Robert Burns (25 January 175921 July 1796), also known familiarly as Rabbie Burns, was a Scottish poet and lyricist. He is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and is celebrated worldwide. He is the best known of the poets who have written in the Scots language, although much of his writing is in a "light Scots dialect" of English, accessible to an audience beyond Scotland. He also wrote in standard English, and in these writings his political or civil commentary is often at its bluntest.

He is regarded as a pioneer of the Romantic movement, and after his death he became a great source of inspiration to the founders of both liberalism and socialism, and a cultural icon in Scotland and among the Scottish diaspora around the world. Celebration of his life and work became almost a national charismatic cult during the 19th and 20th centuries, and his influence has long been strong on Scottish literature. In 2009 he was chosen as the greatest Scot by the Scottish public in a vote run by Scottish television channel STV.

As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country. Other poems and songs of Burns that remain well known across the world today include "A Red, Red Rose", "A Man's a Man for A' That", "To a Louse", "To a Mouse", "The Battle of Sherramuir", "Tam o' Shanter" and "Ae Fond Kiss".

Life and background

Ayrshire

Alloway
Burns was born two miles (3 km) south of Ayr, in Alloway, the eldest of the seven children of William Burnes (1721–1784), a self-educated tenant farmer from Dunnottar in the Mearns, and Agnes Broun (1732–1820), the daughter of a Kirkoswald tenant farmer.

He was born in a house built by his father (now the Burns Cottage Museum), where he lived until Easter 1766, when he was seven years old. William Burnes sold the house and took the tenancy of the  Mount Oliphant farm, southeast of Alloway. Here Burns grew up in poverty and hardship, and the severe manual labour of the farm left its traces in a weakened constitution.

He was given irregular schooling and a lot of his education was with his father, who taught his children reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and history and also wrote for them A Manual of Christian Belief. He was also taught and tutored by the young teacher John Murdoch (1747–1824), who opened an "adventure school" in Alloway in 1763 and taught Latin, French, and mathematics to both Robert and his brother Gilbert (1760–1827) from 1765 to 1768 until Murdoch left the parish. After a few years of home education, Burns was sent to Dalrymple Parish School in mid-1772 before returning at harvest time to full-time farm labouring until 1773, when he was sent to lodge with Murdoch for three weeks to study grammar, French, and Latin.

By the age of 15, Burns was the principal labourer at Mount Oliphant. During the harvest of 1774, he was assisted by Nelly Kilpatrick (1759–1820), who inspired his first attempt at poetry, "O, Once I Lov'd A Bonnie Lass". In 1775, he was sent to finish his education with a tutor at Kirkoswald, where he met Peggy Thompson (born 1762), to whom he wrote two songs, "Now Westlin' Winds" and "I Dream'd I Lay".

Tarbolton

Despite his ability and character, William Burnes was consistently unfortunate, and migrated with his large family from farm to farm without ever being able to improve his circumstances. At Whitsun, 1777, he removed his large family from the unfavourable conditions of Mount Oliphant to the  farm at Lochlea, near Tarbolton, where they stayed until William Burnes's death in 1784. Subsequently, the family became integrated into the community of Tarbolton. To his father's disapproval, Robert joined a country dancing school in 1779 and, with Gilbert, formed the Tarbolton Bachelors' Club the following year. His earliest existing letters date from this time, when he began making romantic overtures to Alison Begbie (b. 1762). In spite of four songs written for her and a suggestion that he was willing to marry her, she rejected him.

Robert Burns was initiated into the Masonic lodge St David, Tarbolton, on 4 July 1781, when he was 22. In December 1781, Burns moved temporarily to Irvine to learn to become a flax-dresser, but during the workers' celebrations for New Year 1781/1782 (which included Burns as a participant) the flax shop caught fire and was burnt to the ground. This venture accordingly came to an end, and Burns went home to Lochlea farm. During this time he met and befriended Richard Brown, who encouraged him to become a poet. He continued to write poems and songs and began a commonplace book in 1783, while his father fought a legal dispute with his landlord. The case went to the Court of Session, and Burnes was upheld in January 1784, a fortnight before he died.

Mauchline
Robert and Gilbert made an ineffectual struggle to keep on the farm, but after its failure they moved to Mossgiel Farm, near Mauchline, in March, which they maintained with an uphill fight for the next four years. In mid-1784 Burns came to know a group of girls known collectively as The Belles of Mauchline, one of whom was Jean Armour, the daughter of a stonemason from Mauchline.

Love affairs

His first child, Elizabeth "Bess" Burns, was born to his mother's servant, Elizabeth Paton, while he was embarking on a relationship with Jean Armour, who became pregnant with twins in March 1786. Burns signed a paper attesting his marriage to Jean, but her father "was in the greatest distress, and fainted away". To avoid disgrace, her parents sent her to live with her uncle in Paisley. Although Armour's father initially forbade it, they were married in 1788. Armour bore him nine children, three of whom survived infancy.

Burns had encountered financial difficulties due to his lack of success as a farmer. In order to make enough money to support a family, he accepted a job offer from Patrick Douglas, an absentee landowner who lived in Cumnock, to work on his sugar plantations near Port Antonio, Jamaica. Douglas' plantations were managed by his brother Charles, and the job offer, which had a salary of £30 per annum, entailed working in Jamaica as a "book-keeper", whose duties included serving as an assistant overseer to the Black slaves on the plantations (Burns himself described the position as being "a poor Negro driver"). The position, which was for a single man, would entail Burns living on a plantation in rustic conditions, as it was unlikely a book keeper would be housed in the plantation's great house. Apologists have argued in Burns' defence that in 1786, the Scottish abolitionist movement was just beginning to be broadly active. Burns's authorship of "The Slave's Lament", a 1792 poem argued as an example of his abolitionist views, is disputed. His name is absent from any abolitionist petition written in Scotland during the period, and according to academic Lisa Williams, Burns "is strangely silent on the question of chattel slavery compared to other contemporary poets. Perhaps this was due to his government position, severe limitations on free speech at the time or his association with beneficiaries of the slave trade system".

Around the same time, Burns fell in love with a woman named Mary Campbell, whom he had seen in church while he was still living in Tarbolton. She was born near Dunoon and had lived in Campbeltown before moving to work in Ayrshire. He dedicated the poems "The Highland Lassie O", "Highland Mary", and "To Mary in Heaven" to her. His song "Will ye go to the Indies, my Mary, And leave auld Scotia's shore?" suggests that they planned to emigrate to Jamaica together. Their relationship has been the subject of much conjecture, and it has been suggested that on 14 May 1786 they exchanged Bibles and plighted their troth over the Water of Fail in a traditional form of marriage. Soon afterwards Mary Campbell left her work in Ayrshire, went to the seaport of Greenock, and sailed home to her parents in Campbeltown. In October 1786, Mary and her father sailed from Campbeltown to visit her brother in Greenock. Her brother fell ill with typhus, which she also caught while nursing him. She died of typhus on 20 or 21 October 1786 and was buried there.

Kilmarnock volume

As Burns lacked the funds to pay for his passage to Jamaica, Gavin Hamilton suggested that he should "publish his poems in the mean time by subscription, as a likely way of getting a little money to provide him more liberally in necessaries for Jamaica." On 3 April Burns sent proposals for publishing his Scotch Poems to John Wilson, a printer in Kilmarnock, who published these proposals on 14 April 1786, on the same day that Jean Armour's father tore up the paper in which Burns attested his marriage to Jean. To obtain a certificate that he was a free bachelor, Burns agreed on 25 June to stand for rebuke in the Mauchline kirk for three Sundays. He transferred his share in Mossgiel farm to his brother Gilbert on 22 July, and on 30 July wrote to tell his friend John Richmond that, "Armour has got a warrant to throw me in jail until I can find a warrant for an enormous sum ... I am wandering from one friend's house to another."

On 31 July 1786 John Wilson published the volume of works by Robert Burns, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish dialect. Known as the Kilmarnock volume, it sold for 3 shillings and contained much of his best writing, including "The Twa Dogs" (which features Luath, his Border Collie), "Address to the Deil", "Halloween", "The Cotter's Saturday Night", "To a Mouse", "Epitaph for James Smith", and "To a Mountain Daisy", many of which had been written at Mossgiel farm. The success of the work was immediate, and soon he was known across the country.

Burns postponed his planned emigration to Jamaica on 1 September, and was at Mossgiel two days later when he learnt that Jean Armour had given birth to twins. On 4 September Thomas Blacklock wrote a letter expressing admiration for the poetry in the Kilmarnock volume, and suggesting an enlarged second edition. A copy of it was passed to Burns, who later recalled, "I had taken the last farewell of my few friends, my chest was on the road to Greenock; I had composed the last song I should ever measure in Scotland – 'The Gloomy night is gathering fast' – when a letter from Dr Blacklock to a friend of mine overthrew all my schemes, by opening new prospects to my poetic ambition. The Doctor belonged to a set of critics for whose applause I had not dared to hope. His opinion that I would meet with encouragement in Edinburgh for a second edition, fired me so much, that away I posted for that city, without a single acquaintance, or a single letter of introduction."

Edinburgh

On 27 November 1786 Burns borrowed a pony and set out for Edinburgh. On 14 December William Creech issued subscription bills for the first Edinburgh edition of Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish dialect, which was published on 17 April 1787. Within a week of this event, Burns had sold his copyright to Creech for 100 guineas. For the edition, Creech commissioned Alexander Nasmyth to paint the oval bust-length portrait now in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, which was engraved to provide a frontispiece for the book. Nasmyth had come to know Burns and his fresh and appealing image has become the basis for almost all subsequent representations of the poet. In Edinburgh, he was received as an equal by the city's men of letters—including Dugald Stewart, Robertson, Blair and others—and was a guest at aristocratic gatherings, where he bore himself with unaffected dignity. Here he encountered, and made a lasting impression on, the 16-year-old Walter Scott, who described him later with great admiration:

The new edition of his poems brought Burns £400. His stay in the city also resulted in some lifelong friendships, among which were those with Lord Glencairn, and Frances Anna Dunlop (1730–1815), who became his occasional sponsor and with whom he corresponded for many years until a rift developed. He embarked on a relationship with the separated Agnes "Nancy" McLehose (1758–1841), with whom he exchanged passionate letters under pseudonyms (Burns called himself "Sylvander" and Nancy "Clarinda"). When it became clear that Nancy would not be easily seduced into a physical relationship, Burns moved on to Jenny Clow (1766–1792), Nancy's domestic servant, who bore him a son, Robert Burns Clow, in 1788. He also had an affair with a servant girl, Margaret "May" Cameron. His relationship with Nancy concluded in 1791 with a final meeting in Edinburgh before she sailed to Jamaica for what turned out to be a short-lived reconciliation with her estranged husband. Before she left, he sent her the manuscript of "Ae Fond Kiss" as a farewell.

