GeForce is a brand of graphics processing units (GPUs) designed by Nvidia. As of the GeForce 40 series, there have been eighteen iterations of the design. The first GeForce products were discrete GPUs designed for add-on graphics boards, intended for the high-margin PC gaming market, and later diversification of the product line covered all tiers of the PC graphics market, ranging from cost-sensitive GPUs integrated on motherboards, to mainstream add-in retail boards. Most recently, GeForce technology has been introduced into Nvidia's line of embedded application processors, designed for electronic handhelds and mobile handsets.

With respect to discrete GPUs, found in add-in graphics-boards, Nvidia's GeForce and AMD's Radeon GPUs are the only remaining competitors in the high-end market. GeForce GPUs are very dominant in the general-purpose graphics processor unit (GPGPU) market thanks to their proprietary CUDA architecture. GPGPU is expected to expand GPU functionality beyond the traditional rasterization of 3D graphics, to turn it into a high-performance computing device able to execute arbitrary programming code in the same way a CPU does, but with different strengths (highly parallel execution of straightforward calculations) and weaknesses (worse performance for complex branching code).

Name origin
The "GeForce" name originated from a contest held by Nvidia in early 1999 called "Name That Chip". The company called out to the public to name the successor to the RIVA TNT2 line of graphics boards. There were over 12,000 entries received and 7 winners received a RIVA TNT2 Ultra graphics card as a reward. Brian Burke, senior PR manager at Nvidia, told Maximum PC in 2002 that "GeForce" originally stood for "Geometry Force" since GeForce 256 was the first GPU for personal computers to calculate the transform-and-lighting geometry, offloading that function from the CPU.

Graphics processor generations

GeForce 256

GeForce 2 series

Launched in April 2000, the first GeForce2 (NV15) was another high-performance graphics chip. Nvidia moved to a twin texture processor per pipeline (4x2) design, doubling texture fillrate per clock compared to GeForce 256. Later, Nvidia released the GeForce2 MX (NV11), which offered performance similar to the GeForce 256 but at a fraction of the cost. The MX was a compelling value in the low/mid-range market segments and was popular with OEM PC manufacturers and users alike. The GeForce 2 Ultra was the high-end model in this series.

GeForce 3 series

Launched in February 2001, the GeForce3 (NV20) introduced programmable vertex and pixel shaders to the GeForce family and to consumer-level graphics accelerators. It had good overall performance and shader support, making it popular with enthusiasts although it never hit the midrange price point. The NV2A developed for the Microsoft Xbox game console is a derivative of the GeForce 3.

GeForce 4 series

Launched in February 2002, the then-high-end GeForce4 Ti (NV25) was mostly a refinement to the GeForce3. The biggest advancements included enhancements to anti-aliasing capabilities, an improved memory controller, a second vertex shader, and a manufacturing process size reduction to increase clock speeds. Another member of the GeForce 4 family, the budget GeForce4 MX was based on the GeForce2, with the addition of some features from the GeForce4 Ti. It targeted the value segment of the market and lacked pixel shaders.  Most of these models used the AGP 4× interface, but a few began the transition to AGP 8×.

GeForce FX series

Launched in 2003, the GeForce FX (NV30) was a huge change in architecture compared to its predecessors. The GPU was designed not only to support the new Shader Model 2 specification but also to perform well on older titles. However, initial models like the GeForce FX 5800 Ultra suffered from weak floating point shader performance and excessive heat which required infamously noisy two-slot cooling solutions. Products in this series carry the 5000 model number, as it is the fifth generation of the GeForce, though Nvidia marketed the cards as GeForce FX instead of GeForce 5 to show off "the dawn of cinematic rendering".

GeForce 6 series

Launched in April 2004, the GeForce 6 (NV40) added Shader Model 3.0 support to the GeForce family, while correcting the weak floating point shader performance of its predecessor. It also implemented high-dynamic-range imaging and introduced SLI (Scalable Link Interface) and PureVideo capability (integrated partial hardware MPEG-2, VC-1, Windows Media Video, and H.264 decoding and fully accelerated video post-processing).

GeForce 7 series

The seventh generation GeForce (G70/NV47) was launched in June 2005 and was the last Nvidia video card series that could support the AGP bus. The design was a refined version of GeForce 6, with the major improvements being a widened pipeline and an increase in clock speed. The GeForce 7 also offers new transparency supersampling and transparency multisampling anti-aliasing modes (TSAA and TMAA). These new anti-aliasing modes were later enabled for the GeForce 6 series as well.  The GeForce 7950GT featured the highest performance GPU with an AGP interface in the Nvidia line. This era began the transition to the PCI-Express interface.

A 128-bit, 8 ROP variant of the 7800 GTX, called the RSX 'Reality Synthesizer', is used as the main GPU in the Sony PlayStation 3.

GeForce 8 series

Released on November 8, 2006, the eighth-generation GeForce (originally called G80) was the first ever GPU to fully support Direct3D 10. Manufactured using a 90 nm process and built around the new Tesla microarchitecture, it implemented the unified shader model.  Initially just the 8800GTX model was launched, while the GTS variant was released months into the product line's life, and it took nearly six months for mid-range and OEM/mainstream cards to be integrated into the 8 series. The die shrink down to 65 nm and a revision to the G80 design, codenamed G92, were implemented into the 8 series with the 8800GS, 8800GT and 8800GTS-512, first released on October 29, 2007, almost one whole year after the initial G80 release.

GeForce 9 series and 100 series

The first product was released on February 21, 2008. Not even four months older than the initial G92 release, all 9-series designs are simply revisions to existing late 8-series products. The 9800GX2 uses two G92 GPUs, as used in later 8800 cards, in a dual PCB configuration while still only requiring a single PCI-Express 16x slot. The 9800GX2 utilizes two separate 256-bit memory busses, one for each GPU and its respective 512 MB of memory, which equates to an overall of 1 GB of memory on the card (although the SLI configuration of the chips necessitates mirroring the frame buffer between the two chips, thus effectively halving the memory performance of a 256-bit/512MB configuration). The later 9800GTX features a single G92 GPU, 256-bit data bus, and 512 MB of GDDR3 memory.

Prior to the release, no concrete information was known except that the officials claimed the next generation products had close to 1 TFLOPS processing power with the GPU cores still being manufactured in the 65 nm process, and reports about Nvidia downplaying the significance of Direct3D 10.1. In March 2009, several sources reported that Nvidia had quietly launched a new series of GeForce products, namely the GeForce 100 Series, which consists of rebadged 9 Series parts. GeForce 100 series products were not available for individual purchase.

GeForce 200 series and 300 series

Based on the GT200 graphics processor consisting of 1.4 billion transistors, codenamed Tesla, the 200 series was launched on June 16, 2008. The next generation of the GeForce series takes the card-naming scheme in a new direction, by replacing the series number (such as 8800 for 8-series cards) with the GTX or GTS suffix (which used to go at the end of card names, denoting their 'rank' among other similar models), and then adding model-numbers such as 260 and 280 after that. The series features the new GT200 core on a 65nm die. The first products were the GeForce GTX 260 and the more expensive GeForce GTX 280. The GeForce 310 was released on November 27, 2009, which is a rebrand of GeForce 210. The 300 series cards are rebranded DirectX 10.1 compatible GPUs from the 200 series, which were not available for individual purchase.

GeForce 400 series and 500 series

On April 7, 2010, Nvidia released the GeForce GTX 470 and GTX 480, the first cards based on the new Fermi architecture, codenamed GF100; they were the first Nvidia GPUs to utilize 1 GB or more of GDDR5 memory. The GTX 470 and GTX 480 were heavily criticized due to high power use, high temperatures, and very loud noise that were not balanced by the performance offered, even though the GTX 480 was the fastest DirectX 11 card as of its introduction.

In November 2010, Nvidia released a new flagship GPU based on an enhanced GF100 architecture (GF110) called the GTX 580. It featured higher performance, less power utilization, heat and noise than the preceding GTX 480. This GPU received much better reviews than the GTX 480. Nvidia later also released the GTX 590, which packs two GF110 GPUs on a single card.

GeForce 600 series, 700 series and 800M series

In September 2010, Nvidia announced that the successor to Fermi microarchitecture would be the Kepler microarchitecture, manufactured with the TSMC 28 nm fabrication process. Earlier, Nvidia had been contracted to supply their top-end GK110 cores for use in Oak Ridge National Laboratory's "Titan" supercomputer, leading to a shortage of GK110 cores.  After AMD launched their own annual refresh in early 2012, the Radeon HD 7000 series, Nvidia began the release of the GeForce 600 series in March 2012. The GK104 core, originally intended for their mid-range segment of their lineup, became the flagship GTX 680.  It introduced significant improvements in performance, heat, and power efficiency compared to the Fermi architecture and closely matched AMD's flagship Radeon HD 7970.  It was quickly followed by the dual-GK104 GTX 690 and the GTX 670, which featured only a slightly cut-down GK104 core and was very close in performance to the GTX 680.

