The "cursed soldiers" (also known as "doomed soldiers", "accursed soldiers" or "damned soldiers"; ) or "indomitable soldiers" () were a variety of anti-Soviet imperialist and anti-communist Polish resistance movements formed in the later stages of World War II and its aftermath by members of the Polish Underground State. This all-encompassing term for a widely heterogeneous movement was introduced in the early 1990s.

The clandestine organisations continued their armed struggle against the communist regime of Poland well into the 1950s. The guerrilla warfare included an array of military attacks launched against the regime's prisons and state security offices, detention facilities for political prisoners, and concentration camps that were set up across the country. Most of the Polish anti-communist groups ceased to exist in the late 1950s, as they were hunted down by agents of the Ministry of Public Security and Soviet NKVD. The last known "cursed soldier", Józef Franczak, was killed in an ambush in 1963.

The best-known Polish anti-communist resistance organisations operating in Stalinist Poland included Freedom and Independence (Wolność i Niezawisłość, WIN), National Armed Forces (Narodowe Siły Zbrojne, NSZ), National Military Union (Narodowe Zjednoczenie Wojskowe, NZW), Konspiracyjne Wojsko Polskie (Underground Polish Army, KWP), Ruch Oporu Armii Krajowej (Home Army Resistance, ROAK), Armia Krajowa Obywatelska (Citizens' Home Army, AKO), NIE (NO, short for Niepodległość), Armed Forces Delegation for Poland (Delegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj), and Wolność i Sprawiedliwość (Freedom and Justice, WiS).

Similar Eastern European anti-communist insurgencies went on in neighbouring countries.

The operations and history of the "cursed soldiers" have prompted controversy over the degree to which individual fighters or their units were involved in war crimes against Jews and other ethnic minorities on Polish soil and against civilians in general; common responses to the accusations include claiming that they were partially or completely fabricated as part of communist propaganda aimed at discrediting the soldiers, or that any genuine victims were killed due to their involvement in or cooperation with communist authorities and their ethnicity had little or no bearing on their eventual demise.

Historical background

In the summer of 1944, as Soviet forces fighting against Nazi Germany advanced into Poland, the USSR set up a provisional puppet regime of Poland called the Polish Committee of National Liberation. The new regime was aware that the Polish Resistance (whose chief component was the Armia Krajowa or Home Army) and Underground State loyal to the Polish government-in-exile would have to be destroyed before they could gain complete control over Poland. Władysław Gomułka, future General Secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party, said that "Soldiers of the Armia Krajowa (AK) are a hostile element which must be removed without mercy". Another prominent communist, Roman Zambrowski, said that the AK had to be "exterminated".

The Armia Krajowa officially disbanded on 19 January 1945 to prevent a slide into armed conflict with the Red Army and the increasing threat of civil war over Poland's sovereignty. However, many resistance units decided to continue with their struggle for Polish independence, regarding Soviet forces as new occupiers. Soviet partisans in Poland had already been ordered by Moscow on 22 June 1943 to engage Polish partisans in combat.

According to Marek Jan Chodakiewicz's review of Bogdan Musial's Sowjetische Partisanen book, "Musial's study suggests that the Soviets seldom attacked German military and police targets. They preferred to assault the poorly armed and trained Belarusan and Polish self-defense forces. The guerrillas torched and leveled Polish landed estates much more frequently than they blew up military transports and assaulted other hard targets." The main forces of the Red Army (Northern Group of Forces) and the NKVD began conducting operations against the Armia Krajowa (AK) during and directly after the launch of Operation Tempest, the aim of which was for the Polish resistance to seize control of cities and areas occupied by the Germans while the latter were preparing their defenses against the advancing Soviets. The Soviet leader Joseph Stalin planned to ensure that an independent Poland would never reemerge in the postwar period.

Formation of the anti-communist underground

The first AK structure designed primarily to deal with the Soviet threat was NIE (short for niepodległość "independence", and also meaning "no"), formed in mid-1943. NIE's goal was to observe and conduct espionage while the Polish government-in-exile decided how to deal with the Soviets, rather than to engage in combat. At that time, the exiled government still believed that negotiations could result in a solution leading to Poland's post-war independence.

On 7 May 1945, NIE was disbanded and transformed into the Delegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj ("Armed Forces Delegation for Homeland"). This organization lasted only until August 8, 1945, when the decision was made to disband it and to stop partisan resistance on Polish territory.

In March 1945 a staged trial of 16 leaders of the Polish Underground State, who had been captured and imprisoned by the Soviet Union, took place in Moscow (the Trial of the Sixteen). The Government Delegate, together with most members of the Council of National Unity and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armia Krajowa, were invited by Soviet general Ivan Serov, with the agreement of Joseph Stalin, to a conference on their eventual entry into the Soviet-backed Provisional Government. They were presented with a warrant of safety, but the NKVD arrested them in Pruszków on 27 and 28 March. Leopold Okulicki, Jan Stanisław Jankowski, and Kazimierz Pużak were arrested on 27 March, and 12 more the following day. Alexander Zwierzynski had already been detained earlier. They were all taken to the Lubyanka prison in Moscow for interrogation prior to the trial. After several months of brutal interrogation and torture, they were charged with false accusations of "collaboration with Nazi Germany" and of "planning a military alliance with Nazi Germany".

The Polish Committee of National Liberation declined jurisdiction over former AK soldiers. Consequently, for more than a year, Soviet agencies such as the NKVD dealt with the AK. By the end of the war, approximately 60,000 soldiers of the AK had been arrested, and 50,000 of them were deported to the Soviet Union's prisons and prison camps. Most of those soldiers had been captured by the Soviets during or in the aftermath of Operation Tempest when many AK units tried to cooperate with the Red Army during their nationwide uprising against the Germans.

Other veterans were arrested when they approached the communist authorities after being promised amnesty. In 1947, the regime of the People's Republic of Poland proclaimed an amnesty for most of the wartime resistance fighters. The authorities expected around 12,000 people to give up their arms, but the total number of partisans to come out of the forests eventually reached 53,000. Many of them were arrested despite the promises of freedom. After repeated broken promises during the first few years of communist rule, former AK members refused to trust the government.

After the Delegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj ("Armed Forces Delegation for Homeland") was disbanded, another post-AK resistance organisation was formed, called Wolność i Niezawisłość ("Freedom and Sovereignty"). Wolność i Niezawisłość (WiN) was most concerned with helping former AK soldiers make the transition from life as partisans to that of civilians, rather than any type of combat. Continued secrecy and conspiracy were necessary in light of the increasing persecution of AK veterans by the communist regime. WiN was, however, much in need of funds to pay for false documents and to provide resources for the partisans, many of whom had lost their homes and entire life-savings in the war. Viewed as enemies of the state, starved of resources, and with a vocal faction advocating armed resistance against the Soviets and their Polish proxies, WiN was far from efficient. A significant victory for the NKVD and the newly created Polish secret police, Urząd Bezpieczeństwa (UB), came in the second half of 1945 when they convinced several leaders of WiN that they truly wanted to offer amnesty to AK members. Within a few months, intelligence gathered by the authorities led to thousands more arrests. The primary period of WiN activity lasted until 1947. The organisation finally disbanded in 1952.

Persecution

The NKVD and UB used brute force and deception to eliminate the underground opposition. In the autumn of 1946, a group of 100–200 "cursed soldiers" of Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (National Armed Forces, NSZ) were lured into a trap and massacred. In 1947, Colonel Julia ("Bloody Luna") Brystiger of the Polish Ministry of Public Security proclaimed at a security briefing that: "the terrorist and political underground" had ceased to be a threatening force for the UB, although the "class enemy" at universities, offices and factories still had to be "found out and neutralised."

The persecution of AK members was only one aspect of the reign of Stalinist terror in postwar Poland. In the period from 1944 to 1956, at least 300,000 Polish civilians were arrested. Some sources claim numbers up to two million arrested. Approximately 6,000 death sentences were issued, and the majority of them were carried out. It is probable that more than 20,000 people died in communist prisons including those executed "in the majesty of the law", such as Witold Pilecki, a hero of Auschwitz.

A further six million Polish citizens (i.e., one out of every three adult Poles) were classified as suspected members of a 'reactionary or criminal element' and subjected to investigation by state agencies. During the Polish October of 1956, a political amnesty freed 35,000 former AK soldiers from prisons. But, some partisans remained in service, unwilling or simply unable to rejoin the civilian community. The cursed soldier Stanisław Marchewka "Ryba" ("The Fish") was killed in 1957, and the last AK partisan, Józef Franczak "Lalek" ("Doller"), was killed in 1963 — almost two decades after the Second World War ended. In 1967, long after the abolition of Stalinist terror, Adam Boryczka, the last member of the elite British-trained Cichociemny ("The Silent and Hidden") intelligence and support group, was finally released from prison. Until the end of the People's Republic of Poland, former AK soldiers were under constant investigation by the secret police. It was only in 1989, after the fall of communism, that the convictions of AK soldiers were finally declared invalid and annulled by Polish law.

The largest operations and actions

The biggest battle in the history of the National Military Union (Narodowe Zjednoczenie Wojskowe, NZW) took place on 6–7 May 1945, in the village of Kuryłówka in southeastern Poland. In the Battle of Kuryłówka, the partisans fought against the Soviet 2nd Border Regiment of the NKVD, gaining a victory for the underground forces commanded by Major Franciszek Przysiężniak ("Marek"). The anti-communist fighters killed up to 70 Soviet agents. The NKVD troops retreated in haste, only to return to the village later and burn it to the ground in retaliation, destroying over 730 buildings.

On 21 May 1945, a heavily armed AK unit led by Colonel Edward Wasilewski, attacked and destroyed the NKVD camp located in Rembertów on the eastern outskirts of Warsaw. The Soviets had incarcerated hundreds of Polish citizens there, including members of the Armia Krajowa.

Pacification
One of the biggest anti-partisan operations by the communist authorities took place from 10 to 25 June 1945, in and around the Suwałki and Augustów regions of Poland. The "Augustów roundup" () was a joint operation of the Red Army, the Soviet NKVD, and SMERSH battalions, with assistance from Polish UB and LWP units, against Armia Krajowa resistance fighters. The operation extended into the territory of occupied Lithuania. More than 2,000 suspected anti-communist Polish fighters were captured and detained in Soviet internment camps. About 600 of the "Augustów Missing" are presumed to have died in Soviet custody, their bodies buried in unknown mass graves on the present territory of Russia. The Polish Institute of National Remembrance has declared the 1945 Augustów roundup to be "the largest crime committed by the Soviets on Polish lands after World War II."

