The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans. It spans an area of approximately  and is known as one of the coldest of oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea. It has also been described as an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean. It is also seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean.

The Arctic Ocean includes the North Pole region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere and extends south to about 60°N. The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by Eurasia and North America, and the borders follow topographic features: the Bering Strait on the Pacific side and the Greenland Scotland Ridge on the Atlantic side. It is mostly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter. The Arctic Ocean's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low evaporation, heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%. The US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years, showing a continuous decline in sea ice extent. In September 2012, the Arctic ice extent reached a new record minimum. Compared to the average extent (1979–2000), the sea ice had diminished by 49%.

History

North America
Human habitation in the North American polar region goes back at least 17,000–50,000 years, during the Wisconsin glaciation. At this time, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwestern North America (Alaska), leading to the Settlement of the Americas.

Early Paleo-Eskimo groups included the Pre-Dorset (); the Saqqaq culture of Greenland (2500–800 BC); the Independence I and Independence II cultures of northeastern Canada and Greenland ( and ); and the Groswater of Labrador and Nunavik. The Dorset culture spread across Arctic North America between 500 BC and AD 1500. The Dorset were the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture in the Arctic before the migration east from present-day Alaska of the Thule, the ancestors of the modern Inuit.

The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 BC to AD 1600, arising around the Bering Strait and later encompassing almost the entire Arctic region of North America. The Thule people were the ancestors of the Inuit, who now live in Alaska, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, northern Quebec, Labrador and Greenland.

Europe
For much of European history, the north polar regions remained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural. Pytheas of Massilia recorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BC, to a land he called "Eschate Thule", where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither walk nor sail". He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as "growlers" or "bergy bits"; his "Thule" was probably Norway, though the Faroe Islands or Shetland have also been suggested.

Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in Johannes Ruysch's map of 1507, or Gerardus Mercator's map of 1595) or water (as with Martin Waldseemüller's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage, the Northern Sea Route or the Northwest Passage, to "Cathay" (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as Johann Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts.

The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the Arctic Circle in that era added only small islands, such as Novaya Zemlya (11th century) and Spitzbergen (1596), though, since these were often surrounded by pack-ice, their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only fragments of known coastline sketched in.

19th century
This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an "Open Polar Sea" was persistent. John Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of the British Admiralty, promoted exploration of the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this.

In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorers Elisha Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes both claimed to have seen part of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea (1883). Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar ice cap is quite thick and persists year-round.

Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in the Fram Expedition from 1893 to 1896.

20th century
The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard, with air support. The first nautical transit of the north pole was made in 1958 by the submarine USS Nautilus, and the first surface nautical transit occurred in 1977 by the icebreaker NS Arktika.

Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometres by ice floes.

In World War II, the European region of the Arctic Ocean was heavily contested: the Allied commitment to resupply the Soviet Union via its northern ports was opposed by German naval and air forces.

Since 1954 commercial airlines have flown over the Arctic Ocean (see Polar route).

Geography

Size
The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about , almost the size of Antarctica. The coastline is  long. It is the only ocean smaller than Russia, which has a land area of .

Surrounding land and exclusive economic zones
The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia (Russia and Norway), North America (Canada and the U.S. state of Alaska), Greenland, and Iceland.

Note: Some parts of the areas listed in the table are located in the Atlantic Ocean. Other consists of Gulfs, Straits, Channels and other parts without specific names and excludes Exclusive Economic Zones.

Subareas and connections

The Arctic Ocean is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and Labrador Sea. (The Iceland Sea is sometimes considered part of the Greenland Sea, and sometimes separate.)

The largest seas in the Arctic Ocean:

 Barents Sea—1.4 million km2
 Hudson Bay—1.23 million km2 (sometimes not included)
 Greenland Sea—1.205 million km2
 East Siberian Sea—987,000 km2
 Kara Sea—926,000 km2
 Laptev Sea—662,000 km2
 Chukchi Sea—620,000 km2
 Beaufort Sea—476,000 km2
 Amundsen Gulf—93,000 km2
 White Sea—90,000 km2
 Pechora Sea—81,263 km2
 Lincoln Sea—64,000 km2
 Prince Gustaf Adolf Sea
 Queen Victoria Sea
 Wandel Sea

Different authorities put various marginal seas in either the Arctic Ocean or the Atlantic Ocean, including: Hudson Bay,
Baffin Bay, the Norwegian Sea, and Hudson Strait.

Islands

The main islands and archipelagos in the Arctic Ocean are, from the prime meridian west:
 Jan Mayen (Norway)
 Iceland
 Greenland
 Arctic Archipelago (Canada, includes the Queen Elizabeth Islands and Baffin Island)
 Wrangel Island (Russia)
 New Siberian Islands (Russia)
 Severnaya Zemlya (Russia)
 Novaya Zemlya (Russia, includes Severny Island and Yuzhny Island)
 Franz Josef Land (Russia)
 Svalbard (Norway, including Bear Island)

Ports
There are several ports and harbours on the Arctic Ocean.

 Alaska
 Utqiaġvik (Barrow)
 Prudhoe Bay
 Canada
 Manitoba: Churchill (Port of Churchill)
 Nunavut: Nanisivik (Nanisivik Naval Facility)
 Tuktoyaktuk and Inuvik in the Northwest Territories
 Greenland: Nuuk (Nuuk Port and Harbour)
 Norway
 Mainland: Kirkenes and Vardø
 Svalbard: Longyearbyen
 Iceland
 Akureyri
 Russia
 Barents Sea: Murmansk
 White Sea: Arkhangelsk
 Kara Sea: Labytnangi, Salekhard, Dudinka, Igarka and Dikson
 Laptev Sea: Tiksi
 East Siberian Sea: Pevek

Arctic shelves

The ocean's Arctic shelf comprises a number of continental shelves, including the Canadian Arctic shelf, underlying the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and the Russian continental shelf, which is sometimes called the "Arctic Shelf" because it is larger. The Russian continental shelf consists of three separate, smaller shelves: the Barents Shelf, Chukchi Sea Shelf and Siberian Shelf. Of these three, the Siberian Shelf is the largest such shelf in the world; it holds large oil and gas reserves. The Chukchi shelf forms the border between Russian and the United States as stated in the USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement. The whole area is subject to international territorial claims.

The Chukchi Plateau extends from the Chukchi Sea Shelf.

Underwater features
An underwater ridge, the Lomonosov Ridge, divides the deep sea North Polar Basin into two oceanic basins: the Eurasian Basin, which is  deep, and the Amerasian Basin (sometimes called the North American or Hyperborean Basin), which is about  deep. The bathymetry of the ocean bottom is marked by fault block ridges, abyssal plains, ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is . The deepest point is Molloy Hole in the Fram Strait, at about .

The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the Canada Basin (between Beaufort Shelf of North America and the Alpha Ridge), Makarov Basin (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), Amundsen Basin (between Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges), and Nansen Basin (between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes the Franz Josef Land).

Geology

The crystalline basement rocks of mountains around the Arctic Ocean were recrystallized or formed during the Ellesmerian orogeny, the regional phase of the larger Caledonian orogeny in the Paleozoic Era. Regional subsidence in the Jurassic and Triassic periods led to significant sediment deposition, creating many of the reservoirs for current day oil and gas deposits. During the Cretaceous period, the Canadian Basin opened, and tectonic activity due to the assembly of Alaska caused hydrocarbons to migrate toward what is now Prudhoe Bay. At the same time, sediments shed off the rising Canadian Rockies built out the large Mackenzie Delta.

The rifting apart of the supercontinent Pangea, beginning in the Triassic period, opened the early Atlantic Ocean. Rifting then extended northward, opening the Arctic Ocean as mafic oceanic crust material erupted out of a branch of Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Amerasia Basin may have opened first, with the Chukchi Borderland moved along to the northeast by transform faults. Additional spreading helped to create the "triple-junction" of the Alpha-Mendeleev Ridge in the Late Cretaceous epoch.

Throughout the Cenozoic Era, the subduction of the Pacific plate, the collision of India with Eurasia, and the continued opening of the North Atlantic created new hydrocarbon traps. The seafloor began spreading from the Gakkel Ridge in the Paleocene Epoch and the Eocene Epoch, causing the Lomonosov Ridge to move farther from land and subside.

Because of sea ice and remote conditions, the geology of the Arctic Ocean is still poorly explored. The Arctic Coring Expedition drilling shed some light on the Lomonosov Ridge, which appears to be continental crust separated from the Barents-Kara Shelf in the Paleocene and then starved of sediment. It may contain up to 10 billion barrels of oil. The Gakkel Ridge rift is also poorly understand and may extend into the Laptev Sea.

Oceanography

Water flow

In large parts of the Arctic Ocean, the top layer (about ) is of lower salinity and lower temperature than the rest. It remains relatively stable because the salinity effect on density is bigger than the temperature effect. It is fed by the freshwater input of the big Siberian and Canadian rivers (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Mackenzie), the water of which quasi floats on the saltier, denser, deeper ocean water. Between this lower salinity layer and the bulk of the ocean lies the so-called halocline, in which both salinity and temperature rise with increasing depth.

Because of its relative isolation from other oceans, the Arctic Ocean has a uniquely complex system of water flow. It resembles some hydrological features of the Mediterranean Sea, referring to its deep waters having only limited communication through the Fram Strait with the Atlantic Basin, "where the circulation is dominated by thermohaline forcing". The Arctic Ocean has a total volume of 18.07 × 106 km3, equal to about 1.3% of the World Ocean.  Mean surface circulation is predominantly cyclonic on the Eurasian side and anticyclonic in the Canadian Basin.