With the GTX Titan, Nvidia also released GPU Boost 2.0, which would allow the GPU clock speed to increase indefinitely until a user-set temperature limit was reached without passing a user-specified maximum fan speed. The final GeForce 600 series release was the GTX 650 Ti BOOST based on the GK106 core, in response to AMD's Radeon HD 7790 release. At the end of May 2013, Nvidia announced the 700 series, which was still based on the Kepler architecture, however it featured a GK110-based card at the top of the lineup. The GTX 780 was a slightly cut-down Titan that achieved nearly the same performance for two-thirds of the price.  It featured the same advanced reference cooler design, but did not have the unlocked double-precision cores and was equipped with 3 GB of memory.

At the same time, Nvidia announced ShadowPlay, a screen capture solution that used an integrated H.264 encoder built into the Kepler architecture that Nvidia had not revealed previously. It could be used to record gameplay without a capture card, and with negligible performance decrease compared to software recording solutions, and was available even on the previous generation GeForce 600 series cards.  The software beta for ShadowPlay, however, experienced multiple delays and would not be released until the end of October 2013. A week after the release of the GTX 780, Nvidia announced the GTX 770 to be a rebrand of the GTX 680. It was followed by the GTX 760 shortly after, which was also based on the GK104 core and similar to the GTX 660 Ti.  No more 700 series cards were set for release in 2013, although Nvidia announced G-Sync, another feature of the Kepler architecture that Nvidia had left unmentioned, which allowed the GPU to dynamically control the refresh rate of G-Sync-compatible monitors which would release in 2014, to combat tearing and judder. However, in October, AMD released the R9 290X, which came in at $100 less than the GTX 780. In response, Nvidia slashed the price of the GTX 780 by $150 and released the GTX 780 Ti, which featured a full 2880-core GK110 core even more powerful than the GTX Titan, along with enhancements to the power delivery system which improved overclocking, and managed to pull ahead of AMD's new release.

The GeForce 800M series consists of rebranded 700M series parts based on the Kepler architecture and some lower-end parts based on the newer Maxwell architecture.

GeForce 900 series

In March 2013, Nvidia announced that the successor to Kepler would be the Maxwell microarchitecture. It was released in September 2014, with the GM10x series chips, emphasizing the new power efficiency architectural improvements in OEM, and low TDP products in desktop GTX 750/750 ti, and mobile GTX 850M/860M. Later that year Nvidia pushed the TDP with the GM20x chips for power users, skipping the 800 series for desktop entirely, with the 900 series of GPUs.

This was the last GeForce series to support analog video output through DVI-I. Although, analog display adapters exist and are able to convert a digital Display Port, HDMI, or DVI-D (Digital).

GeForce 10 series

In March 2014, Nvidia announced that the successor to Maxwell would be the Pascal microarchitecture; announced on 6 May 2016 and released on 27 May 2016. Architectural improvements include the following:
 In Pascal, an SM (streaming multiprocessor) consists of 128 CUDA cores. Kepler packed 192, Fermi 32 and Tesla only 8 CUDA cores into an SM; the GP100 SM is partitioned into two processing blocks, each having 32 single-precision CUDA Cores, an instruction buffer, a warp scheduler, 2 texture mapping units and 2 dispatch units.
 GDDR5X New memory standard supporting 10Gbit/s data rates and an updated memory controller. Only the Nvidia Titan X (and Titan Xp), GTX 1080, GTX 1080 Ti, and GTX 1060 (6 GB Version) support GDDR5X. The GTX 1070 Ti, GTX 1070, GTX 1060 (3GB version), GTX 1050 Ti, and GTX 1050 use GDDR5.
 Unified memory A memory architecture, where the CPU and GPU can access both main system memory and memory on the graphics card with the help of a technology called "Page Migration Engine".
 NVLink A high-bandwidth bus between the CPU and GPU, and between multiple GPUs. Allows much higher transfer speeds than those achievable by using PCI Express; estimated to provide between 80 and 200 GB/s.
 16-bit (FP16) floating-point operations can be executed at twice the rate of 32-bit floating-point operations ("single precision") and 64-bit floating-point operations ("double precision") executed at half the rate of 32-bit floating point operations (Maxwell 1/32 rate).
 More advanced process node, TSMC 12 nm instead of the older TSMC 28 nm

GeForce 20 series and 16 series

In August 2018, Nvidia announced the GeForce successor to Pascal. The new microarchitecture name was revealed as "Turing" at the Siggraph 2018 conference. This new GPU microarchitecture is aimed to accelerate the real-time ray tracing support and AI Inferencing. It features a new Ray Tracing unit (RT Core) which can dedicate processors to the ray tracing in hardware. It supports the DXR extension in Microsoft DirectX 12. Nvidia claims the new architecture is up to 6 times faster than the older Pascal architecture. A whole new Tensor core design since Volta introduces AI deep learning acceleration, which allows the utilisation of DLSS (Deep Learning Super Sampling), a new form of anti-aliasing that uses AI to provide crisper imagery with less impact on performance. It also changes its integer execution unit which can execute in parallel with the floating point data path. A new unified cache architecture which doubles its bandwidth compared with previous generations was also announced.

The new GPUs were revealed as the Quadro RTX 8000, Quadro RTX 6000 and Quadro RTX 5000. The high end Quadro RTX 8000 features 4,608 CUDA cores and 576 Tensor cores with 48GB of VRAM.  Later during the Gamescom press conference, Nvidia's CEO Jensen Huang, unveiled the new GeForce RTX series with RTX 2080 Ti, 2080, and 2070 that will use the Turing architecture. The first Turing cards were slated to ship to consumers on September 20, 2018. Nvidia announced the RTX 2060 on January 6, 2019, at CES 2019.

On July 2, 2019, Nvidia announced the GeForce RTX Super line of cards, a 20 series refresh which comprises higher-spec versions of the RTX 2060, 2070 and 2080. The RTX 2070 and 2080 were discontinued.

In February 2019, Nvidia announced the GeForce 16 series. It is based on the same Turing architecture used in the GeForce 20 series, but disabling the Tensor (AI) and RT (ray tracing) cores to provide more affordable graphic cards for gamers while still attaining a higher performance compared to respective cards of the previous GeForce generations.

Like the RTX Super refresh, Nvidia on October 29, 2019, announced the GTX 1650 Super and 1660 Super cards, which replaced their non-Super counterparts.

On June 28, 2022, Nvidia quietly released their GTX 1630 card, which was meant for low-end gamers.

GeForce 30 series

Nvidia officially announced at the GeForce Special Event that the successor to GeForce 20 series will be the 30 series, it is built on the Ampere microarchitecture. The GeForce Special Event introduced took place on September 1, 2020, and set September 17th as the official release date for the RTX 3080 GPU, September 24th for the RTX 3090 GPU and October 29th for the RTX 3070 GPU. With the latest GPU launch being the RTX 3090 Ti. The RTX 3090 Ti is the highest-end Nvidia GPU on the Ampere microarchitecture, it features a fully unlocked GA102 die built on the Samsung 8 nm node due to supply shortages with TSMC. The RTX 3090 Ti has 10,752 CUDA cores, 336 Tensor cores and texture mapping units, 112 ROPs, 84 RT cores, and 24 gigabytes of GDDR6X memory with a 384-bit bus. When compared to the RTX 2080 Ti, the 3090 Ti has 6,400 more CUDA cores. Due to the global chip shortage, the 30 series was controversial as scalpers and high demand meant that GPU prices skyrocketed for the 30 series and the AMD RX 6000 series.

GeForce 40 series (Current)

On September 20, 2022, NVIDIA announced its GeForce 40 Series graphics cards. These came out as the RTX 4090, on October 12, 2022, the RTX 4080, on November 16, 2022, the RTX 4070 Ti, on January 3, 2023, with the RTX 4070, on April 13, 2023, and the RTX 4060 Ti on May 24, 2023, and the RTX 4060, following in July of this year. More 40-series are due this year, such as the RTX 4050. These are built on the Ada Lovelace architecture, with current part numbers being, "AD102", "AD103", "AD104" "AD106" and "AD107". The RTX 4090 is currently the fastest chip for the mainstream market that has been released by a major company, consisting of around 16,384 CUDA cores, boost clocks of 2.2 / 2.5 GHz, 24 GB of GDDR6X, a 384-bit memory bus, 128 3rd gen RT cores, 512 4th gen Tensor cores, DLSS 3.0 and a TDP of 450W.

Variants

Mobile GPUs

Since the GeForce 2 series, Nvidia has produced a number of graphics chipsets for notebook computers under the GeForce Go branding. Most of the features present in the desktop counterparts are present in the mobile ones. These GPUs are generally optimized for lower power consumption and less heat output in order to be used in notebook PCs and small desktops.

Beginning with the GeForce 8 series, the GeForce Go brand was discontinued and the mobile GPUs were integrated with the main line of GeForce GPUs, but their name suffixed with an M. This ended in 2016 with the launch of the laptop GeForce 10 series – Nvidia dropped the M suffix, opting to unify the branding between their desktop and laptop GPU offerings, as notebook Pascal GPUs are almost as powerful as their desktop counterparts (something Nvidia tested with their "desktop-class" notebook GTX 980 GPU back in 2015).