In Edinburgh, in early 1787, he met James Johnson, a struggling music engraver and music seller with a love of old Scots songs and a determination to preserve them. Burns shared this interest and became an enthusiastic contributor to The Scots Musical Museum. The first volume was published in 1787 and included three songs by Burns. He contributed 40 songs to volume two, and he ended up responsible for about a third of the 600 songs in the whole collection, as well as making a considerable editorial contribution. The final volume was published in 1803.

Dumfriesshire

Ellisland Farm

On his return from Edinburgh in February 1788, he resumed his relationship with Jean Armour and they married in March 1788. He took out a lease on Ellisland Farm, Dumfriesshire, settling there in June. He also took up a training position as an exciseman or gauger, which involved long rides and detailed bookkeeping. He was appointed to duties in Customs and Excise in 1789. Burns chose the land of Ellisland a few miles north of the town of Dumfries, from Patrick Miller's estate at Dalswinton, where he had a new farmhouse and byre built. He and Jean moved in the following summer 1789 to the new farm house at Ellisland.
In November 1790, he had written his masterpiece, the narrative poem "Tam O' Shanter". The Ellisland farm beside the river Nith, now holds a unique collection of Burns's books, artefacts, and manuscripts and is mostly preserved as when Burns and his young family lived there. Burns gave up the farm in 1791 to move to Dumfries.
About this time he was offered and declined an appointment in London on the staff of The Star newspaper, and refused to become a candidate for a newly created Chair of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh, although influential friends offered to support his claims. He did however accept membership of the Royal Company of Archers in 1792.

Lyricist
After giving up his farm, he removed to Dumfries. It was at this time that, being requested to write lyrics for The Melodies of Scotland, he responded by contributing over 100 songs. He made major contributions to George Thomson's A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs for the Voice as well as to James Johnson's Scots Musical Museum. Arguably his claim to immortality chiefly rests on these volumes, which placed him in the front rank of lyric poets. As a songwriter he provided his own lyrics, sometimes adapted from traditional words. He put words to Scottish folk melodies and airs which he collected, and composed his own arrangements of the music including modifying tunes or recreating melodies on the basis of fragments. In letters he explained that he preferred simplicity, relating songs to spoken language which should be sung in traditional ways. The original instruments would be fiddle and the guitar of the period which was akin to a cittern, but the transcription of songs for piano has resulted in them usually being performed in classical concert or music hall styles. At the 3 week Celtic Connections festival Glasgow each January, Burns songs are often performed with both fiddle and guitar.

Thomson as a publisher commissioned arrangements of "Scottish, Welsh and Irish Airs" by such eminent composers of the day as Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven, with new lyrics. The contributors of lyrics included Burns. While such arrangements had wide popular appeal, Beethoven's music was more advanced and difficult to play than Thomson intended.

Burns described how he had to master singing the tune before he composed the words:

Burns also worked to collect and preserve Scottish folk songs, sometimes revising, expanding, and adapting them. One of the better known of these collections is The Merry Muses of Caledonia (the title is not Burns's), a collection of bawdy lyrics that were popular in the music halls of Scotland as late as the 20th century. At Dumfries, he wrote his world famous song "A Man's a Man for A' That", which was based on the writings in The Rights of Man by Thomas Paine, one of the chief political theoreticians of the American Revolution. Burns sent the poem anonymously in 1795 to the Glasgow Courier. He was also a radical for reform and wrote poems for democracy, such as – "Parcel of Rogues to the Nation" and the "Rights of Women".

Many of Burns's most famous poems are songs with the music based upon older traditional songs. For example, "Auld Lang Syne" is set to the traditional tune "Can Ye Labour Lea", "A Red, Red Rose" is set to the tune of "Major Graham" and "The Battle of Sherramuir" is set to the "Cameronian Rant".

Failing health and death

Burns's worldly prospects were perhaps better than they had ever been but he alienated some acquaintances by freely expressing sympathy with the French, and American Revolutions, for the advocates of democratic reform and votes for all men and the Society of the Friends of the People which advocated Parliamentary Reform. His political views came to the notice of his employers, to which he pleaded his innocence. Burns met other radicals at the Globe Inn Dumfries. As an Exciseman he felt compelled to join the Royal Dumfries Volunteers in March 1795.
He lived in Dumfries in a two-storey red sandstone house on Mill Hole Brae, now Burns Street. The home is now a museum. He went on long journeys on horseback, often in harsh weather conditions as an Excise Supervisor. He was kept very busy doing reports, father of four young children, song collector and songwriter.
As his health began to give way, he aged prematurely and fell into fits of despondency. The habits of intemperance (alleged mainly by temperance activist James Currie) are said to have aggravated his long-standing possible rheumatic heart condition.

On the morning of 21 July 1796, Burns died in Dumfries, at the age of 37. The funeral took place on Monday 25 July 1796, the day that his son Maxwell was born. He was at first buried in the far corner of St. Michael's Churchyard in Dumfries; a simple "slab of freestone" was erected as his gravestone by Jean Armour, which some felt insulting to his memory. His body was eventually moved to its final location in the same cemetery, the Burns Mausoleum, in September 1817. The body of his widow Jean Armour was buried with his in 1834.

Armour had taken steps to secure his personal property, partly by liquidating two promissory notes amounting to fifteen pounds sterling (about 1,100 pounds at 2009 prices). The family went to the Court of Session in 1798 with a plan to support his surviving children by publishing a four-volume edition of his complete works and a biography written by James Currie. Subscriptions were raised to meet the initial cost of publication, which was in the hands of Thomas Cadell and William Davies in London and William Creech, bookseller in Edinburgh. Hogg records that fund-raising for Burns's family was embarrassingly slow, and it took several years to accumulate significant funds through the efforts of John Syme and Alexander Cunningham.

Burns was posthumously given the freedom of the town of Dumfries. Hogg records that Burns was given the freedom of the Burgh of Dumfries on 4 June 1787, 9 years before his death, and was also made an Honorary Burgess of Dumfries.

Through his five surviving children (of 12 born), Burns has over 900 living descendants as of 2019.

Literary style

Burns's style is marked by spontaneity, directness, and sincerity, and ranges from the tender intensity of some of his lyrics through the humour of "Tam o' Shanter" and the satire of "Holy Willie's Prayer" and "The Holy Fair".

Burns's poetry drew upon a substantial familiarity with and knowledge of Classical, Biblical, and English literature, as well as the Scottish Makar tradition. Burns was skilled in writing not only in the Scots language but also in the Scottish English dialect of the English language. Some of his works, such as "Love and Liberty" (also known as "The Jolly Beggars"), are written in both Scots and English for various effects.

His themes included republicanism (he lived during the French Revolutionary period) and Radicalism, which he expressed covertly in "Scots Wha Hae", Scottish patriotism, anticlericalism, class inequalities, gender roles, commentary on the Scottish Kirk of his time, Scottish cultural identity, poverty, sexuality, and the beneficial aspects of popular socialising (carousing, Scotch whisky, folk songs, and so forth).

The strong emotional highs and lows associated with many of Burns's poems have led some, such as Burns biographer Robert Crawford, to suggest that he suffered from manic depression—a hypothesis that has been supported by analysis of various samples of his handwriting. Burns himself referred to suffering from episodes of what he called "blue devilism". The National Trust for Scotland has downplayed the suggestion on the grounds that evidence is insufficient to support the claim.

Influence

Britain
Burns is generally classified as a proto-Romantic poet, and he influenced William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Percy Bysshe Shelley greatly. His direct literary influences in the use of Scots in poetry were Allan Ramsay and Robert Fergusson. The Edinburgh literati worked to sentimentalise Burns during his life and after his death, dismissing his education by calling him a "heaven-taught ploughman". Burns influenced later Scottish writers, especially Hugh MacDiarmid, who fought to dismantle what he felt had become a sentimental cult that dominated Scottish literature.

Canada

Burns had a significant influence on Alexander McLachlan and some influence on Robert Service. While this may not be so obvious in Service's English verse, which is Kiplingesque, it is more readily apparent in his Scots verse.

Scottish Canadians have embraced Robert Burns as a kind of patron poet and mark his birthday with festivities. 'Robbie Burns Day' is celebrated from Newfoundland and Labrador to Nanaimo. Every year, Canadian newspapers publish biographies of the poet, listings of local events and buffet menus. Universities mark the date in a range of ways: McMaster University library organized a special collection and Simon Fraser University's Centre for Scottish Studies organized a marathon reading of Burns's poetry. Senator Heath Macquarrie quipped of Canada's first Prime Minister that "While the lovable [Robbie] Burns went in for wine, women and song, his fellow Scot, John A. did not chase women and was not musical!" 'Gung Haggis Fat Choy' is a hybrid of Chinese New Year and Robbie Burns Day, celebrated in Vancouver since the late 1990s.

United States

In January 1864, President Abraham Lincoln was invited to attend a Robert Burns celebration by Robert Crawford; and if unable to attend, send a toast.  Lincoln composed a toast.

An example of Burns's literary influence in the US is seen in the choice by novelist John Steinbeck of the title of his 1937 novel, Of Mice and Men, taken from a line in the second-to-last stanza of "To a Mouse": "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men / Gang aft agley." Burns's influence on American vernacular poets such as James Whitcomb Riley and Frank Lebby Stanton has been acknowledged by their biographers. When asked for the source of his greatest creative inspiration, singer-songwriter Bob Dylan selected Burns's 1794 song "A Red, Red Rose" as the lyric that had the biggest effect on his life.

The author J. D. Salinger used protagonist Holden Caulfield's misinterpretation of Burns's poem "Comin' Through the Rye" as his title and a main interpretation of Caulfield's grasping to his childhood in his 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye. The poem, actually about a rendezvous, is thought by Caulfield to be about saving people from falling out of childhood.

Russia
Burns became the "people's poet" of Russia. In Imperial Russia Burns was translated into Russian and became a source of inspiration for the ordinary, oppressed Russian people. In Soviet Russia, he was elevated as the archetypal poet of the people. As a great admirer of the egalitarian ethos behind the American and French Revolutions who expressed his own egalitarianism in poems such as his "Birthday Ode for George Washington" or his "Is There for Honest Poverty" (commonly known as "A Man's a Man for a' that"), Burns was well placed for endorsement by the Communist regime as a "progressive" artist. A new translation of Burns begun in 1924 by Samuil Marshak proved enormously popular, selling over 600,000 copies. The USSR honoured Burns with a commemorative stamp in 1956. He remains popular in Russia after the fall of the Soviet Union.