Water enters from both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water masses. The deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins around  depth. It is composed of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea Deep Water. Water in the shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8 Sverdrups and reaches the Chukchi Sea. During the winter, cold Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1–4 cm/s. This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline.

This water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms, and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below. Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate.

In the depth range of  is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. Inflow from the North Atlantic Current enters through the Fram Strait, cooling and sinking to form the deepest layer of the halocline, where it circles the Arctic Basin counter-clockwise. This is the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean, equalling about 10 times that of the Pacific inflow, and it creates the Arctic Ocean Boundary Current. It flows slowly, at about 0.02 m/s. Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water but is much warmer (up to ). In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water and remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density. When water reaches the basin, it is pushed by strong winds into a large circular current called the Beaufort Gyre. Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers.

The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found in the depth range of . The most important feature of this water mass is a section referred to as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the Siberian Shelf. As it is entrained, it cools and acts a heat shield for the surface layer on account of weak mixing between layers.

However, over the past couple of decades a combination of the warming and the shoaling of Atlantic water are leading to the increasing influence of Atlantic water heat in melting sea ice in the eastern Arctic. The most recent estimates, for 2016–2018, indicate the oceanic heat flux to the surface has now overtaken the atmospheric flux in the eastern Eurasian Basin. Over the same period the weakening halocline stratification has coincided with increasing upper ocean currents thought to be associated with declining sea ice, indicate increasing mixing in this region. In contrast direct measurements of mixing in the western Arctic indicate the Atlantic water heat remains isolated at intermediate depths even under the 'perfect storm' conditions of the Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012.

Waters originating in the Pacific and Atlantic both exit through the Fram Strait between Greenland and Svalbard Island, which is about  deep and  wide. This outflow is about 9 Sv. The width of the Fram Strait is what allows for both inflow and outflow on the Atlantic side of the Arctic Ocean. Because of this, it is influenced by the Coriolis force, which concentrates outflow to the East Greenland Current on the western side and inflow to the Norwegian Current on the eastern side. Pacific water also exits along the west coast of Greenland and the Hudson Strait (1–2 Sv), providing nutrients to the Canadian Archipelago.

As noted, the process of ice formation and movement is a key driver in Arctic Ocean circulation and the formation of water masses. With this dependence, the Arctic Ocean experiences variations due to seasonal changes in sea ice cover. Sea ice movement is the result of wind forcing, which is related to a number of meteorological conditions that the Arctic experiences throughout the year. For example, the Beaufort High—an extension of the Siberian High system—is a pressure system that drives the anticyclonic motion of the Beaufort Gyre. During the summer, this area of high pressure is pushed out closer to its Siberian and Canadian sides. In addition, there is a sea level pressure (SLP) ridge over Greenland that drives strong northerly winds through the Fram Strait, facilitating ice export. In the summer, the SLP contrast is smaller, producing weaker winds. A final example of seasonal pressure system movement is the low pressure system that exists over the Nordic and Barents Seas. It is an extension of the Icelandic Low, which creates cyclonic ocean circulation in this area. The low shifts to centre over the North Pole in the summer. These variations in the Arctic all contribute to ice drift reaching its weakest point during the summer months.  There is also evidence that the drift is associated with the phase of the Arctic Oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation.

Sea ice

Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally. The mean extent of the Arctic sea ice has been continuously decreasing in the last decades, declining at a rate of currently 12.85% per decade since 1980 from the average winter value of . The seasonal variations are about , with the maximum in April and minimum in September. The sea ice is affected by wind and ocean currents, which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice.

Icebergs occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. Icebergs are not sea ice but may become embedded in the pack ice. Icebergs pose a hazard to ships, of which the Titanic is one of the most famous. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and the superstructure of ships are subject to icing from October to May. Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice (although the Baychimo drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards).

Climate

The Arctic Ocean is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by the polar night, extreme cold, frequent low-level temperature inversions, and stable weather conditions. Cyclones are only common on the Atlantic side. Summers are characterized by continuous daylight (midnight sun), and air temperatures can rise slightly above . Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow. It is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer.

The temperature of the surface water of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant at approximately , near the freezing point of seawater.

The density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper  of ocean water cools to the freezing point for sea ice to form. In the winter, the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent.

There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April—about  over the frozen ocean.

The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly during the Earth's history. During the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 55 million years ago, when the global climate underwent a warming of approximately , the region reached an average annual temperature of . The surface waters of the northernmost Arctic Ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms (the dinoflagellates Apectodinium augustum) requiring surface temperatures of over .

Currently, the Arctic region is warming twice as fast as the rest of the planet.

Biology

Due to the pronounced seasonality of 2–6 months of midnight sun and polar night in the Arctic Ocean, the primary production of photosynthesizing organisms such as ice algae and phytoplankton is limited to the spring and summer months (March/April to September). Important consumers of primary producers in the central Arctic Ocean and the adjacent shelf seas include zooplankton, especially copepods (Calanus finmarchicus, Calanus glacialis, and Calanus hyperboreus) and euphausiids, as well as ice-associated fauna (e.g., amphipods). These primary consumers form an important link between the primary producers and higher trophic levels. The composition of higher trophic levels in the Arctic Ocean varies with region (Atlantic side vs. Pacific side) and with the sea-ice cover. Secondary consumers in the Barents Sea, an Atlantic-influenced Arctic shelf sea, are mainly sub-Arctic species including herring, young cod, and capelin. In ice-covered regions of the central Arctic Ocean, polar cod is a central predator of primary consumers. The apex predators in the Arctic Ocean—marine mammals such as seals, whales, and polar bears—prey upon fish.

Endangered marine species in the Arctic Ocean include walruses and whales. The area has a fragile ecosystem, and it is especially exposed to climate change, because it warms faster than the rest of the world. Lion's mane jellyfish are abundant in the waters of the Arctic, and the banded gunnel is the only species of gunnel that lives in the ocean.

Natural resources

Petroleum and natural gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, fish, seals and whales can all be found in abundance in the region.

The political dead zone near the centre of the sea is also the focus of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark. It is significant for the global energy market because it may hold 25% or more of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources.

Environmental concerns

Arctic ice melting

The Arctic ice pack is thinning, and a seasonal hole in the ozone layer frequently occurs. Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice reduces the planet's average albedo, possibly resulting in global warming in a positive feedback mechanism. Research shows that the Arctic may become ice-free in the summer for the first time in human history by 2040. Estimates vary for when the last time the Arctic was ice-free: 65 million years ago when fossils indicate that plants existed there to as recently as 5,500 years ago; ice and ocean cores going back 8,000 years to the last warm period or 125,000 during the last intraglacial period.

Warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh melt-water to enter the north Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.

As the extent of sea ice diminishes and sea level rises, the effect of storms such as the Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 on open water increases, as does possible salt-water damage to vegetation on shore at locations such as the Mackenzie Delta as stronger storm surges become more likely.

Global warming has increased encounters between polar bears and humans. Reduced sea ice due to melting is causing polar bears to search for new sources of food. Beginning in December 2018 and coming to an apex in February 2019, a mass invasion of polar bears into the archipelago of Novaya Zemlya caused local authorities to declare a state of emergency. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes, public buildings and inhabited areas.

Clathrate breakdown

Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilize methane deposits on and near the shoreline, preventing the clathrate breaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere, causing further warming in a strong positive feedback cycle and marine genera and species to become extinct.

Other concerns
Other environmental concerns relate to the radioactive contamination of the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russian radioactive waste dump sites in the Kara Sea, Cold War nuclear test sites such as Novaya Zemlya, Camp Century's contaminants in Greenland, and radioactive contamination from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.

On 16 July 2015, five nations (United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) signed a declaration committing to keep their fishing vessels out of a 1.1 million square mile zone in the central Arctic Ocean near the North Pole. The agreement calls for those nations to refrain from fishing there until there is better scientific knowledge about the marine resources and until a regulatory system is in place to protect those resources.

See also

 Arctic Bridge
 Arctic cooperation and politics
 Extreme points of the Arctic
 International Arctic Science Committee
 List of rivers of the Americas by coastline
 Nordicity
 Seven Seas
 Subarctic

References

Further reading
 Neatby, Leslie H., Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters (1973), .
 Ray, L., and B. Bacon, eds., The Arctic Ocean (1982), .
 Thorén, Ragnar V.A., Picture Atlas of the Arctic (1969), .

External links

 Arctic Council
 Arctic Environmental Atlas Interactive map
 Arctic Great Rivers Observatory (ArcticGRO)
 Arctic Ocean. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
 Daily Arctic Ocean Rawinsonde Data from Soviet Drifting Ice Stations (1954–1990)  at NSIDC
 NOAA North Pole Web Cam Images from Web Cams deployed in spring on an ice floe
 NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe
 International Polar Foundation

several islands

Oceans
Extreme points of Earth

Articles containing video clips
Geography of Northeast Asia
Geography of Europe
Geography of North America

Arctic Ocean


Red Orchestra: Ostfront 41–45 is a tactical first-person shooter video game based on its predecessor Red Orchestra: Combined Arms. After winning the Make Something Unreal contest, the team behind the original Red Orchestra started the game studio Tripwire Interactive and developed Red Orchestra: Ostfront 41-45 as their first project.

Set on the Eastern Front during World War II between 1941 and 1945, Red Orchestra: Ostfront 41-45 depicts the struggle between Soviet and German forces. The game's creators, Tripwire Interactive, developed the game out of the previous Unreal Tournament 2004 mod, Red Orchestra: Combined Arms.

As of April 2009, the game has sold around 400,000 copies.

