"Vows" is the premiere of the second season of the American science fiction television series Dollhouse and the show's 14th episode overall. The episode was written and directed by series creator and executive producer Joss Whedon, and aired in the United States on Fox on September 25, 2009. "Vows" follows the first season finale, "Omega", and takes place several months after the events of that episode. Therefore, it is set in the present as opposed to the unaired thirteenth episode, "Epitaph One".

In the episode, Echo is sent on an engagement as a young woman who marries an elusive international arms dealer, played by Jamie Bamber, and Ballard is offered a position as Echo's new handler. Dr. Saunders struggles with the revelation that she is a Doll and gets some surprising revelations from Topher. A U.S. Senator starts an investigation into the Rossum Corporation. The episode was met with mostly positive reviews.

Plot
The episode starts with Echo getting an imprint. Paul Ballard is seemingly concerned at whether Echo can handle this, but Topher reassures Ballard everything will be fine. During the imprinting process, Topher experiences glitches with his computer and suspects it is Dr. Saunders who is messing with him and goes to sleep. Adelle and Boyd discuss the dangers of keeping Ballard on staff, but Adelle seems unfazed. Echo is then seen on an engagement and is getting married.

Topher wakes up and finds that there are rats in the cupboard placed in there by Dr. Saunders. Topher calls Dr. Saunders, who accuses Topher of faulty imprinting and Topher quickly rebuffs this saying that his work is perfection and her "mental health" is her fault. Boyd then walks into the room to speak with Dr. Saunders, handing in a report about Victor and his plastic surgery to mend his scars. Dr. Saunders does speak up about how Victor was given the surgery and not her, but says she is fine with it. Boyd asks her out to dinner but Dr. Saunders declines, saying she is scared of open spaces and it is just how she was made. Boyd rebuffs this saying it is an excuse and ultimately we are all a series of excuses.

Echo returns to Paul after spending the night with her "husband". It turns out Ballard is using Echo as an undercover agent to finally put the people away that he missed during his time at the FBI. Echo is then brought in for a check-up and whilst under examination by Dr. Saunders, she recalls an engagement they had together. Echo calls Dr. Saunders Whiskey and they re-account the details that sent Echo to the position of number one doll. In Adelle's office, Senator Perin is investigating the Rossum Corporation for withholding medical advancements. Boyd immediately suspects Ballard, but Ballard disregards the accusations. Adelle then offers Ballard the position of Echo's handler given how much he cares for her, despite how unhealthy it seems. Meanwhile it seems Echo has been found out. There have been photos taken of her and Paul Ballard drawing suspicion towards her.

Dr. Saunders tries to seduce Topher while he is trying to sleep. Dr. Saunders hypothesizes that she was programmed to hate Topher so they would fall in love, in a sense something that is more real than a "love slave". Topher declines Dr. Saunders' sexual advances and in a heated exchange, Topher reveals that he had not programmed her to hate him. He only programmed her to disagree with him so that they would not miss "something" that could potentially hurt the dolls. The decision to hate was made only by Dr. Saunders. Dr. Saunders subsequently breaks down under this information and Topher tries to comfort her. It is revealed Dr. Saunders chose not to find out who she was in "Omega" because she doesn't want to give the body back to the original personality, thereby "dying" as Whiskey/Saunders.

Echo's husband confronts Echo with the picture of her and Paul Ballard. She is struck in the head and this seemingly triggers her past imprints. As she is about to talk herself out of her situation she states that she is Eleanor Penn (from "Ghost"). She is subsequently confused about her state of mind. Echo's husband then goes to make his arms deal, bringing Echo with him. Ballard follows her and calls Topher who notices spikes in her feed and is alarmed that her handler did not call it. Ballard goes in by himself and then accuses Echo of failing the engagement and strikes her several times, trying to make her recall the "fighter" imprint from "Man on the Street". They are able to disable all the guards and stop the arms deal. Dr. Saunders leaves the Dollhouse, leaving only a note for Boyd saying "I'm running out of excuses". Victor's scars have fully healed and he and Sierra are seen holding hands walking together. Echo reveals to Ballard that she can recall her imprints, even hear them, but she knows none of them are her real self and she asks for help from Ballard. He then takes up the offer from Adelle and becomes her new handler.

Production
Material was filmed for this episode featuring Mag (Felicia Day), Zone (Zack Ward) and the child imprinted with Caroline's personality (Adair Tishler), set in the dystopic future of "Epitaph One".  The scenes were cut because "Vows" was "long and crowded with information", but the material was eventually used, along with newly shot footage, in the series finale, "Epitaph Two: Return".

Reception

Reviews
Hercules from Ain't It Cool News said that Vows was "funny, suspenseful, sexy and willing to kick around more than a few Very Big Ideas..." and that the episode "roughly triples my investment in this series' fate." Eric Goldman from IGN said "Dollhouse definitely feels stronger now than it did in Season 1, with a more layered story going on..." He went on to praise the Saunders/Whiskey storyline and Amy Acker in particular, saying it "included some of the most emotional and complex material this show has dealt with so far, all of which is terrifically performed by Amy Acker."

Ratings
When originally broadcast, "Vows" was viewed by 2.56 million viewers, down 41% from the series premiere, but almost on par with the first season finale, which was broadcast in May 2009. It received a 1.0/3 ratings share among adults 18-49.

References

External links

2009 American television episodes
Dollhouse (TV series) episodes
Television episodes written by Joss Whedon
Television episodes directed by Joss Whedon

sk:Šablóna:Dollhouse

Vows (Dollhouse)


Alpha was an unincorporated freedmen's town in Dallas County, Texas, United States. Founded soon after the American Civil War, the town peaked in the 1890s then dwindled in population throughout the 20th century before being delisted as a community in 1987. The area is now an incorporated part of the city of Dallas.

Geography
Alpha was located at  (32.938638, -96.803069), centered on what is now the intersection of Alpha Road and Preston Road in Dallas, Texas. Alpha Road, running east–west across north Dallas, just north of Interstate 635 and just south of Spring Valley Road, is named for the community. Most of the land area is now occupied by gated communities, housing developments, and the Valley View Center shopping mall.

Founded as a freedmen's town just after the Civil War, Alpha was located on land that had been a part of Farmers Branch, Texas, on the main transportation route between Farmers Branch and Garland. The town gained a post office in 1893 and a general store in 1895. While the post office closed in 1904 as Alpha's population stood at 111, by 1933 that figure fell to 50 residents. This population would remain essentially unchanged at the 1980 census and through 1987 when the town was delisted as a community.

The Mount Pisgah Baptist congregation built a church in Alpha in the late 1800s at what is now the corner of Spring Valley Road and Preston Road. This building was rebuilt in 1945 and vacated in 1981 when the church relocated. The building, the last major structure remaining from Alpha's heyday, was rented out and allowed to fall into disrepair. The property was put up for sale in 2010. The building was renovated and, , houses a Hispanic congregation.

References

External links

Former cities in Texas
Unincorporated communities in Dallas County, Texas
Unincorporated communities in Texas
Populated places established in the 1860s

Alpha, Texas


Laurencekirk is a small town in the ancient county of Kincardineshire, modern county of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, just off the A90 Dundee to Aberdeen main road. It is the largest settlement in the Howe o' the Mearns area and houses the local secondary school; Mearns Academy, which was awarded the Charter Mark in 2003. The 2004 population is estimated at 3,596.

References

Other websites
 Laurencekirk

Towns in Aberdeenshire

Laurencekirk


The Scarab Club (commonly referred to as Historic Scarab Club of Detroit) is an artists' club, gallery, and studio in the Cultural Center Historic District of Detroit, Michigan, located at 217 Farnsworth Street, near the Detroit Institute of Arts and the Detroit Science Center. It was designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1974 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.

The early years
The Scarab Club was formed in 1907. It began as an informal association named the Hopkin Club after the founder, marine painter Robert Hopkin. The members met regularly to talk art, eat dinner, and critique paintings. The club's vision since inception was "to promote the mutual acquaintance of art lovers and art workers; to stimulate and guide toward practical expression the artistic sense of the people of Detroit; to advance the knowledge and love of the fine arts in every possible manner; and to maintain a clubhouse for entertainment and social purposes as well as to provide working and exhibit facilities for artist members."

Renamed the "Scarab Club" in 1913, the club grew in popularity, and member Lancelot Sukert, a Detroit architect, designed the current clubhouse, which opened its doors on October 5, 1928. The interior of the club is decorated with objets d'art created and contributed by members over the decades. The building showcases exquisite tile sculptures from Pewabic Pottery, including the Scarab Club logo. The ceiling beams of the lounge once served as the club's guest book, and poet Vachel Lindsay signed as one of the first visitors. Since then, signing the beam has become a ceremonial honor, and the autographs of artists including John Sloan, Diego Rivera, Pablo Davis, Marcel Duchamp, Norman Rockwell, and John Sinclair appear on the beams.

American artist, inventor, and automobile pioneer George Schuyler Hodges, of Pontiac, Michigan, was a charter member of the club.

The club's themed costumed balls, held from 1917 to 1950, were the single most important social event in Detroit each year. Life magazine covered the 1937 event with a two-page photo spread, and The Detroit News and The Detroit Free Press also gave the annual balls two pages in their photo sections. Radio station WJR broadcast live from the 1937 "Scarabean Cruise" ball.

For many years The Book Club of Detroit held its regular meetings at the Scarab Club.

The annual Exhibition of Michigan Artists at the Detroit Institute of Arts was originated by the Scarab Club in 1911. In 1915 the Scarab Club Prize became the top award and in 1917 the first Scarab Club Gold Medal was awarded. The gold medal is still the club's most prestigious award, given each December at the Gold Medal Exhibition and Dinner.

The building
The clubhouse was built in 1928 in the Arts and Crafts style by architect and member Lancelot Sukert. The exterior mosaic tiles, which appeared in 1928 renderings, were not completed until the 1980s, when they were finished by W.P.A. muralist and member Edgar Yaeger, who was a junior member of the club in 1928. The ceramic scarab embedded over the front entrance was designed by sculptor Horace Colby and fired at Pewabic Pottery.