Honours

Landmarks and organisations

Burns clubs have been founded worldwide. The first one, known as The Mother Club, was founded in Greenock in 1801 by merchants born in Ayrshire, some of whom had known Burns. The club set its original objectives as "To cherish the name of Robert Burns; to foster a love of his writings, and generally to encourage an interest in the Scottish language and literature." The club also continues to have local charitable work as a priority.

Burns's birthplace in Alloway is now a National Trust for Scotland property called the Robert Burns Birthplace Museum. It includes: the humble Burns Cottage where he was born and spent the first years of his life, a modern museum building which houses more than 5,000 Burns artefacts including his handwritten manuscripts, the historic Alloway Auld Kirk and Brig o Doon which feature in Burns's masterpiece 'Tam o Shanter', and the Burns Monument which was erected in Burns's honour and finished in 1823.
His house in Dumfries is operated as the Robert Burns House, and the Robert Burns Centre in Dumfries features more exhibits about his life and works. Ellisland Farm in Auldgirth, which he owned from 1788 to 1791, is maintained as a working farm with a museum and interpretation centre by the Friends of Ellisland Farm.

Significant 19th-century monuments to him stand in Alloway, Leith, and Dumfries. An early 20th-century replica of his birthplace cottage belonging to the Burns Club Atlanta stands in Atlanta, Georgia. These are part of a large list of Burns memorials and statues around the world.

Organisations include the Robert Burns Fellowship of the University of Otago in New Zealand, and the Burns Club Atlanta in the United States. Towns named after Burns include Burns, New York, and Burns, Oregon.

In the suburb of Summerhill, Dumfries, the majority of the streets have names with Burns connotations. A British Rail Standard Class 7 steam locomotive was named after him, along with a later Class 87 electric locomotive, No. 87035. On 24 September 1996, Class 156 diesel unit 156433 was named The Kilmarnock Edition at Girvan station to launch the new Burns Line services between Girvan, Ayr and Kilmarnock, supported by Strathclyde Partnership for Transport.

Several streets surrounding the Frederick Law Olmsted Jr.'s Back Bay Fens in Boston, Massachusetts, were designated with Burns connotations. A life-size statue was dedicated in Burns's honour within the Back Bay Fens of the West Fenway neighbourhood in 1912. It stood until 1972 when it was relocated downtown, sparking protests from the neighbourhood, literary fans, and preservationists of Olmsted's vision for the Back Bay Fens.

There is a statue of Burns in The Octagon, Dunedin, in the same pose as the one in Dundee. Dunedin's first European settlers were Scots; Thomas Burns, a nephew of Burns, was one of Dunedin's founding fathers.

A crater on Mercury is named after Burns.

In November 2012, Burns was awarded the title Honorary Chartered Surveyor by The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, the only posthumous membership so far granted by the institution.

The oldest statue of Burns is in the town of Camperdown, Victoria. It now hosts an annual Robert Burns Scottish Festival in celebration of the statue and its history.

In 2020, the Robert Burns Academy in Cumnock, East Ayrshire opened and is named after Burns as an honour of Burns having spent time living in nearby Mauchline.

Stamps and currency

The Soviet Union was the first country in the world to honour Burns with a commemorative stamp, marking the 160th anniversary of his death in 1956.

The UK postal service, the Royal Mail, has issued postage stamps commemorating Burns three times. In 1966, two stamps were issued, priced fourpence and one shilling and threepence, both carrying Burns's portrait. In 1996, an issue commemorating the bicentenary of his death comprised four stamps, priced 19p, 25p, 41p and 60p and including quotes from Burns's poems. On 22 January 2009, two 1st class stamps were issued by the Royal Mail to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Burns's birth.

Burns was pictured on the Clydesdale Bank £5 note from 1971 to 2009. On the reverse of the note was a vignette of a field mouse and a wild rose in reference to Burns's poem "To a Mouse". The Clydesdale Bank's notes were redesigned in 2009 and, since then, he has been pictured on the front of their £10 note. In September 2007, the Bank of Scotland redesigned their banknotes to feature famous Scottish bridges. The reverse side of new £5 features Brig o' Doon, famous from Burns's poem "Tam o' Shanter", and pictures the statue of Burns at that site.

In 1996, the Isle of Man issued a four-coin set of Crown (5/-) pieces on the themes of "Auld Lang Syne", Edinburgh Castle, Revenue Cutter, and Writing Poems. Tristan da Cunha produced a gold £5 Bicentenary Coin.

In 2009 the Royal Mint issued a commemorative two pound coin featuring a quote from "Auld Lang Syne".

Musical tributes

In 1976, singer Jean Redpath, in collaboration with composer Serge Hovey, started to record all of Burns's songs, with a mixture of traditional and Burns's own compositions. The project ended when Hovey died, after seven of the planned twenty-two volumes were completed. Redpath also recorded four cassettes of Burns's songs (re-issued as 3 CDs) for the Scots Musical Museum.

In 1996, a musical about Burns's life called Red Red Rose won third place at a competition for new musicals in Denmark. Robert Burns was played by John Barrowman. On 25 January 2008, a musical play about the love affair between Robert Burns and Nancy McLehose entitled Clarinda premiered in Edinburgh before touring Scotland. The plan was that Clarinda would make its American premiere in Atlantic Beach, FL, at Atlantic Beach Experimental Theatre on 25 January 2013. Eddi Reader has released two albums, Sings the Songs of Robert Burns and The Songs of Robert Burns Deluxe Edition, about the work of the poet.

Alfred B. Street wrote the words and Henry Tucker wrote the music for a song called Our Own Robbie Burns in 1856.

Burns suppers

Burns Night, in effect a second national day, is celebrated on Burns's birthday, 25 January, with Burns suppers around the world, and is more widely observed in Scotland than the official national day, St. Andrew's Day. The first Burns supper in The Mother Club in Greenock was held on what was thought to be his birthday on 29 January 1802; in 1803 it was discovered from the Ayr parish records that the correct date was 25 January 1759.

The format of Burns suppers has changed little since. The basic format starts with a general welcome and announcements, followed with the Selkirk Grace. After the grace comes the piping and cutting of the haggis, when Burns's famous "Address to a Haggis" is read and the haggis is cut open. The event usually allows for people to start eating just after the haggis is presented. At the end of the meal, a series of toasts, often including a 'Toast to the Lassies', and replies are made. This is when the toast to "the immortal memory", an overview of Burns's life and work, is given. The event usually concludes with the singing of "Auld Lang Syne".

Greatest Scot
In 2009, STV ran a television series and public vote on who was "The Greatest Scot" of all time.  Robert Burns won, narrowly beating William Wallace. A bust of Burns is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling.

Crater
A crater on the planet Mercury has been named after Burns.

See also

 Agnes Burns (sister)
 Alexander Tait (poet)
 Annabella Burns (sister)
 Elizabeth 'Betty' Burns
 Elizabeth Riddell Burns
 Glenriddell Manuscripts
 James Glencairn Burns (son)
 Jean Lorimer (Chloris)
 John Burns (farmer) (brother)
 List of 18th-century British working-class writers
 People on Scottish banknotes
 List of Robert Burns memorials
 Poems by David Sillar
 Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (London Edition)
 Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (Second Edinburgh Edition)
 Robert Aiken
 Robert Burns and the Eglinton Estate
 Robert Burns Junior (eldest son)
 Robert Burns's Commonplace Book 1783–1785
 Robert Burns's diamond point engravings
 Robert Burns's Interleaved Scots Musical Museum
 The Holy Tulzie
 The World of Robert Burns (educational software)
 William Burns (saddler) (brother)
 William Nicol Burns (son)

Notes

References

Bibliography

 Dietrich Hohmann: Ich, Robert Burns, Biographical Novel, Neues Leben, Berlin 1990 (in German)

External links
Biographical information

 Robert Burns website at National Library of Scotland
 Legacy of Robert Burns  at National Archives of Scotland

 Guide to Robert Burns collection at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University

 Robert Burns at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
 Modern English translations of poems by Robert Burns
 Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons, p. 57
 Robert Burns at the British Library
 To Robert Burns historical marker near Burns Cottage in Atlanta, Georgia
 The Papers of Robert Burns at Dartmouth College Library

1759 births
1796 deaths
18th-century Scottish male writers
18th-century Scottish poets
18th-century Scottish songwriters
Scots Makars
Calvinist and Reformed poets
Freemasonry in Scotland
Literary critics of English
Members of Crochallan Fencibles
Infectious disease deaths in Scotland
Lallans poets
People from Alloway
Romantic poets
Scottish folk-song collectors
Scottish literature
Scottish lyricists
Scottish male poets
Scottish male songwriters
People of the Scottish Enlightenment
Scots-language poets
Members of the Royal Company of Archers
Scottish civil servants
Robert

Robert Burns


Cornelius O'Leary (30 September 1927 – 7 September 2006) was an Irish historian and political scientist.

O'Leary was born in Limerick but was raised in Cork, where he attended University College Cork, gaining a first-class honours degree in history and Latin in 1949. He subsequently studied for a DPhil at Nuffield College, Oxford as the first student to be supervised by the psephologist David Butler. While researching his PhD, he worked at a number of secondary schools in London.

His thesis was published as The Elimination of Corrupt Practices in British Elections, 1868-1911 (Clarendon Press, 1962) and in the same year he was appointed lecturer at Queen's University Belfast in Northern Ireland. He was made professor of political science in 1979, having been controversially denied such a post previously. He was the first Catholic to hold such a chair at the university and explained that, when he was appointed in 1960, he saw Queen's as part of the Unionist establishment. According to an obituary written by Bernard Crick, O'Leary suffered from alcoholism, which resulting in him often being absent from the university and colleagues having to cover for him. At one point he lived in hotels and lodging houses rather than at a fixed address.

Aside from his PhD thesis, O'Leary's main publications were Belfast: Approach to Crisis. A Study of Belfast Politics, 1613-1970 (with Ian Budge, Macmillan, 1973), The Northern Ireland Assembly, 1982-1986: A Constitutional Experiment (with Sydney Elliott and R.A. Wilford, Hurst, 1988) and Controversial Issues in Anglo-Irish Relations, 1910-1921 (with Patrick Maume, Four Courts, 2004). He had planned a work on 20th century Irish politics but this never materialised.

Although from the Republic of Ireland, O'Leary developed an interest in Unionism, and was an advisor to the Ulster Defence Association. He subsequently wrote a paper on Northern Irish independence at the request of John McMichael. During the 1960s and 1970s he was a regular commentator on Northern Ireland in the media. In his later life, he served as the vice-chairman of the anti-abortion campaign surrounding the Eighth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland, which introduced a constitutional ban on abortion. This brought him into opposition with many feminists.