Anti-communist resistance organizations
Among the best-known Polish underground organizations, engaged in guerrilla warfare were:
 Wolność i Niezawisłość ("Freedom and Independence", WIN) founded on September 2, 1945, active to 1952.
 Narodowe Siły Zbrojne ("National Armed Forces", NSZ) created on September 20, 1942, split in March 1944.
 Narodowe Zjednoczenie Wojskowe ("National Military Union", NZW) established in mid-to-late 1940s, active until mid-1950s.
 Konspiracyjne Wojsko Polskie ("Underground Polish Army", KWP) which existed from April 1945 to as late as 1954.
 Ruch Oporu Armii Krajowej ("Resistance of the Home Army", ROAK) formed in 1944 against UB collaborators.
 Armia Krajowa Obywatelska ("Citizens' Home Army", AKO) founded in February 1945, incorporated into Wolność i Niezawisłość in 1945.
 NIE ("NO") formed in 1943, active till 7 May 1945.
 Delegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj ("Delegature of the Polish Forces at Home") formed on May 7, 1945, dissolved on August 8, 1945.
 Wolność i Sprawiedliwość ("Freedom and Justice", WIS) founded in early 1950s.

Events
Battle of Kuryłówka
Augustów roundup ()
Attack on the NKVD Camp in Rembertów
1951 Mokotow Prison executions
Raid on Kielce Prison

Notable members
The following list (in most part), was taken from the book Not Only Katyń (Nie tylko Katyń) by Ireneusz Sewastianowicz and Stanisław Kulikowski (Białostockie Wydawn. Prasowe, 1990); Part 10: "The Augustow Missing," compiled by the Citizen Committee for Search of Suwałki Region Inhabitants who Disappeared in July 1945 (Obywatelski Komitet Poszukiwań Mieszkańców Suwalszczyzny Zaginionych w Lipcu 1945 r., in Polish).

Cpt. Józef Batory (noms de guerre, "Argus" and "Wojtek")
Lt. Stefan Bembiński ("Harnaś")
Maj. Marian Bernaciak ("Orlik" and "Dymek")
Lt. Ksawery Błasiak ("Albert")
Cpt. Franciszek Błażej ("Roman", "Bogusław", and "Tadeusz")
Lt. Stanisław Bogdanowicz ("Tom")
Lt. Col. Janusz Bokszczanin ("Sęk")
Lt. Stefan Bronowski ("Roman")
Cpt. Zdzisław Broński ("Uskok")
Cpl Izydor Bukowski ("Burza")
Lt. Karol Chmiel ("Grom" and "Zygmunt")
Lt. Kazimierz Chmielowski ("Rekin")
Lt. Col. Łukasz Ciepliński ("Pług" and "Ostrowski")
Maj./Lt. Col. of NSZ Tadeusz Danilewicz ("Kuba", "Doman", "Kossak", and "Łoziński")
Maj. Hieronim Dekutowski ("Zapora")
Cpt. Jan Karol Dubaniowski ("Salwa")
2nd Lt. Władysław Dubielak ("Myśliwy")
Brig. Gen.Emil August Fieldorf ("Nil")
Cpt. Henryk Flame ("Bartek" and "Grot")
Józef Franczak ("Lalek")
Lt. Henryk Glapiński ("Klinga")
Lt. Eugeniusz Godlewski ("Topór")
Maj. Antoni Heda ("Szary")
Lt. Col. Tadeusz Jachimek ("Ninka")
Lt. Franciszek Jerzy Jaskulski ("Zagończyk")
2nd Lt. Henryk Jóźwiak ("Groźny")
Cpt. Kazimierz Kamieński ("Huzar")
2nd Lt./Lt. Col of NSZ Stanisław Kasznica ("Wąsowski", "Przepona", and "Wąsal")
Lt. Col. Mieczysław Kawalec ("Iza", "Psarski", and "Bronek")
Lt. Jan Kempiński ("Błysk")
Lt. Stefan Kobos ("Wrzos")
Cpt. Jan Kosowski ("Ciborski")
Lt. Karol Kazimierz Kostecki ("Kostek")
Lt. Jan Kłyś ("Kłyś")
Lt. Michał Krupa ("Wierzba" and "Pulkownik")
Col./Brig. Gen. (posthumous recognition) Aleksander Krzyżanowski ("Wilk")
Cpt. Ludwik Kubik ("Alfred", "Julian", and "Lucjan")
Lt. Józef Kuraś ("Ogień")
2nd Lt. Adam Kusz ("Garbaty")
2nd Lt. Władysław Kuśmierczyk ("Longinus")
Lt. Col. Wincenty Kwieciński ("Głóg")
Maj. Adam Lazarowicz ("Klamra", "Pomorski", "Kleszcz", and "Zygmunt")
Lt. Col. Henryk Lewczuk ("Młot")
Lt. Col. Władysław Liniarski ("Mścisław", "Wuj", and "Jan")
Lt. Stanisław Łukasik ("Ryś")
Cpt. Władysław Łukasiuk ("Młot")
Lt. Col. Józef Maciołek ("Żuraw", "Kazimierz", "Marian", and "Roch")
Cpt. Jan Marawca ("Remiusz")
2nd Lt. Stanisław Marchewka ("Ryba")
Lt. Józef Marcinkowski ("Łysy")
2nd Lt. Lucjan Minkiewicz ("Wiktor")
Maj. Kazimierz Mirecki ("Zmuda")
Cpt. Lech Neyman ("Domarat")
2nd Lt. Mieczysław Niedzielski ("Men" and "Grot")
Col. Franciszek Niepokólczycki ("Szubert")
Lt. Wiktor Zacheusz Nowowiejski ("Jeż")
Lt. Col. Antoni Olechnowicz ("Lawicz", "Pohorecki")
Maj. Mieczysław Pazderski ("Szary")
Lt. Stanisław Pelczer ("Majka")
Cpt. Witold Pilecki ("Witold")
Lt. Franciszek Przysiężniak ("Ojciec Jan")
Cpt. Romuald Rajs ("Bury")
Lt. Col. Albin Rak ("Lesiński")
Lt. Józef Ramatowski ("Rawicz")
Cpt. Wacław Rejmak ("Ostoja")
Maj. Zygmunt Rogalski ("Kacper")
Lt. Jan Rogólka ("Grot")
Col. Kazimierz Rolewicz ("Kama", "Ira", "Oko", "Mila", "Olgierd", "Zbyszek", and "Solski")
Lt. Lechosław Roszkowski ("Tomasz")
Lt. Col. Józef Rybicki ("Mestwin")
Maj. Aleksander Rybnik ("Jerzy" and "Dziki")
Maj. Józef Rządzki ("Boryna")
Lt. Józef Rzepka ("Krzysztof" and "Znicz")
Col. Antoni Sanojca ("Kortum")
Lt. Col. Stanisław Sędziak ("Wiatr" and "Warta")
Danuta Siedzikówna ("Inka")
Cpt. Stanisław Sojczyński ("Warszyc")
Sgt. Władysław Stefanowski ("Grom")
Maj. Stanisław Szacoń ("Szacun")
Lt. Col. Jan Szczurek-Cergowski ("Sławbor")
Maj. Zygmunt Szendzielarz ("Łupaszko")
2nd Lt. Teodor Śmiałowski ("Szumny", "Grom", and "Cichy")
Franciszek Andrulewicz, his sister Janina and cousin Witold were also murdered; and the family had already lost at least one relative at the hands of the Nazis.
Maj. Jan Tabortowski ("Bruzda")
2nd Lt. Edward Taraszkiewicz ("Żelazny")
2nd Lt. Leon Taraszkiewicz ("Jastrząb")
Lt. Col. Walerian Tumanowicz ("Jagodziński")
2nd Lt. Edmund Tudruj ("Mundek")
2nd Lt. Eugeniusz Walewski ("Zemsta")
Cpt. Józef Zadzierski ("Wołyniak")
2nd Lt. Jerzy Zakulski ("Czarny Mecenas")
Lt. Wacław Grabowski ("Puszczyk")
Mieczysław Dziemieszkiewicz ("Rój")

Gallery

Cultural references
The "cursed soldiers" served as an inspiration for numerous films, documentaries, books, stage plays, and songs and, in Poland, they have become the ultimate symbol of patriotism and heroic fight for fatherland against all odds. Notable examples include:

Film

In 1958, Andrzej Wajda directed the film Ashes and Diamonds whose main protagonist, Maciek Chełmicki, is a member of the anti-Communist underground in Poland.
In 1990, Tadeusz Pawlicki directed a documentary film entitled Witold, which is dedicated to the life of Witold Pilecki, the author of Witold's Report, the first comprehensive intelligence report on the atrocities committed at the Auschwitz concentration camp. The film features interviews with Pilecki's wife and his children Zofia and Andrzej. It was broadcast on TVP2 and TVP Historia television channels.
In 1995, Alina Czerniakowska directed a documentary in collaboration with historian Leszek Żebrowski on the Polish anti-communist underground after the end of World War II entitled Zwycięstwo ("Victory").
In 1996, Tadeusz Pawlicki, directed the film My, ogniowe dzieci, telling the story of Józef Kuraś alias Ogień ("Fire").
In 2000, Mariusz Pietrowski, directed Łupaszko, a documentary film on the life of major Zygmunt Szendzielarz (known as Łupaszko).
In 2002, Grzegorz Królikiewicz directed a documentary film devoted to the life of Józef Kuraś entitled A potem nazwali go bandytą ("And Then They Called Him a Bandit...").
In 2004, a documentary Against the Odds: Resistance in Nazi Concentration Camps was produced. It features the story of Witold Pilecki.
In 2007, Jerzy Zalewski's film Elegia na śmierć Roja is dedicated to portraying the history of Mieczysław Dziemieszkiewicz.
In 2008, Discovery Historia channel broadcast a two-part documentary entitled In the Name of the Polish People's Republic.
In 2009, a documentary series Cursed Soldiers was produced by Discovery Historia.
In 2013, Dariusz Walusiak's film Escape from Hell. Tracing the Steps of Witold Pilecki is dedicated to the escape of Witold Pilecki, Jan Redzeja and Edward Ciesielski from the notorious Auschwitz concentration camp.
In 2014, Heroes of War: Poland was produced by Sky Vision for the History Channel UK and features the life of Witold Pilecki.
In 2015, the TVP channel produced a documentary film Inka. Zachowałam się jak trzeba directed by Arkadiusz Gołebiewski and portraying the life of Danuta Siedzikówna, a Polish medical orderly in the 4th Squadron of the 5th Wilno Brigade in Home Army who was captured, tortured and sentenced to death at the age of 17 by the communist authorities.
2016 saw the premiere of Jerzy Zalewski's film Historia Roja starring Krzysztof Zalewski as the main character.
In 2017, Konrad Łęcki directed Wyklęty ("The Cursed"), a film based on the life of anti-communist resistance member Józef Franczak.

