she evaded the Parliamentarian navy to land at Bridlington in Yorkshire with troops and arms. The pursuing naval vessels then bombarded the town, forcing the royal party to take cover in neighbouring fields; Henrietta Maria returned under fire, however, to recover her pet dog Mitte which had been forgotten by her staff.

Henrietta Maria paused for a period at York, where she was entertained in some style by the Earl of Newcastle. She took the opportunity to discuss the situation north of the border with Royalist Scots, promoting the plans of Montrose and others for an uprising. She also supported the Earl of Antrim's proposals to settle the rebellion in Ireland and bring forces across the sea to support the king in England. Henrietta Maria continued to argue vigorously for nothing less than a total victory over Charles's enemies, countering proposals for a compromise. She rejected private messages from Pym and Hampden asking her to use her influence over the king to create a peace treaty, and was impeached by Parliament shortly afterwards. Meanwhile, Parliament had voted to destroy her private chapel at Somerset House and arrest the Capuchin friars who maintained it. In March, Henry Marten and John Clotworthy forced their way into the chapel with troops and destroyed the altarpiece by Rubens, smashed many of the statues and made a bonfire of the queen's religious canvases, books and vestments.

Travelling south in the summer, she met Charles at Kineton, near Edgehill, before travelling on to the royal capital in Oxford. The journey through the contested Midlands was not an easy one, and Prince Rupert was sent to Stratford-upon-Avon to escort her. Despite the difficulties of the journey, Henrietta Maria greatly enjoyed herself, eating in the open air with her soldiers and meeting friends along the way. She arrived in Oxford bringing fresh supplies to great acclaim; poems were written in her honour, and Jermyn, her chamberlain, was given a peerage by the king at her request.

Henrietta Maria spent the autumn and winter of 1643 in Oxford with Charles, where she attempted, as best she could, to maintain the pleasant court life that they had enjoyed before the war. The queen lived in the Warden's lodgings in Merton College, adorned with the royal furniture which had been brought up from London. The queen's usual companions were present: Denbigh, Davenant, her dwarves; her rooms were overrun by dogs, including Mitte. The atmosphere in Oxford was a combination of a fortified city and a royal court, and Henrietta Maria was frequently stressed with worry.

By early 1644, however, the king's military situation had started to deteriorate. Royalist forces in the north came under pressure, and after the Royalist defeat at the battle of Alresford in March, the royal capital at Oxford was less secure. The queen was pregnant with Henrietta and the decision was taken for her to withdraw safely west to Bath. Charles travelled as far as Abingdon with her before returning to Oxford with his sons. It was the last time the two saw each other.

Henrietta Maria eventually continued southwest beyond Bath to Exeter, where she stopped, awaiting her imminent labour. Meanwhile, however, the Parliamentarian generals the Earl of Essex and William Waller had produced a plan to exploit the situation. Waller would pursue and hold down the king and his forces, while Essex would strike south to Exeter with the aim of capturing Henrietta Maria and thereby acquiring a valuable bargaining counter over Charles. By June, Essex's forces had reached Exeter. Henrietta Maria had had another difficult childbirth, and the king had to personally appeal to their usual physician, de Mayerne, to risk leaving London to attend to her. The Queen was in considerable pain and distress, but decided that the threat from Essex was too great; leaving baby Henrietta in Exeter because of the risks of the journey, she stayed at Pendennis Castle, then took to sea from Falmouth in a Dutch vessel for France on 14 July. Despite coming under fire from a Parliamentarian ship, she instructed her captain to sail on, reaching Brest in France and the protection of her French family.

By the end of the year, Charles's position was getting weaker and he desperately needed Henrietta Maria to raise additional funds and troops from the continent. The campaigns of 1645 went poorly for the Royalists, however, and the capture, and subsequent publishing, of the correspondence between Henrietta Maria and Charles in 1645 following the Battle of Naseby proved hugely damaging to the royal cause. In two decisive engagementsthe Battle of Naseby in June and the Battle of Langport in Julythe Parliamentarians effectively destroyed Charles's armies. Finally, in May 1646 Charles sought shelter with a Presbyterian Scottish army at Southwell in Nottinghamshire.