The original paneled wood entry in the front hints at intrigue inside, while a brick-walled courtyard in the rear of the building conjures up more pastoral images, with its exquisite flower gardens, fountain and statuary. The club contains several galleries and lounges, as well as six working artist studios. The second floor lounge is unique for its massive ceiling beams painted by members in 1928 and signed by more than 230 artists since, including Diego Rivera, Norman Rockwell, Marshall Fredericks and Pablo Davis. Other beams were painted to depict events in the club's history. The lounge also contains a fireplace with mural depicting different levels of club membership, painted by Paul Honoré. Original mica and metal lighting and furnishings complete the decor.

References

Further reading

External links

The Scarab Club

Art museums and galleries in Michigan
Buildings and structures in Detroit
Clubs and societies in Michigan
Culture of Detroit
Michigan State Historic Sites
Clubhouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Michigan
National Register of Historic Places in Detroit
Tourist attractions in Detroit
Arts and Crafts architecture in the United States

Scarab Club


In Odd We Trust is the first graphic novel featuring Dean Koontz's character Odd Thomas. It was released June 24, 2008. It is written by Queenie Chan and Koontz, with illustrations by Chan in a manga style.

Plot summary
In Odd We Trust serves as a prequel to the first Odd Thomas novel. The ghost of a young boy appears to Odd, and he embarks on a quest to bring justice to the boy's killer so that his ghost can move on. Odd's friend, the Chief of Police Wyatt Porter, shares some details of the case, and informs him that the boy's babysitter is the one that discovered the body. The babysitter turns out to be Sherry Sheldon, a childhood friend of Odd's girlfriend and soulmate, Stormy Llewellyn. Sherry relates that a stalker has been leaving her disturbing notes for several months, and believes this stalker may be the murderer. Odd and Stormy resolve to catch the stalker before he kills again.

Odd asks the ghost of the little boy to help him find his killer, and Joey leads him to a street corner, where he sees a suspicious man. The man flees when Odd tries to address him. Odd gives chase, but loses his quarry when he trips over a lawn gnome.

Four neighborhood children are believed to be targets, as they have each received a note from the killer. Chief Porter assigns police escorts to each of the houses, and Odd and Stormy decide to spend the night with Sherry at the house where she is babysitting a girl named Angelica. The policeman on stakeout at the house finds an empty car containing a mutilated mannequin, and from this Odd deduces that the killer is nearby, taunting them. He throws open the doors of a nearby van, and discovers the man he chased earlier. He and Odd trade veiled threats, but when Stormy shows up with a gun, the man drives off.

Chief Porter traces the van's license plates to a man named Kyle Bernshaw, and gives Odd the resulting address. Odd and Stormy break into Bernshaw's house, to find giant piles of magazines (from which his mysterious notes have been cut and glued together), and a note to Odd, revealing that this was a trap. Odd turns to find himself cornered by a vicious dog, from which he is saved at the last minute by Joey's ghost. Odd and Stormy race back to the house where they left Sherry, only to find out that Angelica's parents have fired her and she has left. Odd realizes that Sherry, not one of the four children under police protection, was the target all along. The two borrow a car and, using Odd's psychic magnetism (an ability that draws him to a person if he concentrates on them while traveling), they locate Bernshaw in an abandoned slaughterhouse. Odd fights him, with limited success, until Stormy shoots him in the leg, and Odd is able to subdue him. They free Sherry from the trunk of Bernshaw's car.

The killer is taken into custody, but refuses to confess, insisting that he will be given a chance to escape, as he has made a deal with the devil and everything he wants always comes to him. He threatens to reveal Odd's identity and abilities to the world, bringing a storm of media attention, one of the very things Odd fears most. Odd lies and pretends that he, too, has sold his soul to the devil for his powers, but just as he begins to make headway with taking Bernshaw into his confidence, a guard collapses and the killer is able to grab the guard's gun. He fires, but the bullet ricochets off a chair Odd is holding. The bullet kills Bernshaw.

Angelica's parents re-hire Sherry, and the story ends with Odd and Stormy musing on the happy ending they have managed.

Characters

Odd Thomas
Odd Thomas is the protagonist of the Odd Thomas series. He is a short-order cook at the Pico Mundo grill, who has the ability to see the lingering dead. He uses this ability to try and bring peace to the ghosts he encounters, so that they can move on to the next life. Traumatic childhood experiences left him extremely uncomfortable with guns, so he relies on his resourcefulness to escape the sometimes hostile situations in which he finds himself.

Stormy Llewellyn
Stormy Llewellyn is Odd's girlfriend and soulmate. She grew up in an orphanage, except for a six-month stint in which she was adopted by a family, only to be sexually abused. Stormy intends to marry Odd, but she is waiting until she overcomes her traumatic past. She does not share Odd's fear of guns, and carries a pistol with which she provides backup for Odd on his adventures.

Chief Wyatt Porter
Wyatt Porter is the Chief of Police in Pico Mundo, and serves as a father figure to Odd. He is one of the few people who are aware of Odd's abilities, and has sometimes been able to catch elusive criminals with Odd's paranormal help.

Terri Stambaugh
Terri is Odd's boss at the Pico Mundo Grill, and something of a mother figure to him. Odd does not own a car, and when circumstances force him to drive somewhere, Terri loans him her Mustang.

Sherry Sheldon
Sherry Sheldon is a new character introduced in the graphic novel. She is a childhood friend of Stormy's, who grew up with her at the orphanage. She babysits children, one of whom is the murdered boy, Joey. She is being stalked by a mysterious figure who leaves her constant notes.

References

External links

2008 graphic novels
American graphic novels
Comics based on fiction
Novels by Dean Koontz
Original English-language manga
Del Rey Manga
Fiction books about precognition

In Odd We Trust


Blackfriars, Gloucester, England, founded about 1239, is one of the most complete surviving Dominican black friaries in England.
Now owned by English Heritage and restored in 1960, it is currently leased to Gloucester City Council and used for weddings, concerts, exhibitions, guided tours, filming, educational events and private hires. The former church, since converted into a house, is a Grade I listed building.

History
The Monastery, known as Blackfriars from the black cloaks the friars wore, was founded on a site west of Southgate Street, with the city wall adjacent to the south. It comprised a church and a quadrangle formed by such buildings as the scriptorium (library), the dormitory with its renowned scissor-braced roof and the cloisters. It was established around 1239 under the patronage of Henry III and at its height was home to 30-40 friars.

The friary went into private hands after the Dissolution of the Monasteries, having been purchased for £240 in 1539 by Thomas Bell (died 1566), who converted the church to his residence and transformed the buildings of the cloister, including the scriptorium, into a cap manufactory.

The conversion of the church into a grand mansion was completed by 1545, which Bell referred to in his will as "My howse called Bell Place". The nave and chancel were shortened approximately each by a half, either side of the central crossing, of which latter the southern member, extending into the cloister, was removed. Upper floors and stone mullioned windows were added above the outer aisles, a semi-circular bay window being also added to the north side of the nave. The great window at the north end of the northern transept was built in, and replaced with several smaller windows. In 1555 John Hooper, the Bishop of Gloucester, was burnt to death for his beliefs. His widow, Anne Hooper and other Blackfriars clergy were exiled abroad. Hooper and her daughter, Rachel, died in Frankfurt in 1555 of the plague. Anne left money to her son.

A 1721 image of the complex by William Stukeley provides valuable information about the friary at that time.

In the 1930s Bell Place was converted into 2 dwellings. Restoration work on this former church was completed in 1984, when it was opened to the public.

The cloister buildings were converted from former cap factory into dwellings in the 18th century, and part of the west range was heightened and converted into three houses. Bell bequeathed Blackfriars to his niece Joan and her husband Thomas Denys, son of Sir Walter Denys of Dyrham Park, in which family it remained until c. 1700. Both the ancient gateways to the Blackfriars have been  removed, one before 1724, the other having collapsed c. 1750. One had become known as Lady Bell's Gate, which is memorialised in the modern street name "Ladybellegate", onto which the western cloister faces.

The site is today the most complete surviving Dominican priory in Britain, containing the oldest surviving purpose-built library in the country. The friary includes a notable, scissor-braced, dormitory roof.

See also
Greyfriars, Gloucester
Whitefriars, Gloucester

References

External links

Blackfriars at English Heritage
 Detailed historical record for Gloucester Blackfriars

Monasteries in Gloucestershire
History of Gloucester
Buildings and structures in Gloucester
English Heritage sites in Gloucestershire
Grade I listed buildings in Gloucestershire
1239 establishments in England
1539 disestablishments in England
Christian monasteries established in the 13th century
Gloucester
Historic house museums in Gloucestershire

Blackfriars, Gloucester


The State Administrative Expenses (SAE), a program authorized under Section 7 of the Child Nutrition Act (P.L. 89-642, as amended), provides funding to help states meet the administrative costs of operating school lunch, breakfast, and child care food programs and related commodity donation programs authorized under the Child Nutrition Act and the National School Lunch Act (P.L. 79-396).

References

Health in the United States

State Administrative Expenses


Thelymitra pallidiflora, commonly called the pale sun orchid, is a species of orchid that is endemic to Victoria. It has a single erect, channelled, leaf and up to ten white to very pale blue, self-pollinating flowers which only open on hot days.

Description
Thelymitra pallidiflora is a tuberous, perennial herb with a single erect, channelled, linear to lance-shaped leaf  long and  wide with a purplish base. Between two and ten white to very pale blue flowers  wide are arranged along a flowering stem  tall. The sepals and petals are  long and  wide. The column is white or pale blue,  long and  wide. The lobe on the top of the anther is dark brown or black with a yellow tip, tubular and gently curved. The side lobes curve upwards and have, toothbrush-like tufts of white hairs. Flowering occurs in October and November but the flowers open only on warm to hot days, and then only slowly.

Taxonomy and naming
Thelymitra pallidiflora was first formally described in 2004 by Jeff Jeanes and the description was published in Muelleria from a specimen collected near Bells Beach. The specific epithet (pallidiflora) means "pale-flowered".

Distribution and habitat
The pale sun orchid grows in woodland in the central south of Victoria, near Lysterfield, Anglesea and Crib Point.

References

pallidiflora
Endemic orchids of Australia
Orchids of Victoria (state)
Plants described in 2004

Thelymitra pallidiflora


A decagon is a shape with 10 sides and 10 corners.