Music
In 1996, Leszek Czajkowski's album Śpiewnik oszołoma was published which includes a number of songs dedicated to the memory of the "cursed soldiers".
In 2009, a Polish-Norwegian punk rock band De Press released an album Myśmy rebelianci ("We Are Rebels") honouring the legacy of the "cursed soldiers".
In 2011, Polish hip-hop artist Tadek released a single "Żołnierze wyklęci" to pay tribute to the members of the anti-communist underground operating after the end of the Second World War in Poland.
In 2011, a hip hop band Hemp Gru, released an album Loyalty, which features a single "Forgotten Heroes".
In 2012, Obłęd band released an album entitled 100% Obłęd featuring a single dediacted to the Cursed Soldiers.
In 2013, Polish rapper Ptaku released an album NaRa featuring a single "Żołnierze Wyklęci" with references to the lives of Józef Kuraś, Ryszard Kukliński and Rafał Gan-Ganowicz.
2013 saw the release of an album Panny wyklęte, a music project by Dariusz Malejonek in collaboration with Polish singers including Marika, Natalia Przybysz and Halina Mlynkova devoted to the contribution of female members of the anti-communist movement.
In 2013, rapper Evtis released three singles inspired by the history of the Cursed Soldiers: "The Volunteer" (referring to Witold Pilecki), "Indomitable Heroes" (referring to Stanisław Sojczyński, Łukasz Ciepliński and Hieronim Dekutowski), and "You Acted Right" (referring to Danuta Siedzikówna).
In 2013, Forteca band released an album Kto dziś upomni się o pamięć.
In 2014, Joined band released a single "Zabrali mi ciebie Tato" ("They Took You Away From Me, Dad") devoted to the murdered soldiers of the anti-communist underground.
In 2014, Swedish heavy metal band Sabaton paid tribute to Witold Pilecki in the single "Inmate 4859".
In 2015, Horytnica band released a single "Rój", referring to Mieczysław Dziemieszkiewicz, one of the Cursed Soldiers.

Theatre
On 15 May 2006, a stage production Śmierć rotmistrza Pileckiego ("The Death of Captain Pilecki") directed by Ryszard Bugajski and starring Marek Probosz had its premiere.
On 22 January 2007, a play Inka. 1946 produced by Teatr Telewizji and diredcted by Natalia Koryncka-Gruz had its premiere in Poland.

Books
In 2016, Polish historian Lech Kowalski published a monumental 1,100 page book Korpus Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego a Żołnierze Wyklęci (English: "Internal Security Corps and the Cursed Soldiers"), which focuses on the fight undertaken by the communist state authorities against Poland's anti-Communist underground in the years 1944–1956.
In 2019, Jack Fairweather published a book The Volunteer: One Man's Mission to Lead an Underground Army Inside Auschwitz and Stop the Holocaust whose subject is Witold Pilecki. His book won the Costa Book Awards – Book of the Year.

See also
Anti-Soviet partisans
Leśni
Forlorn hope
Forest Brothers
Japanese holdout

References

Further reading
Jerzy Ślaski, Żołnierze wyklęci, Warszawa, Oficyna Wydawnicza Rytm, 1996
Grzegorz Wąsowski and Leszek Żebrowski, eds., Żołnierze wyklęci: Antykomunistyczne podziemie zbrojne po 1944 roku, Warszawa, Oficyna Wydawnicza Volumen and Liga Republikańska, 1999
Kazimierz Krajewski et al., Żołnierze wyklęci: Antykomunistyczne podziemie zbrojne po 1944 r., Oficyna Wydawnicza Volumen and Liga Republikańska, 2002
Tomasz Łabuszewski, Białostocki Okręg AK- AKO : VII 1944-VIII 1945 (Warszawa: Oficzna Wydawnicza Volumen and Dom Wydawniczy Bellona, 1997)
Zrzeszenie "Wolność i Niezawisłość" w dokumentach, 6 vols. (Wrocław: Zarząd Główny WiN, 1997–2001)
Zygmunt Woźniczka, Zrzeszenie "Wolność i Niezawisłość" 1945-1952 (Warszawa: Instytut Prasy i Wydawnictw "Novum" – "Semex", 1992)
Marek Latyński, Nie paść na kolana: Szkice o opozycji lat czterdziestych (London: Polonia Book Fund Ltd., 1985)

External links
 Short description of an exhibition on Łupaszko
 The Doomed soldiers - Polish Underground Soldiers 1944-1963 - The Untold Story
 WiN | Freedom and Independence - Historical Brief.
 NSZ | National Armed Forces - Historical Brief.
 Broader description
 ŻOŁNIERZE WYKLĘCI NA KRESACH POŁUDNIOWO-WSCHODNICH PO 1944 R.
 Antykomunistyczne Podziemie Zbrojne po 1944 roku
  Żołnierze wyklęci

Polish People's Republic
Anti-communism in Poland
Guerrilla organizations
Communism-based civil wars
Stalinism in Poland
Paramilitary organisations based in Poland
Anti-communist organizations

Cursed soldiers


Kerry Jerome "Rusty" Tillman (born August 29, 1960) is a former right-handed professional baseball player. He played in 1982 for the New York Mets, in 1986 for the Oakland Athletics and in 1988 for the San Francisco Giants).

Career
Tillman was drafted by the Mets in the 10th round of the 1979 amateur draft out of Florida Community College at Jacksonville, and he began his professional career that year. He played for the Grays Harbor Loggers and Little Falls Mets, hitting a combined .297 with 23 stolen bases in 66 games. In 1980, he played for the Lynchburg Mets, hitting .316 with 11 triples and 43 stolen bases. With the Jackson Mets in 1981, he hit .278 with 29 stolen bases.

He began the 1982 season with the Tidewater Tides, hitting .322 with 26 stolen bases in 108 games. On June 6, he made his big league debut, appearing as a pinch-hitter for pitcher Craig Swan. He singled in his first big league at-bat. In 13 at-bats in 1982, he hit .154 with a double and a stolen base.

Back in the minors in 1983, Tillman played for the Tides, hitting .255 with 23 stolen bases in 126 games. He began the 1984 season with the Tides, hitting only .219 in 44 games with them. He ended up in the Chicago White Sox organization, and with the Denver Zephyrs he hit .306. Overall, Tillman hit .273 with 12 home runs in 119 games in 1984.

He ended up back in the Mets organization following the 1984 season, and on March 31, 1985, he was traded to the San Diego Padres for Rick Lancellotti. He played for the Las Vegas Stars in 1985, hitting .337 with 12 home runs and 18 stolen bases in 115 games.

Tillman started 1986 in the Padres organization, playing for the Stars, but on April 18, 1986, he was traded to the Athletics for Bob Stoddard and minor leaguer Kevin Russ. He played for the Tacoma Tigers in the A's organization after being traded. He also played 22 games in the big leagues, hitting .256 in 39 at-bats. On September 23, he hit the first home run of his career – off of Hall of Fame pitcher Steve Carlton. In the minors that year, he hit .314 in 74 games.

On March 20, 1987, the Athletics released Tillman, and on April 26 the San Francisco Giants signed him. He played for the Phoenix Firebirds that year, hitting .316 with 10 home runs in 94 games. In 1988, he played for the Firebirds again, hitting .295 with 12 home runs. With the Giants in 1988, he appeared in four games, collecting one hit in four at-bats. His lone hit of 1988 – and the final hit of his career – was a home run, a three-run shot off of Cincinnati Reds pitcher Tim Birtsas. On June 18, he played in his final big league game, and on October 15, he was granted free-agency by the Giants.

He stuck around in the minors until 1989. That year, he played in the Giants, Houston Astros and Texas Rangers farm systems, hitting a combined .279 with six home runs for the Firebirds, Tucson Toros and Tulsa Drillers.

Overall, he hit .232 with two home runs and three stolen bases in 38 big league games. In the minors, he hit .297 with 82 home runs and 209 stolen bases in 1,146 games.

References

External links

Pura Pelota

1960 births
Living people
Acereros de Monclova players
African-American baseball managers
African-American baseball players
American expatriate baseball players in Mexico
Baseball players from Jacksonville, Florida
Charros de Jalisco players
Denver Zephyrs players
FSC Jacksonville Blue Wave baseball players
Grays Harbor Loggers players
Jackson Mets players
Las Vegas Stars (baseball) players
Little Falls Mets players
Lynchburg Mets players
Major League Baseball first basemen
Major League Baseball outfielders
Mexican League baseball managers
New York Mets players
Oakland Athletics players
Olmecas de Tabasco players
Phoenix Firebirds players
Rojos del Águila de Veracruz players
San Francisco Giants players
Sultanes de Monterrey players
Tacoma Tigers players
Tidewater Tides players
Tigres de Aragua players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Tucson Toros players
Tulsa Drillers players
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople

Rusty Tillman (baseball)


Warren Johansson (February 21, 1934 – June 10, 1994) was a philologist, author and a leading American gay scholar during his lifetime. He was founding member of the Scholarship Committee of the Gay Academic Union.

Biography
Warren Johansson was born in 1934, in Philadelphia, with the name Philip Joseph Wallfield.  His father was Jewish (and is said to have been killed with a shotgun by robbers in his pharmacy).  At some point in his later career, Philip changed his name to the Nordic-sounding Warren Johansson, to express his disapproval of Jewish homophobia.

His first venture into gay scholarship was to co-author Greek Love with the numismatist and later convicted child sex offender Walter H. Breen, who wrote under the name J. Z. Eglinton.

He abandoned formal academic studies (at Columbia University) but did not obtain a Ph.D.  Johansson made himself a master of all the modern European languages (excepting only Basque, Hungarian, and Finnish) as well as of Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Aramaic.
He used his linguistic abilities to read deeply and spent much of his life in research libraries, particularly at Columbia, where his extensive knowledge of obscure Slavonic dialects made him a valuable informal resource to scholars in the Russian department.  William Armstrong Percy cites just one example of Johansson's surprising discoveries: while the British Wolfenden Committee was sitting, Johannson unearthed the by-now-famous citation from Sigmund Freud, to the effect that homosexuals were not sick, and sent it off.  Later, he provided expert testimony to legislative bodies in several countries including Luxembourg, Moldova and Argentina.

Johansson apparently ran through a couple of bequests in record time: at one point he was driving a Mercedes in California, but most of the time he was penniless, and slept in public places such as libraries while keeping his few possessions in storage lockers.  As Percy points out, Johansson came to see himself as a model of the Talmudic scholar, and thought it only fair that he should receive room and board in exchange for providing what amounted to an advanced post-graduate education in gay studies, gratis.

Author and historian William Armstrong Percy has called Johansson "simply the most extraordinary person I have ever known."

References

Works
 Wayne Dynes and Warren Johansson (editors), Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, Taylor & Francis 1990.
 Warren Johansson and William Percy, Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence, Haworth Gay and Lesbian Studies, Routledge 1994.
 Warren Johansson, Ex parte Themis: The Historical Guilt of the Christian Church, Gay Academic Union, New York 1981. Also in: Warren Johansson, Wayne Dynes, John Lauritsen, Homosexuality, Intolerance, and Christianity: A Critical Examination of John Boswell's Work, Pink Triangle Trust Library, 1985 & 2003.
 Warren Johansson, "London's Medieval Sodomites." The Cabirion and Gay Books Bulletin, no. 10 (Winter-Spring 1984), pp. 6–9 and 34.
 Warren Johansson, "Whosoever shall say to his brother, 'Racha'", The Cabirion and Gay Books Bulletin, no. 10 (Winter-Spring 1984), pp. 2–4. Also in: Wayne Dynes & Stephen Donaldson (editors), Studies in Homosexuality, vol. XII: Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy, Garland, New York & London 1992, pp. 212–214.
 Warren Johansson and William Percy, Homosexuality in the Middle Ages (online pdf).