Second and Third English Civil Wars (1648–51)

With the support of Anne of Austria and the French government, Henrietta Maria settled in Paris, appointing as her chancellor, the eccentric Sir Kenelm Digby, and forming a Royalist court in exile at St-Germain-en-Laye. During 1646 there was talk of Prince Charles joining Henrietta Maria in Paris; Henrietta Maria and the King were keen, but the Prince was initially advised not to go, as it would portray him as a Catholic friend of France. After the continued failure of the Royalist efforts in England, he finally agreed to join his mother in July 1646.

Henrietta Maria was increasingly depressed and anxious in France, from where she attempted to convince Charles to accept a Presbyterian government in England as a means of mobilising Scottish support for the re-invasion of England and the defeat of Parliament. In December 1647, she was horrified when Charles rejected the "Four Bills" offered to him by Parliament as a peace settlement. Charles had secretly signed "The Engagement" with the Scots, however, promising a Presbyterian government in England with the exception of Charles's own household. The result was the Second Civil War, which despite Henrietta Maria's efforts to send it some limited military aid, ended in 1648 with the defeat of the Scots and Charles's capture by Parliamentary forces.

In France, meanwhile, a "hothouse" atmosphere had developed amongst the royal court in exile at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. Henrietta Maria had been joined by a wide collection of Royalist exiles, including Jermyn, Henry Wilmot, Lord John Byron, George Digby, Henry Percy, John Colepeper and Charles Gerard, who were referred to collectively as the 'Louvre faction'. The Queen's court was beset with factionalism, rivalry and duelling; Henrietta Maria had to prevent Prince Rupert from fighting a duel with Digby, arresting them both, however, she was unable to prevent a later duel between Digby and Percy, and between Rupert and Percy shortly after that.

King Charles was executed by decree of Parliament in 1649; his death left Henrietta Maria almost destitute and in shock, a situation not helped by the French civil war of the Fronde, which left Henrietta Maria's nephew King Louis XIV short of money himself. During the ensuing, and final, Third English Civil War the whole of the Royalist circle now based itself from St-Germain, with Henrietta Maria's followers being joined by the old Royalist circle who had been with her son Charles II at the Hague, including Ormonde and Inchiquin and Clarendon, whom she particularly disliked. She also quarrelled with Ormonde: when she said that if she had been trusted the King would be in England, Ormonde, with his usual bluntness, retorted that if she had never been trusted the King need never have left England. Co-location began to bring the factions together, but Henrietta Maria's influence was waning. In 1654, Charles II moved his court on to Cologne, eliminating the remaining influence of Henrietta Maria in St-Germain.

Henrietta Maria increasingly focused on her faith and on her children, especially Henrietta (whom she called "Minette"), James and Henry. Henrietta Maria attempted to convert both James and Henry to Catholicism, her attempts with Henry angering both Royalists in exile and Charles II. Henriette, however, was brought up a Catholic. Henrietta Maria had founded a convent at Chaillot in 1651, and she lived there for much of the 1650s.

Restoration

Henrietta Maria returned to England following the Restoration in October 1660 along with her daughter Henrietta. She did not return to much public acclaimSamuel Pepys counted only three small bonfires lit in her honour, and described her as a "very little plain old woman [then aged 50], and nothing more in her presence in any respect nor garb than any ordinary woman". She took up residence once more at Somerset House, supported by a generous pension.

Henrietta Maria's return was partially prompted by a liaison between her second son, James, Duke of York, and Anne Hyde, the daughter of Edward Hyde, Charles II's chief minister. Anne was pregnant, and James had proposed marrying her. Henrietta Maria was horrified; she still disliked Edward Hyde, did not approve of the pregnant Anne, and certainly did not want the courtier's daughter to marry her son. However, Charles II agreed and despite her efforts the couple were married.