Gameplay

Red Orchestra concentrates mostly on the multiplayer aspect of the game, although there is a singleplayer "Practice" mode available. Red Orchestra: Ostfront 41-45 features an advanced ballistics system for both small arms and tank rounds – incorporating bullet drop, flight time, and tanks with more realistic armor properties than most games (featuring: penetration and deflection, in relation to range and projectile trajectory angle). The player's movements are realistically modeled, giving them the ability to lie and move prone, sprint (while standing or crouching) and to deploy machine guns on objects.

Red Orchestra is notable for its emphasis on realism in comparison to other World War II-based FPS games.  There is no "crosshair" for a player to aim with in the middle of their screen; instead, the player must either aim down the three-dimensional iron sights, or aim from the hip using the game's free-aim system. The former requires compensating for the breathing of the character and natural sway from holding the gun, while the latter is much quicker but accurate only at very short range. The player must also keep track of their ammo usage mentally unlike many other FPS games, most of which use an ammunition counter. Additionally, the player's health status is not represented by "health points" as many other games use, but by a diagram of the player's body with reddened sections that show where he has been wounded; there is no way to recover from wounds, although after a brief period of time, the player will function at 100% again. Receiving wounds will temporarily slow the player down, especially if they receive a wound to the legs or feet; receiving a wound to the hands causes the player to drop their currently held weapon on the ground. Rifles usually kill players in one shot if they connect with the torso or head.

Vehicle support is also a prominent feature of the game. The player can operate the combat vehicles as one of the crew members. Most tanks, for example, can accommodate up to three crew members (a driver, a commander and a machine-gunner) to make them fully effective in close city fighting, however it is easy to crew a tank solo and simply switch to different positions as needed. When grouped together in a vehicle, all players in the vehicle receive points for their actions and for the actions of their fellow crew members; for example, if a player is driving a tank and the tank commander destroys an enemy tank, both the player and the commander will receive the appropriate number of points for that kill. When operating a tank solo, the player can only perform one of the roles at a time; this prevents a solo player from being able to fire, move and reload all at the same time (reloading is a task performed by the commander). The game also features artillery support in some maps which can be utilized by both squad leaders and tank commanders.

Maps

Red Orchestra features 16 official maps and 10 community-made maps supported by the developers. The Red Orchestra SDK, though never gone beyond beta version, has allowed the production of hundreds of user-created maps.

Red Orchestra features several different map types.  Infantry maps focus on infantry combat, but can occasionally include APCs. Tank maps focus on tank combat. Combined Arms features gameplay which makes the coordination of infantry and armor its focal point. However, in many maps only when something on the map such as a wall or a fence is part of an objective or blockade can it be interacted with. The maps feature many broken buildings and vehicles as well as propaganda posters and resupply areas to add to the realism.

Red Orchestra: Combined Arms
Red Orchestra: Combined Arms is a tactical first-person shooter total conversion for Unreal Tournament 2004 and previously for Unreal Tournament 2003 originally developed by an independent international mod team, set on the Eastern Front during World War II.

The Red Orchestra developers, Tripwire Interactive, entered the NVIDIA Make Something Unreal Contest, with a grand prize of free Unreal Engine 2.5 and 3.0 licenses.  The Combined Arms aspect of the game in version 3.0 was brought about by heavy suggestion that vehicles should be included to secure progression in the MSUC. Further refinement of the Red Orchestra total conversion led to version 3.3, the last version of the mod.

On Monday November 21, 2005, Tripwire Interactive announced that they would be releasing Red Orchestra: Ostfront 41-45 over Steam, Valve's digital content distribution platform. The game was released on Tuesday March 14, 2006, on the Steam network.

Loki installers for Linux gamers supplies a Linux installer for the original Red Orchestra: Combined Arms modification. It is made to work with the Linux port of Unreal Tournament 2004, and has an installer for both the original mod and the Summer Offensive Map Pack Addon.

It is notable for its emphasis on realism in comparison to other World War II-based FPSs. Unlike most FPSs, there is little on-screen information. There are no crosshairs in the middle of the screen; instead, the player must aim using simulated three-dimensional iron sights, compensating for the breathing of the character and natural sway from holding the gun. The player must also mentally keep track of ammo usage, unlike in games such as Counter-Strike which use an ammunition counter. Health status is not represented by points, but by a diagram of the player's body with reddened sections that show where they have been wounded. The bolt-action rifles in the game can often kill a player in one shot if rounds connect with any part of the torso or head. Semi-automatic rifles, such as the SVT-40 and Gewehr 43, are also capable of killing in one shot.

Critical reception

The PC version received "favorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.

Red Orchestra won Computer Games Magazines 2004 "Best Mod" award.

Ostfront 41-45 was a runner-up for Computer Games Magazines list of the top 10 computer games of 2006.

Sequel
Tripwire Interactive released Red Orchestra 2: Heroes of Stalingrad in September 2011.

References

External links

 Red Orchestra: Ostfront 41-45 official website (archived)

2006 video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Multiplayer online games
Tactical shooter video games
Unreal Engine games
Unreal (video game series) mods
Video games about Nazi Germany
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in Berlin
Windows games
World War II first-person shooters
Tripwire Interactive games

Red Orchestra: Ostfront 41–45


Fay King Chung (born March 1941) is a Zimbabwean educator and was an independent candidate for the 2008 Zimbabwean senatorial election. Chung has worked to extend access to education and to bring education-with-production principles into school curricula in Zimbabwe and other developing countries.

Early life and education
Chung was born in the British self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia, the third generation of a Chinese immigrant family. Her grandfather, Yee Wo Lee, the fifth son of a large peasant Chinese family, emigrated to Rhodesia in 1904 at the age of seventeen and became a successful cafe owner. Her father was a successful businessman called Chu Yao Chung. Her mother, Nguk Sim Lee, was a Chinese-trained nurse who emigrated to Rhodesia to get married. She died whilst giving birth when Fay Chung was only three years old. After her mother's death, Fay Chung and her two sisters were raised by her grandfather and grandmother, assisted by a Shona nanny named Elina.

Chung grew up in a Roman Catholic Chinese family in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in the 1950s and trained as an educator at the University of Rhodesia (the present-day University of Zimbabwe) and in 1968 went on to earn her postgraduate degree in education and a masters in philosophy in English literature at the University of Leeds. Most recently, Chung earned a BA in economics from the University of London's School of Oriental and African Studies.

Chung attended the Indian and Asian primary school called Louis Mountbatten, named after the British Viceroy of India. The headmaster was a South African Indian from Durban called V. S. Naidoo, who was instrumental in persuading Fay Chung's father, a conservative and traditionalist, to allow her to go as a boarder to Founders High School, which had recently opened as the first secondary school for Asians and Coloureds.

Career
Chung was Deputy Secretary for Administration in the Ministry of Education from 1980 to 1988 and Minister of Education in President Robert Mugabe's cabinet from 1988 to 1993. In 1980, 5% of the black population in Zimbabwe had access to basic education as provided by government schools (at that time mission schools provided the majority of basic education); by 1993, Zimbabwe had achieved a 95% primary education rate.

Early career
During the 1960s, Chung taught underprivileged students in one of the largest Rhodesian townships in Gwelo and in the early 1970s became a lecturer in the Department of Education at the University of Zambia. In Zambia, she became a vocal supporter of the African nationalist movement. With the escalation of the guerrilla war inside Rhodesia, in 1973 Chung joined the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU). Her participation with a banned political organisation drove her into exile in Tanzania, and later Mozambique in the mid- and late 1970s where she learned to speak Shona fluently. Her initial role within ZANU was in the Information and Media Department; she subsequently became the senior official responsible for implementing the movement's teacher training and curriculum development in refugee camps.

Post-independence

Chung co-founded the Zimbabwe Foundation for Education with Production, a non-governmental organisation that combined education with agricultural production theory to assist war veterans and their families and was subsequently appointed Deputy Minister of Administration of the Ministry of Education at Zimbabwe's independence in 1980. Chung was appointed Minister of Education by Mugabe in 1988. During her tenure at the Ministry of Education, Chung developed and implemented a nationwide primary and secondary education program. She resigned from the Ministry of Education after disagreeing with the government.

After resigning from the Ministry of Education, Chung worked to replicate the Zimbabwean education platform in developing countries around the world as Chief of the Education Cluster at UNICEF in New York. In 1998, she returned to Africa, where she was the founder and first director of UNESCO's International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa based in Ethiopia.

Return to Zimbabwe
Chung returned home to Zimbabwe in 2003 ostensibly to retire, though she has continued to be outspoken on Zimbabwean politics. In 2006, she authored Re-Living the Second Chimurenga: Memories of the Liberation Struggle for Zimbabwe, her memoir. In addition, she has continued to be active in various organisations, including supporting various women's education, leadership and empowerment efforts in Africa. She is a founder of the Forum for African Women Educationalists, the Association for Strengthening Higher Education for Women in Africa and is also the chairperson of the board of trustees of the Women's University in Africa which she helped co-found in 2003.

2008 Zimbabwean election

Chung was one of the early public supporters of independent presidential candidate, Simba Makoni, who announced his presidential candidacy in early February 2008. In the Zimbabwean parliamentary election of 2008, Chung returned to the political arena and stood as an independent candidate within Makoni's Mavambo formation for the Mvurachena senatorial constituency. She gained 2,238 votes, losing to Cephas Makuyana of the Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai.