 Literature
 William A. Percy, "Warren Johansson," in Vern Bullough, Before Stonewall'' (Harrington Park Press, 2002).

External links
 GLBTQ

1934 births
1994 deaths
American philologists
Jewish American writers
Writers from Philadelphia
American LGBT writers
American LGBT rights activists
LGBT studies academics
LGBT people from Pennsylvania
20th-century philologists
20th-century American Jews
20th-century American LGBT people

Warren Johansson


María de Toledo or María Álvarez de Toledo (1490 – 11 May 1549) was a Spanish noblewoman and Vicereine and regent of the Spanish Colony of Santo Domingo on Hispaniola, present day Dominican Republic. She was the most powerful and highest-ranking noble in America in the 16th century and a defender of the liberties of the indigenous people in the Hispaniola.

Life
Maria de Toledo was granddaughter of García Álvarez de Toledo, 1st Duke of Alba and niece of Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 2nd Duke of Alba, cousin of King Ferdinand II of Aragon "The Catholic".

She was married to Diego Columbus, the son of Christopher Columbus. Her spouse was viceroy of the Spanish colony of Hispaniola. They resided in Alcazar de Colon in Santo Domingo.

During the absence of her husband from 1514 until 1520, she was left in charge of the colony along with Jerónimo de Agüero. In 1523, when Diego was recalled a second time, she was named virreina. She was then expecting their eighth child.

Issue
 María Colón de Toledo (c. 1510 –), married to Sancho Folch de Cardona, 1st Marquess of Guadalest
 Luis Colón, 1st Duke of Veragua
 Cristóbal Colón de Toledo (c. 1510 – 1571), married firstly to María Leonor Lerma de Zuazo, without issue; married secondly to Ana de Pravia, and had one son (Diego Colon y Pravia [c. 1551 - Jan 27, 1578]) and one daughter (Francisca Colon y Pravia, [c. 1552 - April 1616]; and married thirdly to María Magadalena de Guzmán y Anaya, and had:
 Diego Colón de Toledo, father of Diego the 4th Admiral of the Indies.
 Francisca Colón de Toledo y Pravia (c. 1550 – April, 1616), married Diego de Ortegón (c. 1550 –), and had four children: Guiomar de Ortegon y Colon [d. 1621]; Jacoba de Oretgon y Colon [d. 1618]; Ana de Ortegon y Colon; and Josefa de Ortegon y Colon
 María Colón de Toledo y Guzmán (c. 1550 –), married to Luis de Avila, and had:
 Cristóbal de Avila y Colón (1579 –), unmarried and without issue
 Luis de Avila y Colón (1582-1633), married Maria de Rojas-Guzman Grajeda, without issue; married secondly to Francisca de Sandoval and had one son Cristobal
 Juan Colón Dávila (-1622)
Bernardino Dávila y Colón (-1633)
 Maria de Avila y Colón (1592-), married Alonso de Guzman Grajeda and had one daughter (Mayor de Grajeda y Avila  [c.1611-]
 Juana Colón de Toledo (died c. 1592), married her cousin Luis de La Cueva y Toledo; their only child was María Colón de la Cueva (c. 1548-c.1600) who claimed the duchy of Veragua and died in New Spain (México).
 Isabel Colón de Toledo (c. 1515 –), married Dom Jorge Alberto de Portugal y Melo (1470 –), 1st Count of Gelves (who married secondly; his 1st marriage to Dona Guiomar de Ataíde remained childless), son of Dom Álvaro de Bragança, Lord of Tentúgal, Póvoa, Buarcos and Cadaval and Chancellor-Major of the Realm of Portugal. Their grandson, D. Nuno Alvares Pereira Colón y Portugal, Duke of Veragua and Admiral of the Indies became regent of the Kingdom of Portugal from 1621 until his death.

References

 Arranz Márquez, Luis (2006). Cristóbal Colón: misterio y grandeza. Madrid: Marcial Pons, Serie Memorias y biografías. .
 Maura, Juan Francisco (2000). «María de Toledo: perfil biográfico de la primera virreina de las Américas». Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos, Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana (Madrid) (601-602). OCLC 819862735.
 Maura, Juan Francisco; Maura, Hernando (2005). Españolas de ultramar en la historia y en la literatura. Valencia: Universitat de València, Colección Parnaseo, 1. .
 Vega, Carlos B. (2003). Conquistadoras: mujeres heroicas de la conquista de América. Jefferson, NC (EEUU): McFarland & Co.. .

1490 births
1549 deaths
16th-century people from the Colony of Santo Domingo
Dominican Republic people of Spanish descent
16th-century women rulers

María de Toledo


USS Tunny (SSN-682), a Sturgeon-class attack submarine, was the second submarine of the United States Navy to be named for the tunny, any of several oceanic fishes resembling the tuna.

Construction and commissioning
The contract forTunnys construction was awarded on 25 June 1968 and her keel was laid down on 22 May 1970 at Pascagoula, Mississippi, by the Ingalls Shipbuilding Division of Litton Industries. She was launched on 10 June 1972, sponsored by Mrs. Lola Aiken, and commissioned on 26 January 1974 at her home port, Charleston, South Carolina.

Service history

1974
Tunny remained at Charleston until March 1974, when she moved to Groton, Connecticut, for two weeks of in-port training at the submarine base. Between March and June 1974, she conducted shakedown training in the West Indies and along the United States East Coast. From June to August 1974, she conducted operations out of Charleston before heading north to the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard at Kittery, Maine, where she began post-shakedown overhaul on 12 August 1974. She completed repairs on 5 October 1974 and headed back to Charleston, where she resumed normal training operations.

1975
In February 1975, Tunny began preparations for her first deployment to the Mediterranean Sea. She stood out of Charleston on 6 March 1975 and headed across the Atlantic Ocean. She came under operational control of the United States Sixth Fleet on 16 March 1975. During the first part of her tour in the Mediterranean, she operated with Task Force 60, conducting antisubmarine warfare exercises with the other ships of the task force. Following refit and upkeep alongside a submarine tender in June and early July 1975 at Santo Stefano, Sardinia, Italy, Tunny rejoined the Sixth Fleet as a unit of Task Force 69 and resumed antisubmarine warfare training. After participating in a major Sixth Fleet exercise late in July and early in August 1975, she departed the Mediterranean for home. She changed operational control from the Sixth Fleet to the United States Atlantic Fleet Submarine Force on 17 August 1975 and arrived in Charleston, concluding her deployment, on 29 August 1975. After a routine post-deployment standdown in September and repairs and alterations Charleston Naval Shipyard at Charleston in October and November, she resumed operations—mostly attack submarine training—out of Charleston on 20 November 1975.

1976
Attack submarine training along the South Carolina and Florida coasts occupied her time during January 1976. February 1976 brought inspections and examinations and, in March 1976, she participated in two special operations designed to help develop and evaluate submarine tactics. In May 1976, Tunny began preparations for her second tour of duty with the Sixth Fleet but did not embark upon that assignment for over two months. In the meantime, she conducted an exercise in naval mine warfare in June 1976. Finally, on 26 July 1976, she departed Charleston on her way to the Mediterranean. Following a visit to Lisbon, Portugal, she joined the Sixth Fleet on 11 August 1976. After a month of antisubmarine warfare training, highlighted by Exercise "National Week XXI", she put into Santo Stefano for a month of upkeep alongside submarine tender . In October 1976, she returned to sea for antisubmarine warfare training operations punctuated periodically with a visit to Naples, Italy, or upkeep at Santo Stefano. That routine continued until 11 December 1976, when she departed Santo Stefano to return to the United States. Arriving in Charleston on 22 December 1976, she commenced a combination of Christmas holiday leave and upkeep and a routine post-deployment standdown.

1977
January 1977 found Tunny undergoing an extensive upkeep following her Mediterranean deployment. She then resumed operations off the U.S. East Coast which extended through the spring and summer months. In mid-September 1977, she commenced a two-month period of repairs and alterations at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia, which was concluded in late November, followed by a short sea trial period. Following refresher training at the Submarine School at Naval Submarine Base New London at New London, Connecticut, Tunny returned to Charleston.

1978
Tunny spent January and part of February 1978 preparing for a North Atlantic Ocean deployment which commenced in late February and concluded in late April. Tunny made stops in Dunoon, Scotland and Portland, England.

In July 1978, Tunnys home port was changed to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. She transited the Panama Canal and briefly crossed the equator on her voyage to Pearl Harbor, where she arrived on 19 August 1978. Tunny was assigned to Submarine Squadron 1, and devoted the remainder of 1978 to operations in the Hawaiian Islands in preparation for a 1979 deployment to the Western Pacific.

1979–1997
Tunny departed for Western Pacific at the beginning of 1979. She visited various ports during the deployment, including Amphoe Sattahip in Thailand, and Orote Point in Guam. She also entered the Indian Ocean, where she visited the U.S. naval base at Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean Territory. She was a guest of the Royal Australian Navy when she visited , the administrative center of the Royal Australian Navy's main naval base on the west coast of Australia, located on Garden Island just off the coast of Western Australia near the city of Perth, and Tunnys crew participated in the ANZAC Day Parade in April 1979. Tunny completed her six-month deployment to the Western Pacific when she returned to Pearl Harbor in June 1979.

Decommissioning and disposal
Tunny was deactivated while still in commission on 1 October 1997, and was both decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 13 March 1998. Her scrapping via the U.S. Navys Nuclear-Powered Ship and Submarine Recycling Program began on 1 October 1997 and was completed on 27 October 1998.

References

NavSource Online: Submarine Photo Archive Tunny (SSN-682)

External links

 USS Tunny Veterans website (http://www.usstunny.org)

Ships built in Pascagoula, Mississippi
Sturgeon-class submarines
Cold War submarines of the United States
Nuclear submarines of the United States Navy
1972 ships

USS Tunny (SSN-682)


Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, also known as the Green Book, is a compilation of terms and symbols widely used in the field of physical chemistry. It also includes a table of physical constants, tables listing the properties of elementary particles, chemical elements, and nuclides, and information about conversion factors that are commonly used in physical chemistry. The Green Book is published by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and is based on published, citeable sources. Information in the Green Book is synthesized from recommendations made by IUPAC, the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), including recommendations listed in the IUPAP Red Book Symbols, Units, Nomenclature and Fundamental Constants in Physics and in the ISO 31 standards.