Regular decagon
All sides of a regular decagon are the same length. Each corner is 144°. All corners added together equal 1440°.

Area

The amount of space a regular decagon takes up is

a is the length of one of its sides.

An alternative formula is  where d is the distance between parallel sides, or the height when the decagon stands on one side as base.
By simple trigonometry .

Sides
The side of a regular decagon inscribed in a unit circle is , where ϕ is the golden ratio, .

Dissection of regular decagon
Coxeter states that every parallel-sided 2m-gon can be divided into m(m-1)/2 rhombs. For the regular decagon, m=5, and it can be divided into 10 rhombs, with examples shown below. This decomposition can be seen as 10 of 80 faces in a Petrie polygon projection plane of the 5-cube. A dissection is based on 10 of 30 faces of the rhombic triacontahedron. The list A006245 defines the number of solutions as 62, with 2 orientations for the first symmetric form, and 10 orientations for the other 6.

Skew decagon

A skew decagon is a skew polygon with 10 vertices and edges but not existing on the same plane. The interior of such an decagon is not generally defined. A skew zig-zag decagon has vertices alternating between two parallel planes.

A regular skew decagon is vertex-transitive with equal edge lengths. In 3-dimensions it will be a zig-zag skew decagon and can be seen in the vertices and side edges of a pentagonal antiprism, pentagrammic antiprism, and pentagrammic crossed-antiprism with the same D5d, [2+,10] symmetry, order 20.

These can also be seen in these 4 convex polyhedra with icosahedral symmetry. The polygons on the perimeter of these projections are regular skew decagons.

Related pages
Decagonal number and centered decagonal number, figurate numbers modeled on the decagon
Decagram, a star polygon with the same vertex positions as the regular decagon

References

Other websites

Definition and properties of a decagon With interactive animation

10

Decagon


A vacuum cleaner, also known simply as a vacuum, is a device that causes suction in order to remove dirt from floors, upholstery, draperies, and other surfaces. It is generally electrically driven.

The dirt is collected by either a dustbag or a cyclone for later disposal. Vacuum cleaners, which are used in homes as well as in industry, exist in a variety of sizes and models—small battery-powered hand-held devices, wheeled canister models for home use, domestic central vacuum cleaners, huge stationary industrial appliances that can handle several hundred litres of dirt before being emptied, and self-propelled vacuum trucks for recovery of large spills or removal of contaminated soil. Specialized shop vacuums can be used to suck up both solid matter and liquids.

Name
Although vacuum cleaner and the short form vacuum are neutral names, in some countries (UK, Ireland) hoover is used instead as a genericized trademark, and as a verb. The name comes from the Hoover Company, one of the first and more influential companies in the development of the device. In New Zealand, particularly the Southland region, it is sometimes called a lux, likewise a genericized trademark and used as a verb. The device is also sometimes called a sweeper although the same term also refers to a carpet sweeper, a similar invention.

History

The vacuum cleaner evolved from the carpet sweeper via manual vacuum cleaners. The first manual models, using bellows, were developed in the 1860s, and the first motorized designs appeared at the turn of the 20th century, with the first decade being the boom decade.

Manual vacuums

In 1860 a manual vacuum cleaner was invented by Daniel Hess of West Union, Iowa. Called a "carpet sweeper", it gathered dust with a rotating brush and had a bellows for generating suction.
Another early model (1869) was the "Whirlwind", invented in Chicago in 1868 by Ives W. McGaffey. The bulky device worked with a belt driven fan cranked by hand that made it awkward to operate, although it was commercially marketed with mixed success.

A similar model was constructed by Melville R. Bissell of Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1876, who also manufactured carpet sweepers. The company later added portable vacuum cleaners to its line of cleaning tools.

Powered vacuum cleaners

The end of the 19th century saw the introduction of powered cleaners, although early types used some variation of blowing air to clean instead of suction. One appeared in 1898 when John S. Thurman of St. Louis, Missouri, submitted a patent (U.S. No. 634,042) for a "pneumatic carpet renovator" which blew dust into a receptacle. Thurman's system, powered by an internal combustion engine, traveled to the customer's residence on a horse-drawn wagon as part of a door-to-door cleaning service. Corrine Dufour of Savannah, Georgia, received two patents in 1899 and 1900 for another blown-air system that seems to have featured the first use of an electric motor.

In 1901 powered vacuum cleaners using suction were invented independently by British engineer Hubert Cecil Booth and American inventor David T. Kenney. Booth also may have coined the word "vacuum cleaner". Booth's horse-drawn combustion-engine-powered "Puffing Billy", maybe derived from Thurman's blown-air design, relied upon just suction with air pumped through a cloth filter and was offered as part of his cleaning services. Kenney's was a stationary  steam-engine-powered system with pipes and hoses reaching into all parts of the building.

Domestic vacuum cleaner

The first vacuum-cleaning device to be portable and marketed at the domestic market was built in 1905 by Walter Griffiths, a manufacturer in Birmingham, England. His Griffith's Improved Vacuum Apparatus for Removing Dust from Carpets resembled modern-day cleaners; it was portable, easy to store, and powered by "any one person (such as the ordinary domestic servant)", who would have the task of compressing a bellows-like contraption to suck up dust through a removable, flexible pipe, to which a variety of shaped nozzles could be attached.

In 1906 James B. Kirby developed his first of many vacuums called the "Domestic Cyclone". It used water for dirt separation. Later revisions came to be known as the Kirby Vacuum Cleaner. The Cleveland, Ohio factory was built in 1916 and remains open currently, and all Kirby vacuum cleaners are manufactured in the United States.

In 1907 department store janitor James Murray Spangler (1848–1915) of Canton, Ohio, invented the first portable electric vacuum cleaner, obtaining a patent for the Electric Suction Sweeper on 2 June 1908. Crucially, in addition to suction from an electric fan that blew the dirt and dust into a soap box and one of his wife's pillow cases, Spangler's design utilized a rotating brush to loosen debris. Unable to produce the design himself due to lack of funding, he sold the patent in 1908 to local leather goods manufacturer William Henry Hoover (1849–1932), who had Spangler's machine redesigned with a steel casing, casters, and attachments, founding the company that in 1922 was renamed the Hoover Company. Their first vacuum was the 1908 Model O, which sold for $60 ($ in  dollars). Subsequent innovations included the beater bar in 1919 ("It beats as it sweeps as it cleans"), disposal filter bags in the 1920s, and an upright vacuum cleaner in 1926.

In Continental Europe, the Fisker and Nielsen company in Denmark was the first to sell vacuum cleaners in 1910. The design weighed just  and could be operated by a single person. The Swedish company Electrolux launched their Model V in 1921 with the innovation of being able to lie on the floor on two thin metal runners. In the 1930s the German company Vorwerk started marketing vacuum cleaners of their own design which they sold through direct sales.

Post-Second World War

For many years after their introduction, vacuum cleaners remained a luxury item, but after the Second World War, they became common among the middle classes. Vacuums tend to be more common in Western countries, because in most other parts of the world, wall-to-wall carpeting is uncommon and homes have tile or hardwood floors, which are easily swept, wiped or mopped manually without power assist.

The last decades of the 20th century saw the more widespread use of technologies developed earlier, including filterless cyclonic dirt separation, central vacuum systems and rechargeable hand-held vacuums. In addition, miniaturized computer technology and improved batteries allowed the development of a new type of machine—the autonomous robotic vacuum cleaner. In 1997 Electrolux of Sweden demonstrated the Electrolux Trilobite, the first autonomous cordless robotic vacuum cleaner on the BBC-TV program Tomorrow's World, introducing it to the consumer market in 2001.

Recent developments
In 2004 a British company released AiRider, a hovering vacuum cleaner that floats on a cushion of air, similar to a hovercraft, to make it light-weight and easier to maneuver (compared to using wheels).

A British inventor has developed a new cleaning technology known as Air Recycling Technology, which, instead of using a vacuum, uses an air stream to collect dust from the carpet. This technology was tested by the Market Transformation Programme (MTP) and shown to be more energy-efficient than the vacuum method. Although working prototypes exist, Air Recycling Technology is not currently used in any production cleaner.

Modern configurations
A wide variety of technologies, designs, and configurations are available for both domestic and commercial cleaning jobs.

Upright

Upright vacuum cleaners are popular in the US, UK, and numerous Commonwealth countries, but unusual in some Continental European countries. They take the form of a cleaning head, onto which a handle and bag are attached. Upright designs generally employ a rotating brushroll or beater bar, which removes dirt through a combination of sweeping and vibration. There are two types of upright vacuums; dirty-air/direct fan (found mostly on commercial vacuums), or clean-air/fan-bypass (found on most of today's domestic vacuums).

The older of the two designs, direct-fan cleaners have a large impeller (fan) mounted close to the suction opening, through which the dirt passes directly, before being blown into a bag. The motor is often cooled by a separate cooling fan. Because of their large-bladed fans, and comparatively short airpaths, direct-fan cleaners create a very efficient airflow from a low amount of power, and make effective carpet cleaners. Their "above-floor" cleaning power is less efficient, since the airflow is lost when it passes through a long hose, and the fan has been optimized for airflow volume and not suction.

Fan-bypass uprights have their motor mounted after the filter bag. Dust is removed from the airstream by the bag, and usually a filter, before it passes through the fan. The fans are smaller, and are usually a combination of several moving and stationary turbines working in sequence to boost power. The motor is cooled by the airstream passing through it. Fan-bypass vacuums are good for both carpet and above-floor cleaning, since their suction does not significantly diminish over the distance of a hose, as it does in direct-fan cleaners. However, their air-paths are much less efficient, and can require more than twice as much power as direct-fan cleaners to achieve the same results.

The most common upright vacuum cleaners use a drive-belt powered by the suction motor to rotate the brush-roll. However, a more common design of dual motor upright is available. In these cleaners, the suction is provided via a large motor, while the brushroll is powered by a separate, smaller motor, which does not create any suction. The brush-roll motor can sometimes be switched off, so hard floors can be cleaned without the brush-roll scattering the dirt. It may also have an automatic cut-off feature which shuts the motor off if the brush-roll becomes jammed, protecting it from damage.

