RAF Bomber Command controlled the Royal Air Force's bomber forces from 1936 to 1968. Along with the United States Army Air Forces, it played the central role in the strategic bombing of Germany in World War II. From 1942 onward, the British bombing campaign against Germany became less restrictive and increasingly targeted industrial sites and the civilian manpower base essential for German war production. In total 364,514 operational sorties were flown, 1,030,500 tons of bombs were dropped and 8,325 aircraft lost in action. Bomber Command crews also suffered a high casualty rate: 55,573 were killed out of a total of 125,000 aircrew, a 44.4% death rate. A further 8,403 men were wounded in action, and 9,838 became prisoners of war.

Bomber Command stood at the peak of its post-war military power in the 1960s, the V bombers holding the United Kingdom's nuclear deterrent and a supplemental force of Canberra light bombers. In 1968 it was merged with Fighter Command to form Strike Command.

In August 2006, a memorial was unveiled at Lincoln Cathedral. A memorial in Green Park in London was unveiled by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 June 2012 to commemorate the high casualty rate among the aircrews. In April 2018 The International Bomber Command Centre was opened in Lincoln.

Background
At the time of the formation of Bomber Command in 1936, Giulio Douhet's slogan "the bomber will always get through" was popular, and figures like Stanley Baldwin cited it. Until advances in radar technology in the late 1930s, this statement was effectively true. Attacking bombers could not be detected early enough to assemble fighters fast enough to prevent them reaching their targets. Some damage might be done to the bombers by AA guns, and by fighters as the bombers returned to base, but that was not as effective as a proper defence. Consequently, the early conception of Bomber Command was as an entity that threatened the enemy with utter destruction, and thus prevented war.

In 1936, Germany's increasing air power was feared by British government planners who commonly overestimated its size, reach and hitting power. Planners used estimates of up to 72 British deaths per tonne of bombs dropped, though this figure was grossly exaggerated. As well, the planners did not know that German bombing aircraft of the day (not quite 300 Junkers Ju 52 medium bombers) did not have the range to reach the UK with a load of bombs and return to the mainland. British air officers did nothing to correct these perceptions because they could see the usefulness of having a strong bombing arm.

Early years of the Second World War

At the start of the Second World War in 1939, Bomber Command faced four problems. The first was lack of size; Bomber Command was not large enough effectively to operate as an independent strategic force. The second was rules of engagement; at the start of the war, the targets allocated to Bomber Command were not wide enough in scope. The third problem was the Command's lack of technology; specifically radio or radar derived navigational aids to allow accurate target location at night or through cloud. (In 1938, E. G. "Taffy" Bowen proposed using ASV radar for navigation, only to have Bomber Command disclaim need for it, saying the sextant was sufficient. ) The fourth problem was the limited accuracy of bombing, especially from high level, even when the target could be seen by the bomb aimer.

When the war began on 1 September 1939, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the neutral United States, issued an appeal to the major belligerents to confine their air raids to military targets. The French and British agreed to abide by the request, provided "that these same rules of warfare will be scrupulously observed by all of their opponents". British policy was to restrict bombing to military targets and infrastructure, such as ports and railways which were of military importance. While acknowledging that bombing Germany would cause civilian casualties, the British government renounced deliberate bombing of civilian property (outside combat zones) as a military tactic. The British abandoned this policy at the end of the "Phoney War", or Sitzkrieg, on 15 May 1940, one day after the Rotterdam Blitz.

The British government did not want to violate its agreement by attacking civilian targets outside combat zones and the French were even more concerned lest Bomber Command operations provoke a German bombing attack on France. Since the Armée de l'Air had few modern fighters and no defence network comparable to the British Chain Home radar stations, this left France powerless before the threat of a German bombing attack. The final problem was lack of adequate aircraft. The Bomber Command workhorses at the start of the war, the Vickers Wellington, Armstrong Whitworth Whitley and Handley Page Hampden/Hereford, had been designed as tactical-support medium bombers and none of them had enough range or ordnance capacity for anything more than a limited strategic offensive.

Bomber Command became even smaller after the declaration of war. No. 1 Group, with its squadrons of Fairey Battles, left for France to form the Advanced Air Striking Force. This action had two aims: to give the British Expeditionary Force some air-striking power and to allow the Battles to operate against German targets, since they lacked the range to do so from British airfields.

In May 1940, some of the Advanced Air Striking Force was caught on the ground by German air attacks on their airfields at the opening of the invasion of France. The remainder of the Battles proved to be horrendously vulnerable to enemy fire. Many times, Battles would set out to attack and be almost wiped out in the process. Due to French paranoia about being attacked by German aircraft during the Phoney War, the Battle force had actually trained over German airspace at night.

Following the Rotterdam Blitz of 14 May, RAF Bomber Command was authorized to attack German targets east of the Rhine on 15 May; the Air Ministry authorized Air Marshal Charles Portal to attack targets in the Ruhr, including oil plants and other civilian industrial targets which aided the German war effort, such as blast furnaces (which were visible at night). The first attack took place on the night of 15/16 May, with 96 bombers setting off to attack targets east of the Rhine, 78 of which were against oil targets. Of these, only 24 claimed to have found their targets.

Bomber Command itself soon fully joined in the action; in the Battle of Britain, Bomber Command was assigned to bomb invasion barges and fleets assembling in the Channel ports. This was much less public than the battles of the Spitfires and Hurricanes of RAF Fighter Command but still vital and dangerous work. From July 1940 to the end of the year, Bomber Command lost nearly 330 aircraft and over 1,400 aircrew killed, missing or captured.

Bomber Command was also indirectly responsible, in part at least, for the switch of Luftwaffe attention away from Fighter Command to bombing civilian targets. A German bomber on a raid got lost due to poor navigation and bombed London. Prime Minister Winston Churchill consequently ordered a retaliatory raid on the German capital of Berlin. The damage caused was minor but the raid sent Hitler into a rage. He ordered the Luftwaffe to level British cities, thus precipitating the Blitz.

Like the United States Army Air Forces later in the war, Bomber Command had first concentrated on a doctrine of "precision" bombing in daylight. When the German defences inflicted costly defeats on British raids in late 1939, a switch to night bombing was forced upon the Command. The problems of enemy defences were then replaced with the problems of night navigation and target-finding. It was common in the early years of the war for bombers relying on dead reckoning navigation to miss entire cities. Surveys of bombing photographs and other sources published during August 1941, indicated that fewer than one bomb in ten fell within  of its intended target. One of the most urgent problems of the Command was thus to develop navigational aids.

Organisation
Bomber Command comprised a number of Groups. It began the war with Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Groups. No. 1 Group was soon sent to France and then returned to Bomber Command control after the evacuation of France. No. 2 Group consisted of light and medium bombers who, although operating both by day and night, remained part of Bomber Command until 1943, when it was removed to the control of Second Tactical Air Force, to form the light bomber component of that command. Bomber Command also gained two new groups during the war: the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) squadrons were organised into No. 6 Group and the Pathfinder Force was expanded to form No. 8 (Pathfinder) Group from existing squadrons.

Many squadrons and personnel from Commonwealth and other European countries flew in Bomber Command. No. 6 Group, which was activated on 1 January 1943, was unique among Bomber Command groups, in that it was not an RAF unit; it was a Canadian unit attached to Bomber Command. At its peak strength, 6 Group consisted of 14 operational RCAF bomber squadrons and 15 squadrons served with the group. No. 8 Group, also known as the Pathfinder Force, was activated on 15 August 1942. It was a critical part of solving the navigational and aiming problems experienced. Bomber Command solved its navigational problems using two methods. One was the use of a range of increasingly sophisticated electronic aids to navigation and the other was the use of specialist Pathfinders. The technical aids to navigation took two forms. One was external radio navigation aids, as exemplified by Gee and the later highly accurate Oboe systems. The other was the centimetric navigation equipment H2S radar carried in the bombers. The Pathfinders were a group of elite, specially trained and experienced crews who flew ahead and with the main bombing forces and marked the targets with flares and special marker-bombs. No. 8 Group controlled the Pathfinder squadrons.