History, list of editions, and translations to non-English languages

The third edition of the Green Book () was first published by IUPAC in 2007.  A second printing of the third edition was released in 2008; this printing made several minor revisions to the 2007 text.  A third printing of the third edition was released in 2011.  The text of the third printing is identical to that of the second printing.

A Japanese translation of the third edition of the Green Book () was published in 2009.  A French translation of the third edition of the Green Book () was published in 2012. A Portuguese translation (Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese) of the third edition of the Green Book () was published in 2018, with updated values of the physical constants and atomic weights; it is referred to as the "Livro Verde".

A concise four-page summary of the most important material in the Green Book was published in the July–August 2011 issue of Chemistry International, the IUPAC news magazine.

The second edition of the Green Book () was first published in 1993.  It was reprinted in 1995, 1996, and 1998.

The Green Book is a direct successor of the Manual of Symbols and Terminology for Physicochemical Quantities and Units, originally prepared for publication on behalf of IUPAC's Physical Chemistry Division by M. L. McGlashen in 1969.  A full history of the Green Book's various editions is provided in the historical introduction to the third edition.

The second edition and the third edition (second printing) of the Green Book have both been made available online as PDF files; the PDF version of the third edition is fully searchable. The four-page concise summary is also available online as a PDF file. External Links (below).

Handy content
In addition to the obvious data on quantities, units and symbols, the compilation contains some less obvious but very useful information on related topics.

Quantity calculus
Unit conversion is a notorious source of errors. Many people apply individual rules, e.g. "to obtain length in centimeters multiply the length in inches by 2.54", but combining several such conversions is laborious and prone to mistakes. A better way is to use the factor-label method, which is closely related to dimensional analysis, and quantity calculus explained in sections 1.1 and 7.1 of this compilation.

Scientific typography
Section 1.3 explains the rules for writing scientific symbols and names, for example, where to use capital letters or italics, and where their use is incorrect. The typographical rules are extensive, including even such detail as whether "20°C" or "20 °C" is the correct form.

Atomic units
Section 3.8 introduces atomic units and gives a table of atomic units of various physical quantities and the conversion factor to the SI units. Section 7.3(v) gives a concise but clear tutorial on practical use of atomic units, in particular how to understand equations "written in atomic units".

See also
 IUPAC Color Books
 Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry (the Blue Book)
 Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (the Red Book)
 Compendium of Chemical Terminology (the Gold Book)
 Compendium of Analytical Nomenclature (the Orange Book)

External links
 Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, IUPAC Green Book, third edition ( E.R. Cohen, T. Cvitas, J.G. Frey, B. Holmström, K. Kuchitsu, R. Marquardt, I. Mills, F. Pavese, M. Quack, J. Stohner, H.L. Strauss, M. Takami, and A.J. Thor, Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, IUPAC Green Book, Third Edition, Second Printing, IUPAC & RSC Publishing, Cambridge (2008))
 Concise four-page summary of the Green Books third edition
 Second edition of the Green Book

Chemistry reference works
Chemical nomenclature
Units of chemical measurement


Native Americans or Native American usually refers to Native Americans in the United States.

Related terms and peoples include:

Ethnic groups
 Indigenous peoples of the Americas, the pre-Columbian peoples of North, South, and Central America and their descendants
 Indigenous peoples in Canada
 First Nations in Canada, Canadian Indigenous peoples who are neither Inuit nor Métis
 Inuit, Indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic and subarctic regions of Greenland, Labrador, Quebec, Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, and Alaska.
 Métis in Canada, specific cultural communities who trace their descent to early communities consisting of both First Nations people and European settlers
 Indigenous peoples of Costa Rica
 Indigenous peoples of Mexico
 Indigenous peoples of South America
 Indigenous peoples in Argentina
 Indigenous peoples in Bolivia
 Indigenous peoples in Brazil
 Indigenous peoples in Chile
 Indigenous peoples in Colombia
 Indigenous peoples in Ecuador
 Indigenous peoples in Peru
 Indigenous peoples in Suriname
 Indigenous peoples in Venezuela

Arts and culture
 Native American (album), a 1992 album by Tony Rice
 The Native Americans, a 1994 American documentary series
 "Native Americans", a 1972 composition by Ornette Coleman from Skies of America
 "Native American", a 1987 song by Little Steven from Freedom – No Compromise
 Native American, or Sons of Beaches, a 1995 album by The Bellamy Brothers

History
 History of Native Americans in the United States

Politics
 The "Native American" movement, a term for Nativism (politics)
 Native American Party, or Know Nothing, a "nativist" American political party of the 1850s ("nativists" as US-born descendants of settlers, not Indigenous peoples)

Religions
 Native American religions

See also
 Native American identity in the United States
 Native American languages, languages spoken by Indigenous peoples of the Americas
 Native American name controversy
 Native American recognition in the United States
 American Indians (disambiguation)
 First Nations (disambiguation)
 Indian (disambiguation)

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Native Americans


The Black Hornet Nano is a military micro unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) developed by Prox Dynamics AS of Norway, and in use by the armed forces of Norway, the United States, France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Algeria, Ireland, Australia, the Netherlands, Poland, New Zealand, India, Turkey, South Africa, Ukraine and Morocco.

Prox Dynamics AS was bought by Teledyne FLIR in 2016 for 134 million dollars and currently manufacturers the Black Hornet. Teledyne FLIR specializes in the manufacture of IR cameras, like the one used on the Black Hornet.

Technical
The drone measures around 16 × 2.5 cm (6 × 1 in) and provides troops on the ground with local situational awareness. It is small enough to fit in one hand and weighs 18 g (0.7 oz), with its battery.

The UAV is equipped with a camera which transmits video and still images to the operator. It was developed as part of a £20 million contract for 160 units with Marlborough Communications Ltd.

An operator can be trained to operate the Black Hornet in 20 minutes. It has three cameras; one looking forward, one straight down, and one pointing down at 45 degrees. A Black Hornet package contains two helicopters and, since a 90% charge is reached in 20–25 minutes, the same as its hovering time, when one needs to be recharged the other is ready to fly. Top speed is 21 km/h (13 mph).

In October 2014, Prox Dynamics unveiled a version of the PD-100 Black Hornet with night vision capabilities, with long-wave infrared and day video sensors that can transmit video or high-resolution still images via a digital data-link with a 1.6 km (1 mile) range.

Over 3,000 Black Hornets had been delivered as of 2014.

Black Recon
The larger Black Recon model was revealed in 2023 after five years of development. Based on the Black Hornet, it is designed to be launched from armored vehicles to give crews better situational awareness. The Black Recon Vehicle Reconnaissance System (VRS) is an  box bolted onto the chassis of a ground vehicle that contains three UAVs. They can be launched and controlled entirely from the safety of the vehicle's interior and are recovered autonomously. Each Black Recon weighs  and can travel  from its launch vehicle with an endurance of 45 minutes. Deliveries are expected to be able to begin in 2025.

Operational history

The aircraft was being used by soldiers from the UK's Brigade Reconnaissance Force at Camp Bastion in Afghanistan. Operation Herrick personnel in Afghanistan deployed the Black Hornet from the front line to fly into enemy territory to take video and still images before returning to the operator. It was withdrawn from service in 2016/2017.

Designed to blend in with the muddy grey walls in Afghanistan, and capable of flying for 20 minutes on quiet electric motors, it has been used to look around corners or over walls and other obstacles to identify any hidden dangers and enemy positions. The Black Hornet is connected to the operator with a digital data-link and GPS. Images are displayed on a small handheld terminal, which can be used by the operator to control the UAV.

The Black Hornet is launched from a small box that can be strapped to a utility belt, which also stores transmitted data, since the drone itself does not store any data, an advantage if captured.  Operators can steer the UAV or set waypoints for it to fly itself.

In October 2013, the British Army had 324 Hornet Nanos in service.

In July 2014, the United States Army Natick Soldier Research, Development and Engineering Center (NSRDEC) selected the PD-100 Black Hornet after looking at commercially available small-scale UAVs as part of the Cargo Pocket Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (CP-ISR) program.  It concluded that further refinements were needed for a U.S. Army role including reconfiguring the data-link, giving it night vision, and improving navigational capability. The Black Hornet was tested with U.S. troops at an event in early March 2015, and Prox Dynamics delivered a PD-100 with upgraded features for special forces testing in June 2015.

By 2015, the Black Hornet had deployed with U.S. Marine Corps special operations teams. Although the Army was seeking a mini-drone for use by individual squads through the Soldier Borne Sensors (SBS) program, the individually handmade Black Hornet was seen as too expensive for large-scale deployment, with a unit costing as much as US$195,000.

In 2018, the US Army bought 60 Hornet 3, and in 2022 another 300.  The US Army bought an undisclosed number of Hornet 3 in 2023, some of them intended for Ukraine.

Users
By September 2016, the PD-100 Black Hornet was in use by the militaries of 19 NATO-allied countries.
: National Security Guard
: Australian Army
: Danish Armed Forces has bought the new Black Hornet PRS
: German Army
: Hellenic Army
: 21 Grup Gerak Khas of Malaysian Army
: Dutch Army
: New Zealand Special Air Service
: 104th Operational Maneuvers Regiment
: Indonesian Army
: Norwegian Armed Forces
: British Army, retired in 2016 after Operation Herrick. Reintroduced through the Defence Equipment and Support programme in April 2019 for research and development into a capability gap identified by British Army HQ for brigade-level unmanned reconnaissance.
: United States Marine Corps, Lee County Sheriff's Office, United States Army Cavalry Scouts
: French Armed Forces (including  the Special Operations Command)
: Spanish Armed Forces
: South African Police Service
: Turkish Land Forces, Special Forces Command (Turkey) & Gendarmerie General Command
: Armed Forces of Ukraine
: Several captured from Ukrainian saboteurs in the Belgorod region.

References

{{|url=http://m.flugrevue.de/militaerluftfahrt/uav/heer-fuehrt-minidrohne-black-hornet-ein/711188|title:German Army use black hornet}}
Unmanned helicopters
Norwegian military aircraft
Post–Cold War military equipment of the United Kingdom
Unmanned military aircraft of the United Kingdom
Miniature helicopters

Black Hornet Nano


The Cleveland Quartet was a string quartet founded in 1969 by violinist Donald Weilerstein, at the time an instructor at the Cleveland Institute of Music, whose director Victor Babin had secured funding for an in-resident quartet (the institute's first) to be headed by Weilerstein. Weilerstein formed the group that summer at the Marlboro Music School and Festival with violinist Peter Salaff,  violist Martha Strongin Katz, and cellist Paul Katz. The group was initially called the "New Cleveland Quartet." In 1971, the group left the Cleveland Institute because of disagreements over teaching loads and took up residency at the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York; they dropped the word "New" from their name at this time. In 1976, the quartet made their final change of residency and moved to the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York.