O'Leary died on 7 September 2006 after a short illness. He is buried at Timoleague Abbey Cemetery in County Cork.

References

1927 births
2006 deaths
Academics of Queen's University Belfast
Alumni of Nuffield College, Oxford
20th-century Irish historians
Irish political scientists
20th-century political scientists

Cornelius O'Leary


Originally, a café-théâtre was a small room in a café or a cabaret, or even the café or cabaret itself, where people would put on spectacles. These spectacles were mostly unconventional or of limited means, and could range from ordinary theatrical presentations to singing tours, and even improvisational theatre.

Bernard Da Costa created the first Parisian café-théâtre in 1966 at the Royal Café.
Derek Woodward created a touring Theatre Company called 'Cafe Theatre' in the mid 1980s. It was a Dinner Theatre ensemble that rivalled  British Airways Playhouse productions in the Middle and Far East.

Bibliography
 Bernard Da Costa Histoire du Café-Théâtre, éditions Buchet-Chastel 1978.

Theatrical genres

Café-théâtre


Princess Charlotte might refer to:

People
 Charlotte Christine of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1694–1715), wife of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich of Russia and mother of Tsar Peter II, Emperor of Russia
 Charlotte Aglaé d'Orléans (1700–1761), wife of Francesco III, Duke of Modena
 Charlotte, Princess Royal (1766–1828), eldest daughter of King George III; Queen consort of King Frederick I of Württemberg
 Princess Louise Charlotte of Denmark (1789–1864), married Prince William of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), mother of Queen Louise of Denmark
 Princess Charlotte of Wales (1796–1817), only child of King George IV of the United Kingdom; first wife of Leopold I of the Belgians
 Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia) (1798–1860), born Princess Charlotte of Prussia, empress consort of Nicholas I of Russia as Alexandra Feodorovna
 Princess Charlotte of Württemberg (1807–1873), wife of Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich of Russia under the name Elena Pavlovna
 Princess Charlotte of Clarence (1819), eldest legitimate child of the future King William IV of the United Kingdom, died hours after birth
 Charlotte of Belgium (1840–1927), a.k.a. Carlota, empress-consort of Maximilian of Mexico from 1864 till the emperor was deposed and shot in 1867
 Charlotte, Duchess of Saxe-Meiningen (1860–1919), Princess of Prussia
 Princess Charlotte, Duchess of Valentinois (1898–1977)
 Princess Joséphine Charlotte of Belgium (1927–2005), wife of Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg
 Charlotte Casiraghi (born 1986), sometimes incorrectly called Princess Charlotte of Monaco
 Princess Charlotte of Cambridge (born 2015), daughter of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge

Places
 The Princess Charlotte, now The Charlotte, a music venue in Leicester, England
 Princess Charlotte Bay, in far North Queensland, Australia

Transportation
 , the name of several ships
 , the name of several ships of the Royal Navy
 , the name of several ships during the Napoleonic Wars
 Princess Charlotte, the name of a GWR 4000 Class locomotive

Princess Charlotte


The Fargo Training School was founded as a private school initially known as the Fargo Agricultural School by Dr. Floyd Brown. It was acquired by the state in 1949 and was operated as an educational facility for educating delinquent African American girls in Fargo, Arkansas.  The school was operated from 1949 until it was closed in 1968 as part of a court-mandated integration of the state's juvenile facility.

The school's surviving campus was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2010.  It is one of the state's best-preserved campuses of its type from the segregation era.  The campus includes six surviving buildings, including one that now houses the Floyd Brown Museum, an International-style building constructed in 1958.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Monroe County, Arkansas

References

Buildings and structures completed in 1960
Buildings and structures in Monroe County, Arkansas
Defunct schools in Arkansas
Museums in Monroe County, Arkansas
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Arkansas
History museums in Arkansas
National Register of Historic Places in Monroe County, Arkansas

Fargo Training School


An apex predator, also known as a top predator, is a predator at the top of a food chain, without natural predators of its own.

Apex predators are usually defined in terms of trophic dynamics, meaning that they occupy the highest trophic levels. Food chains are often far shorter on land, usually limited to being secondary consumers – for example, wolves prey mostly upon large herbivores (primary consumers), which eat plants (primary producers). The apex predator concept is applied in wildlife management, conservation, and ecotourism.

Apex predators have a long evolutionary history, dating at least to the Cambrian period when animals such as Anomalocaris dominated the seas.

Humans have for many centuries interacted with apex predators including the wolf, birds of prey, and cormorants to hunt game animals, birds, and fish respectively. More recently, humans have started interacting with apex predators in new ways. These include interactions via ecotourism, such as with the tiger shark, and through rewilding efforts, such as the proposed reintroduction of the Iberian lynx.

Ecological roles

Effects on community

Apex predators affect prey species' population dynamics and populations of other predators, both in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Non-native predatory fish, for instance, have sometimes devastated formerly dominant predators. A lake manipulation study found that when the non-native smallmouth bass was removed, lake trout, the suppressed native apex predator, diversified its prey selection and increased its trophic level. As a terrestrial example, the badger, an apex predator, preys upon and also competes with the hedgehog, a mesopredator, for food such as insects, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and the eggs of ground-nesting birds. Removal of badgers (in a trial investigating bovine tuberculosis) caused hedgehog densities to more than double. Predators that exert top-down control on organisms in their community are often considered keystone species.

Effects on ecosystem

Apex predators can have profound effects on ecosystems, as the consequences of both controlling prey density and restricting smaller predators, and may be capable of self-regulation. They are central to the functioning of ecosystems, the regulation of disease, and the maintenance of biodiversity. When introduced to subarctic islands, for example, Arctic foxes' predation of seabirds has been shown to turn grassland into the tundra. Such wide-ranging effects on lower levels of an ecosystem are termed trophic cascades. The removal of top-level predators, often through human agency, can cause or disrupt trophic cascades. For example, a reduction in the population of sperm whales, apex predators with a fractional trophic level of 4.7, by hunting has caused an increase in the population of the large squid, with trophic level over 4 (carnivores that eat other carnivores). This effect, called mesopredator release, occurs in terrestrial and marine ecosystems; for instance, in North America, the ranges of all apex carnivores have contracted whereas those of 60% of mesopredators have grown in the past two centuries.

Conservation

Because apex predators have powerful effects on other predators, herbivores, and plants, they can be important in nature conservation. Humans have hunted many apex predators close to extinction, but in some parts of the world, these predators are now returning. They are increasingly threatened by climate change. For example, the polar bear requires extensive areas of sea ice to hunt its prey, typically seals, but climate change is shrinking the sea ice of the Arctic, forcing polar bears to fast on land for increasingly long periods.

Dramatic changes in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem were recorded after the gray wolf, both an apex predator and a keystone species (one with a large effect on its ecosystem), was reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park in 1995 as a conservation measure. Elk, the wolves' primary prey, became less abundant and changed their behavior, freeing riparian zones from constant grazing and allowing willows, aspens, and cottonwoods to flourish, creating habitats for beaver, moose, and scores of other species. In addition to their effect on prey species, the wolves' presence also affected one of the park's vulnerable species, the grizzly bear: emerging from hibernation, having fasted for months, the bears chose to scavenge wolf kills, especially during the autumn as they prepared to hibernate once again. The grizzly bear gives birth during hibernation, so the increased food supply is expected to produce an increase in the number of cubs observed. Dozens of other species, including eagles, ravens, magpies, coyotes, and black bears have also been documented as scavenging from wolf kills within the park.

Human trophic level

Ecologists have debated whether humans are apex predators. For instance, Sylvain Bonhommeau and colleagues argued in 2013 that across the global food web, a fractional human trophic level (HTL) can be calculated as the mean trophic level of every species in the human diet, weighted by the proportion that that species forms in the diet. This analysis gives an average HTL of 2.21, varying between 2.04 (for Burundi, with a 96.7% plant-based diet) and 2.57 (for Iceland, with 50% meat and fish, 50% plants). These values are comparable to those of non-apex predators such as the anchovy or pig.

However, Peter D. Roopnarine criticized Bonhommeau's approach in 2014, arguing that humans are apex predators and that the HTL was based on terrestrial farming where indeed humans have a low trophic level, mainly eating producers (crop plants at level 1) or primary consumers (herbivores at level 2), which as expected places humans at a level slightly above 2. Roopnarine instead calculated the position of humans in two marine ecosystems, a Caribbean coral reef and the Benguela system near South Africa. In these systems, humans mainly eat predatory fish and have a fractional trophic level of 4.65 and 4.5, respectively, which in Roopnarine's view makes those humans apex predators.

In 2021, Miki Ben-Dor and colleagues compared human biology to that of animals at various trophic levels. Using metrics as diverse as tool use and acidity of the stomach, they concluded that humans evolved as apex predators, diversifying their diets in response to the disappearance of most of the megafauna that had once been their primary source of food.

Evolutionary history

Apex predators are thought to have existed since at least the Cambrian period, around 500 million years ago. Extinct species cannot be directly determined to be apex predators as their behavior cannot be observed, and clues to ecological relationships, such as bite marks on bones or shells, do not form a complete picture. However, indirect evidence such as the absence of any discernible predator in an environment is suggestive. Anomalocaris was an aquatic apex predator, in the Cambrian. Its mouthparts are clearly predatory, and there were no larger animals in the seas at that time.

Carnivorous theropod dinosaurs including Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus have been theorized to have been apex predators, based on their size, morphology, and dietary needs.

A Permian shark, Triodus sessilis, was discovered containing two amphibians (Archegosaurus decheni and Cheliderpeton latirostre), one of which had consumed a fish, Acanthodes bronni, showing that the shark had lived at a trophic level of at least 4.

Among more recent fossils, the saber-tooth cats, like Smilodon, are considered to have been apex predators in the Cenozoic.

Interactions with humans

Hunting

Humans hunted with apex predators in the form of wolves, and in turn with domestic dogs, for 40,000 years; this collaboration may have helped modern humans to outcompete the Neanderthals. Humans still hunt with dogs, which have often been bred as gun dogs to point to, flush out, or retrieve prey. The Portuguese Water Dog was used to drive fish into nets. Several breeds of dog have been used to chase large prey such as deer and wolves.

Eagles and falcons, which are apex predators, are used in falconry, hunting birds or mammals. Tethered cormorants, also top predators, have been used to catch fish.