A number of other groups were part of the command, including, in June 1944, No. 26 Group RAF, three operational training groups - No. 91 Group RAF at Morton Hall, Swinderby, which was merged into No. 21 Group RAF, part of RAF Flying Training Command, on 1 May 1947; Nos 92 and 93 Groups; and No. 100 Group RAF (of which last was responsible for development, operational trial and use of electronic warfare and countermeasures equipment).

Strategic bombing 1942–1945

In 1941, the Butt Report revealed the extent of bombing inaccuracy: Churchill noted that "this is a very serious paper and seems to require urgent attention". The Area Bombing Directive of 14 February 1942 ordered Bomber Command to target German industrial areas and the "morale of...the industrial workers". The directive also reversed the order of the previous year instructing Bomber Command to conserve its forces; this resulted in a large campaign of area bombardment against the Ruhr area. Professor Frederick Lindemann's "de-housing" paper of March identified the expected effectiveness of attacks on residential and general industrial areas of cities. The aerial bombing of cities such as the Operation Millennium raid on Cologne continued throughout the rest of the war, culminating in the controversial bombing of Dresden in 1945.

In 1942, the main workhorse-aircraft of the later part of the war came into service: the four-engined heavies. The Halifax and Lancaster made up the backbone of the Command; they had a longer range, higher speed and much greater bomb load than earlier aircraft. The older four-engined Short Stirling and twin-engined Vickers Wellington bombers were not taken out of service, but moved to less demanding tasks such as mine-laying. The classic aircraft of the Pathfinders, the de Havilland Mosquito, also made its appearance. By 25 July 1943, the Bomber Command headquarters had come to occupy "a substantial set of red brick buildings, hidden in the middle of a forest on top of a hill in the English county of Buckinghamshire".

An offensive against the Rhine-Ruhr area ("Happy Valley" to aircrew) began on the night of 5/6 March 1943, with the first raid of the Battle of the Ruhr on Essen. The bombers destroyed  of the city and hit 53 Krupps buildings. The Battle of Hamburg in mid-1943 was one of the most successful Bomber Command operations, although Harris' extension of the offensive into the Battle of Berlin failed to destroy the capital and cost his force more than 1,000 crews in the winter of 1943–44.  In August 1943, Operation Hydra, the bombing of the Peenemünde V-2 rocket facility opened the secondary Operation Crossbow campaign against long-range weapons.

By April 1944, Harris was forced to reduce his strategic offensive as the bomber force was directed (much to his annoyance) to tactical and transport targets in France in support of the invasion of Normandy. The transport offensive proved highly effective. By late 1944, bombing such as Operation Hurricane (to demonstrate the capabilities of the combined British and US bomber forces), competed against the German defences. Bomber Command was now capable of putting 1,000 aircraft over a target without extraordinary efforts. Within 24 hours of Operation Hurricane, the RAF dropped about 10,000 tonnes of bombs on Duisburg and Brunswick, the greatest bomb load dropped in a day during the Second World War.

Wesel in the Rhineland, bombed on 16, 17, 18 and 19 February, was bombed again on 23 March, leaving the city "97 percent destroyed".  The last raid on Berlin took place on the night of 21/22 April, when 76 Mosquitos made six attacks just before Soviet forces entered the city centre. By this point, most RAF bombing operations were for the purpose of providing tactical support. The last major strategic raid was the destruction of the oil refinery at Vallø (Tønsberg) in southern Norway by 107 Lancasters, on the night of 25/26 April.

Once the surrender of Germany had occurred, plans were made to send a "Very Long Range Bomber Force" known as Tiger Force to participate in the Pacific war against Japan. Made up of about 30 British Commonwealth heavy bomber squadrons, a reduction of the original plan of about 1,000 aircraft, the British bombing component was intended to be based on Okinawa. Bomber Command groups were re-organised for Operation Downfall but the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki occurred before the force had been transferred to the Pacific.

In Europe Bomber Command's final operation was to fly released Allied prisoners of war home to Britain in Operation Exodus.

Casualties

Bomber Command crews suffered an extremely high casualty rate: 55,573 killed out of a total of 125,000 aircrew (a 44.4 per cent death rate), a further 8,403 were wounded in action and 9,838 became prisoners of war. This covered all Bomber Command operations.

A Bomber Command crew member had a worse chance of survival than an infantry officer in World War I; more people were killed serving in Bomber Command than in the Blitz, or the bombings of Hamburg or Dresden. By comparison, the US Eighth Air Force, which flew daylight raids over Europe, had 350,000 aircrew during the war and suffered 26,000 killed and 23,000 POWs. Of the RAF Bomber Command personnel killed during the war, 72 per cent were British, 18 per cent were Canadian, 7 per cent were Australian and 3 per cent were New Zealanders.

Taking an example of 100 airmen:
 55 killed on operations or died as a result of wounds
 three injured (in varying levels of severity) on operations or active service
 12 taken prisoner of war (some wounded)
 two shot down and evaded capture
 27 survived a tour of operations

In total 364,514 operational sorties were flown, 1,030,500 tons of bombs were dropped and 8,325 aircraft lost in action.

Harris was advised by an Operational Research Section (ORS-BC) under a civilian, Basil Dickins, supported by a small team of mathematicians and scientists. ORS-BC (under Reuben Smeed) was concerned with analysing bomber losses. They were able to influence operations by identifying successful defensive tactics and equipment, though some of their more controversial advice (such as removing ineffectual turrets from bombers to increase speed) was ignored.

The very high casualties suffered give testimony to the dedication and courage of Bomber Command aircrew in carrying out their orders. The overall loss rate for Bomber Command operations was 2.2 per cent, but loss rates over Germany were significantly higher; from November 1943 – March 1944, losses averaged 5.1 per cent. The highest loss rate (11.8 per cent) was incurred on the Nuremberg raid (30 March 1944). The disparity in loss rates was reflected in that, at times, Bomber Command considered making sorties over France only count as a third of an op towards the "tour" total and crews derisively referred to officers who only chose to fly on the less dangerous ops to France as "François". The loss rates excluded aircraft crashing in the UK on return, even if the machine was a write-off and there were crew casualties, which amounted to at least another 15 percent. Losses in training were significant and some courses lost 25 per cent of their intake before graduation; 5,327 men were killed in training from 1939 to 1945.

RAF Bomber Command had 19 Victoria Cross recipients.

Effectiveness of operations

Albert Speer, Hitler's Minister of Armaments, noted that the larger British bombs were highly destructive. 15 years after the war's end, Speer was unequivocal about the effect,

In terms of production decrease resulting from the RAF area attacks, the US survey, based upon limited research, found that in 1943 it amounted to 9 per cent and in 1944 to 17 per cent. Relying on US gathered statistics, the British survey found that actual arms production decreases were a mere 3 per cent for 1943, and 1 per cent for 1944. However they did find decreases of 46.5 per cent and 39 per cent in the second half of 1943 and 1944 respectively in the metal processing industries. These losses resulted from the devastating series of raids the Command launched on the Ruhr Valley. A contrasting view was offered by Adam Tooze that by referring to contemporary sources rather than post-war accounts:

and that in the first quarter of 1943 steel production fell by 200,000 tons, leading to cuts in the German ammunition production programme and a Zulieferungskrise (sub-components crisis). German aircraft output did not increase between July 1943 and March 1944:

The greatest contribution to winning the war made by Bomber Command was in the huge diversion of German resources into defending the homeland. By January 1943 some 1,000 Luftwaffe night fighters were committed to the defence of the Reich; mostly twin engined Messerschmitt Bf 110 and Junkers Ju 88. Most critically, by September 1943, 8,876 of the deadly, dual purpose 88 mm guns were also defending the homeland with a further 25,000 light flak guns, 20/37 mm. Though the 88mm gun was an effective AA weapon, it was also a deadly destroyer of tanks, and lethal against advancing infantry. These weapons would have done much to augment German anti-tank defences on the Russian front.

Mine laying operations were a major contribution to the disruption of German naval activities. Aerial minelaying was used on the iron ore routes from Scandinavia and U-boat training areas in the Baltic; in North-West Europe aerial mines sank seven times more ships than naval mines laid from ships.