The GeForce MX brand, previously used by Nvidia for their entry-level desktop GPUs, was revived in 2017 with the release of the GeForce MX150 for notebooks. The MX150 is based on the same Pascal GP108 GPU as used on the desktop GT 1030, and was quietly released in June 2017.

Small form factor GPUs
Similar to the mobile GPUs, Nvidia also released a few GPUs in "small form factor" format, for use in all-in-one desktops. These GPUs are suffixed with an S, similar to the M used for mobile products.

Integrated desktop motherboard GPUs
Beginning with the nForce 4, Nvidia started including onboard graphics solutions in their motherboard chipsets. These onboard graphics solutions were called mGPUs (motherboard GPUs). Nvidia discontinued the nForce range, including these mGPUs, in 2009.

After the nForce range was discontinued, Nvidia released their Ion line in 2009, which consisted of an Intel Atom CPU partnered with a low-end GeForce 9 series GPU, fixed on the motherboard. Nvidia released an upgraded Ion 2 in 2010, this time containing a low-end GeForce 300 series GPU.

Nomenclature
From the GeForce 4 series until the GeForce 9 series, the naming scheme below is used.

Since the release of the GeForce 100 series of GPUs, Nvidia changed their product naming scheme to the one below.

 Earlier cards such as the GeForce4 follow a similar pattern.
 cf. Nvidia's Performance Graph here.

Graphics device drivers

Official proprietary
Nvidia develops and publishes GeForce drivers for Windows 10 x86/x86-64 and later, Linux x86/x86-64/ARMv7-A, OS X 10.5 and later, Solaris x86/x86-64 and FreeBSD x86/x86-64. A current version can be downloaded from Nvidia and most Linux distributions contain it in their own repositories. Nvidia GeForce driver 340.24 from 8 July 2014 supports the EGL interface enabling support for Wayland in conjunction with this driver. This may be different for the Nvidia Quadro brand, which is based on identical hardware but features OpenGL-certified graphics device drivers. On the same day the Vulkan graphics API was publicly released, Nvidia released drivers that fully supported it. Nvidia has released drivers with optimizations for specific video games concurrent with their release since 2014, having released 150 drivers supporting 400 games in April 2022.

Basic support for the DRM mode-setting interface in the form of a new kernel module named nvidia-modeset.ko has been available since version 358.09 beta.
The support Nvidia's display controller on the supported GPUs is centralized in nvidia-modeset.ko. Traditional display interactions (X11 modesets, OpenGL SwapBuffers, VDPAU presentation, SLI, stereo, framelock, G-Sync, etc.) initiate from the various user-mode driver components and flow to nvidia-modeset.ko.

In May 2022, Nvidia announced that it would release a partially open source driver for the Turing architecture and newer, in order to enhance the ability for it to be packaged as part of Linux distributions. At launch Nvidia considered the driver to be alpha quality for consumer GPUs, and production ready for datacenter GPUs. Currently the userspace components of the driver (including OpenGL, Vulkan, and CUDA) remain proprietary. In addition, the open source components of the driver are a wrapper for the GPU System Processor (GSP) firmware, a binary blob.

Third-party free and open-source

Community-created, free and open-source drivers exist as an alternative to the drivers released by Nvidia.  Open-source drivers are developed primarily for Linux, however there may be ports to other operating systems.  The most prominent alternative driver is the reverse-engineered free and open-source nouveau graphics device driver.  Nvidia has publicly announced to not provide any support for such additional device drivers for their products, although Nvidia has contributed code to the Nouveau driver.

Free and open-source drivers support a large portion (but not all) of the features available in GeForce-branded cards.  For example,  nouveau driver lacks support for the GPU and memory clock frequency adjustments, and for associated dynamic power management. Also, Nvidia's proprietary drivers consistently perform better than nouveau in various benchmarks.  However,  and version 3.16 of the Linux kernel mainline, contributions by Nvidia allowed partial support for GPU and memory clock frequency adjustments to be implemented.

Licensing and privacy issues

The license has common terms against reverse engineering and copying, and it disclaims warranties and liability.

Starting in 2016 the GeFORCE license says Nvidia "SOFTWARE may access, collect non-personally identifiable information about, update, and configure Customer's system in order to properly optimize such system for use with the SOFTWARE." The privacy notice goes on to say, "We are not able to respond to "Do Not Track" signals set by a browser at this time. We also permit third party online advertising networks and social media companies to collect information... We may combine personal information that we collect about you with the browsing and tracking information collected by these [cookies and beacons] technologies."

The software configures the user's system to optimize its use, and the license says, "NVIDIA will have no responsibility for any damage or loss to such system (including loss of data or access) arising from or relating to (a) any changes to the configuration, application settings, environment variables, registry, drivers, BIOS, or other attributes of the system (or any part of such system) initiated through the SOFTWARE".

GeForce Experience

GeForce Experience is a program containing several tools including Nvidia ShadowPlay.

Due to a serious security vulnerability before the March 26, 2019 security update, users of GeForce Experience were vulnerable to remote code execution, denial of service, and privilege escalation attacks.
When installing new drivers, GeForce Experience may force the system to restart after a 60-second countdown, without giving the user any choice.

References
61. Driver Nvidia GeForce no setting

Driver Nvidia GeForce no setting

External links
 GeForce product page on Nvidia's website
 GeForce powered games on Nvidia's website

Nvidia
Nvidia graphics processors
Graphics cards
Companies' terms of service

GeForce


White Plains is a city in Westchester County, New York, United States. As of 2010, 56,853 people live in White Plains.

White Plains is around 30 to 45 minutes north of Manhattan, depending on what type of train taken. This ideal location adds to the increasing appeal of White Plains.

Cities in New York (state)
County seats in New York (state)

White Plains, New York


Ross Donoghue (born July 19, 1959) is a former middle-distance runner who specialized in the 1500 meters and the mile. He first rose to prominence as a standout high school runner with Bishop Cunningham High School from Oswego, New York. He was recruited by Villanova, where he would establish himself as one of the most prolific 1500-meter and mile-specialists in the school's history. Donoghue represented the United States at the 1983 Pan American Games, where he finished second overall in the men's 1500 meters. Over the course of his competitive career, he ran under four minutes in the mile on eight occasions.

Running career

High school
Donoghue attended Bishop Cunningham High School up to his graduation in the class of 1977. On November 20, 1976, he ran his last cross country race as a high schooler at the New York State Federation meet, where he placed first out of 550 runners on a 3-mile course, recording a time of 15:06.

Collegiate
Donoghue was recruited by Villanova University, a school with an emphasis on their track program. During his spell at Villanova, Donoghue was the men's 1500 meter Big East (both indoor and outdoor) champion in 1982. Although he specialized in the 1500 and the mile, he also had experience in the shorter distances, and recorded a personal best of 1:48.0 in the 800 meters while at Villanova.

Post-collegiate
Donoghue continued to train for the 1500 meters and the mile after college, and was called up to the US track team for the 1983 Pan American Games. There he finished second in the 1500 meters ahead of countryman Chuck Aragon, but was edged out by Brazilian champion Agberto Guimarães. He ran at the 1984 US Olympic Trials in the men's 1500 meters, won his preliminary heat, and subsequently pulled out of the finals in the trials due to a pain in the heel.

References

American male middle-distance runners
Villanova Wildcats men's track and field athletes
1959 births
Living people
Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States
Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
Athletes (track and field) at the 1983 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1983 Pan American Games

Ross Donoghue


The predominant religion in Somalia is Islam, with tiny minorities of Christians, traditional African religions and others.

State religion

Islam

Most residents of Somalia are Muslims, of which some sources state that Sunnism is the strand practised by 99% of the population, whereof in particular the  Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence is practiced. However, a Pew Research Center survey of its Somali-majority northwestern neighbour Djibouti reported a creed breakdown of Muslims which was reported as 77% adhering to Sunnism, 8% as non-denominational Muslim, 2% as Shia, 13% percent refusing to answer, and a further report inclusive of Somali Region stipulating 2% adherence to a minority sect (e.g. Ibadism, Quranism etc.). Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam, is also well-established, with many local jama'a (zawiya) or congregations of the various tariiqa or Sufi orders. Article 3 of the Provisional Constitution of Somalia defines Islam as the state religion of the Federal Republic of Somalia, and Islamic sharia as the basic source for national legislation. It also stipulates that no law that is inconsistent with the basic tenets of Shari'a can be enacted. Article 11 guarantees equal rights and freedom from persecution for all citizens before the law regardless of religion. Additionally, Article 17 protects freedom of religion.

History

Bronze age
As the Horn was located to the east of sun-worshipping Egypt, the Horn being associated with the sunrise was then referred to as God's land during the Puntite period, arguably referring to deity's such as Ra. For much of the 1st millennium BC and 1st millennium AD, a predominant religion practised by proto-Somalis as well as other Cushites and Horners was Waaq religion , although in the post-classical period, various Abrahamic faiths became increasingly prevalent.