That same September, Henrietta's third son, Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester, died of smallpox in London at age 20. He had accompanied his brother King Charles II to England in May and had participated in the King's triumphal progress through London. More death was to follow: on Christmas Eve, Henrietta's elder daughter Mary also died of smallpox in London, leaving behind a 10-year-old son, the future William III of England.

In 1661, Henrietta Maria returned to France and arranged for her youngest daughter, Henrietta, to marry her first cousin, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, the only brother of Louis XIV. This significantly helped English relations with the French.

After her daughter's wedding, Henrietta Maria returned to England in 1662 accompanied by her son Charles II and her nephew Prince Rupert. She had intended to remain in England for the rest of her life, but by 1665 was suffering badly from bronchitis, which she blamed on the damp British weather. Henrietta Maria travelled back to France the same year, taking residence at the Hôtel de la Bazinière, the present Hôtel de Chimay in Paris. In August 1669, she saw the birth of her granddaughter Anne Marie d'Orléans; Anne Marie was the maternal grandmother of Louis XV, making Henrietta Maria an ancestor of most of today's European royal families. Shortly afterwards, she died at the château de Colombes, near Paris, having taken an excessive quantity of opiates as a painkiller on the advice of Louis XIV's doctor, Antoine Vallot. She was buried in the French royal necropolis at the Basilica of St Denis, with her heart being placed in a silver casket and buried at her convent in Chaillot.

Legacy

During his 1631 Northwest Passage expedition in the ship Henrietta Maria, Captain Thomas James named the northwest headland of James Bay where it opens into Hudson Bay for her. The U.S. state of Maryland was named in her honour by her husband, Charles I. George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore submitted a draft charter for the colony with the name left blank, suggesting that Charles bestow a name in his own honour. Charles, having already honoured himself and several family members in other colonial names, decided to honour his wife. The specific name given in the charter was "Terra Mariae, anglice, Maryland". The English name was preferred over the Latin due in part to the undesired association of "Mariae" with the Spanish Jesuit Juan de Mariana.

Numerous recipes ascribed to Henrietta Maria are reproduced in Kenelm Digby's famous cookbook The Closet of the Eminently Learned Sir Kenelme Digbie Kt. Opened.

A silk and wool mix cloth made in 1660, named in honour of the queen (Henrietta Maria).

Arms

The Royal Coat of Arms of England, Scotland and Ireland impaled with her father's arms as King of France and Navarre. The arms of Henry IV were: "Azure, three fleurs de lys Or (France); impaling Gules, a cross a saltire and an orle of chains linked at the fess point with an amulet vert (Navarre)". For her supporters she used the crowned lion of England on the dexter side, and on the sinister used one of the angels which had for some time accompanied the royal arms of France.

Genealogical table

Issue

References

Citations

Sources

Britland, Karen. (2006) Drama at the courts of Queen Henrietta Maria. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bone, Quinton. (1972) Henrietta Maria: Queen of the Cavaliers. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Bulman, William J. "The Practice of Politics: The English Civil War and the 'Resolution' of Henrietta Maria and Charles I." Past & Present, no. 206, 2010, pp. 43–79.
Croft, Pauline (2003). King James. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan. .
Everett Green, Mary Anne. (1855) Lives of the Princesses of England: From the Norman Conquest. Henry Colburn. V. 6