Canister

Canister models (in the UK also often called cylinder models) dominate the European market. They have the motor and dust collectors (using a bag or bagless) in a separate unit, usually mounted on wheels, which is connected to the vacuum head by a flexible hose. Their main advantage is flexibility, as the user can attach different heads for different tasks, and maneuverability (the head can reach under furniture and makes it very easy to vacuum stairs and vertical surfaces). Many cylinder models have power heads as standard or add-on equipment containing the same sort of mechanical beaters as in upright units, making them as efficient on carpets as upright models. Such beaters are driven by a separate electric motor or a turbine which uses the suction power to spin the brushroll via a drive belt.

Drum
Drum or shop vac models are essentially heavy-duty industrial versions of cylinder vacuum cleaners, where the canister consists of a large vertically positioned drum which can be stationary or on wheels. Smaller versions, for use in garages or small workshops, are usually electrically powered. Larger models, which can store over , are often hooked up to compressed air, utilizing the Venturi effect to produce a partial vacuum. Built-in dust collection systems are also used in many workshops.

Wet/dry

Wet or wet/dry vacuum cleaners are a specialized form of cylinder/drum models that can be used to clean up wet or liquid spills. They are generally designed to be used both indoors and outdoors and to accommodate both wet and dry debris; some are also equipped with an exhaust port or detachable blower for reversing the airflow, a useful function for everything from clearing a clogged hose to blowing dust into a corner for easy collection.

Shop vacs are able to collect large, bulky or otherwise inconvenient material that would damage or foul household vacuum cleaners, like sawdust, swarf, and liquids.

They use wide hoses, which open directly into the collection chamber (usually a bucket-like cylinder constituting the body of the vacuum). As the airstream enters the larger volume, its flow slows down, allowing the material to drop into the chamber before air is sucked out through the filter and to the vacuum's exhaust.

Shop vacs' performance can be evaluated by a number of metrics. Commonly used ones include the motor's rating (using power measurements like watts or horsepower), the vacuum's ability to develop suction (using pressure measurements like inches of water), and total airflow through the system (using volume rate measurements like cubic feet per minute).

Related to the wet vacuum is the extraction vacuum cleaner used mainly in hot water extraction, a method of cleaning hard-to-move pieces of fabric like carpets. These machines are able to spray hot soapy water and then suck it back out of the fabric, removing dirt in the process.

Wet vacuum cleaner have been modified by end users, adding an internally-mounted sump pump for continuous removal of liquids without having to stop to empty the tank.

Pneumatic
Pneumatic or pneumatic wet/dry vacuum cleaners are a specialized form of wet/dry models that hook up to compressed air. They commonly can accommodate both wet and dry soilage, a useful feature in industrial plants and manufacturing facilities.

Backpack
Backpack vacuum cleaners are commonly used for commercial cleaning: they allow the user to move rapidly about a large area. They are essentially small canister vacuums strapped onto the user's back.

Hand-held

Lightweight hand-held vacuum cleaners, either powered from rechargeable batteries or mains power, are also popular for cleaning up smaller spills. Frequently seen examples include the Black & Decker DustBuster, which was introduced in 1979, and numerous handheld models by Dirt Devil, which were first introduced in 1984. Some battery-powered handheld vacuums are wet/dry rated; the appliance must be partially disassembled and cleaned after picking up wet materials to avoid developing unpleasant odors.

Robotic

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, several companies developed robotic vacuum cleaners, a form of carpet sweeper usually equipped with limited suction power. Some prominent brands are Roomba, Neato, and bObsweep. These machines move autonomously while collecting surface dust and debris into a dustbin. They can usually navigate around furniture and come back to a docking station to charge their batteries, and a few are able to empty their dust containers into the dock as well. Most models are equipped with motorized brushes and a vacuum motor to collect dust and debris. While most robotic vacuum cleaners are designed for home use, some models are appropriate for operation in offices, hotels, hospitals, etc.

In December 2009, Neato Robotics launched the world's first robotic vacuum cleaner which uses a rotating laser-based range-finder (a form of lidar) to scan and map its surrounding. It uses this map to clean the floor methodically, even if it requires the robot to return to its base multiple times to recharge itself. In many cases it will notice when an area of the floor that was previously inaccessible becomes reachable, such as when a dog wakes up from a nap, and return to vacuum that area.

Cyclonic

Portable vacuum cleaners working on the cyclonic separation principle became popular in the 1990s. This dirt separation principle was well known and often used in central vacuum systems. Cleveland's P.A. Geier Company had obtained a patent on a cyclonic vacuum cleaner as early as 1928, which was later sold to Health-Mor in 1939, introducing the Filter Queen cyclonic canister vacuum cleaner.

In 1979, James Dyson introduced a portable unit with cyclonic separation, adapting this design from industrial saw mills. He launched his cyclone cleaner first in Japan in the 1980s at a cost of about US$1800 and in 1993 released the Dyson DC01 upright in the UK for £200. Critics expected that people would not buy a vacuum cleaner at twice the price of a conventional unit, but the Dyson design later became the most popular cleaner in the UK.

Cyclonic cleaners do not use filtration bags. Instead, the dust is separated in a detachable cylindrical collection vessel or bin. Air and dust are sucked at high speed into the collection vessel at a direction tangential to the vessel wall, creating a fast-spinning vortex. The dust particles and other debris move to the outside of the vessel by centrifugal force, where they fall due to gravity.

In fixed-installation central vacuum cleaners, the cleaned air may be exhausted directly outside without need for further filtration. A well-designed cyclonic filtration system loses suction power due to airflow restriction only when the collection vessel is almost full. This is in marked contrast to filter bag systems, which lose suction when pores in the filter become clogged as dirt and dust are collected.

In portable cyclonic models, the cleaned air from the center of the vortex is expelled from the machine after passing through a number of successively finer filters at the top of the container. The first filter is intended to trap particles which could damage the subsequent filters that remove fine dust particles. The filters must regularly be cleaned or replaced to ensure that the machine continues to perform efficiently.

Since Dyson's success in raising public awareness of cyclonic separation, several other companies have introduced cyclone models. Competing manufacturers include Hoover, Bissell, Shark, Eureka, Electrolux and Filter Queen, and the cheapest models are no more expensive than a conventional cleaner.

Central

Central vacuum cleaners, also known as built-in or ducted, are a type of canister/cylinder model which has the motor and dirt filtration unit located in a central location in a building, and connected by pipes to fixed vacuum inlets installed throughout the building. Only the hose and cleaning head need be carried from room to room, and the hose is commonly 8 m (25 ft) long, allowing a large range of movement without changing vacuum inlets. Plastic or metal piping connects the inlets to the central unit. The vacuum head may be unpowered, or have beaters operated by an electric motor or by an air-driven turbine.

The dirt bag or collection bin in a central vacuum system is usually so large that emptying or changing needs to be done less often, perhaps a few times per year for an ordinary household. The central unit usually stays in stand-by, and is turned on by a switch on the handle of the hose. Alternately, the unit powers up when the hose is plugged into the wall inlet, when the metal hose connector makes contact with two prongs in the wall inlet and control current is transmitted through low voltage wires to the main unit.

A central vacuum typically produces greater suction than common portable vacuum cleaners because a larger fan and more powerful motor can be used when they are not required to be portable. A cyclonic separation system, if used, does not lose suction as the collection container fills up, until the container is nearly full. This is in marked contrast to filter-bag designs, which start losing suction immediately as pores in the filter become clogged by accumulated dirt and dust.

A benefit to allergy sufferers is that unlike a standard vacuum cleaner, which must blow some of the dirt collected back into the room being cleaned (no matter how efficient its filtration), a central vacuum removes all the dirt collected to the central unit. Since this central unit is usually located outside the living area, no dust is recirculated back into the room being cleaned. Also it is possible on most newer models to vent the exhaust entirely outside, even with the unit inside the living quarters.

Another benefit of the central vacuum is, because of the remote location of the motor unit, there is much less noise in the room being cleaned than with a standard vacuum cleaner.

Constellation

Introduced in 1954, The Hoover Company's Constellation was of the cylinder type and lacked wheels. Instead the vacuum cleaner floated on its exhaust, operating as a hovercraft, although that was not true of the earliest models, which had a rotating hose, the intention being that the user would place the unit in the center of the room, and work around the cleaner.

The Constellation was changed and updated over the years until discontinued in 1975. Later Constellations routed all of the exhaust under the vacuum using an airfoil. The updated design was quiet even by modern standards, particularly on carpet, because it muffled the sound. Those models float on carpet or bare floor although, on hard flooring, the exhaust air tends to scatter any fluff or debris around.

Hoover re-released an updated version of the later-model Constellation in the US (model # S3341 in Pearl White and # S3345 in stainless steel). Changes included a HEPA filtration bag, a 12-amp motor, a turbine-powered brush roll, and a redesigned version of the handle. The same model was marketed in the UK under the Maytag brand, called the Satellite because of licensing restrictions. It was sold from 2006 to 2009.

Vehicles
See vacuum truck for very big vacuum cleaners mounted on vehicles.

Other
Some other vacuum cleaners include an electric mop in the same machine: for a dry and a later wet clean.

The iRobot company developed the Scooba, a robotic wet vacuum cleaner that carries its own cleaning solution, applies it and scrubs the floor, and vacuums the dirty water into a collection tank.

Technology
A vacuum's suction is caused by a difference in air pressure. A fan driven by an electric motor (often a universal motor) reduces the pressure inside the machine. Atmospheric pressure then pushes the air through the carpet and into the nozzle, and so the dust is literally pushed into the bag.

Tests have shown that vacuuming can kill 100% of young fleas and 96% of adult fleas.

Exhaust filtration

Vacuums by their nature cause dust to become airborne, by exhausting air that is not completely filtered. This can cause health problems since the operator ends up inhaling respirable dust, which is also redeposited into the area being cleaned. There are several methods manufacturers use to control this problem, some of which may be combined in a single appliance. Typically a filter is positioned so that the incoming air passes through it before it reaches the fan, and then the filtered air passes through the motor for cooling purposes. Some other designs use a completely separate air intake for cooling.

It is nearly impossible for a practical air filter to completely remove all ultrafine particles from a dirt-laden airstream. An ultra-efficient air filter will immediately clog up and become ineffective during everyday use, and practical filters are a compromise between filtering effectiveness and restriction of airflow. One way to sidestep this problem is to exhaust partially filtered air to the outdoors, which is a design feature of some central vacuum systems. Specially engineered portable vacuums may also utilize this design, but are more awkward to set up and use, requiring temporary installation of a separate exhaust hose to an exterior window.