Classical era
The native standard derivation suffixes to signify adherence to the Waaqist religion would produce Waaqnimo as the uncountable noun, and waaqyahan as the agent noun. Sources differ on whether Waaqism was henotheistic or monotheistic. Many of the exact ancient practices of waaqism are to some extent speculative, however analysts have used various methods to envisage or conceptualize the ancient inferences of the religion, including explicating from the analogous Oromo concept of Waaqeffannaa which has in many ways overlaps with Waaqism. Other methods include explicating from remnant spiritual practises which are sometimes inferred to in precolonial Somali poetry dating to around the turn of the 19th century, or through the usage of retrospection via its appearance in several Somali proper nouns, such as in the title of clan names such as Jidwaaq (meaning path of Waaq), or in place names such as Caabudwaaq (meaning worship Waaq). Contemporary Somali views on the ancient religion vary from aversiveness, to a perception that its monotheistic aspects ameliorated conversions to Abrahamic religions over the course of the 1st and 2nd millennium, to an intuition that some Waaqist practises linger within Somali culture in the form of syncretism. There was a marked and pronounced difference in prehistoric forms of worship among Low-land Cushitic Horners, and that of the ancient proto-Somali Waaqists. Whereas pre-historic archeological finds such as that at Laas Geel are suggestive of panentheistic polytheism and naturalistic pantheism which included the worship of cattle, the subsequent literate period during the antiquity and the classical era wherein Waaqism became a predominant religion among the indigenous proto-Somalis appear to leave no traces of such forms of worship. As it is widely acknowledged that Abrahamic religions had reached the Horn of Africa concurrently with other parts of the world, this could suggest that Abrahamic tenets such as monotheism, non-tangible divinity, an ultimate destiny and omniscience may have influenced adaptations or configurations within Waaqism. Elements of Somali culture, which have been suspected of being a ligature or remnant of ancient Waaqism and overtly observed surviving into the 19th century include reverence-related aspects of qabiilism (associated with ancestor veneration), or in the South West state, former incorporations into dabshid, which used to include several practises associated with fire. However, some Somali clans more observant of mystical rites such as Madhiban are covert and secretive about their ancient Somali culture. Some of the religious practises dating back to the Waaq or classical era survive into the present, including mingis, a pre-islamic demon-cleansing ritual. However, mingis-practitioners in Somalia do face security risks. In July 2020, five people were killed in the country allegedly due to their practise of mingis.

Medieval era
Islam entered the region very early on, shortly after the hijra. The two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in the country, in the city of Zeila, which Ibn Battuta described as a Shiite city in the 14th century, and remained as such until Ottoman expansionism attempted to incorporate Horner and/or Cushite Sultans along the Horn African coast in the late 16th century. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city, suggesting that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties, who also ruled over the similarly-established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south.

There are two theories about when Somalis began adopting Islam. One states that Islam probably arrived in Somalia in the 7th-century when followers of Muhammad came over to escape persecution from the Quraysh tribe in Mecca. An alternate theory states that Islam was brought to the coastal settlements of Somalia between the 7th and the 10th century by seafaring Arab and Persian merchants. The Sunni-Shia split within Islam occurred before Islam spread among Somalis, and Sunnis constitute the overwhelming majority of contemporary Somalis. Somali Sufi religious orders (tariqa) – the Qadiriyya, the Ahmadiya and the Salihiyya – in the form of Muslim brotherhoods have played a major role in Somali Islam and the modern era history of Somalia.

Of the three orders, the less strict Qaadiriya tariqa is the oldest, and it is the sect to which most Somalis belonged. The Qaadiriya order is named after Shaikh Muhiuddin Abdul Qadir Gilani of Baghdad. I. M. Lewis states that Qaadiriya has a high reputation for maintaining a higher standard of Islamic instruction than its rivals.

Ahmadiyah and its sub-sect Salihiyyah preached a puritanical form of Islam, and have rejected the popular Sufi practice of tawassul (visiting the tombs of saints to ask mediation). B. G. Martin states that these two orders shared some of the views of the Wahhabis of Arabia. The religious differences between Qaadiriya and Salihiyya were controversial, as Salihis continued to oppose the Qadiris' practice of tawassul, and claimed the act to be invalid and improper religious activity.

The Ahmadiya has the smallest number of adherents of the three orders.

Qur'anic schools (also known as dugsi) remain the basic system of traditional religious instruction in Somalia. It is delivered in Arabic. They provide Islamic education for children. According to the UNICEF, the dugsi system, where the content is based on the Quran, teaches the greatest number of students and enjoys high parental support, is oftentimes the only system accessible to nomadic Somalis as compared to urban areas. A study from 1993 found that "unlike in primary schools where gender disparity is enormous, around 40 per cent of Qur'anic school pupils are girls; but the teaching staff have minimum or no qualification necessary to ensure intellectual development of children." To address these concerns, the Somali government subsequently established the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs, under which Qur'anic education is now regulated.

Somali community has produced important Muslim figures over the centuries, many of whom have significantly shaped the course of Islamic learning and practice in the Horn of Africa and the Muslim world.

Minorities

Christianity

Christianity is a minority religion in Somalia, with no more than 1,000 practitioners (about 0.01% of the population). According to estimates of the Diocese of Mogadishu (the territory of which coincides with the country) there were only about 100 Catholic practitioners in Somalia in 2004.

Christianity came to coastal areas of the Somalia in 7th century.

In 1913, during the early part of the colonial era, there were virtually no Christians in the Somali territories, with only about 100–200 followers coming from the schools and orphanages of the few Catholic missions in the British Somaliland protectorate. There were also no known Catholic missions in Italian Somaliland during the same period. In the 1970s, during the reign of Somalia's then Marxist government, church-run schools were closed and missionaries sent home. There has been no archbishop in the country since 1989, and the cathedral in Mogadishu was severely damaged during the civil war.

As of 2021 AD, there are at least some known local Christians in Somaliland.

Traditional Faith
According to the Pew Research Center, less than 0.01% of Somalia's population in 2010 were adherents of traditional or folk religions. These mainly consisted of some non-Somali ethnic minority groups in the southern parts of the country, who practice animism. In the case of the Bantu, these religious traditions were inherited from their ancestors in Southeast Africa, and include the practice of possession dances and the use of magic and curses. Waaqism was an ancient traditional religion practised by many Horners, in particular by Cushites. As there has not been a comprehensive survey, it is unclear to what extent Somali Waaqists exist in the contemporary period.

Other
According to the Pew Research Center, less than 0.01% of Somalia's population in 2010 were adherents of Hinduism, Buddhism, or unaffiliated with any religion. One correspondent has discussed how irreligiosity is an increasing phenomenon among Somalis. Although the bulk of this sentiment comes from Somalis in the diaspora, there are also many Somalis from their home country, Somalia, who discuss their disbelief in religion, although covertly. These discussions primarily revolve around the existence of God. It has been theorized that increased apostasy, irreligiosity and detachment from religion stems from misgivings and despair at the existence of radical Salafist groups such as Daa'ish and Shabab.

Freedom of religion

The provisional constitution of Somalia provides for the right of individuals to practice their religion, makes Islam the state religion, prohibits the propagation of any religion other than Islam (although it does not explicitly ban conversion), and stipulates all laws must comply with the general principles of Muslim religious law. No exemptions from application of sharia legal principles exist for non-Muslims. The federal government of Somalia had limited ability to implement its laws beyond greater Mogadishu; most other areas of Somalia were outside its control. The provisional constitution requires the president, but not other office holders, to be Muslim. There are no public places of worship for non-Muslims in the country, outside of the international airport.

Due to the Somali Civil War, the enforcement of laws pertaining to religion by the various autonomous governments in the region is inconsistent. Generally, the judiciary in most areas relies on xeer (traditional and customary law), sharia, and the penal code.

In 2023, the country was scored zero out of 4 for religious freedom. In the same year, the country was ranked as the second worst place in the world to be a Christian, just behind North Korea.

Societal attitudes
There is a strong societal pressure to adhere to Sunni traditions. Conversion from Islam to another religion has been socially unacceptable in all areas of Somalia.  According to the federal Ministry of Religious Affairs, more than 99 percent of the population is Sunni Muslim. In 2022, members of other religious groups combined constitute less than 1 percent of the population and include a small Christian community, a small Sufi Muslim community, and an unknown number of Shia Muslims, as well as Hindus, Buddhists, Jews and some animists.

See also

 Christianity in Somalia
 Islam in Somalia
 Demographics of Somalia

References

Religion in Somalia


A run out is a way of getting a batter out in cricket. It involves hitting a wicket with the ball when no batsman is in the ground of that wicket; the batsman who is out is the one who is nearest to that ground, or if both batsmen are in a ground, the batsman who reached that ground second. Run outs can happen when batters are trying to score runs by running between the two grounds.

Mankading
When a bowler is readying himself to bowl, the ball becomes live; if the nonstriker leaves the ground at the bowler's end before the bowler has thrown the ball, then the bowler can hit the wicket in this ground with the ball to "mankad" the nonstriker.

Stumping
A stumping is a special type of run out in which the wicketkeeper (the fielder with gloves behind the striking batter) hits the wicket in the ground at the striker's end with the ball when the striker is out of that ground.