Fritze, Ronald H. and William B. Robison. (eds) (1996) Historical dictionary of Stuart England, 1603–1689. Westport: Greenwood Press.
Griffey, Erin. (2008) "Introduction" in Griffey (ed) 2008.
Griffey, Erin. (2008) Henrietta Maria: piety, politics and patronage. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing.
Hibbard, Caroline. (2008) "'By Our Direction and For Our Use:' The Queen's Patronage of Artists and Artisans seen through her Household Accounts." in Griffey (ed) 2008.
Kitson, Frank. (1999) Prince Rupert: Admiral and General-at-Sea. London: Constable.
Memoires of the Life and Death of that Matchless Mirrour of Magnanimity and Heroick Virtues Henrietta Maria De Bourbon Queen to that Blessed King and Martyr, Charles the First; & Mother to that most Magnificent Monarch Charles the Second, King of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, &c. , London, 1671. ProQuest.
Munro, Lucy. "The Queen and the Cockpit: Henrietta Maria's Theatrical Patronage Revisited." Shakespeare Bulletin, vol. 37 no. 1, 2019, p. 25–45.
Purkiss, Diane. (2007) The English Civil War: A People's History. London: Harper.
Raatschan, Gudrun. (2008) "Merely Ornamental? Van Dyck's portraits of Henrietta Maria." in Griffey (ed) 2008.
Smuts, Malcolm. (2008) "Religion, Politics and Henrietta Maria's Circle, 1625–41" in Griffey (ed) 2008.
Spencer, Charles. (2007) Prince Rupert: The Last Cavalier. London: Phoenix.
Stanton, Kamille Stone. "Panting Sentinels: Erotics, Politics, and Redemption in the Friendship Poetry of Katherine Philips (1631–1664)." Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, vol. 38, 2007, pp. 155–172. Project MUSE.
Stewart, George R. (1967) Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States, 3rd ed.. Houghton Mifflin.
 online
Wedgwood, C. V. (1966) The King's Peace: 1637–1641. London: C. Nicholls.

White, Michelle A. (2006) Henrietta Maria and the English Civil Wars. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing.

Further reading
 – House of France
de Lisle, Leanda (2022). Henrietta Maria: The Warrior Queen Who Divided a Nation. New York and London: Pegasus Books.
 Griffey, Erin. (March 2023) 'Re-Dressing the Evidence: Henrietta Maria's Wardrobe Accounts, 1627–1639', Costume, 57:1, pp. 3–30

 – Henrietta Maria & Catharine of Braganza

External links

 Henrietta Maria at the official website of the Royal Collection Trust

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1609 births
1669 deaths
17th-century French people
17th-century French women
17th-century English people
17th-century English women
Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis
Court of Charles I of England
Drug-related deaths in France
English royal consorts
French Roman Catholics
House of Bourbon
Irish royal consorts
Nobility from Paris
French people of Italian descent
Princesses of France (Bourbon)
Scottish royal consorts
Women in the English Civil War
Children of Henry IV of France
Daughters of kings
Queen mothers
Women who experienced pregnancy loss

Henrietta Maria of France


A windpost is a structural item used in the design and construction of masonry walls to increase lateral wall stability and protect them against damage from horizontal forces imposed by wind pressure, crowd or handrail loads. They are normally constructed from mild steel channel sections, supported at the head and the foot between floor slab levels and/or the principal steelwork sections forming the structural frame of the building. In cavity walls, the windpost will typically be fixed into the inner and outer leafs of the wall by specialist fixings and fastenings at regular intervals along its length. The windposts will be spaced along the walls of the building at regular intervals as calculated by the engineer to suit the required loadings.

In most cases a windpost is a large and very unwieldy element that can often weigh in excess of 400 kg. The manufacture and delivery of both steel and concrete windposts has a significant carbon footprint and once delivered to site, their storage requires large areas to be set aside. The procurement of windposts, including the design process, often requires a lead time of four to five weeks. The length and weight of windposts makes them particularly difficult to manoeuvre into position in confined spaces. When installed as part of an internal wall, significant health and safety risks exist for the installers in lifting the windpost to its vertical position. There is no recognised mechanical lifting method to safely erect windposts.

The properties of steel windposts have inherent fire integrity, acoustic, air tightness and thermal movement issues, all of which require additional measures to achieve specification compliance at extra cost.

Design Methods and Alternatives

Windposts are designed to span vertically, floor to floor and provide lateral support for masonry wall panels. The windposts will usually be restrained by the brickwork and designed as simply supported beams.

As an alternative to steel windposts, when the primary structure is composed of reinforced concrete, secondary structures are cast in situ to provide lateral support to masonry panels.

Traditional design methods are often not optimised for the design of masonry panels with openings, and therefore windposts can be over specified on walls where the design capacity may not be utilised. Using alternative design methods such as advanced yield line analysis, the specification of wind posts within masonry wall panels can often be optimised and often omitted. These calculations can be typically carried out by structural engineering software packages such as MasterSeries.