In operations Bomber Command laid 47,278 mines while losing 468 aircraft; Coastal Command contribution was 936 mines.
Bomber Command and Coastal Command minelaying is credited with the loss of 759 vessels totalling 721,977 tons.

German production was diverted into construction and manning of minesweepers and the deployment of flak batteries to protect ports and estuaries. Around 100 vessels, mostly cargo types and around 5,000 tons, were converted to Sperrbrecher mine barrage breakers to sail ahead of ships leaving harbour and of these about half of were lost to mines.

1946–1968
Bomber Command acquired B-29 Superfortresses, known to the RAF as Boeing Washingtons, to supplement the Avro Lincoln, a development of the Lancaster. The first jet bomber, the English Electric Canberra light bomber, became operational in 1951. Some Canberras remained in RAF service up to 2006 as photo-reconnaissance aircraft. The model proved an extremely successful aircraft; Britain exported it to many countries and licensed it for construction in Australia and the United States. The joint US-UK Project E was intended to make nuclear weapons available to Bomber Command in an emergency, with the Canberras the first aircraft to benefit. The next jet bomber to enter service was the Vickers Valiant in 1955, the first of the V bombers.

The Air Ministry conceived of the V bombers as the replacement for the wartime Lancasters and Halifaxes.  Three advanced aircraft were developed from 1946, along with the Short Sperrin fall-back design. Multiple designs were tried out because no one could predict which designs would be successful at the time. The V bombers became the backbone of the British nuclear forces and comprised the Valiant, Handley Page Victor (in service in 1958) and Avro Vulcan (1956).

In 1956 Bomber Command faced its first operational test since the Second World War. The Egyptian Government nationalised the Suez Canal in July 1956, and British troops took part in an invasion along with French and Israeli forces. During the Suez Crisis, Britain deployed Bomber Command Canberras to Cyprus and Malta and Valiants to Malta. The Canberra performed well but the Valiant had problems, since it had only just been introduced into service. The Canberras proved vulnerable to attack by the Egyptian Air Force, which fortunately did not choose to attack the crowded airfields of Cyprus (RAF Akrotiri and RAF Nicosia holding nearly the whole RAF strike force, with a recently reactivated and poor-quality airfield taking much of the French force). Over 100 Bomber Command aircraft took part in operations against Egypt. By Second World War standards, the scale of attack was light.

Between 1959 and 1963, in addition to manned aircraft, Bomber Command also gained 60 Thor nuclear intermediate-range ballistic missiles dispersed to 20 RAF stations around Britain in a joint UK-US operation known as Project Emily. During the following twelve years, Bomber Command aircraft frequently deployed overseas to the Far East and Middle East. They served particularly as a deterrent to Sukarno's Indonesia during the Konfrontasi. A detachment of Canberras had a permanent base at Akrotiri in Cyprus in support of CENTO obligations.

Britain tested its first atomic bomb in 1952 and exploded its first hydrogen bomb in 1957. Operation Grapple saw Valiant bombers testing the dropping of hydrogen bombs over Christmas Island.  Advances in electronic countermeasures were also applied to the V bombers over the same period and the remaining V bombers came into service in the late 1950s. During the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962, Bomber Command aircraft maintained continuous strip alerts, ready to take off at a moment's notice, and the Thor missiles were maintained at advanced readiness. The Prime Minister did not disperse Bomber Command aircraft to satellite airfields, lest that be viewed as an aggressive step.

By the early 1960s doubts emerged about the ability of Bomber Command to pierce the defences of the Soviet Union. The shooting down of a U-2 spyplane in 1960 confirmed that the Soviet Union did have surface-to-air missiles capable of reaching the heights at which bombers operated. Since the Second World War the philosophy of bombing had involved going higher and faster. With the supersession of high and fast tactics, ultra-low-level attack was substituted. Bomber Command aircraft had not been designed for that kind of attack, and airframe fatigue increased. All Valiants were grounded in October 1964 and permanently withdrawn from service in January 1965. Low-level operations also reduced the lifespan of the Victors and Vulcans.

Bomber Command's other main function was to provide tanker aircraft to the RAF. The Valiant was the first bomber used as a tanker operationally. As high-level penetration declined as an attack technique, the Valiant saw more and more use as a tanker until the retirement of the type in 1965 due to the costs of remediating metal fatigue. With the Victor also unsuited to the low-level role six were converted to tankers to replace the Valiants, before the later conversion of the majority of Victors to tankers. The Vulcan also saw service as a tanker, but only in an improvised conversion during the Falklands War of 1982. Ironically, in the tanker role, the Victor not only outlived Bomber Command, but also all the other V bombers by nine years.

In a further attempt to make the operation of the bomber force safer, attempts were made to develop stand-off weapons, with which capability the bombers would not have to penetrate Soviet airspace. However, efforts to do so had only limited success. The first attempt involved the Blue Steel missile (in service: 1963–1970). It worked, but its range meant that bombers still had to enter Soviet airspace. Longer-range systems were developed, but failed and/or were cancelled. This fate befell the Mark 2 of the Blue Steel, its replacement, the American Skybolt ALBM and the ground-based Blue Streak programme.

However, attempts to develop a stand-off nuclear deterrent eventually succeeded. Britain procured American Polaris missiles and built Royal Navy submarines to carry them. The modern form of the British nuclear force was thus essentially reached. Royal Navy submarines relieved the RAF of the nuclear deterrent mission in 1969, but by that point, Bomber Command no longer existed.

RAF Fighter Command and Bomber Command merged in 1968 to form Strike Command. RAF Coastal Command followed in November 1969.

Bomber Command took time to attain full effectiveness in the Second World War, but with the development of better navigation and aircraft it proved highly destructive. The massed attacks of Bomber Command and the US Eighth Air Force compelled Germany to devote considerable resources to air defence instead of pursuing its primary war aims. Postwar, it carried Britain's nuclear deterrent through a difficult period.

Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief
At any one time several air officers served on the staff of Bomber Command and so the overall commander was known as the Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, the most well-known being Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris.  The Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief are listed below with the rank which they held whilst in post.

Battle honours
 "Berlin 1940–1945": For bombardment of Berlin by aircraft of Bomber Command.
 "Fortress Europe 1940–1944": For operations by aircraft based in the British Isles against targets in Germany, Italy and enemy-occupied Europe, from the fall of France to the invasion of Normandy.

Memorials

Singer Robin Gibb led an effort to commemorate those who died during World War II and in April, 2011, it was announced that the £5.6 million needed to build the memorial had been raised. The foundation stone of the Bomber Command Memorial for the crews of Bomber Command was laid in Green Park, London on 4 May 2011.

The memorial was designed by architect Liam O'Connor, who was also responsible for the design and construction of the Commonwealth Memorial Gates on Constitution Hill, near Buckingham Palace. Sculptor Philip Jackson created the large bronze sculpture which stands within the memorial. It consists of seven figures  tall, and represents the aircrew of a Bomber Command heavy bomber. Jackson described the sculpture as capturing "the moment when they get off the aircraft and they've dumped all their heavy kit onto the ground".
The memorial was dedicated and unveiled on 28 June 2012 by Queen Elizabeth II.

The International Bomber Command Centre (IBCC) is a memorial and interpretation centre telling the story of Bomber Command. The centre was opened to the public at the end of January 2018, and the official opening ceremony was held on 12 April 2018, as part of the 100th anniversary celebrations of the RAF.  The memorial itself consists of a Memorial Spire and an array of walls listing the names of the 57,861 personnel who died in Bomber Command in the Second World War.

Medal clasp and proposed medal
The planned campaign medal for Bomber Command was never struck. The decision not to award a medal for all members of Bomber Command occurred during the short gap between the wartime coalition and Attlee's Labour Government, whilst Churchill was still P.M. This caused Harris to turn down Attlee's subsequent offer of a peerage in protest at this snub; a principled stand which Harris had taken, and declared, at the time the decision not to award a separate campaign medal was made. The Command's raids had tied up huge amounts of Germany's defensive resources - which might have been diverted to the Eastern and Western Fronts and elsewhere - and the physical destruction of war material was considerable. Nevertheless, Churchill, much to Harris's chagrin, made virtually no mention of Bomber Command's campaign in his victory speech on V.E.day. Harris, who was promoted to Marshal of the RAF by the Labour Government in 1946, was persuaded to accept a baronetcy when Winston Churchill became Prime Minister again in 1951, after Attlee's Labour Government was voted out of office. As of 2018, the battle for a campaign medal continues.