 Bag: The most common method to capture the debris vacuumed up involves a paper or fabric bag that allows air to pass through, but attempts to trap most of the dust and debris. The bag may become clogged with fine dust before it is full. The bag may be disposable, or designed to be cleaned and re-used.
 Bagless: In non-cyclonic bagless models, the role of the bag is taken by a removable container and a reusable filter, equivalent to a reusable fabric bag.
 Cyclonic separation: A vacuum cleaner employing this method is also bagless. It causes intake air to be cycled or spun so fast that most of the dust is forced out of the air and falls into a collection bin. The operation is similar to that of a centrifuge. Centrifugal separators eliminate the problem of a bag becoming clogged with fine dust.
 Water filtration: First seen commercially in the 1920s in the form of the Newcombe Separator (later to become the Rexair Rainbow), a water filtration vacuum cleaner uses a water bath as a filter. It forces the dirt-laden intake air to pass through water before it is exhausted, so that wet dust cannot become airborne. The water trap filtration and low speed may also allow the user to use the machine as a stand-alone air purifier and humidifier unit. The dirty water must be dumped out and the appliance must be cleaned after each use, to avoid growth of bacteria and mold, causing unpleasant odors.
 Ultra fine air filter: Also called HEPA filtered, this method is used as a secondary filter after the air has passed through the rest of the machine. It is meant to remove any remaining dust that could harm the operator. Some vacuum cleaners also use an activated charcoal filter to remove odors.

Ordinary vacuum cleaners should never be used to clean up asbestos fibers, even if fitted with a HEPA filter. Specially-designed machines are required to safely clean up asbestos.

Attachments
Most vacuum cleaners are supplied with numerous specialized attachments, such as tools, brushes and extension wands, which allow them to reach otherwise inaccessible places or to be used for cleaning a variety of surfaces. The most common of these tools are:

 Hard floor brush (for non-upright designs)
 Powered floor nozzle (for canister designs)
 Dusting brush
 Crevice tool
 Upholstery nozzle

Specifications

The performance of a vacuum cleaner can be measured by several parameters:
 Airflow, in litres per second [l/s] or cubic feet per minute (CFM or ft3/min)
 Air speed, in metres per second [m/s] or miles per hour [mph]
 Suction, vacuum, or water lift, in pascals [Pa] or inches of water

Other specifications of a vacuum cleaner are:
 Weight, in kilograms [kg] or pounds [lb]
 Noise, in decibels [dB]
 Power cord length and hose length (as applicable)

Suction (Pa)
The suction is the maximum pressure difference that the pump can create. For example, a typical domestic model has a suction of about negative 20 kPa. This means that it can lower the pressure inside the hose from normal atmospheric pressure (about 100 kPa) by 20 kPa. The higher the suction rating, the more powerful the cleaner. One inch of water is equivalent to about 249 Pa; hence, the typical suction is  of water.

Input power (W)
The power consumption of a vacuum cleaner, in watts, is often the only figure stated. Many North American vacuum manufacturers give the current only in amperes (e.g. "6 amps"), and the consumer is left to multiply that by the line voltage of 120 volts to get the approximate power ratings in watts. The rated input power does not indicate the effectiveness of the cleaner, only how much electricity it consumes.

After August 2014, due to EU rules, manufacture of vacuum cleaners with a power consumption greater than 1600 watts were banned within the EU, and from 2017 no vacuum cleaner with a wattage greater than 900 watts was permitted.

Output power (AW)

The amount of input power that is converted into airflow at the end of the cleaning hose is sometimes stated, and is measured in airwatts: the measurement units are simply watts. The word "air" is used to clarify that this is output power, not input electrical power.

The airwatt is derived from English units. ASTM International defines the airwatt as 0.117354 × F × S, where F is the rate of air flow in ft3/min and S is the pressure in inches of water. This makes one airwatt equal to 0.9983 watts.

Peak horsepower
The peak horsepower of a vacuum cleaner is often measured by removal of any cooling fans and calculating power based on the motor's power plus the rotational inertial energy stored the motor armature and centrifugal blower. A peak horsepower rating is often an impractical figure and is only valid for a very short period. Continuous power is typically far lower.

Cultural references
Vacuum cleaners have become closely associated with housecleaning, and artists have sometimes used them to symbolize the banality and routine of everyday life and culture. Visual artist Jeff Koons exhibited his The New series of household vacuums enshrined in museum-quality vitrines, such as New Shelton Wet/Dry Doubledecker (1981) at the Museum of Modern Art and New Hoover Convertibles, Green, Blue; New Hoover Convertibles, Green, Blue; Doubledecker (1981–1987) at the Whitney Museum of American Art. In 2002, fashion designer Tara Subkoff used topless models wielding upright vacuum cleaners to promote her controversial fashion label "Imitation of Christ".

In 2018, Paulius Markevičius organized performances of Dance for the Vacuum-Cleaner and Father choreographed by Greta Grinevičiūtė, and premiered in Vilnius, Lithuania. In 2019, Sandrina Lindgren choreographed dancers in Requiem for Vacuum Cleaning in the Barker Theatre of Turku, Finland, with each performer operating multiple machines simultaneously.

Musician Frank Zappa used vacuum cleaners in many of his different performances and on promotional artwork. Other performers have used a vacuum cleaner hose or wand as a modernized version of the Australian Aboriginal didgeridoo, or used the whine of the motor for techno music.

In 1996, Mister Rogers' Neighborhood episode #1702 featured vacuum cleaners, including dancing, magic, and a segment showing how a small Dirt Devil canister vacuum was manufactured.

See also

 Home appliance
 Hypoallergenic vacuum cleaner
 List of vacuum cleaners

 Street sweeper
 Suction excavator

References

Further reading
 Booth, H. Cecil "The origin of the vacuum cleaner", Transactions of the Newcomen Society, 1934–1935, Volume 15.
 Gantz, Carroll. The Vacuum Cleaner: A History (McFarland, 2012), 230 pp

External links

 Vacuum Cleaner at HowStuffWorks
 HEPA & ULPA vacuum cleaners – what they can and can't do for IAQ

1860 introductions
19th-century inventions
American inventions
Cleaning tools
English inventions
Floors
Gas technologies
Home appliances
Home automation

Vacuum cleaner


Guns & Ammo is a magazine dedicated to firearms, hunting, competitive shooting, reloading, and other shooting-related activities in the United States.

Content and Circulation
The magazine offers reviews on firearms, ammunition, optics and shooting gear. Also included are historical articles, gun collecting, self-defense features and celebrity interviews. In addition to monthly department columns on specific topics, each issue contains several featured articles and profiles of the firearms industry, as well as technical evaluations and new products.

Guns & Ammo also publishes news and information relating to gun politics. As one journalist has stated: "Politics is implicit in cover-story headlines ("Ready to fight") and explicit in the "politics" section of the Guns & Ammo website." Its annual assessment of "The Best States for Gun Owners" analyzes each U.S. state's laws, court decisions and positions on "stand your ground" and "castle doctrine" issues.

Guns & Ammo is published on a monthly basis. Its annual circulation is 5.3 million copies. 97% of readers are male; readers' average income is estimated at $102,000.

History
Guns & Ammo was founded by Robert E. Petersen in 1958 and has featured famed gunwriters such as P.O. Ackley, Craig Boddington, Jeff Cooper, Garry James, Bill Jordan, Elmer Keith, Bob Milek, Patrick Sweeney, Col. Townsend Whelen and John Wooters. Charlton Heston, former president of the National Rifle Association of America authored a gun rights column for the magazine titled "From the Capitol" until 2007.

Staff
Currently, Guns & Ammo magazine carries columns written by Eric R. Poole (Editorial), Garry James (Gun Room), Richard Nance (Gun Tech), Jeremy Stafford (Handgunning), Tom Beckstrand (Rifles & Glass), retired SGM Kyle E. Lamb (Lock, Stock & Barrel), Dave Emary (Bullet Board) and Keith Wood (Spent Cases).

The magazine was involved in controversy over the dismissal of one of its writers, Dick Metcalf, in 2014. According to The New York Times, an article by Metcalf took a stance on gun laws that prompted two major gun manufacturers to state that they would no longer do business with Guns & Ammo if Metcalf continued to work there. Among other things, Metcalf's article stated: "The fact is, all constitutional rights are regulated, always have been, and need to be." Metcalf was terminated soon after.

In 2012 Richard Venola, the magazine's editor from 2007 to 2009, was arrested for shooting and killing a friend who was reportedly visiting his home. The weapon was said to be a "high-caliber rifle." Venola was charged with second degree murder, but two separate trials resulted in deadlocked juries. Venola died in 2021.

References

1958 establishments in the United States
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Sports magazines published in the United States
Firearms magazines
Hunting and fishing magazines
Magazines established in 1958
Magazines published in Illinois

Guns & Ammo


Rilaena triangularis is a species of the harvestman family Phalangiidae. It is sometimes considered to be in the genus Paraplatybunus, in the subfamily Platybuninae.

Description
Rilaena triangularis is a harvestman that lives across Europe. This species was first described by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1799. Initially as Phalangium triangularis, but was later renamed through recombination.

Chemical defense
When disturbed the Rilaena triangularis uses a chemical defence by emitting a strong-smelling secretion. This fluid contains 1,4-Benzoquinone, 1,4-Naphthoquinone and Caprylic acid.

Range
Occurrences of Rilaena triangularis have been recorded and aggregated in GBIF across Europe, with the exception of Spain and Portugal. It has also been observed in north-west and north-east corners of the United States.

Habitat
The species thrives in forests, floodplain forests and  fens.

References

Harvestmen
Articles containing video clips
Animals described in 1799

Rilaena triangularis


A risk premium is a measure of excess return that is required by an individual to compensate being subjected to an increased level of risk. It is used widely in finance and economics, the general definition being the expected risky return less the risk-free return, as demonstrated by the formula below.

Where  is the risky expected rate of return and  is the risk-free return.