The quartet had three personnel changes: violist Atar Arad replaced Strongin Katz in 1980; violist James Dunham then replaced Arad in 1987; and William Preucil replaced Weilerstein as first violin in 1989. The quartet disbanded in 1995. Preucil became concertmaster of the Cleveland Orchestra, a position he held until 2018, when he was fired for sexual misconduct.  Paul Katz, Martha Strongin Katz and Donald Weilerstein are on the faculty of the New England Conservatory of Music, and Weilerstein performs in a trio with his wife Vivian Hornik Weilerstein and his daughter, cellist Alisa Weilerstein; Peter Salaff was on the faculty of the Cleveland Institute of Music through the summer of 2018; Atar Arad teaches at the Jacobs School of Music at Indiana University; and James Dunham teaches at the Shepherd School of Music at Rice University. The quartet recorded prodigiously for RCA Red Seal and the Cleveland-based Telarc label.

References

External links
Official site (Adobe Flash)
The Cleveland String Quartet records, 1965-2001 Music Division, The New York Public Library.

Grammy Award winners
Musical groups established in 1969
American string quartets
Musical groups disestablished in 1995
Musical groups from Cleveland

Cleveland Quartet


Orlando East Public Library is the oldest library in Soweto in South Africa.

History
The library is said to have started in two iron huts in 1948 that lacked both electricity and seating.

The library was housed in the first building in Soweto designed to be a public library in 1950. It was built on Mooki Street by people from the local Vocational Training Centre and impressively it was larger than other public library then available in the main city of Johannesburg. It was probably the most important library for Africans in South Africa at the time. In 2012 the libraries in Soweto said they had nearly fifty thousand members.

The Library's collection was given a substantial gift in 1963 when Madie Hall Xuma, the American born widow of Dr. A.B.Xuma who had been a President of the African National Congress during the 1940s, gave his book collection to the library. Her husband had died in 1962 and she moved back to the United States. Madie Hall Xuma had also been active in South African politics becoming  president of the national council of the South African Young Women's Christian Association.

Today
In 2000 the library was updated and extended. In 2013 a blue plaque was installed to recognise the library's importance as the oldest public library.

The library has good signage and still has spacious accommodation. It attracts students to study with its "fairly full" shelves and a good reference section that includes textbooks. Upstairs there is a media centre and an area reserved for children's books. The library offered free internet access in 2013.

References

 Interface

1948 establishments in South Africa
Soweto
Libraries established in 1948
Libraries in Johannesburg
Public libraries
Heritage Buildings in Johannesburg

Orlando East Public Library


Matrix metalloproteinase-25 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MMP25 gene.

Proteins of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family are involved in the breakdown of extracellular matrix in normal physiological processes, such as embryonic development, reproduction, and tissue remodeling, as well as in disease processes, such as arthritis and metastasis. Most MMPs are secreted as inactive proproteins which are activated when cleaved by extracellular proteinases. However, the protein encoded by this gene is a member of the membrane-type MMP (MT-MMP) subfamily, attached to the plasma membrane via a glycosylphosphatidyl inositol anchor. In response to bacterial infection or inflammation, the encoded protein is thought to inactivate alpha-1 proteinase inhibitor, a major tissue protectant against proteolytic enzymes released by activated neutrophils, facilitating the transendothelial migration of neutrophils to inflammatory sites. The encoded protein may also play a role in tumor invasion and metastasis through activation of MMP2. The gene has previously been referred to as MMP20 but has been renamed MMP25.

References

Further reading

External links
 The MEROPS online database for peptidases and their inhibitors: M10.024

Matrix metalloproteinases

MMP25


The Facebook Aquila is an experimental solar-powered drone developed by Facebook for use as an atmospheric satellite, intended to act as relay stations for providing internet access to remote areas.

The Aquila first flew on 28 June 2016 with a second aircraft successfully flying in 2017. Internal development of the Aquila aircraft was stopped in June 2018.

Development

Aquila was developed by Facebook's Connectivity Lab. The prototype airframe design and construction was led by Ascenta, a Somerset, England-based company acquired by Facebook in 2014.
Several scale models of the Aquila were built and flown to prove the concept prior to the full-scale prototype being built.

Following construction at Ascenta's factory in Bridgwater, England, the Aquila prototype was disassembled and shipped to Arizona, where it was first flown on 28 June 2016. The 96-minute flight was considered successful. However, during landing, the aircraft touched down short of the intended landing zone and was damaged; the National Transportation Safety Board conducted an investigation into the accident, as the drone suffered a structural failure just before touching down. The aircraft was designed such that a production version would be able to support continuous flight in the stratosphere for 90 days.

Following the crash, the prototype Aquila was modified with spoilers, provision for feathering the propellers, and refinement of the exterior surface of the aircraft; the second flight took place on 22 May 2017, with the one-hour, 46-minute flight being considered successful.
In November 2017, a partnership with Airbus was announced to further development of the Aquila and the "high altitude platform station broadband connectivity system" (HAPS) project.
The same month, it was announced that Aquila would be displayed at the Victoria and Albert Museum's spring "The Future Starts here" exhibition in 2018.

In June 2018, as aerospace manufacturers start designing and building HAPS, Facebook decided to stop its program to work with partners like Airbus on HAPS connectivity and their technologies like flight control and high-density batteries. In 2018, it was reported that Facebook and Airbus have scheduled test flights in Australia using the latter's Zephyr drone technology. Zephyr share the same blueprint with Aquila as it also uses solar power.

Design
The drone has a wingspan roughly the same as a Boeing 737, but weighs only . Aquila is of flying wing configuration, the upper surface of the wing being covered in solar cells to power the aircraft's four electric motors; batteries, composing half the aircraft's weight, provide power storage for night flight. Aquila is claimed to use the same amount of power as three blow dryers. While the prototype used a launch trolley to become airborne, production Aquilas are intended to be launched using helium balloons, carrying the aircraft to their operational height and releasing them; landings would take place on grassy surfaces.

Aquila is intended to fly at altitudes of up to  during the day, dropping to  at night, with an endurance of up to three months, providing Internet service to a -radius area below its flight path; if communications spectrum was assigned for the project, it would allow the 66% of Earth's surface that has poor or no internet access to be connected. The technology, which used high-bandwidth lasers to beam the Internet to remote locations, was intended to provide access to 4 billion users, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

Specifications

See also

References

External links
"The technology behind Aquila", Facebook.com

Solar-powered aircraft
Flying wings
Four-engined tractor aircraft
2010s British experimental aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 2016
Facebook
Ascenta aircraft

Facebook Aquila


One Mysterious Night is a 1944 crime film, the seventh in a Columbia Pictures series of fourteen starring Chester Morris as reformed crook Boston Blackie. It was preceded by The Chance of a Lifetime and followed by Boston Blackie Booked on Suspicion. Blackie is called upon to recover a stolen diamond.

The film is noteworthy as the directorial debut of Budd Boetticher, though he is credited under his real name, Oscar Boetticher, Jr. He had been working at Columbia as an assistant director on such films as The Desperadoes and Cover Girl. He had been called in to help complete films but called this his "first real picture".

He helmed four more B-pictures before leaving the studio in 1945.

Plot
The Blue Star of the Nile is stolen from an exhibition guarded by the police under Inspector Farraday. Under intense pressure from the police commissioner to recover the diamond, Farraday tells reporters, among them Dorothy Anderson, that he is sure Boston Blackie is responsible. However, he does not really believe that; it is only a ruse. When Blackie walks into Farraday's office, the inspector is so desperate he deputizes his old nemesis to get the jewel back, using his own methods.

Blackie is certain the robbers had inside help. He finds a wad of gum under some of the furniture at the exhibit hall; it still bears the impression of the diamond. Blackie targets George Daley, the assistant manager, especially after he learns that George had recently bought a large amount of gum. He gets sidetracked when Anderson recognizes him and has him arrested, but Farraday soon lets him out the back way.

Daley's sister Eileen finds out that her brother is involved with thieves Paul Martens and Matt Healy, and that he later hid the diamond in her purse. She persuades him to give the jewel to Blackie. However, his former partners show up just after he meets Blackie. In the ensuing scuffle, they kill Daley, and kidnap Blackie and his sidekick, "the Runt". The crooks figure that, with Blackie missing and unable to clear himself, he will be suspected of both the robbery and the murder. Indeed, Farraday begins to believe just that.

Blackie tells his captors that what they have is a fake that he intended to switch with the real diamond, supposedly stored in a vault. Uncertain, they take it to fence Jumbo Madigan to get his expert opinion. Blackie manages to free himself and the Runt, and persuades Madigan to go along with his story. However, when the police surround the place, Martens and Healy realize they have been double crossed, and shoot Madigan, though not fatally. When the cops break in, they do not spot the pair, posing as mannequins.

The crooks later return to their apartment. Blackie offers to steal the real diamond. They agree to his arrangement, but keep the Runt as a hostage. Blackie goes to Farraday, who surrounds the building with policemen. Then Blackie and Farraday enter the apartment to negotiate the Runt's release. Martens and Healy make a break for it, but are caught.

Cast
 Chester Morris as Boston Blackie
 Janis Carter as Dorothy Anderson
 William Wright as Paul Martens
 Richard Lane as Inspector Farraday
 George E. Stone as The Runt
 Robert Williams as Matt Healy
 Mark Roberts as George Daley (as Robert E. Scott)
 Dorothy Malone as Eileen Daley (uncredited)
 Joseph Crehan as Jumbo Madigan (uncredited)
 Harrison Greene as Arthur Manleder (uncredited)

References

External links

 Review of film at Variety

American crime films
American black-and-white films
Films directed by Budd Boetticher
1944 crime films
1944 directorial debut films
1944 films
Columbia Pictures films
Films scored by Paul Sawtell
Boston Blackie films
1940s American films

One Mysterious Night


Sir Douglas Chalmers Hague  (20 October 1926 – 1 February 2015) was a British economist who was a close associate of Margaret Thatcher.

Biography

Hague was born in Bramley, Leeds, to Laurence Hague, a municipal clerk and Marion (née Chalmers). The family moved to Birmingham when he was three years old. Hague was educated at Moseley Grammar School (now Moseley School) and King Edward's School, Birmingham, and took a bachelor of commerce degree at Birmingham University. He was assistant lecturer, then lecturer, then Reader in Political Economy at University College, London, 1947–57.

He moved to be the Newton Chambers Professor of Economics at the University of Sheffield at the young age of 30, 1957–63.

Whilst at Sheffield, Hague also spent a year as visiting professor at Duke University, North Carolina, from 1960-61. During this time, Sheffield University granted him limited funds to visit American Business Schools with a view to setting up a similar operation in Sheffield. This led to one or two summer schools for business people in Sheffield.

Subsequently, Hague became Professor of Applied Economics at the University of Manchester 1963–65, and Professor of Managerial Economics at the Manchester Business School which he helped to set up, 1965–81. During this time in the mid 1970s, Hague was also a member and later deputy chairman of the Prices Commission from 1973 to 1978.