The Military Medals Review was undertaken by Sir John Holmes and published in July 2012. In December 2012, following the review, the British government announced the introduction of a "Bomber Command" clasp to be worn on the 1939–1945 Star. The second such clasp after the "Battle of Britain" which had been instituted in 1945. A clasp rather than a separate medal was preferred because recipients would have already received either the Air Crew Europe Star or the France and Germany Star, and a specific medal would have resulted in "double-medalling". It is a long-standing principle of the British honours system that "same individual should not be able to receive two campaign medals for the same element of military service"; i.e. double-medalling. The eligibility for the "Bomber Command" clasp is as follows: having already qualified for the 1939–1945 Star, the individual must have served for at least sixty days or one complete tour of operations on a Bomber Command unit and flew at least one operational sortie on a Bomber Command operational unit from the 3 September 1939 to the 8 May 1945 inclusive.

See also
 112 Signals Unit Stornoway
 G for George
 International Bomber Command Centre
 RAF Bomber Command aircrew of World War II
 Target for Tonight
 List of Royal Air Force commands

References

Explanatory notes

Citations

Bibliography

 Bishop, Patrick. Bomber Boys – Fighting Back 1940–1945. .
 Carter, Ian. Bomber Command 1939–1945. .
 Don Charlwood No Moon Tonight. .
 Childers, Thomas. "'Facilis descensus averni est': The Allied Bombing of Germany and the Issue of German Suffering", Central European History Vol. 38, No. 1 (2005), pp. 75–105 in JSTOR
 Garrett, Stephen A. Ethics and Airpower in World War II: The British Bombing of German Cities (1993)
 Halpenny, Bruce Barrymore. Action Stations: Military Airfields of Yorkshire v. 4. .
 Falconer, Jonathan. Bomber Command Handbook 1939–1945. Sutton Publishing Limited. .

 Halpenny, Bruce Barrymore. Action Stations: Wartime Military Airfields of Lincolnshire and the East Midlands v. 2. .
 Halpenny, Bruce Barrymore. Bomber Aircrew of World War II: True Stories of Frontline Air Combat. .
 Halpenny, Bruce Barrymore. English Electric Canberra: The History and Development of a Classic Jet. Pen & Sword, 2005. .
 Halpenny, Bruce Barrymore. To Shatter the Sky: Bomber Airfield at War. .
 Harris, Arthur. Despatch on War Operations (Cass Studies in Air Power). .
 Hastings, Max (1979). RAF Bomber Command. Pan Books.
 Koch, H. W. "The Strategic Air Offensive against Germany: the Early Phase, May–September 1940." The Historical Journal, 34 (March 1991) pp 117–41. online at JSTOR
 Lammers, Stephen E. "William Temple and the bombing of Germany: an Exploration in the Just War Tradition." Journal of Religious Ethics, 19 (Spring 1991): 71–93. Explains how the Archbishop of Canterbury justified strategic bombing.
 Messenger, Charles. Bomber Harris and the Strategic Bombing Offensive, 1939–1945. London: Arms and Armour, 1984. .
 Middlebrook, Martin. The Peenemünde Raid: The Night of 17–18 August 1943. New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1982.
 Neufeld, Michael J. The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era. New York: The Free Press, 1995.
 Otter, Patrick. Yorkshire Airfields Countryside Books (1998)
 Overy. Richard. "The Means to Victory: Bombs and Bombing" in Overy, Why the Allies Won (1995), pp 101–33
 Peden, Murray. A Thousand Shall Fall. .

 Smith, Malcolm. "The Allied Air Offensive", Journal of Strategic Studies 13 (Mar 1990) 67–83
 Taylor, Frederick. (2005) Dresden: Tuesday, 13 February 1945. Bloomsbury.
 Terraine, John. A Time for Courage: The Royal Air Force in the European War, 1939–1945 (1985)
 Tooze, Adam. The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy Penguin (2007)
 Verrier, Anthony. The Bomber Offensive. London: Batsford, 1968.
 Webster, Charles and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 1939–1945 (HMSO, 1961 & facsimile reprinted by Naval & Military Press, 2006), 4 vols. .
 Wells, Mark K. Courage and air warfare: the Allied aircrew experience in the Second World War (1995)
 Werrell, Kenneth P. "The Strategic Bombing of Germany in World War II: Costs and Accomplishments", Journal of American History 73 (1986) 702–713; in JSTOR

External links
 Staff, RAF History – The Second World War A bibliography prepared by the RAF (see the section "Bomber Command and the Strategic Air Offensive against Germany")
 Bob Baxter's Bomber Command Comprehensive history and research about Bomber Command.
 Bomber Command Memorial Appeal The website looking to raise funds for the Bomber Command Memorial in London.
 Bomber Command Memorial Appeal The donation website for the Bomber Command Memorial in London.
 Timelines of Bomber Command over '42–'45
 Related Newspaper Articles
 RAF Bomber Command at War 1939–45 CD audiobooks (actuality recordings)
 Bomber Command Squadrons

|-

Bomber Command
Bomber aircraft units and formations of the Royal Air Force
Bomber aircraft commands (military formations)
Military units and formations established in 1936
Military units and formations disestablished in 1968
Organisations based in Buckinghamshire
1936 establishments in the United Kingdom
1968 disestablishments in the United Kingdom

RAF Bomber Command


Sixty county courts in Wales have closed since the modern system of county courts in England and Wales was established by the County Courts Act 1846. The Act created 491 courts on 60 circuits; of these, 53 courts were in Wales and Monmouthshire, a Welsh county that had ambiguous status at the time and was sometimes treated as being in England. Since then, new courts have been opened in various locations, and 80 towns and cities in Wales have, or have had, county courts. As of 2012, there are 20 county courts in Wales. Reasons for closure have included a decision that it was "inexpedient" to continue to provide a court, the volume of business no longer justifying a court, or the state of the building housing the court. The first closure was Fishguard in 1856. The most recent closures are the county courts in Aberdare and Pontypool, which closed on 1 August 2011.

History
The modern system of county courts in England and Wales dates from the County Courts Act 1846, which received Royal Assent on 28 August 1846 and was brought into force on 15 March 1847. England and Wales (with the exception of the City of London, which was outside the scope of the Act) were divided into 60 circuits, with a total of 491 courts. Four of these circuits were wholly in Wales, as were 46 of these courts. A further seven courts were located in Monmouthshire (which had at the time an ambiguous status and was sometimes treated as being part of England) and these seven courts were part of a circuit for Monmouthshire and Herefordshire. One county court judge was appointed to each circuit, assisted by one or more registrars with some limited judicial powers, and would travel between the courts in his area as necessary, sitting in each court at least once a month. Few permanent courts were needed initially, given the infrequency of court hearings, and temporary accommodation such as a town hall would often be used where there was no existing courthouse for use.

Over time, although new courts have been opened in various locations, there has been a reduction in the number of locations where a county court is held. In all, 80 towns and cities in Wales have held county courts since 1847; 60 have closed and, as of 2012, 20 county courts in Wales are still open. The most recent opening of a county court took place in Caerphilly in 1965, although this closed in 2000. The first county court to close was Fishguard, in 1856. The latest county courts to close in Wales were Aberdare and Pontypool in 2011.  Blaenavon is the only town in Wales to have a county court close and then reopen, both events taking place in 1938.

Courts have been closed for various reasons. The county courts at Fishguard, Ruabon and Cowbridge were closed because it was considered "inexpedient" to continue to hold courts there. In other cases, it was thought that it would be "of advantage to the public" to move the location of a court: the court at Pembroke was replaced by one at Pembroke Dock. The volume of court business declined during the Second World War and some little-used courts, including Presteigne and Llandeilo, were closed as a result.