The inputs for each of these variables and the ultimate interpretation of the risk premium value differs depending on the application as explained in the following sections. Regardless of the application, the market premium can be volatile as both comprising variables can be impacted independent of each other by both cyclical and abrupt changes. This means that the market premium is dynamic in nature and ever-changing. Additionally, a general observation regardless of application is that the risk premium is larger during economic downturns and during periods of increased uncertainty.

There are many forms of risk such as financial risk, physical risk, and reputation risk. The concept of risk premium can be applied to all these risks and the expected payoff from these risks can be determined if the risk premium can be quantified. In the equity market, the riskiness of a stock can be estimated by the magnitude of the standard deviation from the mean. If for example the price of two different stocks were plotted over a year and an average trend line added for each, the stock whose price varies more dramatically about the mean is considered the riskier stock. Investors also analyse many other factors about a company that may influence its risk such as industry volatility, cash flows, debt, and other market threats.

Formal definition in expected utility theory
In expected utility theory, a rational agent has a utility function that maps sure-outcomes to numerical values, and the agent ranks gambles over sure-outcomes by their expected utilities.

Let the set of possible wealth-levels be . A gamble  is a real-valued random variable. The actuarial value of the gamble is just its expectation: . This is independent of any agent.

Let the agent have a utility function , with a wealth-level . The risk-premium of  for the agent at wealth-level  is , defined as the solution to

Note that the risk-premium depends both on the gamble itself, the agent's utility function, and the wealth-level of the agent. This can be understood intuitively by considering a real gamble. Some people may be quite willing to take the gamble and thus have a low risk-premium, while others are more averse. Further, as one's wealth increases, one is usually less perturbed by the gamble, whose stakes diminshes relative to one's wealth, consequently the risk-premium  often decreases as  increases, holding  constant.

Risk premium application in finance
The risk premium is used extensively in finance in areas such as asset pricing, portfolio allocation and risk management. Two fundamental aspects of finance, being equity and debt instruments, require the use and interpretation of associated risk premiums with the inputs for each explained below:

Equity instruments
In the stock market the risk premium is the expected return of a company stock, a group of company stocks, or a portfolio of all stock market company stocks, minus the risk-free rate. The return from equity is the sum of the dividend yield and capital gains and the risk free rate can be a treasury bond yield.

For example, if an investor has a choice between a risk-free treasury bond with a bond yield of 3% and a risky company equity asset, the investor may require a greater return of 8% from the risky company. This would result in a risk premium of 5%. Individual investors set their own risk premium depending on their level of risk aversion. The formula can be rearranged to find the expected return on an investment given a stated risk premium and risk-free rate. For example, if the investor in the example above required a risk premium of 9% then the expected return on the equity asset would have to be 12%.

Debt instruments
The risk premium associated with bonds, known as the credit spread, is the difference between a risky bond and the risk free treasury bond with greater risk demanding a greater risk premium as compensation.

Risk premium application in banking
Risk premiums are essential to the banking sector and can provide a large amount of information to investors and customers alike. For instance, the risk premium for a savings account is determined by the bank through the interest that they set on their savings accounts for customers. This less the interest rate set by the central bank provides the risk premium. Stakeholders can interpret a large premium as an indication of increased default risk which has flow on effects such as negatively impacting the public's confidence in the financial system which can ultimately lead to bank runs which is dangerous for an economy.

The risk premium is equally important for a bank's assets with the risk premium on loans, defined as the loan interest charged to customers less the risk free government bond, needing to be sufficiently large to compensate the institution for the increased default risk associated with providing a loan.

Using the risk premium to produce valuations
One of the most important applications of risk premiums is to estimate the value of financial assets. There are a number of models used in finance to determine this with the most widely used being the Capital Asset Pricing Model or CAPM. CAPM uses investment risk and expected return to estimate a value for the investment. In Finance, CAPM is generally used to estimate the required rate of return for an equity. This required rate of return can then be used to estimate a price for the stock which can be done via a number of methods. The formula for CAPM is:

CAPM = (The Risk Free Rate) +
(The Beta of the Security) * (The Market Risk Premium)

In this model, we use the risk premium of the market and multiply this with the beta of the security. The beta of a security is the measure of a stocks relative volatility and measures how closely the share price moves compared to the market. If the beta of a stock is 1 then a 10% increase in the market will translate to a 10% increase in stock price. If the Beta of a stock is 1.5 then a 10% increase in the market will translate to a 15% increase in the stock and if the beta of a stock is 0.5 a 10% market increase will translate to a 5% stock increase and likewise with decreases in the market. This beta is generally found via statistical analysis of the share price history of a stock. Therefore CAPM aims to provide a simple model in order to estimate the required return of an investment which uses the theory of risk premiums. This helps to provide investors with a simple means of determining what return an investment should be relative to its risk.

Risk premium application in managerial economics
The risk premium concept is equally applicable in managerial economics. The risk premium is largely correlated with risk aversion with the larger the risk aversion of an individual or business the larger the risk premium the party will be willing to pay to avoid the risk.

Regarding workers, the risk premium increases as the risk of injury increases and manifests in practice with average wages in dangerous jobs being higher for this reason. Another way in which the risk premium can be interpreted from the workers perspective is that risk is valued by the market, in the form of wage discrepancies between risky and less risky jobs, with a worker able to determine what amount they are willing to forgo to engage in a less risky job. In this instance the risk premium provides insight into the strength of correlation between risk and the average job type earnings with a larger premium potentially suggesting that there is a greater risk and/ or a lack of workers willing to take the risk.

The level of risk associated with the risk premium concept does not need to be physical risk but it can also incorporate risk surrounding the job, such as job security. Higher risk of unemployment  is compensated with a higher wage with this being a reason as to why fixed-term contracts generally include a higher wage. CEO's in industries with high volatility are subject to increased risk of dismissal. Dismissed CEO's often undergo a period of unemployment after dismissal and frequently settle for jobs in smaller firms with lower remuneration. Due to this, and assuming there is demand competition within the labor market, they often require a higher remuneration than CEO's in non-volatile industries as a risk premium.

In public goods

In invasive species management
The option value of whether to invest in invasive species quarantine and/or management is a risk premium in some models.

In agriculture

Of crop pathogens
Farmers cope with crop pathogen risks and losses in various ways, mostly by trading off between management methods and pricing that includes risk premiums. For example in the northern United States, Fusarium head blight is a constant problem. Then in 2000 the release of a multiply-resistant cultivar of wheat dramatically reduced the necessary risk premium. The total planted area of MR wheats was dramatically expanded, due to this essentially costless tradeoff to the new cultivar.

Of investment in genetic research
Estimates of costs of research and development - including patent costs - of new crop genes and other agricultural biotechnologies must include the risk premium of those which do not ultimately obtain patent approval.

Example of observed risk premium
Suppose a game show participant may choose one of two doors, one that hides $1,000 and one that hides $0. Further, suppose that the host also allows the contestant to take $500 instead of choosing a door. The two options (choosing between door 1 and door 2, or taking $500) have the same expected value of $500, so no risk premium is being offered for choosing the doors rather than the guaranteed $500.

A contestant unconcerned about risk is indifferent between these choices. A risk-averse contestant will choose no door and accept the guaranteed $500, while a risk-loving contestant will derive utility from the uncertainty and will therefore choose a door.

If too many contestants are risk averse, the game show may encourage selection of the riskier choice (gambling on one of the doors) by offering a positive risk premium. If the game show offers $1,600 behind the good door, increasing to $800 the expected value of choosing between doors 1 and 2, the risk premium becomes $300 (i.e. $800 expected value minus $500 guaranteed amount). Contestants requiring a minimum risk compensation of less than $300 will choose a door instead of accepting the guaranteed $500.

Empirical estimates of risk premium from securities markets

Schroeder estimated risk premiums ranging from 4.83 to 7.75 percent in securities markets in the United Kingdom and the European Union under multiple models, with most estimates ranging between 6.3 and 7.2 percent.

See also

 Equity risk
 Interest
 Risk
 Risk aversion
 Risk neutral
 Risk-loving
 Minimum acceptable rate of return
 Expected utility hypothesis
 LIBOR–OIS spread
 Risk premia parity
 Kelly criterion

References

External links
Fundamental Risk versus Systematic Risk
Hussman Funds – Estimating the Long-Term Return on Stocks – June 1998
Earnings Quality and the Equity Risk Premium: A Benchmark Model
Ruben D. Cohen (2002) "The Relationship Between the Equity Risk Premium, Duration and Dividend Yield (download)," Wilmott Magazine, pp 84–97, November issue.
Ruben D. Cohen "The Long-run Behaviour of the S&P Composite Price Index and its Risk Premium (download)."

Market risk
Wagering
Gambling terminology
Financial economics

Risk premium


Crust punk (also known as stenchcore or simply crust) is a subgenre of punk rock influenced by the English punk scene as well as extreme metal. The style, which evolved in the early 1980s in England, often has songs with dark and pessimistic lyrics that linger on political and social ills. The term "crust" was coined by Hellbastard on their 1986 Ripper Crust demo.

Crust is partly defined by its "bassy" and "dirty" sound. It is often played at a fast tempo with occasional slow sections. Vocals are usually raspy screams, but can also be grunted/growled. Crust punk takes cues from the anarcho-punk of Crass and Discharge and the heavy metal of bands like Venom, Trouble, Hellhammer, Celtic Frost, Black Sabbath and Motörhead. While the term was first associated with Hellbastard, Amebix have been described as the originators of the style, along with Discharge and Antisect.

Characteristics

Instrumentation
Crust punk is a derivative form of anarcho-punk, mixed with metal riffs. The tempos are often fast, but just short of thrashcore or grindcore. However, many groups confine themselves to a crawling, sludgy pace. The overall musical sound has been described as being "stripped down". Drumming is typically done at high speed, with D-beats sometimes being used. In Sober Living for the Revolution: Hardcore Punk, Straight Edge, and Radical Politics, author Gabriel Kuhn referred to the genre as a "blend of 1977 British punk, roots culture and black metal", with the genre often taking influence from death metal, grindcore and powerviolence.