Recently, a new innovative technique of reinforcing blockwork walls has been developed and used in many Crossrail projects in the UK.  It consists of using uniquely designed hollow blocks to allow the construction of reinforced concrete beams and columns within the blockwork construction, which eliminate the need for traditional windposts or lintels.
This new technique maximises masonry wall strength without thickening the wall or harming its appearance and allows the architects to design and create uninterrupted blockwork panels with flexible detailing options, whilst retaining the performance characteristics of traditional masonry such as fire integrity, acoustic performance and air permeability. This modular approach also provides the adaptability for contractors to make late changes to construction without affecting the build programme and creates seamless walls which do not require any fire protection.

References

Structural engineering
Masonry

Windpost


The Royal Exhibition Building is a World Heritage-listed building in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, built in 1879–1880 as part of the international exhibition movement, which presented over 50 exhibitions between 1851 and 1915 around the globe. The building sits on approximately , is  long and is surrounded by four city streets. It is at 9 Nicholson Street in the Carlton Gardens, flanked by Victoria, Carlton and Rathdowne Streets, at the north-eastern edge of the central business district. It was built to host the Melbourne International Exhibition in 1880–81, and then hosted the even larger Centennial International Exhibition in 1888, and the formal opening of the first Parliament of Australia in 1901. The building is representative of the money and pride Victoria had in the 1870s. Throughout the 20th century smaller sections and wings of the building were subject to demolition and fire; however, the main building, known as the Great Hall, survived.

It received restoration throughout the 1990s and in 2004 became the first building in Australia to be awarded UNESCO World Heritage status, being one of the last remaining major 19th-century exhibition buildings in the world. It is the world's most complete surviving site from the International Exhibition movement 1851–1914. It sits adjacent to the Melbourne Museum and is the largest item in Museum Victoria's collection. Today, the building hosts various exhibitions and other events and is closely tied with events at the Melbourne Museum.

History

The Royal Exhibition Building was designed by the architect Joseph Reed of Reed and Barnes architecture, who also designed the Melbourne Town Hall, the State Library of Victoria, and the Baroque style gardens. The Royal Exhibition Building was the largest design completed by Reed and Barnes. According to Reed, the eclectic design was inspired by many sources. Composed of brick, timber, steel, and slate, the Exhibition Building is representative of the Byzantine, Romanesque, Lombardic and Italian Renaissance styles.
The dome was modeled on the Florence Cathedral, while the main pavilions were influenced by the style of Rundbogenstil and several buildings from Normandy, Caen and Paris. The building has the scale of the French Beaux Arts, with a cruciform plan in the shape of a Latin cross, with long nave-like wings symmetrically placed east–west about the central dome, and a shorter wing to the north. The Great Hall is still in beautiful condition, crowned by an octagonal drum and dome rising 68 metres, and 18.3 metres across. The dome was formed using cast iron and timber frame and has a double shell.
At the crossing, windows in the drum of the dome bring in sunlight for a bright open space. The interior is painted in the colour scheme of 1901, with murals and the words "Victoria Welcomes All Nations" under the dome surviving from 1888. In 1888, electric lighting was installed for the Centennial International Exhibition, making it one of the first in the world that was accessible during night time. The interior decorations changed between the two exhibitions of 1880 and 1888. In 1880, the walls were left bare and windows and door joinery colored green. In 1888, walls were painted for the first time. The decoration was by interior designer John Ross Anderson.

It was built by David Mitchell, who also built Scots' Church and St Patrick's Cathedral. He was also the father of the famed soprano Dame Nellie Melba, who sang at the opening of the Provisional Parliament House in Canberra in 1927. Mitchell was a member of the Council of the Royal Agricultural society and also the Builders and Contractor's association.

The foundation stone was laid by Victorian governor George Bowen on 19 February 1879 and it was completed in just 18 months, opening on October 1, 1880, as the Melbourne International Exhibition. The building consisted of a Great Hall of over 12,000 square metres, flanking lower annexes to the north on the east and west sides, and many temporary galleries between.