Stumpings are not allowed on no-balls; a striker who is not trying to run can only be run out on a no-ball if the wicketkeeper has another fielder help him.

References

Cricket

Run out


Sir William Fenwick, 2nd Baronet (c. 1617 – 9 July 1676), was an English landowner and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1645 and 1676.

Fenwick was the eldest surviving son of Sir John Fenwick, 1st Baronet of Wallington Hall, Northumberland and his second wife Grace Loraine and was educated at Morpeth Grammar School and Christ's College, Cambridge, before entering Gray's Inn. He succeeded his father circa 1658, his half-brother John having been killed at Marston Moor in 1644.

He sat as member of parliament for Northumberland between 1645 and 1648, and in 1654, 1656, 1659, 1660 and from 1661 to 1676.

He married Jane, the daughter of Henry Stapilton of Wighill, Yorkshire; they had a son and two daughters. He was succeeded by his son Sir John Fenwick, 3rd Baronet.

References

1676 deaths
Baronets in the Baronetage of England
Members of Gray's Inn
Year of birth uncertain
English MPs 1640–1648
English MPs 1654–1655
English MPs 1656–1658
English MPs 1659
English MPs 1660
English MPs 1661–1679
People from Northumberland
People educated at Morpeth School
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
1617 births

Sir William Fenwick, 2nd Baronet


Virgil Keel Fox (May 3, 1912 in Princeton, Illinois – October 25, 1980 in Palm Beach, Florida) was an American organist, known especially for his years as organist at Riverside Church in New York City, from 1946 to 1965, and his flamboyant "Heavy Organ" concerts of the music of Bach in the 1970s, staged complete with light shows. His many recordings made on the RCA Victor and Capitol labels, mostly in the 1950s and 1960s, have been remastered and re-released on compact disc in recent years. They continue to be widely available in mainstream music stores.

Birth and studies

Virgil Fox was born on May 3, 1912, in Princeton, Illinois, to Miles and Birdie Fox, a farming family. Showing musical talent at an early age, he began playing the organ for church services as a ten-year old as well as at a local movie theater "APOLLO THEATER" owned by his father. Four years later, Fox made his concert debut before an audience of 2,500 at Withrow High School in Cincinnati, Ohio. The program included one of the mainstays of 19th-century organ music: Mendelssohn's Sonata No. 1 in F minor.

From 1926 to 1930, he studied in Chicago under German-born organist-composer Wilhelm Middelschulte. His other principal teachers were Hugh Price, Louis Robert, and (once he had moved to France) Louis Vierne and Marcel Dupré. He was an alumnus of the Peabody Institute of Music in Baltimore, where he became the first student to complete the course for the Artist's Diploma within a year, at age 18.

Early career
Beginning in 1936, Fox was organist at Brown Memorial Presbyterian Church in Baltimore while teaching at Peabody. During August and September, 1938, he played in Great Britain and Germany; Fox was the first non-German organist given permission to perform publicly in the Thomaskirche in Leipzig—a special occasion, since Bach served as cantor of the Thomaskirche until his death in 1750.

Military service
During World War II, Fox enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces and took a leave of absence from Brown Memorial Presbyterian Church in Baltimore and the Peabody. He was promoted to staff sergeant and played various recitals and services at the request of Eleanor Roosevelt. He served on her Home Hospitality Committee and entertained returning troops who were in Walter Reed Hospital, by playing a piano he pushed around, and joining in with two others. They sang funny and rather raunchy songs to the bedridden. After having played more than 600 concerts while on duty, he was discharged from the Army Air Forces in 1946.

Riverside Church

Fox then served as organist at the prominent Riverside Church in New York City, from 1946 to 1965. The church's original Hook and Hastings organ installed in 1930 was rebuilt at his insistence by famed organ builder G. Donald Harrison, Master Builder of the Mormon Tabernacle organ plus others. Under his direction, the Riverside organ was expanded to become one of the largest in North America. His extemporaneous hymn accompaniments at Riverside's Sunday services and concert performances were widely acclaimed, and fans would wait after church services for hours to meet him. Recordings made during this period brought his playing to larger audiences. In 1965, Fox left Riverside Church to devote himself to concertizing full-time.

Concert tours
From 1970 until 1978, Fox performed his famous "Heavy Organ" concerts in auditoriums, popular music concert halls, and other nontraditional organ music venues, touring around the United States with a rented electronic Rodgers Touring Organ. Later on he used his own instrument, a massive four-manual, custom-designed Allen Organ (1977–1980). The Heavy Organ concerts exclusively featured works of Johann Sebastian Bach accompanied by a large-scale light show, "Revelation Lights" by David Snyder, that was synchronized  with the music, thereby bringing together aural and visual elements. The spectacle attracted enthusiastic audiences numbering in the thousands, but was not without its critics. William F. Buckley was reported by the New York Times as saying Fox, "must have figured that it was more important to fill the house with listeners who would hear Bach for the first time than worry about those who would resolve, like me, to have heard Fox for the last time".

During this period, half of Fox's performances were "Heavy Organ" concerts accompanied by "Revelation Lights", with the virtuoso organist speaking informally to the audiences, and half were traditional classical music. In the latter category, a Fox recital at Lakeland University in Sheboygan, Wisconsin, was typical: he played Julius Reubke's monumental Sonata on the 94th Psalm, Charles Ives' Variations on "America", the "Libera Me" movement from Fauré's Requiem, Bach's Adagio and Fugue in a minor, and Henri Mulet's Thou Art the Rock, among others. In a rave review, the Sheboygan Press critic was effusive in her praise, calling the recital "electrifying". She reported that the "packed house, cheering and clapping, insisted on three encores that gave the night its stunning climax". Time magazine reported that Fox earned between  per performance (equivalent to  in , when adjusted for inflation).

Fox was one of the rare organists to perform on nationally televised entertainment programs in the 1960s and 1970s, such as The Mike Douglas Show, The Ed Sullivan Show, and CBS Camera Three, bringing organ masterworks to mass audiences as no other organist had done before. His last commercially released recording, though unauthorized, was made at his return (by popular demand) to Riverside Church in concert on May 6, 1979. In his 50th year of performing on the organ, Fox gave his final public performance with the Dallas Symphony Orchestra on September 26, 1980, although he was racked with pain from metastasized prostate cancer that resulted in his death the following month.

Music
Fox always stressed pushing the limits of the instruments available to him, rather than requiring that they, or his playing, be authentic to the era of the music. His style (particularly his taste for fast tempos, intricate registrations, and a willingness to indulge in sentimentality) was in contrast to that of his contemporaries, such as E. Power Biggs.

Fox was also famous for his musical memory, and could instantly recall over 200 concert works. He played all concerts from memory and very rarely read from written scores  even when playing alongside an orchestra.

Many organists, however, strongly criticized Fox for his unconventional interpretations of classical organ music. On his album Heavy Organ: Bach Live at Winterland, Fox defended his approach to Bach and organ music in general, in the introduction to the ubiquitous Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565, by Johann Sebastian Bach; Virgil always spoke to his audiences about Bach's reason for his compositions being his belief in Jesus and everlasting life whenever he performed his music.

For once making a similar speech at one of his recitals, music critic Alan Rich called him "the Liberace of the organ loft", and severely took him to task in New York Magazine.

Despite (or perhaps because of) his controversial approach to organ music, Virgil Fox attained a celebrity status not unlike that of Leonard Bernstein and Glenn Gould.  The New York Times said of him, 20 years after his death, "Fox could play the pipe organ like nobody's business, but that is not all that made him unforgettable to so many people across the country. He made classical organ music appeal even to audiences that normally wouldn't be expected to sit still for it."

Honors
Fox was a National Patron of Delta Omicron, an international professional music fraternity. He designed the 1964 Reuter Pipe Organ at Bucknell University and was awarded a Doctorate Degree. He was given Keys to the City in numerous acts of gratitude by Mayors of numerous cities.

Death and legacy

Fox had surgery for prostate cancer in December 1975 and later underwent radiation treatments after it was found to have metastasized. He was greatly debilitated and in considerable pain from the disease when he gave his final performance on September 26, 1980, with the Dallas Symphony. Near collapse the morning after the concert, he was rushed back to Florida by private airplane from Texas to be hospitalized near his Palm Beach home, "Casa Lagomar", and the remainder of his planned concert tour was cancelled. Fox died on October 25, 1980, followed by a private funeral held at Casa Lagomar conducted by his longtime assistant and adopted son, David Snyder. A large-scale public funeral service was subsequently held at the Crystal Cathedral in California, where Fox lay in state. His remains were cremated and his ashes are interred at Pioneer Cemetery, Dover, Illinois, next to his grandparents.