References

External links
 Election Campaign Blog – Fay Chung
"Ex- Zim Minister Confirms Backing Makoni, vying for Senatorial Seat", The Zimbabwe Gazette, 4 March 2008
"AT HOME ABROAD; Shadow On the Future" (Interview), The New York Times, 15 January 1989

Place of birth missing (living people)
Date of birth missing (living people)
1941 births
Living people
20th-century Roman Catholics
20th-century women educators
20th-century Zimbabwean women politicians
21st-century memoirists
21st-century Roman Catholics
21st-century women educators
21st-century Zimbabwean women politicians
21st-century Zimbabwean women writers
21st-century Zimbabwean writers
African women in war
Academic staff of the University of Zambia
Alumni of SOAS University of London
Alumni of the University of Leeds
Education ministers of Zimbabwe
Rhodesian educators
Rhodesian people of Chinese descent
Rhodesian Roman Catholics
University of Zimbabwe alumni
Women in 20th-century warfare
Women government ministers of Zimbabwe
Women memoirists
ZANU–PF politicians
Zimbabwean educators
Zimbabwean women educators
Zimbabwean memoirists
Zimbabwean politicians of Chinese descent
Zimbabwean Roman Catholics

Fay Chung


Microdissection refers to a variety of techniques where a microscope is used to assist in dissection.

Different kinds of techniques involve microdissection:
 Chromosome microdissection — use of fine glass needle under a microscope to remove a portion from a complete chromosome.
 Laser microdissection — use of a laser through a microscope to dissect selected cells.
 Laser capture microdissection — use of a laser through a microscope to cause selected cells to adhere to a film.

Microscopy

Microdissection


Maria Follieri (1932–2012) was a pioneering Italian archaeobotanist and held the Chair of Palaeobotany at La Sapienza.

Early life
Follieri was born in Rome in 1932. She studied Natural Sciences at the University La Sapienza, graduating in 1954.

Career
Early work included studies of fossil leaves from a site near Rome.

She lectured at La Sapienza in palaeobotany from 1965 onwards, being appointed Associate Professor in 1980. In 1986, she was promoted to Professor of Botany at the Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences, before being appointed to the Chair of Palaeobotany in 1991.

Follieri was one of the co-founders of the International Work Group for Palaeoethnobotany in 1966, alongside Maria Hopf and Jane Renfrew. Her research spanned multiple themes, include the study of palaeoeclimate, palaeoethnobotany, and palaeovegetation, and chronologically, from the Quaternary period to the Classical world. She studied the archaeobotanical contents of the sewer of the Colosseum. Follieri was noted as the leading archaeobotanist in Italy in the 1970s.

She retired in 2004. A conference in memory of Follieri was held at La Sapienza in 2013. The 18th conference of the International Workgroup for Palaeoethnobotany is dedicated to the memory of Follieri.

She was sister to the renowned Byzantinist and Paleographer Enrica Follieri.

Selected publications
Follieri, M. 1967. Vegetational features of some Mindel-Riss and Riss-Würn deposits in Italy and remaining Europe. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 2: 261–266.
Follieri, M. 1974. Wood technology of the Bronze age in Northern Italy. Annali di Botanica 33: 1–9.
Follieri, M. 1975. Resti vegetali macroscopici nel collettore ovest del Colosseo. Annali di Botanica 34: 123–141.
Follieri, M. 1977. Classification and phylogeny of living and fossil water ferns of the genus «Azolla». Webbia 31: 97–104.
Follieri, M., Magri, D., Sadori, L. 1986. Late Pleistocene Zelkova extinction in central Italy. New Phytologist 103(1): 269–273.
Follieri, M. 1987. L'agriculture des plus anciennes communautés rurales d'Italie. In J. C. Guillaine & J.-L. Roudil (eds.), Premiers Communautes Paysannes en Mediteranee Occidentale (pp. 243–247). CNRS éditions.
Follieri, M. 2010. Conifer extinction in Quaternary Italian records. Quaternary International 225 (1):37–43.

References

1932 births
2012 deaths
Archaeobotanists
Academic staff of the Sapienza University of Rome

Maria Follieri


Carlungie and Ardestie Earthhouses can be found in farmland north of Monifieth and Carnoustie. They date to the late Iron Age, from the 1st to 2nd centuries AD. They are examples of souterrains, probably used to store food.

Ardestie Earthhouse

Ardestie earthhouse was discovered in the 1940s to the north of Mains of Ardestie farm. It was excavated in 1949-1950 by F.T. Wainwright, who first suggested that the function of the souterrain was as an underground cow byre, although grain storage and ritual use have also been suggested. Incorporated into the structure are recycled stones with neolithic/Bronze Age cup and ring marks

Carlungie Earthhouse

Carlungie earthhouse was excavated in 1950–1951, also by Wainwright. It is of similar date and a similar interpretation of its utilisation was made.

References

Iron Age sites in Scotland
Archaeological sites in Angus, Scotland
Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Angus

Carlungie and Ardestie earthhouses


Charles Urie Peat  (28 February 1892 – 27 October 1979) was a British Conservative Party politician and cricketer. He was the son of William Barclay Peat, founder of the international accounting firm KPMG.

Peat was born in Edmonton, Middlesex, and educated at Sedbergh School and Trinity College, Oxford. He played first-class cricket for Oxford University in 1913, Middlesex in 1914 and the Free Foresters between 1920 and 1922, as well as in several matches for HDG Leveson-Gower's XI.

During World War I Peat was commissioned in the City of London Yeomanry and was awarded the Military Cross.

At the 1931 general election, he was elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for Darlington, defeating the sitting Labour MP Arthur Lewis Shepherd. During his time as MP for Darlington, he lived at nearby Wycliffe Hall. During the Second World War, he served as Principal Private Secretary to Prime Minister Winston Churchill. In 1943, he led a campaign to salvage 100 million books for the nation's war effort. Peat was an accountant by profession, and from March to June 1945, he served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of National Insurance. In the Labour landslide at the 1945 general election, he was defeated by Labour's David Hardman. He died at Barnard Castle, County Durham on 27 October 1979.

His grandson, Benjamin Usher, played List A cricket for British Universities and the Durham Cricket Board as well as Minor counties cricket for Northumberland.

References

External links

 Charles Peat at Cricinfo
 Charles Peat at CricketArchive
 PEAT, Charles Urie, Who Was Who, A & C Black, 1920–2016 (online edition, Oxford University Press, 2014)

1892 births
1979 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford
British Army personnel of World War I
British sportsperson-politicians
City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders) officers
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
English accountants
English cricketers
English people of Scottish descent
Free Foresters cricketers
H. D. G. Leveson Gower's XI cricketers
Middlesex cricketers
Ministers in the Churchill caretaker government, 1945
Ministers in the Churchill wartime government, 1940–1945
Oxford University cricketers
People educated at Sedbergh School
People from Barnard Castle
Cricketers from Yorkshire
UK MPs 1931–1935
UK MPs 1935–1945
20th-century English businesspeople

Charles Peat


Troy Moloney (born 18 May 1966) is a former Australian rules footballer who played for Footscray Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL). Moloney was recruited from East Keilor Football Club.

He made his senior debut in 1987 at the age of 20 after coming up through the ranks of the Under 19's and Reserves. Plagued by injury, Moloney would go on to play 36 senior games and kick 4 goals over six seasons at Footscray.

References

External links

1966 births
Living people
Western Bulldogs players
Williamstown Football Club players
Australian rules footballers from Victoria (state)

Troy Moloney


Aida Nadeem (; born 1965 in Baghdad, Iraq) is an Iraqi musician living in Denmark.

Early career
As a child, Aida, began to sing, dance and write poetry. With interest in classical music, at the age of twelve, she began her studies at the prestigious Music and Ballet school Baghdad. Her main instrument was the bassoon.

Her primary sources of inspiration were composers like Karlheinz Stockhausen and Arthur Honegger. In 1986, she gained employment with Iraq's symphony orchestra.

Nadeem moved to Denmark in 1991, where she continued her studies at the Royal Danish Academy of Music. She distinguished herself in Denmark as one of the very few prominent foreign artists to make a breakthrough on the scene and to make a wide impact from her debut release Arabian Underground.

In the United Kingdom, she has appeared at Glastonbury, WOMAD and the Cambridge Folk Festival, along with her collaborators The Angel Brothers and Aki Nawaz.

Discography

Albums
 Arabian Underground (1998)
 Arabtronica (2002)
 Out of Bagdad! (2005)
 Beyond Destruction (2010)

References

1965 births
Living people
Iraqi emigrants to Denmark
20th-century Iraqi women singers
Musicians from Baghdad
21st-century Iraqi women singers

Aida Nadeem


Sangat Singh was a Sikh warrior and martyr of Battle of Chamkaur.

Early life
Sangat Singh was born in Punjab. His father's name was Bhai Rania and his mother was Bibi Amaro.

He got trained in shastar vidya, gatka, horse-riding, warfare and martial arts and also studied languages, e.g - Punjabi, Urdu, Sanskrit, Persian and Braj. Later, he was sent by his father to serve Guru Gobind Singh.

Battle and death
Sangat Singh took part in battles of Bhangani, Bajrur, Nadaun, all four battle of Anandpur Sahib, Bansali, Nirmohgarh, Sarsa and Chamkaur.

In second Battle of Chamkaur, Sikhs lost almost most soldiers and the Guru decided to go on war front but it was opposed by present Sikhs on their insistence he agreed to make a bid to escape from Chamkaur and his attire, dastar and kalgi was given to Bhai Sangat Singh in the fort. He bore a high degree of physical resemblance to Guru Gobind Singh and dressed up and disguised himself as the Guru in-order to trick the enemy.

Sangat Singh and Sant Singh only two Sikhs got left at the fort and after Guru's exit and they went on war front to Mughal army and fought against them and was killed.