Vocals and lyrics
Vocals in crust punk are often shrieked or shouted, and may be shared between two or more vocalists. The lyrical content of crust punk tends to be bleak and nihilistic, yet politically engaged. Crust punk songs are often about nuclear war, militarism, animal rights, police, personal grievances, oppressive states and fascism. Amebix were also interested in various forms of mysticism and Gnosticism. Malcolm "Scruff" Lewty, guitarist and vocalist of Hellbastard, describes the distinction between metal and crust punk lyrics "Metal lyrics were so dumb, so far removed from daily life. Venom were going on about Satan... and bikes... and Satan... and women... and Satan! You know what? I never got up in the morning and said, 'Fuck yeah! Satan! Let's go and meet my disciples from Hell!' I'd switch on the TV and know I was going to see hundreds of people dying because there'd been an earthquake in the third world... and all these people starving to death while military expenditure still increased... That was — and still is — the reality of it. The whole heavy metal thing is just an escape from reality, into this other world of... well, bullshit basically."

History

Precursors
The initial inspiration for the crust punk scene came from the anarcho-punk of Crass and D-beat of Discharge. Swedish D-beat groups such as Crude SS, Skitslickers/Anti Cimex and Mob 47 and the Finnish Rattus were also early influences. Amebix also brought in influences from various post-punk bands, including Public Image Ltd., Bauhaus, Joy Division, and especially Killing Joke.

1980s

Crust was founded by the bands Amebix and Antisect. The term "crust" was coined by Hellbastard on their 1986 Ripper Crust demo. In his book Trapped in a Scene, punk historian Ian Glasper said "Rippercrust is widely regarded as the first time the word 'crust' was used in the punk context, and hence the specific starting point of the whole crust punk genre, although some would attribute that accolade to the likes of Disorder, Chaos UK, and Amebix several years earlier. In the same book, he quoted the group's vocalist and guitarist Malcolm "Scruff" Lewty "A lot of people say we started the crust punk genre, but whatever. If they wanna say that, I don't mind, but I'm certainly no Malcolm McLaren, saying I invented something I didn't." However, in Sober Living for the Revolution: Hardcore Punk, Straight Edge, and Radical Politics, author Gabriel Kuhn Punk stated that the name of the genre came from the "crusty" appearance of the genre's practitioning bands. journalist Felix von Havoc contends that Doom, Excrement of War, Electro Hippies and Extreme Noise Terror were among the first bands to have the traditional UK "crust" sound. Additional subgenres of this style began to develop. Deviated Instinct, from Norwich, created "stenchcore", bringing "both the look and sound — dirty and metallic, respectively — to their natural conclusion". Initially an anarcho-punk group, they began to take increasing influence from metal. As vocalist Julian "Leggo" Kilsby comments "We were very much a part of the anarcho scene, to start with, very politically motivated... all the way through the band's existence, really, although it got less obvious as time went by. But I never really liked the straightforward 'War is bad...' lyrics that were so prevalent at the time, so as my writing skills improved I wanted to add more depth to our lyrics and make them more metaphorical; I'd always been into horror films, so that started to manifest itself in the imagery I was using.

Extreme Noise Terror is credited with developing this style into grindcore. However, Pete Hurley, the guitarist for the group, declared that he had no interest in being remembered as a pioneer of this style: "'grindcore' was a legendarily stupid term coined by a hyperactive kid from the West Midlands, and it had nothing to do with us whatsoever. ENT were, are, and — I suspect — always will be a hardcore punk band... not a grindcore band, a stenchcore band, a trampcore band, or any other sub-sub-sub-core genre-defining term you can come up with."

American crust punk began in New York City, also in the mid-1980s, with the work of Nausea. The group emerged from the Lower East Side squat scene and New York hardcore, living with Roger Miret of Agnostic Front. The early work of Neurosis, from San Francisco, also borrowed from Amebix, and inaugurated crust punk on the West Coast. Disrupt (Boston), Antischism (South Carolina), MISERY and Destroy (Minneapolis) were also significant U.S. crust groups.

1990s
An important American crust punk band was Aus Rotten from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Crust punk also flourished in Minneapolis, shepherded by the Profane Existence label. In this period, the ethos of crust punk became particularly codified, with vegetarianism, feminism, and sometimes straight edge being prescribed by many of the figures in the scene. The powerviolence scene associated with Slap-a-Ham Records was in close proximity to crust punk, particularly in the case of Man Is the Bastard and Dropdead. Crust was also prominent in the American South, where Prank Records and CrimethInc. acted as focal points of the scene. The most well-known representative of Southern crust was His Hero Is Gone. Prominent crust punk groups (Driller Killer, Totalitär, Skitsystem, Wolfbrigade, and Disfear) also emerged from Sweden, which had always had a strong D-beat scene. Many of these groups developed in parallel with the much more commercial Scandinavian death metal scene.

2000s
Some notable crust bands in the 2000s include Iskra, Behind Enemy Lines, and Tragedy. The Spanish city A Coruña has a crust scene which includes bands as Black Panda, Ekkaia and Madame Germen. In 2017, Bandcamp Daily wrote that Fluff Fest, held in Czechia since 2000, has become a "summer ritual" for many European crust fans.

Relations with other genres

Black metal
Crust punk groups, such as Antisect, Sacrilege and Anti System took some influence from early black metal bands like Venom, Hellhammer, and Celtic Frost, while Amebix's lead vocalist and guitarist sent his band's early demo tape to Cronos of Venom, who replied by saying "We'll rip you off". Similarly, Bathory was initially inspired by crust punk as well as heavy metal.

Blackened crust
Crust punk was affected by a second wave of black metal in the 1990s, with some bands emphasizing these black metal elements. Iskra are probably the most obvious example of second wave black metal-influenced crust punk; Iskra coined their own phrase "blackened crust" to describe their new style. The Japanese group Gallhammer also fused crust punk with black metal while the English band Fukpig has been said to have elements of crust punk, black metal, and grindcore. Germany's Downfall of Gaia has been described as mixing crustgrind and black metal, along with elements of sludge metal, doom metal and post-metal. North Carolina's Young and in the Way have been playing blackened crust since their formation in 2009. In addition, Norwegian band Darkthrone have incorporated crust punk traits in their mid-to-late 2000s material. As Daniel Ekeroth wrote in 2008,

Red and anarchist black metal
Red and anarchist black metal (also known as RABM or anarchist black metal) is a subgenre that melds black metal with anarchist crust punk, promoting ideologies such as anarchism, environmentalism, or Marxism. Artists labelled RABM include Iskra, Panopticon, Skagos, Storm of Sedition, Not A Cost, Black Kronstadt, and Vidargangr.

Crack rock steady
Crack rock steady is a punk rock fusion-genre, which combines elements of crust punk and ska punk. Lyrics often focus on themes such as drug-use, religion, politics and social issues. Other genres sometimes incorporated in conjunction with the style include hardcore punk  and heavy metal. Notable bands within the genre include Choking Victim, Leftöver Crack, Morning Glory and Star Fucking Hipsters.

Crustcore
Crustcore (also known as crusty hardcore), is a sub-genre of crust punk that takes influence from hardcore punk and sometimes thrashcore. Felix Havok described Extreme Noise Terror's segment of the "Earslaughter" split album with Chaos UK as the first album in the genre. Crustcore bands include Extreme Noise Terror, Doom, Disrupt, Wolfbrigade, Neurosis, Baptists, Discharge and Filth.

Grindcore
Crust punk had a major impact on grindcore's emergence. The first grindcore, practiced by the British bands such as Napalm Death and Extreme Noise Terror emerged from the crust punk scene. This early style is sometimes dubbed "crustgrind".

Neo crust
Neo crust is a genre that merges crust punk with elements of various extreme music styles including black metal, screamo, post-rock, hardcore punk, death metal and doom metal. Unlike most other punk–metal fusion genres, neo-crust's sound is neither distinctively rooted in punk or metal, instead frequently shifting between the two, disregarding genre boundaries. It is often dark and heavy however also melodic. Notable bands include His Hero is Gone, Tragedy, Fall of Efrafa and From Ashes Rise.

Culture

Crust punks are associated with a DIY-oriented branch of punk garb. Similar to anarcho-punk, most clothing is black in color. Denim jackets and hooded sweatshirts with sewn-on patches, or vests covered in studs, spikes and band patches are characteristic elements of the crust punk style of dress or pants covered in band patches. Crust punks also sometimes wear dreadlocks and piercings. Julian "Leggo" Kilsby of Deviated Instinct describes crust as "a punk-y biker look, more akin to Mad Max. Mad Max 2 is the crustiest film ever made!"

Members of the sub-culture are generally outspokenly political, possessing anarchist and anti-consumerist views.

See also
List of crust punk bands
Anarcho-punk
Grindcore
D-beat
Gutter punk
Animal rights and punk subculture

References

Further reading
Ekeroth, Daniel (2008). Swedish Death Metal. Bazillion Points Books.
Glasper, Ian (2004). Burning Britain: The History of UK Punk 1980-1984. Cherry Red Books.
Glasper, Ian (2006). The Day the Country Died: A History of Anarcho Punk 1980 to 1984. Cherry Red Books.
Glasper, Ian (2009). Trapped in a Scene: UK Hardcore 1985-1989. Cherry Red Books.
"In Grind We Crust," Terrorizer #181, March 2009, p. 46, 51.
Mudian, Albert (2000). Choosing Death: The Improbable History of Death Metal and Grindcore. Feral House.
Profane Existence (1997). Making Punk a Threat Again: Profane Existence: Best Cuts 1989-1993. Loincloth. ASIN: B000J2M8GS

Anarcho-punk
Extreme metal
English styles of music
British rock music genres

Crust punk


The Furness Fells are a multitude of hills and mountains in the Furness region of Cumbria, England. Historically part of Lancashire, the Furness Fells or High Furness is the name given to the upland part of Furness, that is, that part of Furness lying north of the line between Ulverston and Ireleth. The hills lie largely within the English Lake District.

The term Furness Fells is also sometimes used as a synonym with Coniston Fells, perhaps partly as a result of the placing of the words "Furness Fells" on some Ordnance Survey 1:250 000 maps. The Coniston Fells properly form only part of the Furness Fells, albeit with all the highest mountains; other fells in Furness are of lower altitude. The Coniston Fells form part of the Southern Fells of the Lake District as defined by Alfred Wainwright.