1880–1901
In the 1880s, the building hosted two major International Exhibitions: The Melbourne International Exhibition in 1880 and the Melbourne Centennial Exhibition in 1888, celebrating a century of European settlement in Australia. The most significant event to occur in the Exhibition Building was the opening of the first Parliament of Australia on 9 May 1901, following the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January. After the official opening, the Federal Parliament moved to the Victorian State Parliament House, while the Victorian Parliament moved to the Exhibition Building for the next 26 years.

On 3 September 1901, the Countess of Hopetoun, wife of the Governor-General, announced the winners of a competition to design the Australian National Flag. A large flag, 5.5 metres by 11 metres, was unfurled and flown over the dome of the Royal Exhibition Building.

1901–1979

In 1902, the building hosted the Australian Federal International Exhibition. The period after this time saw the building used for many purposes. During the 1919 Spanish flu epidemic, the building was used as an influenza hospital.
As it decayed, it became known derogatively by locals as The White Elephant in the 1940s and by the 1950s, like many buildings in Melbourne of that time it was earmarked for replacement by office blocks. In 1948, members of the Melbourne City Council put this to the vote and it was narrowly decided not to demolish the building. The wing of the building which once housed Melbourne Aquarium burnt down in 1953. It was a venue for the 1956 Summer Olympics, hosting the basketball, weightlifting, wrestling, and the fencing part of the modern pentathlon competitions. During the 1940s and 1950s, the building remained a venue for regular weekly dances. Over some decades of this period it also held boat shows, car shows and other regular home and building industry shows. It was also used during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s for State High School Matriculation and for the Victorian Certificate of Education examinations, among its various other purposes. The western annexe was demolished in the 1970s. The last remaining original annex, the grand ballroom, was demolished amid controversy in 1979. It was replaced with a new building on the same footprint providing more exhibition space, clad in mirror glass, in 1980. On 1 October 1980 during a visit to Victoria, Princess Alexandra unveiled a plaque which commemorated both the opening of the new mirror-glass "Centennial Hall", and the centenary of the building. She also unveiled a second plaque commemorating the bestowal of the title "Royal" on the building by Her Majesty the Queen.

1980–present
Following the outcry over the ballroom demolition, and the appointment of new Trustees and a new Chair in 1983, the heritage of the building began to be seen as important as providing modern space for exhibitions.

The first conservation assessment of the building was undertaken by Alan Willingham in 1987, and over the following decades the Great hall was progressively renovated and restored. In 1996, the then Premier of Victoria, Jeff Kennett, proposed the location and construction of Melbourne's State Museum in the carpark to the north, which involved the demolition of the 1960s annexes in 1997–98.

The biennial Melbourne Art Fair took place at the Royal Exhibition Building from 1988 to 2014.

The location of the Melbourne Museum close to the Exhibition Building site was strongly opposed by the Victorian State Labor Party, the Melbourne City Council and some in the local community. Due to the community campaign opposing the museum development, John Brumby, then State opposition leader, with the support of the Melbourne City Council, proposed the nomination of the Royal Exhibition Building for world heritage listing. The world heritage nomination did not progress until the election of the Victorian State Labor Party as the new government in 1999.

On 1 July 2004, the Royal Exhibition Building and Carlton Gardens was granted listing as a World Heritage Site, the first building in Australia to be granted this status. The heritage listing states that "The Royal Exhibition Building is the only major extant nineteenth-century exhibition building in Australia. It is one of the few major nineteenth-century exhibition buildings to survive worldwide."

In October 2009, Museum Victoria embarked upon a major project to restore the former German Garden of the Western Forecourt. The area had been covered by asphalt in the 1950s for car parking.