In a sign of continued recognition unusual for a performer (as distinct from a composer), Virgil Fox memorial recitals and concerts have been staged years after his death. In May 1990, for example, a Virgil Fox Memorial Concert was given at the Crystal Cathedral organ by Frederick Swann, who was his successor at  Riverside Church. On what would have been Fox's 80th birthday, a special tribute in his memory was broadcast by KBYU-FM in Provo, Utah. Entitled Virgil Fox: American Virtuoso, the May 3, 1992, radio program, produced almost twelve years after his death, included an excerpt of Swann's Crystal Cathedral memorial of 1990 and highlighted a virtuoso performance of Joseph Jongen's Symphonie Concertante by Fox in Tokyo, Japan, recorded fifteen years previously. Also that month, an "Organ Greats Virgil Fox and E. Power Biggs" concert was held at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. In 2012, the centennial year of his birth, a tribute to Fox was included in an organ concert held at a church in Vancouver, Canada. Many of his recordings have been re-mastered and are widely available on compact discs, as well as regularly heard on radio programs featuring organ music, such as Pipedreams and Sacred Classics.

Biographies written about Fox after his death include the controversial Virgil Fox (The Dish): An Irreverent Biography of the Great American Organist (2001) by his former manager, Richard Torrence (2001), and Virgil Fox — His real life... with secrets you never knew (2020) by David Snyder. The Virgil Fox Society, formed to perpetuate his memory, established the Virgil Fox Scholarship under the auspices of the American Guild of Organists in 2002.

References

External links

 The Virgil Fox Legacy
 The Virgil Fox Society
 Virgil Fox YouTube Videos
 The Virgil Fox Allen Touring Organ
 Review of "The Fox Touch"
 Entry at discogs.com

 Virgil Fox at findagrave.com

1912 births
1980 deaths
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century classical musicians
20th-century conductors (music)
American classical organists
American LGBT composers
American male organists
Bach musicians
Capitol Records artists
Deaths from cancer in Florida
Deaths from prostate cancer
LGBT classical musicians
Male classical organists
Musicians from Illinois
Peabody Institute alumni
Peabody Institute faculty
Musicians from Englewood, New Jersey
People from New Jersey
People from Princeton, Illinois
RCA Victor artists
United States Army Air Forces soldiers
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II

Virgil Fox


Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791) na he be influential composer for de Classical period. Despite sey he die early, na he get more than 800 works for all de genres wey dey ein time. if you sheda spy ein works aa, you go see sey na dem get symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, den choral repertoire. Everbro know Mozart sey he dey mong de greatest composers Western music insyde.

Dem born am for Salzburg, den time na edey mong de Holy Roman Empire, wey currently edey  Austria. Mozart ein abilities dey show sey na he be prodigy since ein kiddy time. Sake of sey na he already dey play betters for de keyboard den violin top, he start dey compose na he dey age five wey he san dey perform give the European royalty. Ein Poppii take am go tour for Europe den three trips for Italy. Den time na he be 17 no, na he be musician for Salzburg court but he travel go search better position for some other place.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart


Reasonable time is that amount of time which is fairly necessary, conveniently, to do whatever is required to be done, as soon as circumstances permit.

As a U.S. legal term, the phrase has been a topic of controversy for many years. It is generally used in reference to performing an action or remitting payment, but this is a very vague term which causes litigation problems in many court cases. Uniform Commercial Code section 2-206(2) requires that acceptance of an offer be made within a "reasonable time" if no time is specified:

European Union law refers in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union to:
A right to good administration:
Every person has the right to have his or her affairs handled impartially, fairly and within a reasonable time by the institutions, bodies, offices and agencies of the Union (Article 41)
A right to an effective remedy and to a fair trial:
Everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal previously established by law (Article 47).
In 1998 the European Court of Justice reduced the fine imposed on German business Baustahlgewebe for breach of the EU competition rules. In 1989 the European Commission adopted a determination that 14 producers of welded steel mesh had engaged in unlawful restrictions of competition. Baustahlgewebe appealed against the decision on 20 October 1989 but the Court of First Instance did not rule on the case until 6 April 1995, five years and six months later. The Court of Justice held that the case had not been determined within a reasonable time and reduced the ECU 3 million fine by ECU 50,000 (a reduction of 1.67%).

References

American legal terminology

Reasonable time


Franklin Magtunao Drilon (born November 28, 1945) is a Filipino lawyer and former politician. Drilon is the acknowledged father of Corporate Lawyers in the Philippines, having sponsored and wrote the Revised Corporation Code in 2018. He had the longest tenure in the Senate of the Philippines (tied with Lorenzo Tañada and  Tito Sotto), having served four non-consecutive terms overall: from 1995 to 2007 and 2010 to 2022. He has served thrice as president of the Senate: in 2000, from 2001 to 2006, and from 2013 to 2016.

Having also served as Senate president pro tempore, Senate Majority Leader, and Senate Minority Leader, he is the only senator to have held all four of the Senate's major leadership positions. A member of the Liberal Party since 2003, he has been the party's vice-chairman since 2011 and has previously served as the party's chairman and president.

He also served as Secretary of Labor and Employment, Secretary of Justice, and Executive Secretary in the administration of President Corazon Aquino. He became Secretary of Justice again during the administration of President Fidel V. Ramos.

Drilon was born and raised in Iloilo City and studied law at the University of the Philippines. He placed third in the 1969 Bar Exams and worked as a private practice lawyer before joining the government.

Early life
Drilon was born on November 28, 1945, in Iloilo City, Iloilo and is the eldest son of Cesar Drilon Sr. and Primitiva Magtunao. He took his elementary education at the Baluarte Elementary School in Molo, Iloilo City, and graduated in 1957. He finished his secondary education at the U.P. - Iloilo College (now University of the Philippines High School in Iloilo) in 1961.

In college, he went to the University of the Philippines Diliman (U.P.) where he received his Bachelor of Arts Political Science degree in 1965. At U.P., he was the associate editor of the student newspaper Philippine Collegian and served as councilor of the U.P. Student Council. Among his classmates were future politicians Miriam Defensor Santiago and Ronaldo Zamora. In 1969, he completed his Bachelor of Laws (LL.B) at the University of the Philippines College of Law in UP Diliman. He placed 3rd in the 1969 Philippine Bar Examinations with an 86.85% bar rating.

In the same year, he served as an associate lawyer of Sycip, Salazar, Luna, Manalo & Feliciano Law Offices (now SyCip Salazar Hernandez & Gatmaitan). He moved to Angara, Abello, Concepcion, Regala & Cruz Law Offices (ACCRALaw) in 1974, where he still serves as Senior Counsel. ACCRALaw elevated him to partner in 1975, co-managing partner in 1981 and managing partner in 1986.

Drilon was also a Bar Examiner on Labor and Social Legislation in the 1979 and 1984 bar examinations. He also became the vice-president and governor of the Employers Confederation of the Philippines (ECOP) and the vice-president, Board member and treasurer of the Personnel Management Association of the Philippines (PMAP).

Political career
Drilon served the government and public corporations through the following positions:
Department of Justice
Secretary, (1990–1991; 1992–1995)
Chairman, Board of Pardons and Parole
Member, Judicial and Bar Council (JBC)
Member, National Unification Commission
Chairman, Presidential Committee on Human Rights (PCHR)
Executive Secretary (1991–1992)
Chairman, Cabinet Cluster on Political & Security Matters (Cluster "E")
Member, National Security Council (NSC)
Vice-chairman, Committee on Privatization (COP)
Member, Joint Legislative-Executive Foreign Debt Council
Department of Labor and Employment
Secretary,  (1987–1990)
Deputy Minister for Industrial Relations, Department of Labor and Employment (1986–1987)
Member, Presidential Agrarian Reform Council (PARC)
Commissioner, Social Security Commission
Chairman, National Labor Relations Commission
Chairman, Philippine Overseas Employment Administration
Chairman, Overseas Workers Welfare Administration
Chairman, Employee Compensation Commission
Trustee, Home Development Mutual Fund (Pag-IBIG Fund)
Board Member, National Housing Authority
Chairman, National Manpower and Youth Council
Chairman, National Wages Council
Chairman, National Maritime Polytechnic
Vice-chairman, Public Sector Labor-Management Council
Chairman, Philippine National Bank (PNB)
Director, Philippine Air Lines (PAL)
Director, Land Bank of the Philippines
Board Member, Philippine Crop Insurance Corporation
Board Member, Population Commission
Cabinet Officer for Regional Development (CORD) of Region VI

Cory Aquino cabinet
As Justice Secretary, Drilon was instrumental in the prosecution and conviction of Mayor Antonio Sanchez of Calauan, Laguna, who masterminded the rape-slaying of a UP Los Baños coed and the murder of his friend; and Claudio Teehankee Jr., who was figured in the gun slaying of Maureen Hultman. Both cases ended up in convictions.

Senate

In 1992, most of the Aquino cabinet were drafted for the Senate candidate line-up of the newly created party, Lakas Tao; Drilon opted to help President Aquino finish her term. He was again given the opportunity to run as a senatorial candidate of the Lakas–Laban coalition in the 1995 election. He got the fourth highest number of votes in that Senate race. In 1998, he bolted Lakas and joined the Laban ng Makabayang Masang Pilipino (LAMMP) and supported Joseph Estrada in the presidency contest. He was selected as Senate Majority Floor Leader the same year. In 1999, he was among those who voted in favor of the ratification of the Visiting Forces Agreement.