Coniston Fells

The Coniston Fells are separated from the Scafell and Bowfell massif to their north by Wrynose Pass, and are surrounded on all other sides by lower ground. Coniston Old Man, the highest summit in the group, is the farthest south 2000-foot summit in the Lake District (using a 30-metre relative height criterion to determine what a summit is).

The tops of the Coniston Fells may be climbed from many points, including the village of Coniston at their base, or from Seathwaite in the Duddon Valley, or from Wrynose Pass. Seathwaite Tarn above the Duddon is the third-largest tarn in the Lake District; Levers Water, Low Water, Goat's Water and Blind Tarn are also located in the Coniston Fells group.

Coniston Fells Summits
Coniston Old Man, 803m
Swirl How, 802m
Dow Crag, 778m
Grey Friar, 773m
Wetherlam, 763m
Black Sails, 745m
Great Intake, 489m.
These summits all have more than 30 metres of relative height (a commonly used criterion for being a separate summit). Alfred Wainwright included three more tops: Great Carrs, Brim Fell and Walna Scar, and included mention of White Maiden and White Pike. South of White Pike there is a significant loss of altitude before the Dunnerdale Fells, which therefore while forming part of the Furness Fells may be said to be distinct from the Coniston Fells.

References
 The Lancashire Gazetteer (1808), Joseph Aston
 Nuns fret not... (1807), a sonnet by William Wordsworth

Fells of the Lake District
Furness
South Lakeland District

Furness Fells


Alfredo Woodward Téllez (1905–1988) was a Mexican businessman, politician and member of the Institutional Revolutionary Party. He was born in Oaxaca City, Oaxaca, on December 9, 1905, and died of old age on April 25, 1988. He was the son of American William John Woodward and Josefina Tellez Gil.

Career
Woodward arrived in Manzanillo, Colima, as manager of the customs agency, Alberto P. Rojas and sons, a powerful business that was based at the corner of Calle Donceles in Mexico City and had branches in Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Chihuahua, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, Sonora and Texas. He held many other types of employment before becoming an entrepreneur, such as police, driver, desk clerk, carrier and film actor.

Woodward came to possess, in addition, a whole fishing fleet. During World War II he was devoted to fishing for shark and hammerhead, exporting large quantities of shark parts to be used for the manufacture of vitamin A. Together with Guillermo Adachi and Luis Garcia Castillo, he was one of the most active promoters of the International Tournament of Sailfishing in Manzanillo, participating in that sport for many years.

Political career
Woodward was local deputy to the Colima Congress for the XXXVII Legislature (1954–1955). He was mayor of the city of Manzanillo in Colima state during the period 1951 to 1954. He was Communicator of the Beacons of the Navy Department in the Mexican Pacific.

Legacy
Woodward 's name is linked to the work and policies of the Manzanillo port, either through the customs business of his son Guillermo Woodward Rojas or through Alfredo Woodward Rojas, former candidate for president and municipal councilor for the Democratic Revolutionary Party.

References

Institutional Revolutionary Party politicians
1905 births
1988 deaths
20th-century Mexican businesspeople
People from Oaxaca City
Mexican people of American descent

Alfredo Woodward Téllez


Termini Imerese (;  ) is a town of the Metropolitan City of Palermo on the northern coast of Sicily, in Italy.
It is one of the most important towns of the Metropolitan City of Palermo, from which it is 33 km away. The town is easily reachable through its well developed infrastructures: there are three highway exits along the A19, its station is the meeting point between all of the Sicilian railway lines and its seaport links the town with other important maritime Italian cities. It has a judicial district. It's culturally interesting for the close Greek ruins of Himera, its numerous churches, Roman ruins, prehistorical finds and the annual celebration of the Carnival, one of the oldest of Italy. In the heart of the old town, at its lower level, there are the thermal baths of the Grand Hotel delle Terme, where precious hot waters flow since Roman age. In the areas of Termini and the near Sciara and Caccamo there's the Oriented Nature Reserve of Mount St. Calogero, which is located between the coast of Termini Imerese Gulf and the surrounding fertile flat territory. In the east zone of the town, there's an important industrial area, especially known for the former factory which was owned by FIAT and for the ENEL power plant "Ettore Majorana".

History

Ancient history
The site of the town has been populated since prehistoric times, as many archaeological excavations have shown through the years. Its documented history begins in 409 BC after the second Battle of Himera when its more ancient neighbour, Himera (now completely within the comune's borders), was completely destroyed by the Carthaginian army under Hannibal Mago. Those who survived the devastation moved to a site then called "Thermae" which is today known as Termini and became the successor to Himera. The new town of Thermae or Therma, called for the sake of distinction Thermae Himerenses, obviously derived its name from the hot springs for which it was celebrated, and the first discovery of which was connected by legends with the wanderings of Hercules. It appears to have quickly become a considerable town, though it continued to be subject to Carthaginian rule.

In the First Punic War its name is repeatedly mentioned. In 260 BC, a body of Roman troops were encamped in the neighbourhood when they were attacked by Hamilcar and defeated with heavy loss.

Roman age
Before the close of the First Punic War (241 BC), Thermae was besieged and taken by the Romans but the city seems to have been treated with unusual favour by its conquerors. Cicero tells us that the Romans allowed the Thermitani to govern their city and territory with their own laws as a reward for their steady fidelity. As they were on hostile terms with Rome during the First Punic War, it can only be to the subsequent period that this "fidelity" applies.

In the time of Cicero (80-40 BC), Thermae appears to have been a flourishing place, carrying on a considerable amount of trade, though he speaks of it as oppidum non maximum. He  attested the magnificence of the ancient city and the taste of its citizens for the encouragement of art,  calling it in primis Siciliae clarum et ornatum as statues were preserved by the Thermitani to whom they had been restored by Scipio after the conquest of Carthage.

It seems to have become a colony in the time of Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD), whence we find mention in inscriptions of the Ordo et Populus splendidissimae Coloniae Augustae Himeraeorum Thermitanorum. Thermae colonia is mentioned by Pliny and must refer to this town, though he seems to confuse it with Thermae Selinuntiae (modern Sciacca) on the south coast which was not a colony.

There are few subsequent accounts of Thermae; but, as its name is found in Ptolemy and the Itineraries, and from the impressive aqueduct and some other remains it appears to have continued in existence throughout the period of the Roman Empire, and probably never ceased to be inhabited, as the modern town of Termini Imerese retains the ancient site as well as name.

Medieval and modern eras
Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the city entered a period of decline. Termini continued to exist as a bishopric until the 12th century, though the list of bishops contains various gaps and uncertainties. Under Norman rule, the city was at first a royal city; it subsequently became one of 42 città demaniali, cities administered directly by the crown rather than local nobility. Above all, from the Middle Ages through the beginning of the 19th century, Termini served as a major center for the collection and shipping of grain and other foodstuffs stored and subjected to duty in a special government warehouse complex (the caricatore regio). The presence of the caricatore improved the fortunes of the city, turning it into one of the major ports of Sicily and strengthening its commercial relationships with the maritime republics of Genoa, Pisa and Venice as well as the major Mediterranean ports (Marseille, Barcelona, etc.) and, during the 16th century, those of the Atlantic. Towards the end of the 18th century, Termini became the site of the Ereina Imerese branch of the Ereina di Palermo academy, followed soon thereafter by the establishment of the Accademia Euracea, later the Accademia Mediterranea Euracea. In the 19th century, however, the closing of the caricatore precipitated a profound economic crisis that lasted until the end of the 20th century, when artisanal and proto-industrial activity began to replace the traditional agricultural base of the city's economy. A period of population decline, linked primarily to emigration to the Americas, was balanced at the beginning of the 20th century by immigration from Agrigento, Messina and Ragusa.

Between 1970 and 2011, Termini was home to a large Fiat automobile manufacturing facility, where small cars such as the 126, the original Panda, and the Punto have been manufactured. The plant was the sole assembly site for the second generation Lancia Ypsilon built between 2005 and 2011. In 2006 the plant celebrated its four millionth car produced. At the end of 2011, Fiat sold the plant to Chinese car manufacturer Chery. Since 1 January 2015, has been owned by Blutec.

There is also a power station operated by Enel with a generation capacity of 454 MW.

Main sights

Roman aqueduct bridge with two tiers of arches and other parts of the aqueduct of Cornelius
Roman amphitheatre probably from the Augustan age built into houses between Via Garibaldi and Via San Marco. It has a double ambulatory, a remarkable for such a small building (around 98 x 75 m). The cavea was partly excavated and partly built up: a part of the lower order of the arches remains visible high on the western part (in via Anfiteatro).
Temple of Victory at Himera
Cathedral of St. Nicholas of Bari (1604). It houses a statue by Giorgio da Milano (1487) and several works by Ignazio Marabitti.
Church of St. Catherine of Alexandria (1?th-16th centuries). It is home to a series of frescoes depicting the life of the namesake saint.
Church of Santa Maria di Gesù (late 15th century). Works inside include a sculpture attributed to Giorgio da Milano and a high-relief by Domenico Gagini (c. 1480)

Aqueduct

The Roman aqueduct bridge is the largest and best preserved of the island.

The source was located 5 km east of the city, at the foot of Monte San Calogero where the remains of the two settling tanks can still be seen in the locality of Brucato.

The aqueduct needed to cross the Barratina stream and the earliest the crossing was made at Fontana Superiore with a siphon about 600 m long, of which the well preserved hexagonal compression tower remains, 16 m high and resting on a square plinth of 6 m sides. On five of the sides were windows and from the east side the conduit started. On this tower was once a large inscription, now disappeared: aquae Cornealiae ductus p. XX. The last letters ("twenty feet") perhaps corresponds to the sides of the building.

Later it seems that the aqueduct passed further downstream: in Figurella a double-order bridge of arches is still visible (originally nine in the lower, fifteen in the upper: two arches for each order collapsed), 14 m high. The structure with facing blocks is the same as that of the amphitheatre and the curia and shows that it belongs to the same building project of the Augustan colony.

Sister cities
 Elk Grove Village, United States, since 2002
 La Valletta, Malta, since 2014
 Zihuatanejo, Mexico, since 2014
 Vilnius, Lithuania, since 2014
 Maranello, Italy, since 2016

Notes

References

Sources

External links

 Selected Civil Records

Municipalities of the Metropolitan City of Palermo
Ancient cities in Sicily

Roman towns and cities in Italy

Termini Imerese