Renovations
Renovations include the timber flooring, building services, externals, and stonework. Most timber staircases have been replaced by concrete for safety also, though the site has continued to be very authentic through all renovations. All additions have been removed such as the East and West annexes and the two North structures. The Australian Government has recently granted $20 million for further renovation to protect and promote the Royal Exhibition Building. The South facade will undergo conservation works, the dome of the Great Hall will be repaired and be part of a new experience. The basement will be turned into a curatorial exhibition experience. This will be a place where history is brought to life, and ideas of the future are expanded upon. The Australian Department of Environment and Energy, along with Heritage Victoria, Creative Victoria and Museums Victoria will oversee the projects. The renovations are predicted to be finished by 2020.

Current use
The Royal Exhibition Building is used to this day as an exhibition venue for various festivals and fairs such as Melbourne Fashion Week. During the recent Covid-19 pandemic, the building was used as a mass vaccination centre, operated by St Vincent's Hospital.

The Royal Exhibition Building is used as an exam hall for the University of Melbourne, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne High School, Nossal High School, Mac.Robertson Girls' High School and Suzanne Cory High School.

The building is no longer Melbourne's largest commercial exhibition centre. The modern alternative is the Melbourne Convention & Exhibition Centre, which is in Southbank to the south of the Melbourne central business district.

References

External links

 World heritage listing for the Royal Exhibition Building
 Royal Exhibition Building at Museum Victoria
 Images of Royal Exhibition Building

Cultural infrastructure completed in 1880
Venues of the 1956 Summer Olympics
Landmarks in Melbourne
Heritage-listed buildings in Melbourne
Buildings and structures in the City of Melbourne (LGA)
Olympic basketball venues
Olympic modern pentathlon venues
Olympic weightlifting venues
Olympic wrestling venues
Neoclassical architecture in Australia
Victorian architecture in Victoria (state)
Domes
World Heritage Sites in Victoria (state)
World's fair architecture in Melbourne
Tourist attractions in Melbourne
1880 establishments in Australia
Convention centres in Australia

Royal Exhibition Building


A quarter panel (British English: rear wing) is the body panel (exterior surface) of an automobile between a rear door (or only door on each side for two-door models) and the trunk (boot) and typically wraps around the wheel well. The similar front section between the door and the hood (bonnet) is called a fender (front wing), and may sometimes also be referred to as a quarter panel.  Quarter panels are typically made of sheet metal, but are sometimes made of fiberglass, carbon fiber, or fiber-reinforced plastic.

A quarter panel is typically a welded-on component of the unibody structure. Replacement of a sheet metal quarter panel typically requires it to be cut off the vehicle and a replacement part to be welded (or sometimes bonded) to the vehicle. Due to the high amount of specialized labor, a quarter panel may often be repaired rather than replaced by hammering the damaged area to a relatively flat surface and then applying a body filler to smooth out the damaged area to match the original surface. The panel is then usually painted and often clear coated.

See also
Injection molding
List of auto parts
Quarter glass

References

Automotive body parts

Quarter panel


Trevor Bell (18 October 1930 – 3 November 2017) was an English Leeds-born artist and contemporary visual artist.

Life and career

Education

Bell was awarded a scholarship to attend the Leeds College of Art between 1947 and 1952 and, encouraged by Terry Frost, moved to Cornwall in 1955.

Early life and St Ives

Bell was drawn to St Ives, Cornwall as at that time it was the epicentre for British abstract art being the home to the St. Ives group of artists such as Patrick Heron, Peter Lanyon, Ben Nicholson, Barbara Hepworth, and Terry Frost. From these artists, especially Nicholson, Bell received advice and help. Nicholson encouraged him to show in London and Waddington Galleries gave Bell his first solo exhibition in 1958.  Patrick Heron wrote the introduction to the exhibition catalogue, stating that Bell was 'the best non-figurative painter under thirty'.

The following year Bell was awarded the prize for painting at the Biennale de Paris. He stayed in St. Ives for five years constantly developing his technique and painting language but in 1960 was offered the Gregory Fellowship in Painting at the University of Leeds so he moved back to his hometown. It was during his time at the University of Leeds that Bell developed his shaped canvases, which set his work apart from other abstract artists of his generation.