When Marcelo Fernan died of cancer the same year, he made concessions with Blas Ople in sharing the seat of the Senate President. They agreed that Ople will serve as Senate President from 1999 to 2000 and he would serve from 2000 to 2001. Ople served his term from July 1999-July 2000. Drilon was installed as Senate President in July 2000.
In October 2000 he issued a statement about the Juetengate Scandal of President Joseph Estrada. He was removed the next month through a Senate revamp and Aquilino Pimentel Jr. was installed as Senate President (Drilon would also be succeeded by his son Aquilino Pimentel III as Senate President in 2016). In December 2000, an impeachment case was filed against President Estrada in the Senate. During the January 13, 2001, session of the impeachment proceedings, he was one of those who voted in favor of the opening of a mysterious second bank envelope. Their vote was outnumbered and Drilon was remembered as the Senator who cried in front of Senate President Pimentel together with Senator Loren Legarda, as impeachment lawyers walked out of the session hall in protest. Joseph Estrada was subsequently ousted that very evening by what would be remembered as the second EDSA People Power Revolution. Drilon allowed Pimentel to occupy the Senate presidency until the end of the regular session in June 2001.

When the session resumed in July 2001, Pimentel was replaced by Drilon as Senate President. Pimentel bolted the administration coalition and joined forces with the opposition coalition. In 2003, administration coalition partner Liberal Party, to which President Arroyo's father, Diosdado Macapagal, served as chairman in the 1960s, invited Drilon to be its member. Days later, Drilon was elected chairman of the political party. Before the 2004 elections, Drilon invited Senator Rodolfo Biazon to be a party member. Biazon bolted Raul Roco's Aksyon Demokratiko (AD) only days after he joined that party's convention to become the Liberal Party's new member.

Drilon had close contacts with President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo since 2001 and actively supported her when she ran for a fresh mandate to occupy the office of the President. That relationship ended on July 8, however, when Drilon---together with Biazon and some prominent members of the Liberal Party---decided to withdraw their support for her and asked for her resignation. In Arroyo's 2005 State of the Nation Address, Drilon was the only one noticed not applauding throughout the entire program. Drilon has been a vocal critic of the NorthRail project, a Chinese government-backed project to overhaul Manila's decrepit railway system. The railway was to be the first double-tracked railway in the country, and was expected to eventually extend to Clark in Pampanga and, according to the architects, as far north as San Fernando, La Union. During his second term as Senate President, Drilon spearheaded the Senate's confronting the excesses of the executive branch by authorizing the Senate standing committees to conduct inquiries in aid of legislation; he led the Chamber in opposing Executive Order No. 264, which prohibited members of the Cabinet from attending hearings of Congress, the Senate in particular, without permission from the President; he also opposed Proclamation No. 1017, which imposed a state of national emergency in the country. The Supreme Court sustained the Senate's stand on the two issues. He was hailed by all as the leading defender of the Senate's independence and of its constitutional duties. Drilon likewise led the Senate in opposing moves by the House of Representatives to amend the Constitution that would supposedly shift the legislature to a unicameral legislature, abolishing the Senate. In 2006, Drilon was succeeded as Senate President by Senator Manny Villar in accordance with a term-sharing agreement they forged in early 2004.

Drilon ran again for the Senate as independent but was under the People Power Coalition senatorial line-up. The lineup was carefully chosen and the first letter of the candidate's surname (except for Roberto Pagdanganan) ended up with the line VOT FOR D CHAMMP. The line became a hit, and it led to the election of most of the coalition's senatorial candidates including Drilon. He again served as Senate President from 2001 to 2006. And from 2006 to the end of his second
term as Senator on 2007, Drilon served as the Chairman of the Senate Committee on Finance and worked firmly for the enactment of the new national budget law on 2007.

Drilon was re-elected to the Philippine Senate in 2010 and was then honored for his 15-year service to the senate (1995-2010). He served as the Assistant Majority Leader and Chairman of the Senate Committee on Finance and led the Senate in enacting the national budget laws on time for 2011, 2012 and 2013. He likewise primarily authored a law that created an oversight body of all government owned and controlled corporations (GOCCs) which would check them from incurring financial excesses and as well as ensuring their financial stability and makes them fiscally responsible. On 2012, after Senator Ralph Recto stepped down as the Chairman of the Senate Committee on Ways and Means, Drilon
as its vice-chairman took over as its new chairman and worked firmly for the enactment of the Sin Tax Law that would impose higher taxes on the cigarettes and liquors. Drilon proudly called it as "anti-cancer law" for he firmly believes that the law would discourage the people from taking cigarettes so that they will not suffer lung cancer.

During the impeachment trial of then Chief Justice Renato Corona in early 2012, he acted as one of the Senator-Judges and later voted for his conviction and removal from office and disqualification from holding any elective or appointive government office.

Halfway through the Presidency of Benigno Aquino III, Drilon won the majority of votes after being voted as Senate President, following the resignation of former Senate President Juan Ponce Enrile. It was predicted long after the resignation of Enrile, that Drilon would have the majority. Enrile was subsequently elected as Minority Leader but was then imprisoned.

Personal life

Drilon was married to fellow lawyer and ACCRA senior partner Violeta Calvo with whom he had two children, Eliza and Patrick. During his candidacy for a Senate seat in 1995, Drilon often traveled to the US to be with his wife who was then being treated for lung cancer. Mrs. Drilon died of the disease in September 1995, two months after her husband assumed his Senate seat. Two years after, Drilon proposed to close family friend Mila Serrano-Genuino, who was a widow. They married with former Presidents Aquino and Ramos as wedding sponsors.

Drilon has a nephew named Rock who is married to ABS-CBN Broadcast Journalist Cecilia Victoria Oreña, also known as Ces Drilon.

Drilon is a member of the Rotary Club, Makati Chapter. He was an active member of the Integrated Bar of the Philippines (IBP) where he was a former President of the Pasay–Makati–Mandaluyong–San Juan Chapter. Although he was born in Iloilo, he is a registered voter of Greenhills, San Juan.

He received his Doctor of Humanities (Honoris Causa) honorary degree from Central Philippine University.

References

External links

Senator Franklin M. Drilon – Senate of the Philippines

|-

|-

|-

|-

|-

|-

|-

1945 births
Living people
Visayan people
Hiligaynon people
People from Iloilo City
Secretaries of Justice of the Philippines
Presidents of the Senate of the Philippines
Majority leaders of the Senate of the Philippines
Senators of the 18th Congress of the Philippines
Senators of the 17th Congress of the Philippines
Senators of the 16th Congress of the Philippines
Senators of the 15th Congress of the Philippines
Senators of the 13th Congress of the Philippines
Senators of the 12th Congress of the Philippines
Senators of the 11th Congress of the Philippines
Senators of the 10th Congress of the Philippines
20th-century Filipino lawyers
Secretaries of Labor and Employment of the Philippines
Executive Secretaries of the Philippines
University of the Philippines alumni
Lakas–CMD (1991) politicians
Liberal Party (Philippines) politicians
People from San Juan, Metro Manila
Independent politicians in the Philippines
Ramos administration cabinet members
Corazon Aquino administration cabinet members
Presidents pro tempore of the Senate of the Philippines
Filipino Roman Catholics
Minority leaders of the Senate of the Philippines
Recipients of the Presidential Medal of Merit (Philippines)

Franklin Drilon


The Ahom kingdom (/ˈɑːhɔːm/, 1228–1826) was a late medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra Valley in Assam. It maintained its sovereignty for nearly 600 years having successfully resisted Mughal expansion in Northeast India. Established by Sukaphaa, a Tai prince from Mong Mao (present-day Yunnan Province, China), it began as a mong in the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra based on wet rice agriculture. It expanded suddenly under Suhungmung in the 16th century and became multi-ethnic in character, casting a profound effect on the political and social life of the entire Brahmaputra valley. The kingdom became weaker with the rise of the Moamoria rebellion, and subsequently fell to repeated Burmese invasions of Assam. With the defeat of the Burmese after the First Anglo-Burmese War and the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, control of the kingdom passed into East India Company hands.

Ahom Kingdom


Thomas James De la Hunt, Jr. (November 9, 1866 – July 3, 1933) was an American newspaper columnist, writer, and historian. He served as president and secretary of the Southwestern Indiana Historical Society for a number of years. He was well known for his writings concerning the area of Indiana known as "the Pocket" and was considered an authority on the history of southern Indiana.

Background
De la Hunt was born in Cannelton, Perry County, Indiana to Major Thomas James De la Hunt, Sr. (1835–1872) and his wife, Isabelle (Huckeby) De la Hunt (1845–1909). He had one other sibling, Charles Mason De la Hunt, who died in 1869. His father was an immigrant from County Tipperary, Ireland. His mother was the daughter of J. B. Huckeby, an Indiana legislator and prominent Cannelton lawyer. He never married.

Career
De la Hunt received his early education from his mother and in the Cannelton public schools. Afterwards, he attended Sewanee University (now University of the South) at Sewanee, Tennessee, and studied architecture at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. Upon leaving college, he taught for seven years in the Cannelton public schools and gave private music lessons to students.