See also
 Bhai Jiwan Singh
 Battle of Chamkaur

References

Sikh warriors
1650 births
1705 deaths

Sangat Singh (Sikh warrior)


Adolf Bniński (21 August 1884 – 8 July 1942) was a Polish agricultural, conservative and royalist activist. He was Voivode of Poznań from 1923 to 1928 and a member of the Senate of Poland in the Second Polish Republic. In the aftermath of the German invasion of Poland he was the Government Delegate for Poland for the Polish territories annexed by Nazi Germany. He was arrested by the Germans in July 1941 and killed in 1942.

Biography
Adolf Bniński was born on 21 August 1884 in Kosowo. He studied agriculture at the Jagiellonian University, as well as at the German universities in Munich and Halle. He inherited significant agricultural lands, and he was a notable agricultural activist in Greater Poland.

In 1918 he became a functionary of the reborn Polish state, first as a commissar for the Łódź region in 1918, then from 1919 to 1920 as a starost of the Środa County and from 1923 to 1928 he was the voivode of Poznań.

In the political arena, Bniński supported conservative and pro-monarchy views. In the Polish presidential election, 1926, he was the presidential candidate of the Popular National Union (Związek Ludowo-Narodowy), but he lost to Ignacy Mościcki. In 1935, despite his opposition to the sanacja regime, he joined the senate of Poland, and was a senator until 1938.

After the German invasion of Poland he joined the Polish Underground State. In July 1940 he was chosen to be the Government Delegate for Poland for the Polish territories annexed by Nazi Germany although he did not receive the official nomination from general Władysław Sikorski until December 3. Bniński was arrested by then Germans in July 1941, for refusing to express support for a joint Polish-German anti-Soviet declaration. He was imprisoned in Poznań and tortured and executed on the night of 7 to 8 July 1942. The exact circumstances of the disposal of his body are unknown; according to Zbigniew Mieczkowski he could have even been fed to wild animals (lions).

It was not until 10 October 1942 that Nazi Germany's Foreign Ministry retroactively issued a death penalty for Bniński.

His position as Delegate was taken by Leon Mikołajczyk.

In 1995 he was posthumously awarded the Order of the White Eagle.

Notes

References
 Short bio ("ulica Adolfa Bnińskiego")

Further reading
E. Makowski, Adolf Bniński (1884-1942), [in:] Wojewoda Adolf hr. Bniński 1884-1942, red. S. Dworacki, Poznań 1997
Krzysztof Komorowski, Konspiracja pomorska 1939–1947, Gdańsk 1993

External links
Photo

1884 births
1942 deaths
People from Gostyń County
People from the Province of Posen
Popular National Union politicians
Senators of the Second Polish Republic (1935–1938)
Jagiellonian University alumni
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
University of Halle alumni
Polish torture victims
Polish people executed by Nazi Germany
Executed people from Greater Poland Voivodeship
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
Members of Akcja Katolicka

Adolf Bniński


John Duncan "Jack" Macpherson III (October 20, 1937 - November 16, 2006) was a former mailman and bartender in San Diego, California. According to his Los Angeles Times obituary, he was a local legend who acquired "a permanent niche in the history of Southern California beach culture".

Early life and introduction to surfing

Macpherson was born in San Diego, the oldest of two children of an orthopedic surgeon who was also serving in the United States Navy. His family moved to Hawaii, where Dr. Macpherson was stationed and where as a four-year-old, Jack witnessed the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The family returned to the States on a Dutch freighter, and Jack and his sister Jill grew up in La Jolla, and later moved to the neighborhood near Windansea Beach, where some of the best surfing conditions on the California coast still prevail.

One of his sister's boyfriends taught Jack to surf at the age of eleven. After graduating from La Jolla High (where he also ran track), he started hanging out at the beach with a number of surfers, including Robert Norris Rakestraw (December 8, 1940 - September 21, 1996), commonly known as Bob, and to his friends as "Meda", after a word he used as a swear word. Soon Jack (or "Jack Mac", as his fellow surfers called him) and Bob became fast friends to the extent that they were almost always seen together and would enter the scene to the cries of "Here comes Mac and Meda; they're a walking destruction company."

The Mac Meda Destruction Company

In the 1960s Macpherson and Rakestraw brought together their friends, acquaintances, and hangers-on into a loose organization they called the Mac Meda Destruction Company, described as "a beer for demolition crew". The group was featured in Tom Wolfe's 1968 book The Pump House Gang. Wolfe described them as going "Ooooo-eeee-Mee-dah! They chant this chant, Mee-dah, in a real fakey deep voice, and it really bugs people. They don't know what the hell it is. It is the cry of the Mac Meda Destruction Company. The Mac Meda Destruction Company is ... an underground society that started in La Jolla three years ago. Nobody can remember exactly how; they have arguments about it. Anyhow, it is mainly something to bug people with and organize huge beer orgies with." The group also managed to get Wolfe to be recognized in London, England in the mid-1960s at the Indica Gallery by sending them a note which read, 'Put this in your window, and Tom Wolfe will come and see you.' (How they ever heard about the gallery is believed to be a mystery.)

Soon the Mac Meda Destruction Company became known throughout southern California, primarily through the actions of Rakestraw, described as the wilder half of the pair—Meda was known for his propensity for destruction—he was known to break anything from windows to park benches—and his novel way of entering rooms—through the door and then out an available window. When they came up with the concept of Mac Meda Destruction, Macpherson stenciled the words "Mac Meda Destruction Company" on tee shirts with red paint and designed a logo depicting a mushroom cloud that appeared on bumper stickers. The fake company even had a fake president—Rakestraw was infatuated with Albert, a gorilla at the San Diego Zoo; Meda would just stare at the gorilla for hours on end. So "Albert Mac Meda" was listed as the president of the Destruction company, and his name appeared in the LaJolla telephone book. When the group's depredations got out of hand and the local police were called, they would come looking for Albert Mac Meda rather than either Macpherson or Rakestraw.

Though the company was fake—described primarily as an attitude rather than as an organization—a group of Macpherson's friends, including San Diego Chargers player Pat Shea, did do demolition of houses for free when Interstate 5 was being built through San Diego. However, the Mac Meda Destruction Company continued on, if only in spirit; at the time of Macpherson's death, his longtime friend Doug Moranville continued producing t-shirts and bumper stickers with the Mac Meda logo at his t-shirt shop ("The Branding Iron") in La Jolla. Stickers have adorned everything from walls to cars to the Galileo spacecraft that was launched in 1990, flew past Earth and the Moon and eventually (1995)went into orbit around the planet Jupiter.

Later life

Despite the flow of beer and other alcoholic beverages, Jack Macpherson was known as a natural athlete; he was a champion cyclist who participated in long-distance races; he was also adept in volleyball, diving, surfing and skiing. Macpherson was employed by the United States Postal Service as a letter carrier, primarily working in the Bird Rock area of La Jolla. He worked until his retirement in 1991, when he became a full-time bartender at the West End pub in North Pacific Beach. He died of liver and kidney failure at the age of 69. He was survived by a son, John Duncan Macpherson IV, two grandsons, and his sister, Mrs. Jill Higgins.

References
Jack Macpherson, Ultimate Beer Buddy
Mac Meda Destruction Co Official Website
Miles, Barry (1998). Many Years From Now. Vintage-Random House.

1937 births
2006 deaths
Bartenders
Deaths from liver failure
Deaths from kidney failure
Sportspeople from San Diego
American surfers

Jack Macpherson


Eastlakes is an inner southern and eastern suburb of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Eastlakes is located 8 kilometres south of the Sydney central business district, in the local government area of the Bayside Council, Eastlakes is mostly residential with a shopping centre located at Evans Avenue. The residential portion of the suburb falls in the inner south being west of the Eastern Distributor while the non-residential side of the suburb consisting of The Lakes Golf Course and Botany Dams is east of the Eastern Distributor falling within the Eastern Suburbs, south-east of the CBD.

There is a new shopping centre recently built across the road from the current shopping centre. Now that the new one is complete the current one will be redeveloped in the future. Golf courses also take up part of the suburb.

History
Eastlakes takes its name from the extensive lake system on its southeast and its location in the Eastern Suburbs. The area was once known as Botany Swamps. This was Sydney's third source of water when water was pumped from here to a reservoir in Paddington from 1859.

The lakes were partly reclaimed from the swamp to create the Lakes Golf Course and Sydney Airport extensions. Part of the suburb is on the former site of the Rosebery Racecourse, which was redeveloped in the 1960s into a residential and commercial area. Part of the racecourse area is now the site of a park with a memorial to local soldiers and lighthorses who trained on that site during both world wars.

In the early 1970s a large public meeting was held during which the Parkes Development were accused of duping unit dwellers into believing that nearby open land was to remain a park, only to find that the land was privately owned by the developer. It requested that the NSW Builders Labourers Federation place a green ban on the site, which it did with the result that the area remains as parkland.

Housing
The Eastlakes area is mainly working class, with the north-east of the suburb, adjacent to the shopping centre, being made up of medium-density affordable flats with large immigrant populations mainly from Turkey and Bangladesh, surrounded by three large public housing estates; Rosebery Apartments (two 10 story concrete maisonette blocks), Eastlakes Apartments (two 10 storey redbrick apartment blocks and 2 storey flat complex) and Longworth Court (5 Story and 3 story flat blocks adjacent to a Radburn complex), home to four high-rise towers and a large unit complex on the border with Daceyville. On the northern side of Grafton Street there are mostly apartments, while on the southern side of Grafton Street there are separate houses that are mainly one storey high.