In the 1960s Bell showed work in exhibitions in the UK and USA including a major touring exhibition covering the period of 1966 to 1970, organised by the Richard Demarco Gallery in Edinburgh, that travelled to Belfast and Sheffield.  During this time his work was bought for the Tate collection.

United States

In 1973 he presented his new work at the Whitechapel Gallery in London, having just taken part in a major exhibition at the Corcoran Gallery in Washington, D.C. Over the course of the next thirty years Bell combined painting with teaching in various locations eventually moving to Florida State University, Florida, in 1976 to become the Professor for Master Painting. Here with the provision of a warehouse sized studio and time to really develop his painting he produced new and powerful work. He called them his "heatscapes", reflecting the influence of the sub-tropical climate and landscape on him and his work. He would spend the next 20 years in America before returning to west Cornwall, whose dramatic coastlines were an influence upon him, permanently.

Return to St Ives

In 1985 Bell was included in the London Tate Gallery's St Ives 1939-64 exhibition and in 1993 he was part of the inaugural show of the Tate St Ives, where he was again re-established as part of the St Ives artists.  He moved back to Cornwall in 1996 and was invited by David Falconer, the former Director of Millennium (Now Anima-Mundi), to have a solo exhibition in St Ives, which has culminated in a long-term relationship with the gallery and its current Director Joseph Clarke.

Death

Trevor Bell died on 3 November 2017, at the age of 87 after a "short illness".

Prizes and fellowships

 Paris Biennale - Major Prize Winner
 Gregory Fellow, Leeds University
 Italian Government Scholarship
 Florida Art Fellowship
 Emeritus Professor, Florida State University
 Honorary R.W.A.
 Honorary Fellow, University College Falmouth

Further reading

Trevor Bell, A British Painter In America, Ed., A Palladino-Craig published by Florida State University,
Trevor Bell by Chris Stephens, published by Sanson & Company,

See also
 List of St. Ives artists
 St Ives, Cornwall
 Leeds College of Art
 Terry Frost

References

External links
 Trevor Bell Official Website

1930 births
2017 deaths
20th-century English painters
21st-century English painters
21st-century English male artists
Alumni of Leeds Arts University
Artists from Leeds
English male painters
Florida State University faculty
St Ives artists
20th-century English male artists

Trevor Bell (artist)


Richard M. Erdall (January 13, 1933 – July 3, 2018) was an American politician. He was the 40th mayor of Minneapolis, Minnesota, serving for one day, on December 31, 1973; as such, he is the shortest-serving mayor of the city. Before that, he was alderman for the City's 13th Ward and the president of the Minneapolis City Council. In 1965, Erdall was elected to the Minneapolis Park Board. On January 13, 1967 (his 34th birthday), he was appointed 13th Ward alderman to fill the vacancy caused by the election of John W. Johnson to the Minnesota legislature. Erdall was elected to the council in 1967 and reelected in 1969 and 1971. He was elected president of the city council on July 7, 1969, and reelected in 1971. On August 13, 1971, Erdall was ousted as president when a member of his caucus sided with the DFL to elect himself president. On January 28, 1972, Erdall was restored to the presidency, which he held until January 2, 1974. He was defeated for reelection as alderman in November 1973. The opportunity to serve as mayor arose because the incumbent mayor, Charles Stenvig, a former police inspector who had also been defeated for reelection, resigned on his final day in office to become acting Chief of Police.

Erdall was a member of the Republican Party, and is to date the last Republican to serve as mayor of Minneapolis or as council president, as of . In 1976, Erdall received the Independent-Republican nomination in the contest to represent Minnesota's 5th Congressional district, which was then represented by seven-term incumbent (and future Minneapolis mayor) Donald M. Fraser. He received less than 26% of the vote, as Fraser was reelected. He was born in Minneapolis and died there on July 3, 2018, at the age of 85, survived by his children Richard, Kristen, and Susan.

References

Further reading

Mayors of Minneapolis
1933 births
2018 deaths
20th-century American politicians
Minnesota Republicans
Minneapolis City Council members

Richard Erdall