He was involved in the insurance business for several years. During his later years, he devoted his time entirely to writing and historical research. In 1916 De la Hunt wrote a script and produced the pageant given at Cannelton to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of Indiana's admission to the Union. In connection with the same celebration, he also wrote a history of Perry County, Indiana, recognized by authorities as unexcelled in that particular field.

De la Hunt achieved further distinction in southern Indiana with his column, "The Pocket Periscope", featured over a number of years in the Evansville Courier and Journal. In this column he presented a series of historical sketches of particular interest to the "Pocket Section" of Indiana. He was also correspondent of the Indianapolis News, the Louisville Courier Journal, and the Owensboro, Kentucky Messenger. He edited the Cannelton column in the Tell City News over a period of about eight years. At various times he did special research and catalogue work for a number of libraries in southern Indiana. Many of his writings were published in the Indiana History Bulletin and the Indiana Magazine of History.

Later life
Until incapacitated by ill health, De la Hunt was active in patriotic and historical organizations and took great pride in his membership in the same. In the Sons of the American Revolution he served as vice president and treasurer for Indiana over a period of years. In the Society of Indiana Pioneers he served on various committees. He was president and secretary of the Southwestern Indiana Historical Society for several years. In 1931 and 1932 he was president of the Perry County Historical Society. He also served as president of the Indiana Authors Club and was a charter member of the Men's Community Bible Class of Cannelton.

De la Hunt died at his home, the Virginia Place, in Cannelton on July 3, 1933, at the age 66. His house is still standing and is rumoured by local citizens to be haunted. Jill Harris Newton wrote a book about this house, Ghosts of the Virginia Place, which was published in 2007.

Works
The Pageant of Perry County, 1814–1916. (1916)
Perry County: A History. (1916)
History of the New Harmony Working Men's Institute, New Harmony, Indiana: founded by William Maclure, 1838–1927. (1927)

See also
History of Indiana
New Harmony, Indiana
Perry County, Indiana
Southern Indiana
Southwestern Indiana

Notes

References

Tell City News, July 7, 1933, "Thomas De la Hunt, Noted Writer and Historian Passes".

External links

1866 births
1933 deaths
American people of Irish descent
American male writers
Historians of Indiana
People from Cannelton, Indiana
Purdue University alumni
Sewanee: The University of the South alumni
Members of the Sons of the American Revolution
Writers from Indiana
Historians from Indiana

Thomas James De la Hunt


Servigliano prison camp began as a POW camp for Austrian soldiers of World War I. Following Italy's entry to World War II, the fascist government used it as a concentration camp for civilian and military prisoners between October 1940 to September 1943. The Italian Social Republic later converted it into a deportation camp for Jews between October 1943 and June 1944.

After World War II the camp was converted into a refugee camp for people coming from Istria, Libya and Ethiopia. It ceased to operate in 1955 and in 1970 it was finally dismantled.

History

WW I
During the First World War, the camp was built on the outskirts of Servigliano, along the rail road. It consisted of forty wood and stone huts, surrounded by a high wall, outside of which stood the houses for the guards. From August 1916 to December 1919 several thousand Austrian prisoners were housed there.

After the war, with the repatriation of prisoners, the camp was closed. In 1935 the camp was dismantled and sold to the city for the construction of a sports field while part of it was used as a weapons depot.

WW II
With the outbreak of the Second World War the barracks that still existed were reactivated in October 1940 as a concentration camp for about 20-25 Jewish refugees and foreigners. From 5 January 1941 it started being used as a camp for prisoners of war, beginning with approximately 3000 Greeks and since February 1942 about 2000 more, this time British and American nationals.

On 14 September 1943 (a few days after the armistice), the prisoners fled due to the imminent arrival of German troops through a hole in the wall and scattered in the surrounding countryside. Between 3 and 5 October the camp was occupied and looted by German troops.

On 30 October 1943 the camp was reactivated by the fascist authorities to house prisoners from the area. In late November, the government of the Italian Social Republic established a network of concentration camps for Jews caught in raids. Servigliano was chosen as a place of detention for the surrounding provinces of Ascoli Piceno and Frosinone. The camp management continued to be headed by Italian police personnel under the responsibility of the Ministry of the Interior. February 1944 saw the arrival of approximately 300 Maltese nationals from Tripoli.

On the night of 24 March 1944 a group of partisans broke into the camp to free Jewish prisoners. On 3 May, taking advantage of the bombardment of the camp and the news of the imminent arrival of the Germans, almost all the Jews present fled the camp. The Germans arrived the next morning and they were able to capture and deport a group of 34 people while 30 others were rescued and hidden by local families.

Faced with the difficulty of finding food and housing, some Jews who had previously escaped returned to the camp. On 29 May 1944 another group of 60 Jews arrived from the Corropoli internment camp.
During the night of 7-8 June a group of partisans broke into the camp calling for its immediate and complete evacuation. On 14 June the German troops started their retreat. On 16 June German soldiers killed a Jewish refugee, who had been discovered hidden in a cottage not far from the village. On 19 June 1944 Servigliano was freed.

Post-war
After the liberation, on 22 June the camp was reoccupied by the Maltese prisoners from Tripoli. On 17 July 1944 they were embarked for Tripoli. As a refugee retention centre, the camp remained active from September 1945 until 1955. Between 40,000 and 50,000 refugees from Istria, Libya and Ethiopia went through this camp.

Today
After 1955 the area was completely abandoned. During the 1970s, the barracks, now dilapidated, were demolished and a sports centre was built. Some ruins remain, such as a perimeter wall and some of the houses where guards used to stay.

Two commemorative plaques were placed near the former site: the first was laid by the British and American prisoners who escaped from the camp after 8 September 1943; the second in memory of the deportees and those who were saved thanks to the help offered to them by local families.

See also
Holocaust in Italy

References

This article was initially translated from the Italian Wikipedia.

World War II concentration camps
Italian fascist internment camps in Italy
1940s in Italy

Servigliano prison camp


Sindh cricket team was a domestic cricket team in Pakistan representing Sindh province. It competed in domestic first-class, List A and T20 cricket competitions, namely the Quaid-e-Azam Trophy, Pakistan Cup and National T20 Cup. The team was operated by the Sindh Cricket Association.

History

Before 2019

Sindh played its first first-class game in December 1932, when they drew with Ceylon at the Gymkhana ground in Karachi. On 22 November 1935 Sindh and Australia played a three day match - Figure 1. The match was seen by 5,000 Karachiites. The team played its inaugural season in the Ranji Trophy in 1934. From 1934–35 until 1947–48 Sindh participated in the Ranji Trophy. On 27 December 1947 Sind hosted the first first-class game to be played in Pakistan, but were defeated by an innings and 68 runs by Punjab. The greatest Sindh player in the Ranji Trophy period was Naoomal Jeoomal who played in India's first test match against England at Lord's in 1932. Jeoomal became coach of the Pakistan cricket team in 1960. In Pakistani domestic cricket, Sindh played in the Quaid-e-Azam Trophy each season from 1953–54 to 1956–57, but then made only sporadic appearances at first-class level until the 1970s, when two Sindh teams (Sind A and Sind B) competed in the Quaid-e-Azam Trophy for several years; the province also played List A cricket. Until 2019, Sindh's last first-class match under that name was a seven-wicket loss in January 1979 against Habib Bank Limited.  After that, a "Sind Governor's XI" played three games in the 1980s and one in 2000, while a "Rest of Sindh" team took part in the 2001–02 Quaid-e-Azam Trophy (finishing bottom of Pool A with no wins from eight games) and One Day National Tournament.

Since 2019
The team was introduced as a part of the new domestic structure announced by the Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB) on 31 August 2019.

Structure

As of 2019, domestic cricket in Pakistan was reorganised into six regional teams (on provincial lines). A three tier bottom-up system is in operation with the Tier 1 teams participating in the Quaid-e-Azam Trophy (First Class), Pakistan Cup (List A) and National T20 Cup (Regional T20). The Tier 2 teams participate in the City Cricket Association Tournament whilst the Tier 3 teams participate in various local tournaments as both tiers feed players to the Tier 1 team.
 Tier 1: Sindh
 Tier 2: Karachi (Zone I), Karachi (Zone II), Karachi (Zone III), Karachi (Zone IV), Karachi (Zone V), Karachi (Zone VI), Karachi (Zone VII), Hyderabad, Jamshoro, Mirpur Khas, Badin, Sanghar, Sukkur, Shikarpur, Khairpur, Larkana & Benazirabad.
 Tier 3: Various Clubs & Schools.

Season summaries

2019/20 Season
Sindh finished in fifth place in both the Quaid-e-Azam Trophy and National T20 Cup. The Pakistan Cup was cancelled this season due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

2020/21 Season
The team finished in sixth and third place respectively in the Quaid-e-Azam Trophy and the National T20 Cup. Although finishing first in the league phase of the Pakistan Cup, Sindh did was could not progress to the final in the knock-out phase of the tournament.

See also
 Balochistan cricket team
 Central Punjab cricket team
 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa cricket team
 Northern cricket team
 Southern Punjab cricket team

References

 Scorecard of the 1947 Sind v Punjab match

Pakistani first-class cricket teams
Cricket Team

Sindh cricket team