About 20% of Eastlakes is public housing, making it the 36th suburb with the most public housing just below Redfern and just above Glebe, being home to three different high density public housing estates and numerous public flats integrated with privately owned affordable ones.

Demographics
According to 2016 census, The most common ancestries in Eastlakes were Australian 10.5%, Chinese 9.8%, English 9.0%, Greek 7.2% and Bangladeshi 5.2%. 60.2% of people were not born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were Bangladesh 6.8%, China 5.1%, Indonesia 4.5%, Iraq 2.6% and Greece 2.6%. 33.1% of people spoke only English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Bengali 8.6%, Greek 7.1%, Indonesian 4.9%, Mandarin 4.6% and Turkish 3.7%. The most common responses for religion were Catholic 23.8%, Islam 17.6%, No Religion 15.7% and Eastern Orthodox 10.8%.

Schools
Eastlakes Public School began as an infants school in 1938 and was located in a church hall in O'Connor Street. It moved to Florence Avenue in 1944. When Rosebery Racecourse was demolished and the land developed as a residential area, enrolments at the school naturally increased and there was a need for a primary school, so Eastlakes included a primary school from 1979.

Churches
The area is served by three churches as of 2009. St Stephen's Anglican Church is located in Harry Street. Horner Memorial Hall, King Street, is a chapel in the Federation Carpenter Gothic style, which is used by Beckenham Memorial Uniting Church after relocating from their church after June 2015. and an LDS Church which is located in Mascot Drive.

Sport and recreation
This area is home to several parks and golf courses. The parks are Eastlakes reserve at Barber Ave, Bridget Tight reserve at Evans Ave, Edmund Thornton reserve at O'Rourke cres, Leon Lackal reserve at Maloney st, Southern Cross Drive reserve at evans ave, Vernon avenue reserve at Vernon ave and Sparks street reserve at sparks st. The Lakes Golf course and Eastlake Golf Course fall within the boundaries of the suburb of Eastlakes. Bonnie Doon Golf Course, Mutch Park and Astrolabe Park are located in the adjacent suburb of Pagewood. There is also a Scout group at Sparks street.

Transportation
There are about 18 bus stops in the suburb of Eastlakes The nearest train station is the Mascot railway station in Mascot and it is about 3 km away from Eastlakes. The nearest light rail stop is the Juniors Kingsford light rail stop in Kingsford and it is about 2 km away from Eastlakes.

Gallery

References

External links

Suburbs of Sydney
Bayside Council

Eastlakes, New South Wales


Calcium copper titanate (also abbreviated CCTO, for calcium copper titanium oxide) is an inorganic compound with the formula CaCu3Ti4O12.  It is noteworthy for its extremely large dielectric constant (effective relative permittivity) of over 10,000 at room temperature.

History
CCTO was first synthesized in 1967 by Alfred Deschanvres and his coworkers. While the structural features were known, no physical properties had been measured. In 2000, Mas Subramanian and his colleagues at DuPont Central R&D discovered that CCTO displayed a dielectric constant greater than 10,000, compared to the normal dielectric SrTiO3, which has a constant of 300 at room temperature. Since then, it has found widespread usage in capacitor applications.

Synthesis and structure
Most compounds which form this crystal structure are made under high-pressure conditions.  Pure CCTO, however, can be easily synthesized by standard solid state methods via intimate mixtures of the metal carbonate and oxide precursors at temperatures between 1000 and 1200 °C.
 4TiO2 + CaCO3 + 3CuO → CaCu3Ti4O12 + CO2
The CaCu3Ti4O12 structure type is derived from the cubic perovskite structure, by an octahedral tilting distortion as is GdFeO3. In both cases the distortion is driven by a mismatch between the size of the A-cations and the cubic ReO3 network. However, CaCu3Ti4O12 and GdFeO3 adopt different patterns of octahedral tilting (a−b+a− and a+a+a+ in Glazer notation). The octahedral tilting distortion associated with the GdFeO3 structure leads to a structure where all of the A-cation environments are identical. In contrast, the octahedral tilting distortion associated with the CaCu3Ti4O12 structure produces a structure where 75% of the A-cation sites (A" sites) have square planar coordination, while 25% of the A-cation sites remain 12 coordinate. The square planar sites are almost always filled by Jahn-Teller ion such as Cu2+ or Mn3+, while the A' site is always occupied by a larger ion.

Dielectric properties
Using the Clausius-Mossotti relation, the calculated intrinsic dielectric constant should be 49. However, CCTO exhibits a dielectric constant upwards of 10,200 at 1 MHz, with a low loss tangent until approximately 300 °C. In addition, the relative dielectric constant increases with decreasing frequency (in the range of 1 MHz to 1 kHz).

The colossal-dielectric phenomenon is attributed to a grain boundary (internal) barrier layer capacitance (IBLC) instead of an intrinsic property associated with the crystal structure. This barrier layer electrical microstructure with effective permittivity values in excess of 10, 000 can be fabricated by single-step processing in air at ~1100 °C.  CCTO is therefore an attractive option to the currently used BaTiO3-based materials which require complex, multistage processing routes to produce IBLCs of similar capacity.

Because there is a large discrepancy between the observed dielectric constant and the calculated intrinsic constant, the true origin of this phenomenon is still under debate.

References

External links

Titanates
Copper(II) compounds
Calcium compounds

Calcium copper titanate


The Pittsburgh Athletic Club (PAC) was one of the earliest professional ice hockey teams. It was based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania from around 1895 until 1905 and again from 1907 to 1909.

The team was a member of the Western Pennsylvania Hockey League, which was formed in 1896.

History

Origins

In 1895, Pittsburgh officials, constructed the Schenley Park Casino which featured the first artificial ice-making plant in North America. The 1895–96 winter season also saw the first introduction of hockey in the city.

On December 30, 1895, the Pittsburgh Press made mention of a "great international hockey and polo tournament" opening game at the Casino. The newspaper reported that a team consisting of ten players from Queen's University played against a group of local players from Western University (today the University of Pittsburgh) and Pittsburgh Catholic College of the Holy Ghost (today Duquesne University) and a half-hour of exhibition of hockey was played before the polo match. The paper noted that 2,500 to 3,000 fans showed up to watch the game, despite claims of bad weather. No score or records were reportedly kept but the paper did note that the team from Queen's University outplayed the Pittsburghers, who had never played the game before.

After seeing the excitement and fan appeal of the hockey game, the Casino's management decided to organize a senior league at the rink. The league was strictly amateur and was named the Western Pennsylvania League. The league played its first season in 1896–97 at the Casino, with four teams, the Pittsburgh Athletic Club, the Duquesne Country & Athletic Club, Western University of Pennsylvania (the University of Pittsburgh today) and a team known as (All-)Pittsburgh, or the "Casino" team. The Pittsburgh Athletic Club team was managed by Charles S. Miller, who became the league's president.

Championship era: 1899-1901
 The league played at the Casino twice a week, on Tuesday and Friday nights. The first "big league" championship (season) game was November 17, 1896 between Duquesne Country & Athletic Club and All-Pittsburgh, won by Duquesne 2–1; however, the league's season was cut short on December 16, when the Casino rink was destroyed by fire. The "Casino" team, Pittsburgh Athletic Club and Western University teams all lost their hockey equipment in the fire. A fire at the Casino in December 1896 destroyed the only ice hockey rink in Pittsburgh and the league dissolved without a championship.

The team and the league were revived by the construction of an artificial ice rink at the Duquesne Garden. The league's second season began on January 24, 1899, when the Garden hosted its first hockey game in a match between the Pittsburgh Athletic Club and Western University of Pittsburgh.

The Pittsburgh Athletic Club would then go on to claim the league's first championship. The team then won the next two titles, which resulted in being awarded the $500 Trophy, in 1900 and again in 1901

The 1901–02 season is considered the first season in which the league and its teams were recognized as professional. The first professional ice hockey league. To fill the team, the Pittsburgh Athletic Club recruited players from Canada with promises of high-paid employment and small cash incentives of roughly $30 per week. Two of the players signed by the Pittsburgh Athletic Club were George Lamb and Bill Hamilton.

In 1904, the Pittsburgh Athletic Club was captained by Alf Smith, a future Hall of Famer, who won four straight Stanley Cup titles as a player and coach with the Ottawa Silver Seven from 1903 to 1906.

The WPHL and its teams lasted until the end of the 1903–04 season, when the league pulled their best players to field one Pittsburgh team, the Pittsburgh Professionals, to play in the International Professional Hockey League.

In 1904–05, a re-formed PAC team played a handful of exhibition games, including a series against the Dawson City Nuggets. The Pittsburgh Post described this version of the team as made up of "interscholastic players, skate boys from the Garden and has-beens of former years".

Revival and quick demise
The WPHL, along with the Pittsburgh Athletic Club team was revived for the 1907–08 season. The team now featured several of Canada's top talent, including Albert Kerr, Ken Mallen, Garnet Sixsmith and Cyclone Taylor; however, the WPHL could no longer rely on salaries as novelty to attract Canadian talent, since professionalism had spread into Canada. Many players signed up, particularly since the WPHL played on Duquesne Garden's artificial ice and was not dependent on cold weather to provide a naturally frozen surface; however, as winter began and Canadian rinks became available, the players returned north to teams closer to home. This attrition affected all of the league's teams. The Pittsburgh Athletic Club itself saw the mid-season defections of stars like Cyclone Taylor and Con Corbeau to Canada. Finally, after the 1908–09 season the WPHL and the Pittsburgh Athletic Club team disbanded.