With Norman Strauss he set up a strategic leadership programme at Templeton College, Oxford, and taught there from 1982 to 1997. At the same time he was chairman or director of various companies.

Later, Hague became passionate about entrepreneurship and spin off businesses from universities and classed himself as a 'knowledge angel'. He wrote a book about this with Christine Holmes. He was associated with the Entrepreneurship Centre at the Saïd Business School in Oxford from its inception in 2002.

One of Hague's first books, A Textbook of Economic Theory, brought him to the attention of Margaret Thatcher (later Baroness Thatcher) and he joined the No. 10 Policy Unit under Sir John Hoskyns. He was chairman of the Economic and Social Research Council 1983–87. He sometimes wrote speeches for Thatcher and remained a friend of her and her husband Denis.

Hague was appointed CBE in 1978 and knighted in the 1982 New Year Honours "for Political and Public Service."

Publications
 Stonier, Alfred W. & Hague, Douglas C. (1953) A Textbook of Economic Theory Longmans
 Hague, D. C. (1969) Managerial Economics. Longmans ISBN B0006BZBAW
 Hague, D. C. (1971) Pricing in Business. George Allen & Unwin
 Hague, Douglas Chalmers (1993) Transforming the Dinosaurs: How Organisations Learn
 Hague, Douglas, & Holmes, Christine (2006) Oxford Entrepreneurs CIHE

References

  Oxford University Press, 2015

1926 births
2015 deaths
People educated at Moseley School
People educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
British economists
Academics of University College London
Academics of the University of Sheffield
Academics of the Victoria University of Manchester
Knights Bachelor
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire

Douglas Hague


Andrew Bridge is a New York Times Bestselling author, American lawyer, and advocate for children and families living in poverty. He became the executive director of the California-based Alliance for Children's Rights in 1997. Bridge spent 12 years in the foster care system as a child in Los Angeles County, and achieved a scholarship to Wesleyan University, became a Fulbright Scholar, Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Resident, Stueben Schultz Gesellschaft Scholar, Lyndon B. Johnson Scholar, and graduate from Harvard Law School.

While in foster care as a child, Bridge was confined to the MacLaren Children's Center in Los Angeles County, a facility criticized for its harsh treatment of children and ultimately closed pursuant to a judicial settlement in Katie A. v. Los Angeles County. As an adult, Bridge represented children at the facility.

Under Bridge's leadership, the Alliance led the establishment of National Adoption Day in the United States.  Bridge led both a successful constitutional challenge to local judicial practices that forbid foster youth and their families from speaking publicly about their experiences and treatment by foster care officials, as well as a successful challenge to halt prevailing child welfare practices that allowed foster care officials to place children in foster homes, group homes, and other residential settings without later visiting foster children to ensure their ongoing well-being and safety.

Later Bridge joined the Broad Foundation, which under his tenure established the framework for Los Angeles County's $3.4 billion federal foster care financial waiver, allowing federal funding to support children in their own families rather than requiring children to be removed from their families and taken into state care in order to receive assistance.  He is noted for his defense of families whose children are involved in state systems of care and criticism of the use of congregate care facilities in child welfare systems.

Bridge began his legal career at the Democratic law firm of Manatt, Phelps & Phillips, LLP practicing in the corporate mergers and acquisitions department of the firm.  He left Manatt, Phelps joining the Judge David L. Bazelon Center in Washington, D.C., to litigate the constitutional and federal statutory rights of children in Alabama's public psychiatric hospitals and mental health facilities under federal class actions in Wyatt v. Poundstone and R.C. v. Hornsby. Following the Alliance for Children's Rights and his work at the Broad Foundation, Bridge went on to serve as Senior Innovation Adviser to the State of Illinois and its child welfare system. His childhood memoir Hope's Boy was named a New York Times Bestseller, Publishers Weekly Bestseller, Los Angeles Times Discoveries Book, People Magazine Critic's Choice, and Washington Post Book of the Year.  He has contributed to The Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, and other publications.

In addition, Bridge chaired the 1999-2000 Los Angeles County Blue Ribbon Task Force on the safety of children in the nation's largest child welfare system, which recommended a fundamental overhaul of the treatment, placement, and care of children. He has served as a University of California Regents' Lecturer. In 2015, he was appointed Commissioner to the Los Angeles County Probation Commission. He is a founding Director of The New Village Charter School for Girls, a charter school for pregnant and parenting teens and California's first charter school solely for girls.

External links
 Hope's Boy official web site

References

Living people
Lawyers from Los Angeles
Children's rights activists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Harvard Law School alumni
Wesleyan University alumni

Andrew Bridge (lawyer)


Christ Church USA is a non-denominational Christian congregation composed of people from diverse racial, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds. It is a community minded congregation with a global sensitivity. Christ Church exists to "Unite People to God and People to People". The Lord continues to be a source of transformation for every person who comes through its doors. It is the hope of Christ Church that spiritual needs will be met, and that physical and emotional concerns are addressed as God is sought through praise and worship.

Christ Church came into existence in June 1986 when Pastors David and Marlinda Ireland joined hearts with six other adults who were committed to seeing the gospel of Jesus Christ heal broken lives. Throughout the years, as the congregation began to thrive, it became necessary to rent facilities to accommodate the growth. The rental of temporary facilities throughout New Jersey contributed greatly to the dramatic growth as well as to the diversity of the congregation.

In 1994, the congregation reached approximately 500 members and after nearly eight years of renting, it became necessary to find a permanent home for the ministry. In October of the same year, Christ Church acquired and began restoration on the present facility, a 900-seat Romanesque Cathedral in Montclair, New Jersey.

Pastors David and Marlinda's vision for the region increased over time. This led to the purchase of a 107-acre campus in Rockaway, New Jersey which was renovated and opened for worship in 2009; complementing the metropolitan cathedral in Montclair. It is also the location of the administrative offices. To keep pace with the demands of the ministry, the church developed a full-time staff with responsibilities ranging from accounting and finance, community development, media production, counseling, administration of children's ministries to pastoral care. This broad-based staff, along with over 1,200 volunteer leaders, and hundreds of other volunteers affords the opportunity to provide a myriad of services to the community and church family.

Today, the church family has several thousand families, representing approximately 70 different nationalities. To accommodate the needs and schedules of the congregation, Christ Church offers a number of weekend worship services along with various classes and small group activities for weekly bible-based instruction.

External links
 Christ Church USA

Christian denominations founded in the United States

Christ Church USA


The 1970 Colombia earthquake occurred in Colombia on July 31.

Details and aftermath
The shock killed one person and injured several others. Because it was a deep-focus earthquake, shaking occurred over an extensive area, including San Juan, Bogotá, Caracas, Buenos Aires, and São Paulo; it was felt as far north as Mexico City. Its depth forestalled more serious casualties, and there were no aftershocks.

The depth of the earthquake prompted scientists in South America to install seismometer networks focused on long-period earthquakes. Until the 1994 Bolivia earthquake, the 1970 Colombia earthquake was famous among seismologists as the largest deep earthquake.

Analysis
A study completed by Dziewonski and Gilbert (1974) determined that the earthquake had featured isotropic compression, or an increase in density near the rupture point similar to an implosion; this was released to great controversy. They also claimed that the compression had been initiated 80 seconds before the actual earthquake's short-period shaking. Many studies have reached differing conclusions including a dearth of isotropic movement, and many scientists feel that resolution created errors in Dziewonski and Gilbert's findings. In 1997, Russakoff, Ekstrom, and Tromp reassessed their findings utilizing more advanced equipment that factored in shear wave splitting and coupling (the measure of how tightly locked two sides of a fault or plate are) and confirmed that there was very little isotropic compression.

See also
List of earthquakes in 1970
List of earthquakes in Colombia

References

Bibliography

External links

1970 earthquakes
1970 in science
1970 in Colombia
1970
July 1970 events in South America

1970 Colombia earthquake


The New Orleans mayoral election of 1958, held in February, resulted in the re-election of deLesseps Morrison to his fourth consecutive term as mayor of New Orleans.    Morrison was able to defeat the Regular Democratic Organization candidate - former State Representative Claude W. Duke - soundly, winning 90,802 of the 157,320 votes cast in the election compared to Duke's 43,231 votes.  State Representative Fred C. Donaldson ran a distant third with 18,999 votes; no runoff was required.   Morrison had proven able to consistently defeat the once powerful RDO machine, but since mayors were only allowed two consecutive terms under the new city charter of 1954, this would be Morrison's last term in office.

Sources
 Haas, Edward F.  DeLesseps S. Morrison and the Image of Reform: New Orleans Politics, 1946-1961.  LSU Press, 1974.
 Parker, Joseph B.  The Morrison Era:  Reform Politics in New Orleans.  Pelican, 1974.

Mayoral elections in New Orleans
New Orleans
1958 Louisiana elections

1958 New Orleans mayoral election


Coverture is a long-standing legal practice in the United States that comes from the English common law. Coverture holds that a man and a woman are a single legal entity—that of the husband. A married woman loses her own legal obligations and rights, and becomes "covered" by her husband. Traditionally a woman took her husband's last name as a symbol of this identity. A female child was covered by her father's identity. When she married that coverage transferred to her husband. Under this system a woman did not legally exist and did not own anything.

In the mid-19th century, with the rise of feminism, coverture began to be criticized as being unfair to women. Various laws began to be weakened and eventually done away with. But parts of coverture laws, mainly having to do with the husband being responsible for his wife's debts, lasted into the 1960s in some parts of the U.S.

References

Legal terms

Coverture


The National Left (Hebrew: השמאל הלאומי - Ha'Smol Ha'Leumi) is an Israeli political movement striving to express the classic values of Zionism and the Israeli Left in face of the dwindling electoral success of left-wing parties in recent decades: "...Our great and Zionist national Left, who wants, just like Binyamin Ze'ev Herzl, David Ben-Gurion and Yitzhak Rabin, a Jewish democratic state with recognizable and defendable borders, an exemplary, model society, and social justice" (translated from The National Left site).

The movement was created on the foundation of "The National Left, a first draft", a 2009 manifesto by playwright Shmuel Hasfari and attorney Eldad Yaniv describing the state of the Israeli Left and the potential dangers of continued Israeli presence in the West Bank territories, and attempting to restore the Left's influence on Israel's political agenda by promoting a pragmatic agenda based on the values of the Left, an Israeli pullout from the West Bank and an end to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and turning the Israeli society into a "model society". The book was criticized for its harsh denouncement of settlers and the settlement enterprise, and its distribution by bookstore chain Tzomet Sfarim was stopped, following pressure by right-wing sources.

On May 15, 2010, the movement held a rally in Jerusalem under the banner "Zionists do not settle". The demonstration was organized by The National Left, Peace Now and other left-wing organizations.

References

External links
 The National Left official site
 The National Left blog
 "The National Left, a first draft"

Non-governmental organizations involved in the Israeli–Palestinian peace process
Zionist organizations
Political organizations based in Israel
Left-wing politics in Israel

The National Left


Roger Smart (born 25 March 1943 in Swindon) is an English retired football inside forward.