There has been pressure to close courts for economic reasons since the 19th century. In 1872, more than 300 of the county courts in England and Wales cost more to run than they received in fees, but widespread closures were politically impossible. In 1899, there were proposals to close courts where fewer than 20 claims were issued per year, but these plans were frustrated by local pressure to keep courts open, since having a county court in a town was generally regarded as a mark of the town's importance. A review of the provision of county courts after the First World War concluded that Mid Wales had an "unjustifiably generous" number of county courts, but only one (Llangollen) was proposed for closure, given the need to maintain courts in rural areas.

More recently, considerations in deciding whether to close a court have included "the costs and practical implications of running a court, the public facilities, waiting times, workload levels and the overall standard of service that can be made available over the area as a whole". Monmouth, for example, was based in the Shire Hall until it was closed in 2002 because of the poor standard of the court accommodation, the lack of access for people with disabilities and the high cost to run the court compared with the use it received. The Government estimated in March 2000 that the closure of 55 county courts in England and Wales (including 9 courts in Wales) in the previous 6 years had saved a minimum of £6 million, through reductions in rent and accommodation charges, running costs and judicial expense.

In June 2010, the Ministry of Justice announced plans to close 54 county courts and 103 magistrates' courts in England and Wales, in order to save £15m in annual running costs and £22m in necessary maintenance. The courts threatened with closure in Wales were Aberdare, Llangefni, Pontypool and Rhyl. In addition, it was proposed that Newport County Court would no longer hold hearings at Chepstow every fortnight (as had been done since the county court there closed in 2002). After consultation, it was decided to keep Llangefni County Court open, but the other closures were confirmed.

Closed courts

Until 1 January 1937, the full title of each court was "The County Court of (county) holden at (location/locations)", using the historic county names. Thereafter, each court was renamed as "(location/s) County Court". For brevity, the latter form is used throughout in this table, with "County Court" being abbreviated to "CC". All name changes in the table reflect changes in the locations where the court sat since, until 1 August 1983, a county court with more than one location in its title would sit at each location named.

See also
Courts of England and Wales
List of County Court venues in England and Wales

References
General
Polden, Patrick (1999). A History of the County Court, 1846–1971. Cambridge University Press. .
For the courts that opened on 15 March 1847: the Order in Council of 9 March 1847 bringing the 1846 Act into force on 15 March 1847 and establishing the original 491 county courts was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 10 March 1847.
Specific
Save where references are given to publication in The London Gazette, the Statutory Instruments listed below were published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office and the date that the Order was made is given. Statutory Instruments from 1987 onwards are available online.

County Courts
Wales
County Courts in Wales
County courts in England and Wales
County Courts in Wales
County Courts in Wales
Wales law-related lists
Courts

List of former county courts in Wales


The Wartime Information Board was a Canadian government agency established on 9 September 1942, succeeding the Bureau of Public Information, to coordinate the existing public information service of the government, supervise the release from government sources of Canadian war news and information, and facilitate distribution of Canadian war information both internally and externally.

When the Second World War began, Canada did not have a centralized information service to deal with information dissemination. On 8 December 1939, the Bureau of Public Information was created. Initially it had worked with the Chief Censor and was later attached to the Department of National War Services. Its initial function was to coordinate and supply information produced by its own staff and by other departments, including Department of National Defence and Department of Munitions and Supply. However issues with dissemination led to a report that resulted in the creation of the Wartime Information Board.

Chairmen of the Board included Thomas Vinning and Norman A.M. Mackenzie. However, the real power on the board was held by its general manager who included John Grierson and A. Davidson Dunton. Thomas Vinning was replaced by John Grierson, the Commissioner of the National Film Board, as General Manager of the Wartime Information Board. By taking the reins of the graphics department of the Wartime Information Board he was able to extend the use of a documentary style to the photographs, posters and publications put out by the government.

The Wartime Information Board's duty was to create a common outlook amongst Canadians on their identity and perception on the war. The material created by this agency served to inform on the war and encourage wartime participation. The focus was to ensure high morale and patriotic fervour: "sharing together in common experience, working and striving in great causes." Over the course of the war, the Board established various foreign offices, undertook surveys and opinion polls, gave guided tours, studied Canadian news, and developed press information.

In January 1943, all photographic operations came under the jurisdiction of the National Film Board. It produced more graphic material needed by the government for the war effort, and funds from the Wartime Information Board served to support the making and distribution of films.

Throughout the war, the Wartime Information Board released a monthly account of the war effort in the form of a publication called "Canada at War". The publication covered a wide range of topics, from wartime industry, women at war, etc. The publication was distributed throughout Canada to various audiences from farmers to housewives.

The board was an early developer of public opinion polling techniques in Canada.

At the end of the war, The Wartime Information Board released a series of pamphlets, as a supplement to informing Canadians about post-war reconstruction and urging discussions of "the most positive approach to some of the outstanding problems of Canada's future."

Posters created by the board

General references
 Brandon, Laura. War Art in Canada: A Critical History. Toronto: Art Canada Institute, 2022.
 Gary Evans, John Grierson and the National Film Board: The politics of Wartime Propaganda. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984.
 Wartime Information Board, Canada at War, 1941-1945.

References

1942 establishments in Canada
Former Canadian federal departments and agencies
Canada in World War II
Propaganda organizations
News agencies based in Canada
National Film Board of Canada

Wartime Information Board


Fort De La Boulaye Site, also known as Fort Mississippi, is the site of a fort built by the French in south Louisiana in 1699–1700, to support their claim of the Mississippi River and valley. Native Americans forced the French to vacate the fort by 1707.

The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960, as part of the history of French colonization of the area. The state of Louisiana had earlier erected an historical marker, with the following text:
FORT de la BOULAYE  First white settlement in present-day Louisiana, erected by Bienville in 1699 on this spot (then the bank of the Mississippi), prevented Britain's seizure of the Mississippi Valley.

History
In 1698, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, and his brothers, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville and Antoine Le Moyne de Châteauguay, participated in an expedition to rediscover the mouth of the Mississippi River. It could be difficult to find among the many competing bayous and waterways.

In 1699, they founded Fort Mississippi on a ridge a little more than one kilometer from the shore of the river, on the east bank, and about twenty kilometers south of the future city of New Orleans.  The fort was completed in 1700. It was built in stockade wood and defended by six guns, in order to protect the region from attacks and incursions by the English and Spanish. The fort was renamed Fort de la Boulaye and was commanded by Louis Juchereau de St. Denis.

In 1707, the Caddoan tribe, hostile to the presence of encroaching soldiers, forced them to abandon the fort and to go to the French settlement of Biloxi.  Only the officer Juchereau de St. Denis, friend of the Caddo, was permitted to continue living in the fort. Garrisons of French troops occasionally visited the site. In 1714, Juchereau de St. Denis was assigned to lead a new expedition, with the objective of defending the western boundaries of Louisiana (New France). He established Fort des Natchitoches.

By the middle of the 18th century Fort de la Boulaye was abandoned. Tropical storms eventually destroyed this fort.

In the 20th century archaeologists conducted surveys and located the site of fort; they found remnants of palisade and building logs, burned poles, and evidence of a cannonball. The site has been designated a National Historic Landmark.

See also
Fort de la Balize
National Register of Historic Places listings in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana
List of National Historic Landmarks in Louisiana

References

External links
Fort De La Boulaye Collection at The Historic New Orleans Collection

National Historic Landmarks in Louisiana
Buildings and structures in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana
De La Boulaye
De La Boulaye
French-American culture in Louisiana
De La Boulaye
1700 establishments in the French colonial empire
National Register of Historic Places in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana

Fort De La Boulaye Site


Troutbeck is a village in the province of Manicaland, Zimbabwe located in the Eastern Highlands on the northern border of Nyanga National Park and situated on a highland plateau at an altitude of about 2100m.