Ecotourism

Ecotourism sometimes relies on apex predators to attract business. Tour operators may in consequence decide to intervene in ecosystems, for example by providing food to attract predators to areas that can conveniently be visited. This in turn can have effects on predator population and therefore on the wider ecosystem. As a result, provisioning of species such as the tiger shark is controversial, but its effects are not well established by empirical evidence. Other affected apex predators include big cats and crocodiles.

Rewilding

In some densely populated areas like the British Isles, all the large native predators like the wolf, bear, wolverine and lynx have become extirpated, allowing herbivores such as deer to multiply unchecked except by hunting. In 2015, plans were made to reintroduce lynx to the counties of Norfolk, Cumbria, and Northumberland in England, and Aberdeenshire in Scotland as part of the rewilding movement. The reintroduction of large predators is controversial, in part because of concern among farmers for their livestock. Conservationists such as Paul Lister propose instead to allow wolves and bears to hunt their prey in a "managed environment" on large fenced reserves; however, this undermines the objective of rewilding.

Notes

References

External links
 The Ecological Function of Apex Predators: talk by Prof. James Estes (UC Santa Cruz)

Predation

Apex predator


Adrian Beaumont (born 1937, Huddersfield) is a British composer, conductor and university teacher.

He studied at University College, Cardiff, completing a PhD in composition in 1972. He lectured in music at the University of Bristol from 1961 until his retirement in 2002, his 41 years continuous service making him the longest-serving academic in the university's history. In 1994 he was appointed to the post of Reader in Composition.

Works include Summer Ecstasies for soprano and orchestra, three Symphonies, an oratorio (Now Burns the Bright Redeeming Fire), a concerto for oboe and strings, Mazemaker Fantasy for instrumental ensemble, and Nature Studies for oboe and piano.

As a conductor, he has worked with Bristol Opera, the Bristol Bach Choir (1967–78), and the Symphony Orchestra, Choral Society and New Music Ensemble at the University of Bristol. He was also for many years a professional oboist.

His students at Bristol included the British composers Michael Edwards, Alan Charlton, Owen Leech and Ian Stephens, and the conductor Christopher Austin. As well as teaching composition, he was noted as a specialist in 19th and 20th century musicology and in orchestration.

He continues to live in Bristol and is married to the soprano Janet Price, for whom many of his works were written and dedicated.

Publications
 Beaumont, Adrian: Expectation and Interpretation in the Reception of New Music: A Case Study in Thomas, W. (ed.), Composition - Performance - Reception: Studies in the Creative Process in Music, Ashgate, 1998,

External links
 Bristol Bach Choir website – includes biography and photograph
 University News, November 2002, Issue 15 - contains article marking Beaumont's retirement from the University of Bristol
 Adrian Beaumont at classical-composers.com - extensive biography and list of works

References

 Ho, Edward: New Choral Music. The Musical Times, Vol. 119, No. 1619 (Jan., 1978), p. 73
 Maxwell, M: Review: Oboe. The Musical Times, Vol. 129, No. 1746 (Aug., 1988), p. 410
 Thomas, W: Music in the Provinces: Bristol. The Musical Times, Vol. 108, No. 1494 (Aug., 1967), pp. 723–724

Living people
20th-century classical composers
Academics of the University of Bristol
1937 births
Male classical composers
20th-century male musicians

Adrian Beaumont


A wagon train is a group of wagons traveling together. Before the extensive use of military vehicles, baggage trains followed an army with supplies and ammunition.

In the American West, settlers traveling across the plains and mountain passes in covered wagons banded together for mutual assistance. Although wagon trains are associated with the Old West, the Trekboers of South Africa also traveled in caravans of covered wagons.

In migration

Transit, traces and trails
Wagon trains followed several trails in the American West, nearly all originating at Independence, Missouri. Perhaps the most famous wagon train trail was the Oregon Trail which had a span of over . Other paths included the Santa Fe Trail, the Chisholm Trail, the California Trail (which split southwestward from the Oregon Trail), the Mormon Trail, and the Old Spanish Trail.

Although "wagon train" suggests a line of wagons, when terrain permitted, wagons would often fan out and travel abreast to minimize the amount of dust blown onto other wagons. Travel by wagon train occurred primarily between the 1840s–1880s, diminishing after completion of the first transcontinental railroad. Some remnants of wagon ruts along the well-travelled trails are still visible today.

Organization

Originally, westward movement began in small groups, but well-funded travelers with 100 or more wagons could employ professional wagon masters (or trail masters) and ostlers.

Overland emigrants discovered smaller groups of 20 to 40 wagons were more manageable than larger ones, especially without professional wagon masters. Many operated under democratic principles, creating bylaws and electing a captain. In reality, a captain had limited authority. His role was largely confined to getting everyone moving in the morning and selecting when and where to camp at night.

Membership of wagon trains was generally fluid and wagons frequently joined or left trains depending on the needs and wishes of their owners. An accident or illness, for instance, might force someone to fall behind and wait for the next train, or an emigrant might "whip up" to overtake a forward train after a quarrel. Some might break away to settle in Colorado Territory or other territories along the way.

At night, wagon trains were often formed into a circle or square for shelter from wind or weather, and to corral the emigrants' animals in the center to prevent them from running away or being stolen by native Americans. While native Americans might attempt to raid horses under cover of darkness, they rarely attacked a train. Contrary to popular belief, wagons were seldom circled defensively.

Modern-day treks

Today, covered wagon trains are used to give an authentic experience for those desiring to explore the West as it was in the days of the pioneers and other groups traveling before modern vehicles were invented.

Baggage trains

The advent of gunpowder warfare meant that an army could no longer rely solely on foraging in the surrounding countryside, and required a regular supply of munitions. In the 18th century, organized commissary and quartermaster departments were developed to centralize delivery of supplies. The delivery took the form of "baggage trains", large groups of wagons that traveled at the rear of the main army.

In popular media

Westward-bound collective treks are reflected in numerous books, films and television programs about the journeys. Examples include: Emerson Hough's 1922 novel and James Cruze's silent film based on it, The Covered Wagon (1923); Raoul Walsh's film The Big Trail (1930); Robert N. Bradbury's film Westward Ho (1935); John Ford's Wagon Master (1950) and the television series it inspired, Wagon Train (1957–1965); William Wellman's film, Westward the Women (1951); A. B. Guthrie Jr.'s 1949 novel The Way West and Andrew V. McLaglen's 1967 film based on it; and the "Wagons West" series of 24 novels written by Noel Gerson (under the pseudonym Dana Fuller Ross) between 1979 and 1989.

See also

 Cavalcade
 Conestoga wagon
 Convoy
 Covered wagon
 Laager
 War wagon

References

Further reading

External links

 Wagon Train at Spartacus Educational
 Wagon train in britannica.com

American frontier
History of United States expansionism
Wagons
History of South Africa
Western (genre) staples and terminology

Wagon train


Michael James Tindall  (born 18 October 1978) is an English former player in Rugby Union.

Early Life and Careers
Tindall was born at Wharfedale Hospital in Otley, West Yorkshire, England. He is son of Philip "Phil" Tindall, a banker for Barclays, and Linda Shepherd, a social worker. His maternal ancestors include bootmakers, stonemasons and weavers. His paternal great-grandfather, Arthur Sutcliffe Tindall, was a blacksmith, the grandson of William Tindall, a landowner farming 105 acres at Fairburn, North Yorkshire.

Tindall studied at Queen Elizabeth Grammar School in Wakefield and Durham University .

Tyndall played Centre for Bath and Gloucester. He won 75 caps with the England between 2000 and 2011. He was a member of the English team that won the 2003 World Cup.

Tindall made his England debut on February 5, 2000, against the Ireland at the 2000 Six Nations Championship. Besides winning the 2003 World Cup, he was a member of the England national team that won the 2003 Six Nations Championship. He was injured in the Rugby World Cup 2007. Tindall played in eleven competitions Six Nations Championship from 2000 to 2011.

He is the first person in the history of the British Royal Family to be a November 2022 guest on the ITV celebrity show I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!.

Family
Tindall is married to  Zara Phillips, daughter of Anne, Princess Royal, niece of King Charles III and granddaughter of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. They have three children, Mia Grace Tindall and Lena Elizabeth Tindall.

1978 births
Living people
English rugby union players

Mike Tindall


Owain Charles Hopkins (born 18 December 1980) is a Welsh cricketer.  Hopkins is a right-handed batsman who bowls right-arm off break.  He was born at Bridgend, Glamorgan.

Hopkins made his Minor Counties Championship debut for Wales Minor Counties in 2000 against Cornwall.  From 2000 to 2003, he represented the team in 16 Championship matches, the last of which came against Oxfordshire.  His MCCA Knockout Trophy debut for the team came in 2001 against the Warwickshire Cricket Board. From 2001 to 2004, he represented the team in 3 Trophy matches, the last of which came against Oxfordshire.  His debut List A appearance for the team came in the 2nd round of the 2002 Cheltenham & Gloucester Trophy against the Sussex Cricket Board, with the match being played in 2001.  He made one further List A appearances for the team, which came against Cornwall in the 2nd round of the 2003 Cheltenham & Gloucester Trophy which was held in 2002.  In his 2 matches, he scored 10 runs at a batting average of 5.00, with a high score of 9.  With the ball he took 2 wickets at a bowling average of 14.50, with best figures of 2/29.

He currently plays club cricket for St Fagans Cricket Club in the South Wales Cricket League.

References

External links
Owain Hopkins at Cricinfo
Owain Hopkins at CricketArchive

1980 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Bridgend
Welsh cricketers
Wales National County cricketers

Owain Hopkins


Bulldog Drummond is a 1929 American pre-Code crime film in which Hugh "Bulldog" Drummond helps a beautiful young woman in distress.  The film stars Ronald Colman as the title character, Claud Allister, Lawrence Grant, Montagu Love, Wilson Benge, Joan Bennett, and Lilyan Tashman. Produced by Samuel Goldwyn and directed by F. Richard Jones, the movie was adapted by Sidney Howard from the play by H. C. McNeile (credited onscreen as "Sapper").

Colman was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, and William Cameron Menzies for Best Art Direction.

Two previous Bulldog Drummond films had been produced: Bulldog Drummond (1923) and Bulldog Drummond's Third Round (1925). The 1929 film was the first Bulldog Drummond movie with sound, and was also Ronald Colman's first talkie. A series of Drummond movies followed, beginning with Temple Tower made in the UK in 1930; see the main article on Bulldog Drummond for a complete list.

Plot
Hugh "Bulldog" Drummond, a demobilised British captain bored with civilian life, places a personal advertisement in The Times offering his services for "any excitement". One of the many replies intrigues him: Phyllis Benton claims she is in great danger. He immediately sets out for the Green Bay Inn, where she has reserved some rooms for him. Unable to persuade him to give up this mad adventure, his friend Algy Longworth follows after, dragging Drummond's valet, Danny, along.

Phyllis turns out to be all Drummond had hoped for: beautiful and desperately in need of help. Her wealthy uncle, John Travers, is being treated in a hospital by a Dr. Lakington for a nervous breakdown, but she is sure there is something wrong about the hospital and Dr. Lakington, and that she is being watched constantly. She runs away when she spots the outline of two eavesdropping men (Algy and Danny), much to Drummond's annoyance. She is caught and taken to Dr. Lakington's Nursing Home by Carl Peterson, Irma and the doctor.

When Drummond follows, he witnesses Travers' unsuccessful attempt to escape. Drummond drives away, but returns stealthily and rescues Phyllis. Sending her off with Algy and Danny, he sneaks back once more and overhears Irma convince the others to stay and try to get Travers' signature on a document transferring securities and jewels to them. Drummond manages to save Travers.

However, he makes a serious error when he takes Travers back to the inn. The villains soon arrive there. Drummond manages to disguise himself as Travers; the crooks take him back, along with Phyllis. When they realise they have the wrong man they threaten to torture Phyllis. Drummond tells them Travers is hidden at the inn (whereas he is really being driven to London). While Peterson and Irma go to check, Drummond is freed by Phyllis before Lakington can kill him. He strangles the doctor. Drummond disarms Peterson when he returns, but his gang pose as policemen and take him away. Phyllis persuades Drummond to let them go, telling him she loves him.

Cast

 Ronald Colman as Hugh Drummond
 Claud Allister as Algy Longworth
 Lawrence Grant as Dr. Lakington
 Montagu Love as Carl Peterson
 Wilson Benge as Danny, Drummond's valet
 Joan Bennett as Phyllis Benton
 Lilyan Tashman as Irma
 Charles Sellon as John Travers
 Adolph Milar as 	Marcovitch
 Tetsu Komai as Chong
 Gertrude Short as Barmaid
 Donald Novis as Country Boy
 Tom Ricketts as Colonel in Club

Critical reaction

Mordaunt Hall of The New York Times called the film "the happiest and most enjoyable entertainment of its kind that has so far reached the screen", and recommended it to those who had harsh words for the burgeoning phenomenon of motion pictures with sound. Hall lauded the film for going beyond a mere filmed version of the stage show, and the "artistry" with which director F. Richard Jones fashioned his scenes with an eye toward humor and thrills. Hall also praised the technical achievement of the sound quality, and the performances of Ronald Colman, Montagu Love and Lilyan Tashman.

See also
 List of early sound feature films (1926–1929)
 List of films in the public domain in the United States
 Bulldog Drummond
 Bulldog Drummond radio program

References

External links

 Bulldog Drummond (1929) at SilentEra

Films based on Bulldog Drummond
1929 films
American crime films
American black-and-white films
Films directed by F. Richard Jones
Samuel Goldwyn Productions films
Films set in London
1929 crime films
1920s English-language films
1920s American films

de:Bulldog Drummond

Bulldog Drummond (1929 film)


The Jim Durrell Recreation Centre is a multi-purpose dual-pad arena in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. It is located in the south end of the city on Walkley road close to the intersection of Bank street. The Ottawa Jr. Senators of the Central Canada Hockey League are its primary tenant.

History
The Jim Durrell Recreation Centre started off as the Walkley Arena.  It was the second City of Ottawa owned arena after the Elmgrove Park Arena in the west end. City council debated on whether to build two arenas but ultimately decided to start with the one on Walkley first and then build their third arena on a lot they owned at the intersections of Chamberlain and Lyon. Initial costs for the new arena were to be $170,000 but increased by $30,000 by November 1962 when work began. Strangely enough, the City saved somewhere between $5,000 to $15,000 by not installing showers in the four dressing rooms.  The contract was awarded to Abel Construction, and the architectural firm was J.L. Richards and Associates.
Several names were proposed for the new arena, among them were, Senator's Memorial Arena, Colonel By Arena and Billings Arena, the Silver Seven Stadium (to commemorate the Silver Seven hockey team which won the Stanley Cup in 1903, 1904 and 1905), but it was eventually decided to simply keep it as Walkley Arena.

In January 1984, 300 residents of Ottawa South presented the a petition to city planners requesting a new arena be built to help with the 2000 hockey and ringette players and figure skaters. Ald. Brian Bourns considered a $2-to $3-million arena far too expensive and thought doubling Walkley Arena was the better solution.

Facilities

Notable events

Directions

See also

References

Indoor arenas in Ontario
Indoor ice hockey venues in Canada
Sports venues in Ottawa
1962 establishments in Ontario
Sports venues completed in 1962

Jim Durrell Recreation Centre


Bernhard Hermann Neumann  (15 October 1909 – 21 October 2002) was a German-born British-Australian mathematician, who was a leader in the study of group theory.

Early life and education
After gaining a D.Phil. from Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität in Berlin in 1932 he earned a Ph.D. at the University of Cambridge in 1935 and a Doctor of Science at the University of Manchester in 1954. His doctoral students included Gilbert Baumslag, László Kovács, Michael Newman, and James Wiegold. After war service with the British Army, he became a lecturer at University College, Hull, before moving in 1948 to the University of Manchester, where he spent the next 14 years. In 1954 he received a DSc from the University of Cambridge.

In 1962 he migrated to Australia to take up the Foundation Chair of the Department of Mathematics within the Institute of Advanced Studies of the Australian National University (ANU), where he served as head of the department until retiring in 1975. In addition he was a senior research fellow at the CSIRO Division of Mathematics and Statistics from 1975 to 1977 and then honorary research fellow  from 1978 until his death in 2002.

His wife, Hanna Neumann, and sons, Peter M. Neumann and Walter Neumann, are also notable for their contributions to group theory.

He was an invited speaker of the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1936 at Oslo and in 1970 at Nice. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1959. In 1994, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC).

The Australian Mathematical Society awards a student prize named in his honour. The group-theoretic notion of HNN (Higman-Neumann-Neumann) extension bears the names of Bernard and his wife Hanna, from their joint paper with Graham Higman (who later supervised the PhD of their son Peter).

Career
 Assistant lecturer, University College, Cardiff, 1937–40.
 Army Service, 1940–45.
 Lecturer, University College, Hull, (now University of Hull), 1946–48
 Lecturer, senior lecturer, reader, Manchester, 1948–61
 Professor and head of Department of Mathematics, Institute of Advanced Studies, ANU, Canberra, 1962–74; Emeritus Professor, 1975–2002.
 Senior research fellow, CSIRO Division of Mathematics and Statistics, 1975–77; honorary research fellow, 1978–99.
 Founding member of the World Cultural Council, 1981.

Awards
1984 Matthew Flinders Medal and Lecture
1952 Adams Prize, University of Cambridge

References

External links

1909 births
2002 deaths
20th-century British mathematicians
20th-century German mathematicians
Academics of Cardiff University
Academics of the University of Manchester
Australian mathematicians
Companions of the Order of Australia
Fellows of the Australian Academy of Science
Fellows of the Royal Society
Founding members of the World Cultural Council
German emigrants to Australia
Group theorists
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom
Academic staff of the Australian National University

Bernhard Neumann


Pierre Charles Albert Marie Langlais (2 December 190917 July 1986) was a senior French military officer who fought in World War II and the First Indochina War. Hailing from the Brittany region of France, Langlais was known as a tough and uncompromising character with an "unflagging devotion to his men."

After serving the majority of his career in France's North African colonies before the Second World War, Langlais became best known for his role in the Indochina War where he commanded paratroop forces and became the de facto commander of the French garrison in the midst of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.

Biography

Early life
Langlais was born at Pontivy, in Morbihan, Brittany. He attended St Cyr Military Academy and graduated in 1930. He chose to serve in the Compagnies Méharistes in North Africa patrolling the Sahara.

World War II
Langlais stayed in North Africa after the fall of France in 1940. Following the defeat of the Vichy French forces in Operation Torch, he joined the French Expeditionary Corps and saw action in Italy. He then passed into the French First Army under the command of General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, seeing action in Alsace and Germany.

Indochina
Langlais arrived in Indochina as a Battalion Commander in the 9th Colonial Infantry Division (9e DIC) in October 1945. His battalion participated in the early battles of the First Indochina War, including the Battle of Hanoi in December 1946. Langlais distinguished himself as a promising young battalion commander in the bitter house-to-house fighting prevalent throughout this battle, which eventually resulted in the French reoccupation of Hanoi. Langlais returned to Indochina for a second two-year tour of duty in 1949. Assigned to the Chinese border area, he watched the defeat of the last remaining units of the Chinese Nationalist Army armies on the mainland. Langlais was then deployed to central Vietnam and northern Laos where he was involved in several difficult missions.

Returning to France, in October 1951 Langlais was given command of the 1st Colonial Para-Commando Demi Brigade (1 DBCCP), training replacements for Indochina. The unit was previously commanded by Jean Gilles, whom Langlais was close friends with. In order to take this assignment Langlais, who had only ever served in the Compagnies Méharistes or light infantry regiments, trained as a paratrooper.

Returning to Indochina in June 1953 for his third tour, Lt. Col. Langlais was given command of Groupement Aéroporté 2 (GAP 2), (Airborne Group 2), comprising:
 1er Bataillon Etranger de Parachutistes (1 BEP) (Foreign Parachute Battalion)
 8e Bataillon de Parachutistes de Choc (8 BPC) (Parachute Assault Battalion)
 5e Bataillon de Parachutistes Vietnamiens (5 BPVN) (Vietnamese Parachute Battalion)

Dien Bien Phu
On 21 November 1953 Langlais and GAP 2 took part in Operation Castor, the seizing of the Dien Bien Phu valley. Langlais jumped with the men of the 1 BEP, but badly injured his ankle on landing and had to be evacuated to Hanoi the following day. Langlais returned to Dien Bien Phu with his foot in plaster on 12 December 1953 to take command of all airborne forces in the valley. He immediately joined GAP 2 in the field on an operation along the Pavie Track to relieve the garrison at Mường Pồn. The operation was a failure; GAP 2 was repeatedly ambushed along the Pavie Track and reached Muong Pon after the garrison had been overrun. The return to Dien Bien Phu was harassed by frequent Viet Minh ambushes and artillery fire. On 21 December GAP 2 launched another reconnaissance raid called Operation Regate to the Laotian town of Sop-Nao to link up with a Laotian-Moroccan-French force coming from Laos. The  route was extremely difficult with mountainous terrain cut by deep ravines and numerous rivers. The link-up was achieved on 23 December and GAP 2 then returned via a different (and worse) route to Dien Bien Phu, arriving back in the valley on 26 December. Langlais' report on the operation left no doubt that long range offensive operations from Dien Bien Phu were not feasible.

Langlais' advice was ignored and offensive operations continued through January and into February 1954, although the tightening Viet Minh siege ring meant that raids were increasingly encountering Viet Minh forces within a few kilometres of the central position at Dien Bien Phu. On 17 February, faced with ongoing losses to the garrison, General René Cogny ordered that henceforth only light reconnaissances be conducted by limited numbers of personnel. On 11 March Langlais led GAP 2 on its last large reconnaissance operation against Viet Minh trenches being dug on Hill 555 overlooking Strongpoint Beatrice, only 3.2 km from the central position. The raid was a failure.

At 17:00 on 13 March 1954 Langlais was taking a shower when the Viet Minh artillery barrage that signalled the start of the battle began. Langlais ran to his command post and got in contact with his subordinate units. At 17:30 a shell hit Langlais' command post, burying the occupants under sand and timber; they had just dug themselves out when a second shell scored a direct hit, but it was a dud. At 19:50 Colonel de Castries phoned Langlais to inform him that Lieutenant Colonel Gaucher had been killed with his entire staff and that Langlais was now in command of the central sector.

As the French position in the valley came under increasing pressure, de Castries became withdrawn from the men under his command and began to rarely leave his underground headquarters. Langlais later bluntly commented on de Castries' limited role in the battle; saying "he transmitted our messages to Hanoi." Faced with this command vacuum, Bernard Fall reports that Langlais entered de Castries' headquarters on 24 March accompanied by the fully armed commanders of the paratroop battalions at Dien Bien Phu. De Castries' was then informed that while he would retain the appearance of command to the outside world, in reality the effective command of the fortress would be in Langlais' hands. The account of this "coup," however, is uncorroborated, and Martin Windrow, surveying the available primary sources, finds it more likely that the handing over of operational control to Langlais merely recognized the reality of the situation, and that Langlais had been making most of the key decisions in the defense for several weeks already.

Post-war career
Following his captivity as a Viet-Minh POW, Langlais returned to France but soon found himself in Algeria as the commander of an airborne brigade. Langlais commanded the 22e R.I.Ma during the Algerian War in the Marnia region from 1955 to 1959. By 1966, Langlais had been promoted to brigadier general, and commanded the 20th Airborne Brigade at Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques.

Death
In 1986, in failing health and depressed, Langlais committed suicide by jumping from an apartment window in Vannes, 17 July.

Works
Langlais wrote a book about his experience at Dien Bien Phu:
Dien Bien Phu. Paris: Éditions France-Empire, 1963. 261 pp. Paris: Presses Pocket, 1969. 253 pp.

References

1909 births
1988 suicides
People from Pontivy
French generals
French military personnel of World War II
French military personnel of the First Indochina War
French military personnel who committed suicide
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
Recipients of the Croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures
Suicides by jumping in France
Prisoners of war held by Vietnam

Pierre Langlais


Shogun and Little Kitchen is a 1992 Hong Kong comedy film directed by Ronny Yu and starring Yuen Biao, Leon Lai, Ng Man-tat, Maggie Shiu and Monica Chan.

Plot
Uncle Bo (Ng Man-tat) is the owner of the Tai Ping Fong old building. He inherited the building from his late wife years ago and he would rent different units to others. Although the tenants do not actually pay rent, Bo maintains a good relationship with them just like a big family. On the contrary, rich heir Lam Fung's (Leon Lai) relationship with his father Lam Chung-yuen (Jimmy Wang Yu) is very cold due to his hatred of his father. On the day of his birthday, Fung gets into an argument with his father and runs away from home. Afterwards, Fung was robbed and beaten into a coma by a crock. Uncle Bo finds Fung collapsed and brings him to Tai Ping Fong to heal him.

At Tai Ping Fong, Fung experiences love and care by others. There, Fung also develops a relationship with Bo's daughter, Maggie (Maggie Shiu). However, Maggie was angry after she discovers Fung's true identity. Furthermore, Bo's uncle, Tang Tai-chi (Yuen Biao), whom recently arrived to Hong Kong from Beijing, was poached by a catering company due to his amazing cooking and acrobatic skills. Bo feels betrayed by Chi and they fell out. Later, Bo's building was also acquired by the Lam Enterprises. Because Bo was reluctant to sell the building, Lam Chung-yuen's assistant, Raymond (Lam Lap-sam), hires triad thugs to force Bo to sign the contract.

Cast

Reception

Critical
Love HK Film gave the film a positive review and writes "Standard formula and annoyingly cute subplots drag the film down, but Yuen Biao's athletic stuntwork makes the movie a fun, if not crucial viewing experience. The film doesn't challenge you in any way, but it's really not meant to. Undemanding fun."

Box office
The film grossed HK$9,687,943 at the Hong Kong box office during its theatrical run from 19 March to 13 April 1992 in Hong Kong.

See also
Yuen Biao filmography

References

External links

Shogun and Little Kitchen at Hong Kong Cinemagic

1992 films
1992 comedy films
Hong Kong comedy films
Cooking films
Hong Kong cuisine
Films directed by Ronny Yu
1990s Cantonese-language films
Films set in Hong Kong
Films shot in Hong Kong
Films with screenplays by James Yuen
1990s Hong Kong films

Shogun and Little Kitchen


Christian Lauritz Backer-Owe (20 November 1924 – 2 February 2015) was a Norwegian artist and printmaker.

He was born in Trondheim, and made his exhibition debut at Trondheim Kunstforening in 1944 before attending the Norwegian National Academy of Fine Arts from 1946 to 1948. He also studied under Fernand Léger in Paris in 1952.

Backer-Owe was first known as an autodidact jewel artist and miniature painter, later as a printmaker. In addition to his debut he had a separate exhibition at Kunstnerforbundet in 1978, and took part at Høstutstillingen in 1948, 1981, 1982 and 1984. His works have been bought by Nordenfjeldske Kunstindustrimuseum and the Arts Council Norway.

He resided at Hosle in Bærum. In the 1960s he was a minor ballot candidate for the Socialist People's Party. He died in February 2015.

References

1924 births
2015 deaths
Artists from Trondheim
Artists from Bærum
Oslo National Academy of the Arts alumni
Miniature painting
Norwegian printmakers
20th-century Norwegian painters
21st-century Norwegian painters
Norwegian male painters
20th-century Norwegian male artists
21st-century Norwegian male artists

Christian Backer-Owe


John Hughes Hall (1913–2003) was an American architect and industrial designer working in the Modernist style. Hall is best known for his residential works on Massachusetts' Cape Cod which were designed to nestle within, rather than overtake, the natural landscape.

Life and career
Hughes was born on Long Island. He graduated from Princeton University in 1935. Following graduation he worked as a freelance news reporter in Europe. Hall began visiting Cape Cod, Massachusetts in 1936, and immediately became fascinated by the landscape – enough to purchase an  farm compound on Bound Brook Island (no longer an island) in Wellfleet from Katie Dos Passos, wife of the writer John Dos Passos. Following the U.S. entry in World War II Hall enlisted in the United States Army and was discharged honorably in 1946. Hall had 3 children, all from his marriage to Dodie Merwin, two daughters Leonora 'Noa' Hall and Katrina and a son, Darius Hall.

Hall and friends, Jack Phillips and Hayden Walling were three self-taught, designer-builders in Wellfleet who created a welcoming environment for European Modernists arriving in the mid-1940s. In 1946, Hall began a design-build practice in Wellfleet which he continued intermittently until he retired. Projects included the Peter's Hill Restaurant building, the Hatch Cottage, and many studios, renovations, and additions.

In 1956, Hall began working for a succession of New York City architectural firms including Nardin and Radoczy, Tom Lee Ltd., Hughes & Hood, and George Nelson and Company.  His study of industrial design led to work on a number of major traveling exhibitions for the United States Information Agency including the exhibition "Graphics USA" in 1963 with Ivan Chermayeff (son of Serge Chermayeff). While with Hughes and Hood he designed many showrooms in the United States and Europe for the Fieldcrest Mills.

In 1959, he spent four months in Moscow helping to assemble an installation titled The Jungle Gym, George Nelson's contribution to the American National Exhibition. Hall worked with Charles and Ray Eames on a light fixture in 1964 and designed a café table for the Museum of Modern Art's restaurant. In 1957 Hall opened an office in New York City, and began simultaneously teaching at the Parsons School of Design's industrial design department. During this period he worked on residential projects completing the design of many townhouse renovations including one for Serge Chermayeff and his wife Barbara Chermayeff.

Hall was also a self-taught painter working in the 'American Primitivist' style and famously enrolled in clowning school in his later years.

Residential projects on Cape Cod

Hall House No. 1, Wellfleet, Massachusetts,  circa 1952 (with Warren Nardin)
Peter's Hill Restaurant, Truro, Massachusetts, 1953
Baker-Hall House Renovation, Wellfleet, Massachusetts, 1955–56
Hatch Cottage, Wellfleet, Massachusetts, 1960
Anton Myrer House, Wellfleet, Massachusetts, 1962
Watts Studio, Wellfleet, Massachusetts, 1972
Judith Rothschild Studio, Wellfleet, Massachusetts, 1972
Levin House Renovation, Wellfleet, Massachusetts, 1972
Frederiksen Guest House,  Wellfleet, Massachusetts,  1972

See also
Cape Cod Modern House Trust

References

Morgan, Keith N. Buildings of Massachusetts: Metropolitan Boston. University of Virginia Press: 2009. .

1913 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American architects
Modernist architects
Parsons School of Design faculty
People from Long Island
Princeton University alumni
United States Army personnel of World War II

Jack Hall (architect)


The Christian Hymnary is a hymnbook used by Mennonites and other Anabaptist groups. It was compiled by John J. Overholt, and published in 1972. Featured in this hymnbook is a compilation of over 1000 hymns, including classic hymns, Martyr Songs from the Ausbund, Evangelistic and Gospel Songs and tunes from the Harmonia Sacra. It is widely used in conservative Mennonite circles.

References

1972 books
Protestant hymnals
Mennonitism
1972 in Christianity
1972 in music

Christian Hymnary


In British English, a tout is any person who solicits business or employment in a persistent and annoying manner.