He made his way from schoolboy teams to work up through the youth ranks at Swindon Town before making his début in the reserves in April 1960.

He signed as a professional for the club in May 1960 but did not play first team football until March 1962. He scored his first goal for Swindon in a match with Queens Park Rangers on 1 September.

Smart was relegated to the reserves for much of the 1962–63 season, before being recalled for the final three games of the season. He scored in each of these games and assured Swindon's promotion to Division 2 for the first time in their history.

In 1965 he became the first nominated substitute to be used in a Swindon Town game.

Over the next few seasons, Smart became a first-team regular, moving into a role that allowed fellow striker Don Rogers to excel. Smart's best form came in 1968/69, when he scored fifteen goals. Six of these came in the League Cup campaign, including the opening goal in the 1969 League Cup Final, when he benefited from a mistake in the Arsenal defence before bundling the ball into the net. He created Swindon's second and third goals, both scored by Rogers. He was also a part of the 1970 Anglo-Italian Cup and Anglo-Italian League Cup winning sides.

In the twilight of his Town career, Smart moved back into a wing-half or midfield position. He left Swindon at the end of the 1972/73 season, and joined Charlton Athletic on a free transfer.

He returned to the Swindon area a year later, with spells at Bath City and Trowbridge Town before retiring. As of 1999 he was landlord of the Plough Inn in Old Town, Swindon.

Roger lives with his partner Lin, on the southern outskirts of Swindon.

References

External links

 Player Profile at Swindon-Town-FC.co.uk

Living people
1943 births
Men's association football forwards
Charlton Athletic F.C. players
Swindon Town F.C. players
English men's footballers
Footballers from Swindon

Roger Smart


Werdenberg is a historical village in the canton of St. Gallen. It lies just outside Buchs. Today, between 55 and 60 people live there. There are about 40 houses, some of them only used for holidays. Werdenberg has a castle, which is often visited by tourists.

There was a county of Werdenberg. It included the city itself, the villages  of Grabs, Buchs, Sevelen and the right to judge in Wartau. The first count of Werdenberg died in 1182. In 1402, his successors let the county to the Count of Montfort-Tettnang. In 1485, it was sold to the City of Lucerne. In 1517, it was sold to the Canton of Glarus. During Napoleon's reign in Switzerland (called the Helvetic Republic, 1798-1803), Werdenberg was made part of the Canton of Linth (which also included the modern-day Canton of Glarus, and parts of the Canton of Schwyz). After the end of the reign, Werdenberg was made part of the canton of St. Gallen.

Villages in St. Gallen

Werdenberg


The Diduni or Dunii were a Germanic tribe mentioned only by the 2nd century geographer Claudius Ptolemy. They apparently dwelt near the Asciburgius mountains which correspond to the north central parts of Sudetes in western-southern Poland.
According to Ptolemy, they were part of the larger tribal group, the Lugii.  The Diduni are may be connected to the town of Iugidunum, which Ptolemy places in the same area as he places the tribe.

See also
List of ancient Germanic peoples

References

Early Germanic peoples
Lugii

Diduni


Carl Terrell Mitchell (born November 27, 1973), better known by his stage name Twista (formerly Tung Twista), is an American rapper. He is best known for his chopper style of rapping and for once holding the title of fastest English-speaking rapper in the world according to Guinness World Records in 1992, being able to pronounce 598 syllables in 55 seconds.

In 1997, after appearing on Do or Die's hit single "Po Pimp", produced by the Legendary Traxster, Twista signed with Big Beat and Atlantic Records, where he released his third album Adrenaline Rush and formed the group Speedknot Mobstaz, in 1998. His 2004 album Kamikaze topped the U.S. Billboard 200, after the success of the Billboard Hot 100 number-one single "Slow Jamz" (with Kanye West and Jamie Foxx).

Early life
Carl Terrell Mitchell was born on November 27, 1973, and grew up in the K-Town area of the West Garfield Park neighborhood on the West Side of Chicago, Illinois, and began rapping at the age of 12.

Career
In 1992, Mitchell released his first album called Runnin' Off at da Mouth under the name Tung Twista.

His second album, titled Resurrection, was set to be released in 1994, but due to problems with his record label at the time Atlantic Records and marketing issues involving fellow Chicago rapper Common's album of the same name, the album was only released in the city of Chicago and thus got little national attention.

In 1996, he teamed with Chicago producer the Legendary Traxster and Cwal's Do or Die on the track "Po Pimp" produced by the Legendary Traxster, which became a hit single. This led to a Cwal's label deal with Atlantic Records, which released Adrenaline Rush in 1997. Twista had by then dropped the "Tung" from his stage name.  Adrenaline Rush became Twista's first charting album, as it peaked at #77 on the Billboard 200. The album also spawned a Billboard Hot 100 hit in "Get It Wet" produced by the Legendary Traxster, which peaked at #96.

In 1998, Twista teamed with other Chicago area rappers to form Speedknot Mobstaz. They released their first album, Mobstability, produced entirely by the Legendary Traxster, in 1998. Twista then joined label Legit Ballin', which released two compilation albums: Legit Ballin''' in 1999 and Legit Ballin' Vol. 2: Street Scriptures in 2001. The label later released Respect the Game, Vol. 3 in 2002 and Volume 4: Tha Truth in 2006. In 2000, Twista collaborated with Ruff Ryders and Drag-On on the album Ruff Ryders: Ryde or Die Vol. 2, on the track "Twisted Heat". He also collaborated with Memphis Bleek on "Is That Your Chick (The Lost Verses)" on the album The Understanding.

Beginning in 2002, Twista began recording his album Kamikaze with rappers like Kanye West and Ludacris. Kamikaze was released in 2004 and debuted at the top spot of the US Billboard 200 album chart. Its first single "Slow Jamz" (also featured on West's debut album The College Dropout), featured West and Jamie Foxx and became a number-one hit in the US. Other singles included "Overnight Celebrity" and "So Sexy" (featuring R. Kelly); the album sold around two million copies. The remix of the song "Jook Gal" by Elephant Man featured Twista and the YoungBloodZ. Kamikaze and its singles gave Twista a new level of success and rose his profile significantly within the rap community.
Twista's album The Day After was released in 2005. It featured the hit singles "Girl Tonite" (featuring Trey Songz), "Hit the Floor" (featuring Pitbull), and "So Lonely" (featuring Mariah Carey). His next album, Adrenaline Rush 2007, was released in 2007. Also in 2007, Pitbull released the song "Candyman" featuring Twista off the album The Boatlift. Its singles were "Give It Up" (featuring Pharrell) and "Creep Fast" (featuring T-Pain). This album sold poorly compared to Twista's earlier albums. Twista appeared on the single "Hell No (Leave Home)" from Monica's 2006 album The Makings of Me. In 2008, Twista launched a new record label called Get Money Gang Entertainment and the album Category F5 with the hit, "Wetter". In 2009, Twista appeared on the single "Legendary" with fellow Chicago rappers AK-47 of Do or Die and Saurus and Bones.

Twista released his eighth solo album entitled, The Perfect Storm on November 9, 2010. The first single from the album, "Make a Movie" produced by the Legendary Traxster, featuring Chris Brown, was released on August 24, 2010. Two buzz singles were released, "I Do" produced by Traxster and "Heat" produced by fellow Chicago producers No I.D. and the Legendary Traxster. The album features artists such as Waka Flocka Flame, Raekwon, Tia London, Diddy, Ray J, and others. Production on the album is mainly by the Legendary Traxster along with Streetrunner, the Kray Twinz, Tight Mike, and No I.D., Twista discussed his new documentary, directed by Vlad Yudin and the making of The Perfect Storm, including his belief that artists need to do more than just record songs and that they need to become more involved with the community around them.

A documentary film, Mr. Immortality: The Life and Times of Twista, was released in November 2010.

In January 2013, Twista was featured in a remix of Lil Reese's song "Traffic". As of 2013, Twista was working on his ninth studio album entitled Dark Horse. He also was rumored to be in the works of signing a record deal with Kanye West's record label GOOD Music, although in an interview with HipHopDX, Twista denied the rumor. The first single was "Throwin' My Money" (featuring R. Kelly) and produced by Chris Millionaire. Twista appeared on the song "Jewels n' Drugs" by Lady Gaga on the album Artpop. "It's Yours" (featuring Tia London) was released on May 6, 2014, as the second single of the aforementioned album. It was serviced to urban contemporary radio in the United States on May 27, 2014, by Capitol Records. Dark Horse was released on August 12, 2014.

Twista is featured on the song "Gossip" from When Music Worlds Collide released in May 2015.

Twista appeared on ABC's To Tell the Truth in 2017.

Twista released the mixtape Summer 96 in 2019, this includes the song "Home Invasion" which features Do or Die and produced by Hearon Tracks.

In 2019, Twista appeared as a judge on the rap competition series Rhythm + Flow on Netflix.

 Personal life
Twista was married from 1991 to 1999 and had a daughter with his ex-wife.

During the holiday season in 2010, Twista and his team Get Money Gang worked together with Chicago Food Bank's Producemobile program to feed hungry people in the community.

Twista is a gun enthusiast, has an Illinois Concealed Carry License, and is a US Concealed Carry Association (USCCA) and National Rifle Association of America (NRA) certified instructor. He teaches a course on concealed carry in Chicago, aiming to using education to combat gun violence.

 Discography

 Studio albums
 Runnin' Off at da Mouth (1992)
 Resurrection (1994)
 Adrenaline Rush (1997)
 Kamikaze (2004)
 The Day After (2005)
 Adrenaline Rush 2007 (2007)
 Category F5 (2009)
 The Perfect Storm (2010)
 Dark Horse (2014)
 Crook County (2017)
 Summer 96 (2019)

 Collaboration albums
 Mobstability (with Speedknot Mobstaz) (1998)
 Mobstability II: Nation Business (with Speedknot Mobstaz) (2008)
 Withdrawal'' (with Do or Die) (2015)

References

External links

1973 births
Living people
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
African-American record producers
American hip hop record producers
Atlantic Records artists
Big Beat Records (American record label) artists
Rappers from Chicago
Zoo Entertainment (record label) artists
21st-century American rappers
Record producers from Illinois
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people

Twista


Fulladu East was one of the four districts of the Upper River Division of the Gambia. The Upper River Division is now the Basse Local Government Area, and the former Fulladu East District is now divided into a Basse Fulladu East District, a Jimara District and a Tumana District.

Fulladu East contains a number of towns including Allunhari, Allunhari Abdou, Badarri, Bakadaji, Basse Nding, Basse Santa Su, Berefet, Besang Dugu, Bohum Kunda, Busura Alieu, Chamoi, Chamoi Bunda, Demba Kunda and Kulari. Its population in the 2013 census was 49,990.

References

Upper River Division
Districts of the Gambia

Fulladu East