Hall of Famers
Alf Smith (1962)
Cyclone Taylor (1947)

References

Ice hockey teams in Pittsburgh
Defunct ice hockey teams in Pennsylvania
Athletic Club
Athletic Club

Pittsburgh Athletic Club


John Minto IV (October 10, 1822 – February 25, 1915) was an American pioneer born in Wylam, England. He was a prominent sheep farmer in the U.S. state of Oregon and a four-time Republican representative in the state legislature. Minto also volunteered for the militia during the Cayuse War and years later helped locate Minto and Santiam passes through the Cascade Mountains east of Salem, Oregon.

Early life
His father, John Minto III, was a coal miner and a gunsmith in England, with family roots tracing back to Scotland. His siblings were Margaret, Mary, William, Jane, Annie, Robert, Isabell, and Sarah. The Minto family immigrated to the United States in 1840, sailing on the ship Rocious which arrived in New York City on June 26, 1840. In 1848 part of the family immigrated to Iowa, including the father. The father died in 1855 on a ship while traveling to Oregon to meet his son.

The younger Minto began working at age eight and until 22 worked in the coal mines. In 1844 Minto left Pittsburgh and moved to Oregon, crossing the plains with the Gilliam company. This was after deciding not to go to Iowa when he reached St. Louis. Instead he went to Saint Joseph, Missouri to head for Oregon Country. On this journey he would meet his future wife, and traveled with future Oregon politician Nathaniel Ford and later general, during the Cayuse Wars, Cornelius Gilliam in the same party.

Oregon

Minto arrived in Oregon City on October 18, 1844. In early 1845 went to The Dalles to drive the cattle of Captain R.W. Morrison to the Willamette Valley, Morrison being part of the group that Minto had emigrated with. Prior to this journey, Minto had traveled to Fort Vancouver to get assistance from Doctor John McLoughlin of the Hudson's Bay Company. However, doctor McLoughlin was out and they first dealt with James Douglas, McLoughlin's later replacement as Chief Factor. Douglas put Minto and company up for the night, and the next day McLoughlin gave Minto some provisions for the journey to The Dalles and a boat to use. Once in The Dalles, Minto assisted the other travelers in his party who had been stranded there due to winter, and drove the cattle to the Willamette Valley.

He married July 8, 1847 to Miss Martha Ann Morrison, the daughter of Captain Morrison. Martha was born December 17, 1831 in Montgomery County, Missouri. The couple had eight children together: John Wilson, Mary, Robert, William Jasper, Irwin, Douglas, Harry Percy, and May. May died as an infant and only three survived their long-lived father.

In Oregon, Minto began working for Peter H. Burnett making cedar rails, before logging for a sawmill. Then in 1845 he purchased the original Methodist Mission claim at Mission Bottom from David Carter, and began farming. He then sold that property and took up a donation land claim  south of Salem where he set up orchards and began sheep farming. Minto became a prominent sheep farmer and was selected as the secretary for the state agricultural society. He purchased the island property that bears his name (at ) in 1867 and put it to use in agriculture. During the Cayuse War that started after the Whitman Massacre in 1847, Minto joined the volunteer army of pioneers that went east to battle the Native Americans. Then following the discovery of gold in California, he traveled south and spent a season in the gold mines before returning with some gold to use in financing his agricultural enterprise.

Political career
John Minto was a member of the Republican Party. In 1862, he was elected to the Oregon House of Representatives to serve Marion County. He won additional terms in the House in 1868, 1880, and 1890. He later served on the State Board of Horticulture after appointment by Governor Lord.

Later years
In 1873, John Minto was appointed by the county to determine if there was a pass through the Cascades east of Salem as had been rumored by accounts of trappers. Minto located the pass, which was named after him, and supervised the construction of a trail.
Then, from information he received from John B. Waldo of the Oregon Supreme Court, Minto surveyed a lower pass  further south in 1882, now known as Santiam Pass.
Part of the group for this survey was Captain L. S. Scott, who had been in charge of Fort Hoskins during part of the Civil War. The Oregon Pacific Railroad began construction over the pass, but encountered financial difficulties and was never completed.  The western approach to Minto Pass is now Forest Service Trail #3471,
which connects with the Pacific Crest Trail a  east via a difficult trail. The area is now contained in the Mount Jefferson Wilderness.

John Minto died in Salem on February 25, 1915, at the age of 92. He was buried at Salem Pioneer Cemetery. Minto-Brown Island Park in Salem is partly on Minto's former farm.

Works authored
 The Number and Condition of the Native Race in Oregon When First Seen by White Men, Oregon Historical Quarterly (1900)

See also
Marion Lake

References

External links
Reminiscences of Earliest Salem by John Minto from salemhistory.net

Republican Party members of the Oregon House of Representatives
Politicians from Salem, Oregon
Oregon Country
Oregon Trail
1822 births
1915 deaths
Oregon pioneers
People from Wylam
Ranchers from Oregon
19th-century American politicians

John Minto (Oregon pioneer)


The Union Line was a transport company of steamboats of the Colorado River, owned by Thomas E. Trueworthy, operating in southeastern California, western Arizona Territory, and northwestern Mexico.

It was an opposition steamboat company to the George A. Johnson & Company on the Colorado River from 1864 to 1865.  It was the first to use towed barges on the Colorado.

Establishment of the Union Line
Merchants and miners held a protest meeting at La Paz, Arizona on December 1, 1863, fed up with shortages, delayed and slow deliveries of freight to their stores and mines, by Johnson & Company, who owned the Colorado River's only two steamboats.  They condemned the Johnson Company as a monopoly, that was trying to drive the miners out in order to gain control of the mines.  The meeting voted to send a representative to San Francisco with a petition calling for the establishment of an opposition steamboat line on the Colorado River.

In San Francisco, their representative Samuel "Steamboat" Adams convinced the Chamber of Commerce to endorse an opposition line.  Merchants of the city raised $25,000 by subscription, and Adams persuaded Captain Thomas E. Trueworthy, to send the Sacramento River steamboat Esmerelda under Captain Charles C. Overman and the Victoria, a four-masted schooner converted from a barge, to the Colorado River to establish the Union Line there.

Union Line on the Colorado River
The Victoria was to be a store ship at the mouth of the river, but she was soon broken up by the tidal bore soon after it reached the mouth of the river at the Colorado River Delta in March 1864.

After Overman arrived at the river in March 1864, he built the Black Crook, first tow barge to be used on the Colorado River.  From May 1864, its success in delivering large amounts of cargo up river forced the Johnson Company to lower rates, build another steamboat and to add tow barges to his steamboats in 1864.

Union Line Consolidated
In the summer of 1865, with the steamboats Esmerelda of the Union Line and Nina Tilden of the Philadelphia Silver and Copper Mining Company (the other opposition line to the Johnson Company), was consolidated into the Pacific and Colorado Steam Navigation Company, also headed by Thomas E. Trueworthy, with backing from San Francisco financiers.

See also

References

Steamboat transport on the Colorado River
Defunct shipping companies of the United States
Defunct companies based in California
Transportation companies based in California
American companies established in 1864
Transport companies established in 1864
1864 establishments in California
1865 disestablishments in California
Maritime history of California
American companies disestablished in 1865

Union Line (Colorado River)


María Fabiana Ríos (born March 31, 1964 in Rosario, Santa Fe) is an Argentine politician and founder of the Patagonian Social Party. She was the governor of the province of Tierra del Fuego from December 17, 2007 to December 10, 2015. She was first elected with the support of the party ARI (Afirmación para una República de Iguales, "Support for an Egalitarian Republic"), but she left it in 2010 and created her own party, with which she was re-elected. She was the only female governor in Argentina, until the election of Lucia Corpacci of Catamarca Province. She was succeeded in office by another woman, Rosana Bertone.

Ríos was elected governor on June 24, 2007. She is the first woman to be elected governor of an Argentine province and the first woman governor of Tierra del Fuego Province.  Prior to that she was a National Deputy.

Ríos graduated as a pharmacist from the National University of Rosario. She moved to Tierra del Fuego, a scarcely populated province on the southern end of Argentina, at the age of 23, and married Gustavo Longui, with whom she had two daughters. She occupied several important posts in the healthcare administration of the city of Río Grande.

Early political career
Ríos entered politics under the mentorship of the Socialist legislator Alfredo Bravo, and started working within the Alliance for Work, Justice and Education (the short-lived coalition that brought Fernando de la Rúa to the presidency in 1999). She was elected a provincial Deputy in the legislature of Tierra del Fuego in 1999, where she served until 2003.

Upon the breakup of the Alliance after the 2001 crisis, Ríos aligned with Elisa Carrió and worked on the construction of the local ARI. She ran for governor in 2003, but came in the third place. Later that year, she was elected National Deputy for Tierra del Fuego, defeating the Justicialist Party and obtaining the first electoral victory for the nascent ARI at the provincial level.

Governor elect
Ríos ran for governor again at the 2007 election, and came close second at the first round, behind the Justicialist-Kirchnerist governor and candidate for re-election Hugo Cóccaro. In the subsequent runoff election she beat Cóccaro with about 52% of the vote. She took office on December 17, 2007.

The triumph of Ríos was especially marked by the media as she was the first woman to be elected governor in the history of Argentina (other women have served as provincial governors, but only as vice governors taking the place of governors who had previously resigned). The Tierra del Fuego election also received increased exposure in the Buenos Aires-based media because it was held on the same day as the mayoral elections that made Mauricio Macri the Chief of Government of the Argentine capital. Both elections resulted in the defeat of candidates explicitly backed by the officialism.