Tourism

Troutbeck village has a small shopping centre in the town and about 10 minutes' walk to the north is a church built by Italian prisoners of war in the 1940s. It has a thriving four star hotel, Troutbeck Resort. Troutbeck is popular with anglers as fresh water trout (which have been introduced into local streams) can be caught. Adjacent to Troutbeck Resort is a popular shop called 'Santa's Grotto', which sells mainly homemade goods by the residents in Troutbeck and the owners of the shop itself. There is also

Scenery
Troutbeck is high in the mountains and the land slopes downwards to the north with views of the Nyangui mountain range. Because of its height the western edge of Troutbeck's plateau is dubbed 'World's View' where the edge of the escarpment allows visitors to behold a wide vista and, with the help of small engraved granite plaques around the edge of the tower, see the direction of certain towns in Zimbabwe and South Africa and their distance from World's View.

Life since 2000
The number of people visiting Troutbeck since the land reform program in 2000 has dropped dramatically mainly due to the decreasing number of wealthy land owners who could afford to stay in Troutbeck. Many of the farms in the surrounding areas have been taken over by the 'war veterans' and they have made it less safe for some people in the country to visit Troutbeck.

External links
 Troutbeck Resort

Nyanga District
Populated places in Manicaland Province

Troutbeck, Manicaland


Władysław Kopaliński (real name Władysław Jan Stefczyk; November 14, 1907 – October 5, 2007) was a Polish lexicographer, publisher, writer and translator.  He was a prolific author and winner of numerous awards for his work.

Life
He was born in Warsaw as Jan Sterling, a son of Jewish parents Stanisław Sterling and Regina Willer.

Kopaliński was a renowned lexicographer and contributed much to modern knowledge of the origins of the Polish language. He was considered an authority on the origins of Polish words, leading to a common expression, "Look it up in Kopaliński." His Polish dictionaries include Dictionary of Myths and Cultural Traditions and the Dictionary of Symbols. His most famous work was the Dictionary of Words and Phrases of Foreign Origin. An unabridged version of the latter dictionary has been published on the Internet.

Kopaliński also authored several books which are not dictionaries, including 125 Fairy Stories To Tell the Children,  Lexicon of Love Themes, and the Book of Quotations from Polish Belles-Lettres.

Kopaliński was a member of the Polish Writers' Society.  He also wrote a regular column in Życie Warszawy, ran a Polish radio station, and translated English-language books into Polish.

Kopaliński died in Warsaw on October 5, 2007 at the age of 99.

See also
List of Poles

Notes

External links

 Władysław Kopaliński obituary

1907 births
2007 deaths
Writers from Warsaw
People from Warsaw Governorate
Polish lexicographers
20th-century Polish Jews
Polish male writers
Polish United Workers' Party members
20th-century lexicographers

Władysław Kopaliński


The Atlanta Film Festival (ATLFF) is an international film festival held in Atlanta, Georgia and operated by the Atlanta Film Society, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. Started in 1976 and occurring every spring, the festival shows a diverse range of independent films, with special attention paid to women-directed films, LGBTQ films, Latin American films, Black films and films from the American Southeast. ATLFF is one of only a handful of festivals that are Academy Award-qualifying in all three short film categories.

History

Founding
In 1968, the Atlanta International Film Festival was launched, becoming Atlanta's first major film event. It operated until 1974 when the organizers were no longer able to finance the operation. Two years later, a group of independent filmmakers and artists established Independent Media Artists of Georgia, Etc. (IMAGE) as a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization in 1976. The IMAGE Film & Video Center opened that year as the first media arts center in the state of Georgia, providing much-needed equipment access, networking, information dissemination, and support to local filmmakers. A year later, the inaugural Atlanta Independent Film & Video Festival launched on May 14, 1977 at the Piedmont Park Bathhouse.

Name Changes
In 1984, the organization truncated the name of the festival to the Atlanta Film and Video Festival, and again in 2002, to the Atlanta Film Festival. In 2015, the parent organization became known as the Atlanta Film Society.

Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic
In March 2020, ATLFF made the decision to postpone the 44th edition due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The original dates of April 30-May 10 were rescheduled to September 17–27. This will mark the first time in the organization's history that the event will take place beyond the spring or early summer months. The 2022 event had the festival back to its usual practice with many awards.

Academy Award Qualification
For decades, ATLFF has been an Academy Award-qualifying event for the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film and the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film. After AMPAS changed the rules for the Academy Award for Best Documentary (Short Subject) qualification, ATLFF became Oscar-qualifying in all three short film categories in 2015. The winners of the Best Narrative Short Film, Best Animated Short Film and Best Documentary Short Film Jury Prizes go on to be eligible for the respective shortlists for their Oscar categories. Ray McKinnon's The Accountant won the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film in 2002 after qualifying at the 2001 Atlanta Film Festival.

IMAGE Film Awards Gala
On June 7, 2001, the organization launched the annual IMAGE Film Awards Gala as a separate event attached to the annual film festival. Recognizing individuals and organizations who have made outstanding contributions to building the state's film industry and community, the awards were named in honor of the organization's founding name. Robert Osborne of Turner Classic Movies hosted the first reception where founding IMAGE Executive Director Gayla Jamison, Georgia Governor Zell Miller, Academy Award-nominated filmmaker Gary Moss, and Crawford Communications were the inaugural honorees.

The IMAGE Film Awards Gala continued for eight years until 2008, when the Atlanta Film Society paused the program for over a decade. It returned again on April 3, 2019 at the Fox Theatre's Egyptian Ballroom attached to the 43rd annual ATLFF, where Georgia Attorney General Chris Carr, Actor/Musician/Producer Tip "T.I." Harris, Director Corporate Responsibility & Civic Affairs at Turner Broadcasting and Georgia Representative Betsy Holland, and "The Walking Dead" Executive Producer Tom Luse were honored.

Other IMAGE Film Award recipients include Dallas Austin, Ossie Davis, Ruby Dee, the Georgia Film Office, Diane Ladd, Spike Lee, Will Packer, Parker Posey, Burt Reynolds, Michael Stipe, Tyler Perry Studios, and Cicely Tyson.

Notable discoveries
Spike Lee may be considered ATLFF's first great filmmaker discovery. Lee made his first film, Last Hustle in Brooklyn, while a mass communications student at Morehouse College with the encouragement of his mentor, Dr. Herb Eichelberger, a co-founder of the Atlanta Film Society (then known as IMAGE). The festival was the first to screen the film, where it won a jury prize of $25. After winning the jury prize, Lee decided to pursue a career as a filmmaker. ATLFF also screened Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads, which won Lee a 1983 Student Academy Award. He was honored in 2005 with the inaugural Ossie Davis Award, in 2009 with a 20th-anniversary screening of Do The Right Thing, and in 2019 with the Originator Award.

When ATLFF revived its annual Screenplay Competition in 2008, Athens-native James Ponsoldt was among the inaugural winners. Ponsoldt later went on to serve as a mentor for the Screenwriter's Retreat (the main prize of the Screenplay Competition) and his film The Spectacular Now was the Closing Night presentation of the 2013 ATLFF.

Stella Meghie's debut feature Jean of the Joneses won the 2011 ATLFF Screenplay Competition and went on to be the first winning screenplay to be produced and play the festival. The film premiered at the 2016 South by Southwest Film Festival and then played ATLFF, with Meghie in attendance alongside stars Sherri Shepherd, Taylour Paige and Erica Ash.

Additionally, ATLFF has played the first works of Heidi Ewing, David Gordon Green, Reinaldo Marcus Green, Tina Mabry, Ray McKinnon, Victor Nuñez, Robert Rodriguez, RuPaul, David O. Russell and more.

Locations
Over the years, the festival's primary venues have included theaters such as Piedmont Park, High Museum of Art, Fox Theatre, Landmark Midtown Art Cinema, Atlantic Station Regal Cinemas, 7 Stages Theatre in Little Five Points and The Rialto Center for the Arts at Georgia State University. In 2013, ATLFF moved its principle screening operations to The Plaza Theatre in the Poncey-Highland neighborhood.

Midtown
In 2007, the festival partnered with the Landmark Midtown Art Cinema to centrally locate the festival to Midtown, dubbed the "Heart of Atlanta's Arts" and home to a wide array of restaurants, bars and shops. The change allowed the festival more opportunities for panels, screenplay readings, film discussions and after-parties.

Highlands and Little Five Points
After 6 years centered at Landmark, the festival moved its home base to Atlanta's oldest continually operating cinema, The Plaza Theatre on Ponce de Leon Avenue, and added 7 Stages Theatre as a secondary venue. Taking advantage of the Poncey-Highland and Little 5 Points areas, the change pushed the event to be more of a walkable festival. The move was praised by locals and introduced out-of-town guests to Atlanta's unique neighborhoods. In the years since, ATLFF has reactivated the historic Hilan Theatre on North Highland Avenue in Virginia-Highland and incorporated several local landmarks as venues, such as The Highland Inn & Ballroom, The Church at Ponce & Highland, Ponce City Market, The Hotel Clermont and Dad's Garage Theatre Company.

Programming

On Average, ATLFF programs between 150 and 250 films from approximately 50 countries each year. For the 2020 Film Festival, ATLFF received 8,559 works submitted for consideration. On average, 85-95% of each year's film program comes from submissions, which special tracks designated for women filmmakers (New Mavericks), Black filmmakers, LGBTQ content (Pink Peach), Latin American content and Georgia-tied content.

ATLFF Screenplay Competition and Screenwriter's Retreat
Since 2008, ATLFF has hosted an annual Screenplay Competition that attracts over 1,300 submissions each year. Three feature film screenwriter winners attend a 3-day Screenwriter's Retreat at Serenbe where professional mentors help them workshop their scripts and get ready for the next stages of production. Winning screenplays also are featured at the festival in a staged table read. Additional prizes are also offered to winning episodic and short film scripts.

Out on Film and Pink Peach
For years the Atlanta Film Festival organization produced Atlanta's Out on Film gay film festival. In the Fall of 2008 the Atlanta Film Festival gave Out on Film to the LGBTQ community. Out on Film became an independent, 501(c)(3) gay/lesbian operation. Since 2008, the festival has included the Pink Peach track, highlighting LGBTQ films and filmmakers.

From 2008 to 2015, there was a Pink Peach Jury Award annually given to a feature film. Since 2016, LGBTQ films in competition are considered for the general jury prizes.

New Mavericks
In 2013, the festival featured a shorts block titled New Mavericks, featuring films by female filmmakers with strong female leads. This began an annual tradition and in 2015, the New Mavericks program was expanded to include feature films and an annual New Mavericks prize.

SOUND+VISION
In 2012, the festival partnered with the Goat Farm Arts Center and indieATL to introduce a special, mostly-outdoor event featuring music videos, art installations and live musical performances called SOUND+VISION. The evening is an example of the types of elements film festivals continue to add as they look to redefine themselves, connect with audiences and innovate. An estimated 1,200 people attended in its inaugural year, dropping to just under 800 in 2013, due to inclimate weather. In 2014, the event drew over 1,500 attendees, and eclipsed 3,000 attendees in 2015. In 2016, the event moved to Ponce City Market and again to 787 Windsor in 2017. After a year break, SOUND+VISION returned and took place on the BeltLine and in Historic Fourth Ward Park in 2019.

Individual Award Recipients
IMAGE Film Award
 Gary Moss (2001)
 Gayla Jamison (2001)
 Zell Miller (2001)
 Crawford Communications (2001)
 Victor Nunez (2002)
 Jim McKay and Michael Stipe (2002)
 PC&E (Production Consultants and Equipment) (2002)
 Eleanor Ringel Gillespie (2002)
 Ossie Davis (2003)
 Ruby Dee (2003)
 Burt Reynolds (2003)
 Parker Posey (2003)
 Georgia Office of Film, Video and Music (2003)
 Digital Projection (2003)
 Dallas Austin (2004)
 Diane Ladd (2004)
 Lon Slack (2004)
 Bill VanDerKloot (2004)
 Linda Dubler (2004)
 Dr. Herbert Eichelberger (2005)
 George King (2005)
 W. Bruce Harlan (2005)
 Guy H. Tuttle (2005)
 Katherine Evans (2005)
 Linda Burns (2005)
 Dr. Kay Beck (2006)
 George LeFont (2006)
 Lab 601 (2006)
 Will Packer (2007)
 Kenny Blank (2007)
 GPP (Georgia Production Partnership) (2007)
 Steve James and Peter Gilbert (2008)
 Tyler Perry Studios (2008)
 Dr. Matthew Bernstein (2008)
 Virginia Hepner (2008)
 Tom Luse (2019)
 Betsy Holland (2019)
 Christopher M. Carr (2019)
 T.I. (2019)
 Daveed Diggs (2019)
Southeastern Media Award
 Eric Wise; City Boys Dream of Beaches (1995)
 Dorne M. Pentes; The Closest Thing to Heaven (1996)
 Robert Clem; Big Jim Folsom: The Two Faces of Populism (1997)
 Nick Searcy, Sean Bridgers; Paradise Falls (1998)
 Michael Porembski; Burning Questions (1999)
 David Gordon Green; George Washington (2000)
 Ray McKinnon; The Accountant (2001)
 Kristen McGary, Amy McGary; The Adventures of Ociee Nash (2002)
Ossie Davis Award
 Spike Lee (2005)
 Cicely Tyson (2006)
 John Sayles, Maggie Renzi (2007)
Filmmaker-to-Watch Award
 Sean Bloch (2006)
 Julien Paolini (2013)
 Moon Molson (2014)
 Ian Samuels (2015)
 Thoranna Sigurdardottir (2016)
 Malcolm Washington (2017)
 Connor Simpson (2018)
 Kalu Oji (2019)
 Esteban Bailey (2022)
New Mavericks Award
 Meryem Benm'Barek-Aloïsi; Jennah (2015)
 Erica Tremblay; In the Turn (2015)
 Elisa Paloschi; Driving with Selvi (2016)
 Katy Grannan, Hannah Hughes; The Nine (2017)
Innovator Award
 Daveed Diggs (2018)
Phoenix Award
 Kiersey Clemons (2018)
 George Anthony Morton (2022)
Rebel Award
 Jason Reitman (2018)
 President Jimmy Carter (2021)
Originator Award
 Joe Berlinger (2019)
 Spike Lee (2019)

Notable films that have played the festival

Feature Film Award-Winners

See also
Sundance Film Festival
SXSW Film Festival
Nashville Film Festival
Atlanta Jewish Film Festival
List of film festivals
List of film festivals in North and Central America

References

External links
Atlanta Film Festival website
Film Freeway

Film festivals in Georgia (U.S. state)
Festivals in Atlanta
Annual events in Georgia (U.S. state)
Film festivals established in 1976
1976 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Short film festivals in the United States
LGBT events in Georgia (U.S. state)
LGBT film festivals in the United States
Tourist attractions in Georgia (U.S. state)
Tourist attractions in Atlanta
Tourist attractions in Fulton County, Georgia

Atlanta Film Festival


Ali Shire Warsame (), (? in Galgaduud, Somalia – 1999 in Somalia), was a Somali politician, General Surgeon and a famed businessman. He was the MP of SYL in the 1960s representing DhuusaMareeb. After the birth of the Revolutionary Government, he returned to his business pursuits until the collapse of the central government. He was the mastermind of Marehan's future capture of Kismayo in 1991, finding his nephew Col Barre Adan Shire Hiiraale and long time friend Gen Ahmed Warsame in a café in Bardera, it was this one hour meeting that produced Barre's never ending pursuit of the port city of Kismayo.

References

1999 deaths
Somali Youth League politicians
Year of birth missing

Ali Shire Warsame


An organ scholar is a young musician employed as a part-time assistant organist at a cathedral, church or institution where regular choral services are held.  The idea of an organ scholarship is to provide the holder with playing, directing and administrative experience. It is an important part of music-making in Christian worship and is strongly associated with, but is not limited to, Anglican church music in the United Kingdom, Australia and the USA.

Organ scholars may sometimes be found at a cathedral or a collegiate church. Many colleges at the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Trinity College Dublin, as well as other universities, offer organ scholarships to undergraduates. At some institutions (for example, Christ Church, Oxford, New College, Oxford, Trinity College Dublin or King's College, Cambridge), the organ scholar(s) work under the direction of a full-time professional director of music.  At other institutions, the organ scholar is in charge of running the choir.

One of the first organ scholarships in the University of Cambridge was set up by Queens' College, Cambridge. An early scholar there was the composer Charles Villiers Stanford, who took up his position there in 1870.

Many organ scholars have gone on to notable careers in music and in other fields. Two notable ex-organ scholars who went on to achieve fame in other fields are Edward Heath, who read Philosophy, Politics, and Economics at Balliol College, Oxford and later served as British Prime Minister 1970–1974; and Dudley Moore, who read music at Magdalen College, Oxford and went on to a career in acting.

Notable organ scholars at universities and colleges

References

Organists

Organ scholar


St. Paul's College is a Roman Catholic College on the Fort Garry campus of the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Mantioba, Canada. It was founded in 1926 by the Oblate Fathers, and became affiliated with the University of Manitoba in 1931. It is the only Catholic higher education institute in the province.

St. Paul's College enrolls approximately 850 undergraduate students.

History
St. Paul's College was established in 1926, with Fr. Alphonse Simon, OMI as the first Rector. It was initially located in a building on Selkirk Avenue, but the increase in student population thereafter prompted a move to the old Manitoba College location, which was purchased by Archbishop Sinnott in 1931. The direction of the college passed into the hands of the diocesan clergy and Fr. C. B. Collins was appointed Rector. In the same year, the college became affiliated with the University of Manitoba.

On October 27, 1931, at the time of its affiliation, St. Paul's had a staff of 15 (eight priests and seven laymen), and a total of twelve students in the university program. The University of Manitoba Yearbook for 1932, The Brown and Gold, displays the photographs of the first two graduates of the college.

Jesuit Fathers undertook direction of the college in 1933. Fr. John Holland, S.J., was appointed Rector, and Fr. Erle Bartlett, S.J. was appointed Dean of Studies. In 1936, St. Mary's College for Women became the women's division of St. Paul's, until the college opened on the Fort Garry campus in 1957 when it became co-educational and St. Mary's eventually withdrew from university work.

Campus construction was largely funded by individual donors and churches of Manitoba. In 1932, a new campus building, Paul Shea Hall (donated by Margaret Shea), was built to house the high school. In 1939, six more classrooms were added and paid for through the Archdiocese. By the mid-1940s, students were being turned away because of the lack of space. A building fund drive at that time was not particularly successful and attention was turned again to relocating on the University of Manitoba campus with whom ongoing negotiations about relocation had been taking place. In 1957 a 99-year lease for land on the campus was signed and a cornerstone was laid and blessed by Archbishop Pocock. The Canada council contributed $100,000 towards the construction costs. The architect was Mr. Peter Thornton; the contractors were Wallace and Aikens.

In the fall of 1958, the basic buildings and administrative offices containing classrooms, library, cafeteria, faculty offices, and the chapel were completed. About 200 students registered that year.

In 1962 the Science Wing was added, containing laboratories, an increased number of classrooms, and faculty offices. The student cafeteria was extended in 1964 and the Residence of the Jesuit Fathers was added. The library, along with a theatre with a capacity of 200, more classroom and faculty office space were constructed in 1972.  A larger library and a student residence were part of the original plan, but were never constructed.

Presently the college is under the direction of the St. Paul's Corporation and an 18-person Board of Governors. The Archbishop of Winnipeg is the College Chancellor.

The new millennium saw the construction of the Arthur V. Mauro Centre for Peace and Justice - an addition that provides graduate and undergraduate studies in peace-building and conflict-resolution.

Scholarships and bursaries
The Government of Canada sponsors an Aboriginal Bursaries Search Tool that lists over 680 scholarships, bursaries, and other incentives offered by governments, universities, and industry to support Aboriginal post-secondary participation. St. Paul's College scholarships for Aboriginal, First Nations and Métis students include: Sundance Aboriginal Student Award.

Campus

Arthur V. Mauro Institute
The Arthur V. Mauro Institute (formerly the Arthur V. Mauro Centre) at St. Paul's College, University of Manitoba, is built to encourage the advancement of human rights, conflict resolution, global citizenship, peace, and social justice through research, education, and outreach.

The Mauro Institute's initial emphases has been the cultural, religious, and philosophical dimensions of peace; social, economic, and environmental justice; peace education; human rights; and the role of international organizations and standards in the quest for peace and justice. The institute is also interested in the role of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam in pointing ways for people to live in peace and harmony in a post-modern world.

The Joint M.A. Program in Peace and Conflict Studies (governed jointly by the University of Manitoba and the University of Winnipeg) is housed at the Mauro Centre (U of M) and the Global College (U of W).

The institute is home to the University of Manitoba's Ph.D. Program in Peace and Conflict Studies.

Storytelling for Peace and Renewing Community (SPARC) is an initiative of the Institute that encompasses the Winnipeg International Storytelling Festival: Storytelling on the Path to Peace; the Youth Forum on Human Rights, Peace, and Social Justice; a 6-credit master's-level Summer Institute on Storytelling for Peace and Human Rights; and the Mauro Centre Storytelling Working Group.

Near Eastern and Biblical Archaeology Laboratory
The Near Eastern and Biblical Archaeology Laboratory (NEBAL) was established in 2010 by St. Paul's College at the University of Manitoba. The goal is to have a single integrated location for the study of the ancient cultures of the Near East and eastern Mediterranean. It provides a focus for seminars and lectures related to Near Eastern and Biblical Studies at the University of Manitoba. All related archaeological remains scattered throughout the university are being gathered in this location for analysis and curation. NEBAL also provides a single integrated research and administrative facility for faculty and students.

Fr. Harold Drake Library
The Fr.Holland Library at St. Paul's College focuses on supporting the teaching and research needs of staff and students at St. Paul's College including the University One program, the Jesuit Centre for Catholic Studies and the Arthur V. Mauro Centre for Peace and Justice.

The Library holds over 70,000 volumes including the following collections:

 Catholic Studies: Theology and history of the Catholic Church, contemporary Catholic issues
 Medieval Studies
 Philosophy (including Bernard Lonergan)
 Peace and Conflict Studies
 History (European, British, Canadian)
 French literature (20th century) and English literature

The Fr. Harold Drake Library offers a full range of library services including access to the entire University of Manitoba Libraries collections, reference and reserve services, patron print, scanning and photocopying. The Library's collections and services are open to all University of Manitoba Libraries patrons.

Catholic Studies Program
The historical relationships and ongoing encounters that the members of the Roman Catholic Church have had with disciplines such as history, the arts and sciences, as well as human thought comprise the framework around which the Catholic Studies program is formed.

The Catholic Studies program at St. Paul's College was designed as an interdisciplinary unit that fosters an intellectual and academic approach to Catholicism. It seeks to explore the Catholic tradition in ways that do justice to its full contributions and challenges as a historical and contemporary phenomenon. In order to provide crucial perspectives on the Catholic culture, the program itself includes the findings of many academic disciplines such as Religion, History, Fine Arts, and Philosophy.

The Catholic Studies Program's goal is to study, explore, and engage Catholicism in all its social, political, and religious complexities. The program is aimed at students who wish to pursue Catholic Studies as a minor as well as for those students who only want to take one or two courses that would expand and deepen their understanding of Catholicism.

St. Paul's College Students' Association
The St. Paul's College Students' Association (SPCSA) consists of students pursuing any program of study at U of M, who are registered members of the college. SPCSA members are elected annually by students. Its purpose is to organize and promote events and special initiatives, and represent students' interests (academic, spiritual, and social).

Events are planned throughout the year such as a Welcome Back BBQ, Sibling Rivalry BBQ with St. John's College, Back to School Bash, Valentine's Day Bash, St. Patrick's Day Bash, and closing ceremonies.

See also
 List of Jesuit sites

References

Bibliography

 Bumsted, Dr. John M (Jack). The University of Manitoba: An Illustrated History (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2001)

External links

University of Manitoba
Colleges in Manitoba
Catholic universities and colleges in Canada
Catholic Church in Manitoba
Roman Catholic schools in Manitoba
Manitoba, Paul
1926 establishments in Manitoba
Distance education institutions based in Canada

St. Paul's College (Manitoba)