Tout may also refer to:

Tout (surname)
Tout (company), a social networking and microblogging service
Tout Quarry, a former quarry and sculpture park in Dorset, England, in the United Kingdom

Tout (disambiguation)


The Science of Star Wars is a nonfiction popular science book written by former NASA astrophysicist Jeanne Cavelos first published on April 15, 1999, by St. Martin's Press. The book uses fictional characters, worlds, and technology from the Star Wars universe as starting points for discussion of factual concepts in cosmology, biology, and technology, and discusses in a "semi-serious" fashion  the scientific probability of such fictional elements. "It takes the fantastic elements of the movies—like faster-than-light travel—and examines the current state of science to see if they're possible".

Summary
Chapter 1: Planetary Environments covers topics such as cosmology, planetary science, desert ecosystems, and the biochemical requirements for the origin of life, using fictional Star Wars locales such as Tatooine and Endor as starting points for discussion.

Chapter 2: Aliens discusses biological and evolutionary concepts such as bipedal and quadrupedal locomotion, mammalian physiology, bioluminescence, and others, based on fictional creatures such as Wookiees, Jawas, Ewoks, and Hutts (the race to which Jabba belongs).

Chapter 3: Droids explores topics such as artificial intelligence, neuroscience, human psychology using robotic droids such as C-3PO and R2-D2 as prompts.

Chapter 4: Spaceships and Weapons covers advances in quantum physics, string theory, anti-gravity, and laser technology, stemming from fictional devices such as lightsabers, and the Death Star.

Chapter 5: The Force discusses the plausibility of Jedi powers and "the Force" by exploring quantum physical concepts of tachyons and superstring theory as well as various fringe and the parascientific concept of parapsychology.

Reception
The book received generally positive reception for covering complex theories and concepts in a manner comprehensible and entertaining to non-specialists.
Charles Kolb of the National Endowment for the Humanities writes that Cavelos "has given us a good story and has transported the reader from science fiction to science fact and probability... There is a great deal of scientific material presented in an upbeat, non-trivialized, well-written and engaging style." However, Kolb found Cavelos' lack of direct citations to publications and expert interviews "particularly distressing" for readers wishing to verify in-line quotations or easily locate additional sources. Frederick Pratter's review in The Christian Science Monitor largely echoed Kolb's praise, stating "the scientific research presented is the mainstream of current thinking in astrophysics, cosmology, robotics, genetics, and biological adaptation. The style, as might be expected, is light and breezy, but rarely trivializes the material".

See also
List of non-fiction Star Wars books
Star Wars: Science Adventures
The Science of Interstellar
The Physics of Star Trek
Beyond Star Trek
Star Wars: Where Science Meets Imagination (book)
The Physics of Star Wars
The Military Science of Star Wars

References

External links
Excerpts from the book reprinted by Scientific American
Publisher's summary on Macmillan Publishers.
Science and the Original Star Wars Trilogy
The Science of Star Wars - A series of articles from Scientific American

Popular science books
Books about Star Wars
1999 non-fiction books

The Science of Star Wars (book)


Sir Frederick Thorpe Mappin, 1st Baronet (16 May 1821 – 19 March 1910) was an English factory owner and Liberal politician.

Born in Sheffield, Mappin worked for his father's cutlery company from the age of thirteen, running it alone after his father's death in 1841.  In 1851, he became the youngest ever Master Cutler, but after a dispute with his younger brother, he left the firm, which later became part of Mappin and Webb.

Mappin then bought a steelworks and implemented machine working, despite a strike by employees. In 1854, he was elected to Sheffield Town Council as a Liberal, stepping down in 1857. In the 1860s, Mappin became a director of the Sheffield Gas and Light Company, and of the Midland Railway. In 1865 Mappin moved into Thornbury, a new country house he had built in Ranmoor, now a Sheffield suburb.

In 1876, Mappin was re-elected to the Town Council, and served as the Mayor of Sheffield in 1877–78.  In 1877 Mappin built the Highfield Cocoa and Coffee House to provide non-alcoholic entertainment to the city's working class.  In 1878, he was a juror at the Paris Universal Exhibition, and was awarded the Légion d'honneur.  At the 1880 general election, he was elected as Member of Parliament for East Retford, while remaining on Sheffield Town Council until 1883. Mappin was a major supporter of the creation of the Sheffield Central Technical School.

Under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, Mappin's Parliamentary seat was abolished, and he moved instead to represent Hallamshire, a post he held until 1905.  That year, he supported the formation of the University of Sheffield, and was created its first Pro-Chancellor.  The University's Sir Frederick Mappin Building is named after him.

He was appointed an honorary Freeman of the City of Sheffield in March 1900.

Arms

References
"Mappin, Sir Frederick Thorpe", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

External links

1821 births
1910 deaths
Councillors in Sheffield
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Lord Mayors of Sheffield
Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1880–1885
UK MPs 1885–1886
UK MPs 1886–1892
UK MPs 1892–1895
UK MPs 1895–1900
UK MPs 1900–1906
Master Cutlers
19th-century English businesspeople

Frederick Mappin


Dallasite is a breccia made of subequant to rectangular or distinctly elongate, curvilinear shards that represent the spalled rims of pillow basalt (see: Hyaloclastite). This material is commonly partly altered to chlorite, epidote, quartz and carbonate, for which the local term 'dallasite' has been coined.  The stone dallasite is named after Dallas Road, Victoria, British Columbia.  It is considered the unofficial stone of British Columbia's capital city.  Dallasite is found in Triassic volcanic rocks of Vancouver Island and is considered the third most important gem material in British Columbia.

References

Rocks
Gemstones
Geology of British Columbia
Breccias

Dallasite


Ceanothus prostratus is a species of shrub in the family Rhamnaceae. Common names include prostrate ceanothus, pinemat, and mahala mat. It is native to the Pacific Northwest of the United States where it grows in coniferous forests and open plateaus.

Description
Ceanothus prostratus is a decumbent (or "mat-forming") shrub, generally less than 0.3 meters tall and spreading laterally to up to 3 meters. Its evergreen leaves are oppositely arranged and generally oval in shape with 3-9 sharp teeth along the margins. The inflorescence is umbel-like, with flowers of blue, purple, or lavender that bloom between April and June. Its fruit is small and rounded with horned lobes.

Habitat
Ceanothus prostratus grows in the understory of mixed conifer forests, from foothills to subalpine areas. It also inhabits open flats and ridges in areas of low chaparral as well as dry interior forest ecosystems. It can be found from elevations ranging between 270 and 2700 meters above sea level.

Distribution
Ceanothus prostratus is found throughout the Pacific Northwest, ranging through Washington, Oregon, western Idaho, western Nevada, and south into northern California. The southern extent of its natural range is the central Sierra Nevada mountains. Given its elevational range, this plant is also native to many of the other mountain ranges of the Pacific Northwest, including the Klamaths, Siskiyous, Cascades, and Warner Mountains.

Ecology
Ceanothus prostratus is part of the subgenus Cerastes, a clade of Ceanothus that is generally characterized by traits like opposite leaves, persistent corky stipules, and horned fruits (hence the name "Cerastes" which comes from the Greek for "having horns"). This subgenus likely began diversifying at the beginning of the Pliocene roughly 6 million years ago, when cool, dry conditions combined with the uplift of the Coast Ranges to create new and diverse habitats. The closest relatives of C. prostratus within the subgenus Cerastes are Ceanothus pinetorum and Ceanothus purpureus, based on a phylogeny produced in a 2011 paper.

Ceanothus prostratus is a common nitrogen-fixing shrub, often found with Purshia tridentata. Together, their combined nitrogen additions to the soil of their habitats may account for 10-60% of annual nitrogen input in those ecosystems. It is also one of only two plants (along with Ceanothus diversifolius) known to be a host for the parasitic plant Cuscuta jepsonii, a dodder which until recently was thought to be extinct but could still be surviving and parasitizing C. prostratus in northern California.

Ceanothus prostratus is one of many plants in the region that colonize logged areas, forming brushfields in the wake of timber harvests when more light reaches the ground.

Ceanothus prostratus is present in plant communities alongside species such as Abies magnifica, Arctostaphylos patula, Arctostaphylos nevadensis, Pinus albicaulis, Pinus contorta, Pinus Jeffreyi, Pinus ponderosa, Quercus vaccinifolia, and Tsuga mertensiana.

Varieties
There are two varieties of Ceanothus prostratus.

C. prostratus var. occidentalis (McMinn) occurs in the Coast Ranges and Klamath Mountains of northern California, ranging in elevation from 270 to 1400 m. It forms as more of a low mound than a mat, exhibits a leaf blade folded lengthwise, and has fruit with spreading horns.C. prostratus var. prostratus is the more widespread of the two subspecies, covering the majority of the range of C. prostratus. It ranges in elevation from 800 to 2700 m throughout the Klamath Mountains, Coast Ranges, High Cascades, High Sierra Nevada, and the Modoc Plateau. C. prostratus var. prostratus forms as a mat, has a generally unfolded leaf, and produces fruit with erect horns.

References

External links
Jepson Manual Treatment
USDA Plants Profile
Photo gallery

prostratus
Flora of California
Flora of Idaho
Flora of Montana
Flora of Nevada
Flora of Oregon
Flora of Washington (state)
Flora of the Cascade Range
Flora of the Klamath Mountains
Flora of the Sierra Nevada (United States)
Flora without expected TNC conservation status

Ceanothus prostratus


Nyamandes are found in all provinces across Zimbabwe, folklore has it that the Nyamande's are believed to be rulers and so wherever they go, they want to rule. If they are not able to rule, they are likely to move to attempt to assert their rule elsewhere. This is the reason why they are found everywhere.
the ruling class however would stand a better chance of asserting their rule if they settled in one place and established their rots and a reputation, while their jypsy-type lifestyle often makes then lose respect everywhere they go.

Although they can be found in all professions, they are also not known for one type of occupation or lineage due to their movements and adoption of different various lifestyles and cultures.

The original "Mandes" where from Tanzania, where they ruled, but due to some family feud regarding who was to assume as ruler after the King Mande fell ill and died. This feud left the throne unoccupied while most of the Mande tribesmen and their families left the kingdom.

Nyamande


Arkham Asylum is a fictional asylum in Gotham City where the crazy Batman criminals live. This includes: The Joker, Bane, Two-Face, Harley Quinn, Poison Ivy, Mr. Freeze, Riddler, Penguin, Scarecrow, Killer Croc, and Jeremiah Arkham. The leading doctor of Arkham was Jeremiah Arkham before turning into the second Black Mask. Arkham was destroyed many times and many times the criminals escaped.

Arkham appeared in Batman Forever, Batman & Robin and in Batman Begins.

References

Other websites
 Arkham Care
 Batman-On-Film.com BOF's review of Arkam Asylum, A Serious House on a Serious Earth
 Official Videogame Website

Batman
Fictional buildings and structures

Arkham Asylum