Same-sex marriage in Tierra del Fuego
On 29 December 2009, the first same-sex couple to marry in Latin America were married in Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego. Although Argentina's Civil Code at that time did not allow marriage between people of the same sex, Governor Rios issued a special decree allowing the couple to wed there. Same sex marriage became legal in Argentina a few months later, on July 15, 2010.

References

See also
Politics of Argentina

1964 births
Living people
People from Rosario, Santa Fe
National University of Rosario alumni
Argentine pharmacists
Women governors of provinces of Argentina
Members of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies elected in Tierra del Fuego
Civic Coalition ARI politicians
Governors of Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina
Women members of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies
20th-century Argentine women politicians
20th-century Argentine politicians
21st-century Argentine women politicians
21st-century Argentine politicians
Women pharmacists

Fabiana Ríos


Kvitsøy or Kvitsøya is the main island in Kvitsøy municipality in Rogaland county, Norway.  The  island is one of 167 islands and skerries that make up the municipality.  The island is home to most of the municipal residents, as well as the majority of the municipality's land area.  The main population centre on the island is the village of Ydstebøhamn on the southern coast.  The Kvitsøy Church and Kvitsøy Lighthouse are both located on the island.

The island is only accessible by boat.  The village of Ydstebøhamn has a ferry quay which receives regular ferries from the town of Skudeneshavn on the island of Karmøy across the Boknafjorden to the north, and to the village of Mekjarvik in Randaberg municipality across the Kvitsøyfjorden on the mainland to the south. The planned Rogfast undersea tunnel will connect Kvitsøy to the mainland to the north and south as part of the government's goal of providing a ferry-free European route E39 highway along the west coast of Norway.

See also
List of islands of Norway

References

Islands of Rogaland
Kvitsøy

Kvitsøy (island)


Benedict Biscop (–690), also called Biscop Baducing, was an Anglo-Saxon nobleman, monk and abbot. He was the founder and benefactor of the Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Abbeys. He had been a thane of King Oswiu of Northumbria and an officer in his court. Benedict Biscop is probably best known for the library he created at Jarrow and for being the mentor of the Venerable Bede. He was venerated as a saint after his death.

Life

Benedict Biscop was born . He was from a noble family of Northumbrian Angles. As a young man he was a member of the court of King Oswiu of Northumbria while still young. He was a rich nobleman who had a good deal of political power.  When he was twenty-five he gave up his secular life, his marriage and family and decided to join the Church. In 653 he went on a journey to Rome on a pilgrimage. He traveled with Wilfrid, who later became Bishop of York. He returned home shortly after that. He made a second trip to Rome in 664 and stayed about two months. He then retired to the island of Lérins and became a monk there. After two years he agreed to guide Theodore, the new Archbishop of Canterbury, from Rome to England. On arriving at Canterbury, Benedict became abbot of St Augustine's Abbey (also called the monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul, Canterbury).  He also made a trip to Vienne to acquire a collection of books. Biscop made a fourth journey to acquire more books in 679.

In 674 Biscop built a monastery known as Monkwearmouth. Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria gave him fifty hides of land at the mouth of the River Wear. This monastery would be dedicated to Saint Peter and came to be called St. Peter's at Monkwearmouth. Benedict wanted his monastery to be a center of both learning and religion. Benedict used Frankish stonemasons who he brought over to England to construct the monastery. Monkwearmouth was the first (and Jarrow the second) church structures to be built of stone in England. Benedict them brought over glassmakers from Frankia to fit the windows of the church and chapels with fine stained glass. They established a glass workshop there at Monkwearwolf. Within a year the monastery was completed. In 678 a letter from Pope Agatho exempted the monastery from external control. Benedict got all the furnishings, sacred vessels, decorations and vestments. Some he found locally while others he bought in Francia and Rome. In 680 Benedict made another trip to Rome. This time it was to escort back to England a new member of his monastery. This was Abbot John, Arch-cantor and abbot of the monastery of Saint Martin. He was to be their instructor for all the chants for the church year. These were taught exactly as they were sung at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.

In 682 King Ecgfrith gave another forty hides of land to Benedict for a second monastery. It was to be at the mouth of the River Trent at Jarrow. The stained glass for Jarrow came from the same monastery workshop at Monkwearmouth. The dedication ceremony for Jarrow abbey was held on 23 April 685. Named for Saint Paul when the sister monastery was completed Benedict assigned Ceolfrith to be the abbot. Bede, who was about ten years old at the time, was one of the monks who went with him.

To prevent any jealousy between his two houses Benedict deliberately made the two dependant on each other. That way they could be treated as a single monastery. He also decided there should be only one abbot to rule both houses. Benedict himself was the first abbot of Monkwearmouth-Jarrow and remained the abbot for sixteen years. Monkwearmouth and Jarrow together housed about 600 monks.

Bede commented on the character of Benedict Biscop. Benedict was modest and unassuming. He went about his daily tasks the same as abbot of his twin-monasteries as he had done as a monk. He liked to join the other monks in their duties whether it was in the kitchen or threshing grain. He enjoyed working in the bakery as much as working in the gardens. As the master he was gentle and kind in keeping order among the other monks. He took all his meals with the other monks and ate what they ate. Benedict slept in the same small cell as any other monk would. As he lay dying he asked for all the monks to assemble around him so he could say goodby. He died on 7 March 685. His assistant Ceolfrith replaced Benedict as abbot of both Monasteries.

Notes

References

Other websites
 St. Benedict Biscop
 St. Benedict Biscop, Abbot

620s births
680s deaths
English Christians
Anglo-Saxons
People from Northumberland

Benedict Biscop


Stephen Weston (1665–1742) was an English bishop and educator.

Life
He was born at Farnborough. He was educated at Eton College and King's College, Cambridge, where he was admitted in 1683, graduated B.A. in 1687, M.A. in 1690, and became a Fellow. He was an assistant-master at Eton from about 1690, and second master, 1693 to 1707. He was Fellow of Eton in 1707, and was awarded the degree of D.D. at Oxford, in 1711. He served as canon of Ely, from 1715 to 1717; and became vicar of Mapledurham in 1716.

He became Bishop of Exeter in 1724, through the influence of Robert Walpole who was a pupil of his at Eton. In 1732 he also assumed the title of Archdeacon of Exeter. He has a monument in the south aisle of Exeter Cathedral.

Family

His second son was the politician Edward Weston.

The physician Sir George Baker was his grandson.

Notes

1665 births
1742 deaths
Bishops of Exeter
Archdeacons of Exeter
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
People from West Berkshire District
People educated at Eton College
18th-century Church of England bishops

Stephen Weston


Sinchi Roca, the second of fourteen Inca rulers of Peru, was the son of the founder of the Kingdom of Cusco. Sinchi Roca's parents arose from the waters of Lake Titicaca. According to legendary belief, During his time as an emperor, Sinchi Roca led his family to live in the valley of Cusco, and shortly afterwards, he built a territorial division of his territory and became an initiator of the first census of the Inca population and then established a law which required all people of the Inca ethnic group living in the Kingdom of Cusco, to pierce their ears as a sign of nobility. Many years later, Sinchi Roca died and was buried near Cusco, and thus ended his reign. Mama Cura was the wife of Sinchi Roca.

Inca rulers
1230s births
1260s deaths

Sinchi Roca


In linguistics, boundedness is a semantic feature that relates to an understanding of the referential limits of a lexical item. Fundamentally, words that specify a spatio-temporal demarcation of their reference are considered bounded, while words that allow for a fluidly interpretable referent are considered unbounded. This distinction also relies on the divisibility of the lexical item's referent into distinct segments, or strata. Though this feature most often distinguishes countability in nouns and aspect in verbs, it applies more generally to any syntactic category.

Boundedness in verbs
For verbs, certain grammatical aspects express boundedness.

Boundedness is characteristic of perfective aspects such as the Ancient Greek aorist and the Spanish preterite. The simple past of English commonly expresses a bounded event ("I found out"), but sometimes expresses, for example, a stative ("I knew").

The perfective aspect often includes a contextual variation similar to an inchoative aspect or verb, and expresses the beginning of a state.

In German, the modal particle "mal" can be used to express that the speaker renounces to exactness and temporal unambiguity of the action of the verb, favoring the vagueness and non-commitment.

Boundedness in nouns
In order for a noun to be semantically bounded, its referent item, whether tangible or abstract, must have clearly defined limits on the extent and content of what it encompasses. Structurally, bounded and unbounded nouns correlate to a number of descriptive criteria. The first criterion is internal homogeneity; while the referent of bounded nouns can be composed of distinct segments, an unbounded noun typically refers to something which is considered a cohesive expanse. The next criteria are the interrelated concepts of expansibility and replicability. Because unbounded nouns refer to internally homogeneous referents, any part of their expansive referent could be analyzed as an instance of that noun. Further, any removal of the expanse does not change the applicability of the noun to its referent. These two qualities are not possible of bounded nouns.

Note that boundedness in nouns should not be thought of as synonymous with countability. Rather, boundedness is an underlying semantic distinction that motivates countability.

See also
Lexical aspect
Grammatical aspect

References

Grammar
Verb types

Boundedness (linguistics)


The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine () is the highest body of state executive power in Ukraine and serves as the cabinet of government.

In current Cabinet 2008 there are 20 Ministries and 25 seats in the Cabinet. The Cabinet is responsible to the President of Ukraine and is under the control of and accountable to the Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament).

It consists of the Prime Minister, the First Vice-Prime Minister, several Vice-Prime Ministers, the Minister of the Cabinet and many other Ministers, who head their assigned Ministries (departments).

The Cabinet is steered by the Prime Minister, chosen from the parliament with the President's formal proposal.

References

Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine