This is a list of Gothic artists.

 Mastro Guglielmo  12th Century Italian Sculptor
 Maestro Esiguo  13th Century
 Master of the Franciscan Crucifixes 13th Century Italian
 Benedetto Antelami  1178–1196 Italian Sculptor
 Bonaventura Berlinghieri  1215–1242 Italian Painteiiii
 Nicola Pisano 	1220–1284 	Italian Sculptor
 Fra Guglielmo 	1235–1310 	Italian Sculptor
 Guido Bigarelli 	1238–1257 	Italian Sculptor
 Giovanni Pisano 	1250–1314 	Italian Sculptor
 Duccio di Buoninsegna 1255–1318    Italian Painter
 Lorenzo Maitani 	1255–1330 	Italian Sculptor/Architect
 Arnolfo di Cambio 	1264–1302 	Italian Sculptor
 Arnau Bassa               14th Century    Spanish Painter
 Master of San Francesco Bardi 	14th Century 	Italian Painter
 Master of San Jacopo a Mucciana 	14th Century 	Italian
 Ferrer Bassa      1285–1348       Spanish Painter
 Simone Martini 	1285–1344 	Italian Painter
 Tino da Camaino 	1285–1337 	Italian Sculptor
 Evrard d'Orleans 	1292–1357 	French Sculptor
 Andrea Pisano 	1295–1348 	Italian Sculptor
 Jacopo del Casentino 	1297–1358 	Italian Painter
 Segna di Buonaventure 	1298–1331 	Italian Painter
 Giovanni da Balduccio 	1300–1360 	Italian Sculptor
 Jean Pucelle      1300–1355  French Manuscript Illuminator
 Goro di Gregorio 	1300–1334 	Italian Sculptor
 Gano di Fazio 	1302–1318 	Italian Sculptor
 Vitale da Bologna 	1309–1360 	Italian Painter
 Agostino di Giovanni 	1310–1347 	Italian Sculptor
 Allegretto Nuzi 	1315–1373 	Italian Painter
 Giottino 	1320–1369 	Italian Painter
 Giusto de Menabuoi 	1320–1397 	Italian Painter
 Puccio Capanna 	1325–1350 	Italian Painter
 Theodoric of Prague       ?–1381  Czech Painter
 Altichiero 	1330–1384 	Italian Painter
 Bartolo di Fredi 	1330–1410 	Italian Painter
 Peter Parler 	1330–1399 	German Sculptor
 André Beauneveu 	1335–1400 	Netherlandish Painter/Sculptor
 Master of the Dominican Effigies 	1336–1345 	Italian Painter
 Niccolo di Pietro Gerini 	c. 1340–1414 	Italian Painter
 Guariento di Arpo 	1338–1377 	Italian Painter
 Jacobello Dalle Masegne 	?–1409  	Italian Sculptor
 Giovanni da Campione 	1340–1360 	Italian Sculptor
 Master of the Rebel Angels 	1340–1345 	Italian Painter
 Andrea da Firenze 	1343–1377 	Italian Painter
 Nino Pisano 	1343–1368 	Italian Painter/Sculptor
 Puccio di Simone 	1345–1365 	Italian Painter
 Nicolo da Bologna 	1348–1399 	Italian
 Bonino da Campione 	1350–1390 	Italian Sculptor
 Lluís Borrassà 	1350–1424 	Spanish Painter
 Jacquemart de Hesdin      1350–1410      French Miniaturist
 Giovanni da Milano 	1350–1369 	Italian Painter
 Master of the Rinuccini Chapel 	1350–1375 	Italian
 Claus Sluter 	1350–1406 	Flemish Sculptor
 Giovanni Bon 	1355–1443 	Italian Sculptor/Architect
 Melchior Broederlam 	1355–1411 	Netherlandish Painter
 Giovanni del Biondo 	1356–1399 	Italian Painter
 Pere Serra                1357–1406       Spanish Painter
 Gherardo Starnina 	1360–1413 	Italian Painter
 Jean de Liege 	1361–1382 	Flemish Sculptor
 Taddeo di Bartolo 	1362–1422 	Italian Painter
 Jean Malouel 	1365–1415 	Netherlandish Painter
 Gentile da Fabriano 	1370–1427 	Italian Painter
 Lorenzo Monaco 	1370–1425 	Italian Painter
 Stefano da Verona 	1375–1438 	Italian Painter
 Pere Oller   1394–1442    Spanish Sculptor
 Master of Saint Veronica 	1395–1420 	German Painter
 Bernat Martorell  Died 1452       Spanish Painter
 Fra Angelico 1395–1455  	Italian Painter
 Jacopo Bellini 	1400–1470 	Italian Painter
 Pere Johan   c. 1400     Spanish Sculptor
 Hermann Jean and Paul Limbourg 	1400 	Netherlandish Manuscript Illuminator
 Master of the Passion of Christ	15th-century	Swedish Painter
 Master of the Berswordt Altar 	1400 	German Painter
 Upper Rhenish Master  fl. c. 1410–1420  German Painter
 Jacomart          1410–1461       Spanish Painter
 Meister Hartmann fl. c. 1417–1428  German Sculptor
 Jaume Huguet      1412–1492       Spanish Painter
 Henri Bellechose 	1415–1440 	Flemish Painter
 Jörg Syrlin the Elder c. 1425–1491  German Sculptor
 Jörg Syrlin the Younger c. 1455–152 German Sculptor
 Master of Schloss Lichtenstein  fl. c. 1430–1450   Austrian Painter
 Bernt Notke    c. 1435–1508       German  Sculptor and Painter
 Albertus Pictor  c. 1440–1507  German Painter (active in Sweden)
 Niklaus Weckmann c. 1481–1526  German Sculptor
 Daniel Mauch c. 1477–1540  German Sculptor
 Michel Erhart c. 1440-45–after 1522  German Sculptor
 Jan Polack          Polish-German  Painter
 Nicolaus Haberschrack          Polish Painter
 Jan Goraj          Polish Painter
 Jordan Painter fl. c. 1470–1480 Swedish Painter
 Master of the Drapery Studies fl. c. 1470−1500 German Draughtsman and Painter
 Gil de Siloé  c. 1450–1501          Spanish Sculptor
 Veit Stoss    c. 1450–1533          German Sculptor
 Hermen Rode   fl. c. 1468–1504     German Painter
 Henning von der Heide c. 1460–1521  German Sculptor
 Cola Petruccioli 1362–1408 Triptych Painter

Gothic art

Gothic artists

List of Gothic artists


Owen Stuart Aspinall (September 21, 1927 – February 7, 1997) was an American attorney  and politician who served as the 45th Governor of American Samoa  from August 1, 1967, to July 31, 1969. He was born in Grand Junction, Colorado; his father was longtime United States Representative Wayne N. Aspinall. After serving in the United States Army during World War II, Aspinall earned his Bachelor of Laws from American University. He served in three government positions before becoming the Governor of American Samoa: the Deputy District Attorney of Mesa County, Colorado; Attorney General of American Samoa; and eventually Secretary of American Samoa, the islands' equivalent of a lieutenant governor.

While governor, Aspinall dealt with a number of issues, including educational system reform and the subsequent resignation of many teachers and school personnel. He signed a bill from the American Samoa Fono that would eventually give American Samoa a Delegate to the United States House of Representatives in the 1980s. He made a number of controversial decisions, including forbidding Korean and Samoan intermarriage. He helped bring an end to extreme violence between Korean and Chinese fisherman in Samoan waters.

Life
Aspinall was born on September 21, 1927, in Grand Junction, Colorado. His father was Wayne N. Aspinall, United States Representative from Colorado's 4th congressional district and his mother Julia Edith Kuns Aspinall. Following his military service, Aspinall attended the University of Denver, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in Anthropology in 1949. He graduated with a Bachelor of Laws from American University in 1955, and set up a law practice. He spent many years in American Samoa, and married a Samoan woman in December 1966.

Military service
During World War II, Aspinall served with the 504th Infantry Regiment, an airborne force. Later in the war, he served with the 82nd Airborne Division.

Political career
His first political post was as Deputy District Attorney of Mesa County, Colorado, which he held from 1957 to 1961. He went on to become the Attorney General of American Samoa later in 1961. In November 1962, he became the Secretary of American Samoa, the second-in-command of the Samoan executive branch.

Governorship
Aspinall became Governor of American Samoa on August 1, 1967. As governor, he came into conflict with the National Association of Educational Broadcasters over how the local school systems were run, and refused to renew the organization's contract. This caused many school teachers and administrators to resign their posts. He was accused of wiretapping phones on the islands, but none of his critics were able to produce evidence of any activity. He signed a bill out of the American Samoa Fono into law, against the wishes of the Department of the Interior, to send a Delegate to the United States House of Representatives from American Samoa.

Along with traditionally garbed island chiefs, Aspinall was one of the first officials to greet and congratulate the crew of Apollo 10 after the success of their mission.

He drew criticism for forbidding a Samoan woman from marrying a Korean man; the two sued the governor. Aspinall defended his decision by stating he was keeping disgruntled fishermen from jumping ship in Samoa; he sought to keep Samoa "for Samoans", despite the fact that he married a Samoan woman himself.

Aspinall had to contend with violent clashes between Korean and Chinese ethnic groups who fought with knives and clubs off the shore. He requested riot gear to put down the violence. The incidents began when a Korean fishing boat rammed a Chinese one, ultimately causing it to sink in the storm. The governor had to separate Japanese, Chinese, and Korean vessels to keep the fishing companies running between the islands. At one point, Aspinall had to close the port of Pago Pago.

When Richard Nixon became President of the United States, Aspinall handed in a pro forma resignation, as the Secretary of the Interior was likely to soon replace him with a Republican. His term as governor ended on July 31, 1969.

References

1927 births
1997 deaths
Governors of American Samoa
People from Grand Junction, Colorado
Military personnel from Colorado
United States Army personnel of World War II
District attorneys in Colorado
American Samoan Attorneys General
University of Denver alumni
Washington College of Law alumni
American Samoa Democrats
Colorado Democrats
20th-century American politicians

Owen Aspinall


Tullus Hostilius was the legendary third king of Rome. He succeeded Numa Pompilius. He was one of the six Etruscan kings that ruled Rome. He ruled from 673 to 642 BC. Unlike his predecessor, he was known to be a warlike king. He was the grandson of Hostus Hostilius, who had fought with Romulus and died during the Sabine invasion of Rome. His successor was Ancus Marcius.

Year of birth unknown
642 BC deaths

Roman people

Tullus Hostilius


Ralph Fulton Lozier (January 28, 1866 – May 28, 1945) was a U.S. Representative from Missouri.

Born near Hardin, Missouri, Lozier attended the public schools. He graduated from Carrollton High School in 1883 and engaged in teaching for several years before studying law.

He was admitted to the bar in 1886 and commenced practice in Carrollton. He was also interested in agricultural pursuits and the raising of livestock. He served as city attorney of Carrollton, Missouri, from 1915 to 1944 and was a delegate to the 1928 Democratic National Convention.

Lozier was elected as a Democrat to the 68th and to the five succeeding Congresses, serving from March 4, 1923, to January 3, 1935). He served as chairman of the Committee on the Census (72nd and 73rd Congresses). He was an unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1934.

He served as judge of the circuit court of the 7th Judicial Circuit of Missouri in 1936. He resumed the practice of law with offices in Carrollton and Washington, D.C., and also engaged in agricultural pursuits in Carroll County, Missouri. He died in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1945 and is interred in Oak Hill Cemetery in Carrollton.

References

1866 births
1945 deaths
Missouri state court judges
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Missouri
People from Carrollton, Missouri

Ralph F. Lozier


Space Age Whiz Kids is a song by Joe Walsh, the guitarist for the Eagles. It was released as a lead single from his sixth studio solo album, You Bought It – You Name It, being Walsh's eleventh single.

Meaning
The song was written during the latter part of the 1980s video arcade craze, and its lyrics are a personal commentary, critical of then-modern American culture against Walsh's older pinball and pool generation. The lyrics also reflect a satirical view on this, with lines such as: "I feel a little bit mixed up, maybe I'm obsolete".

Promotional video
The music video starts out in an old-fashioned arcade in black and white. Walsh, pushes his way up to a pinball machine. The video then turns to colour - depicting that he's in the present. Now, there's a bunch of video games instead of pinball machines, Walsh tries to talk to the kids sitting around but they ignore him. They show the old pinball arcade and everyone is covered with cobwebs. Here are scenes of Walsh and his band where Walsh is dressed in a jumpsuit with sunglasses and an Indian-style headband with a feather on the side. He and his band are on white circular platforms in the middle of blackness. Towards the end, Walsh walks through the futuristic arcade in a full-blown space suit. With someone chanting "I like Space Age Whiz Kids" is on a floating video game screen that flies around the arcade. The closing shot is of a video game entitled "Whiz Kids".

Track listing
'''7" Single (Warner Bros. Records – 7-29611, Warner Bros. Records – 9 29611-7, Full Moon – 7-29611, Full Moon – 9 29611-7)
 A "Space Age Whiz Kids" – 3:40
 B "Theme from Island Weirdos" – 3:13

Chart performance
"Space Age Whiz Kids" peaked at #52 on the US, Hot 100

References

External links

Joe Walsh songs
1983 singles
1983 songs
Songs written by Joe Walsh
Song recordings produced by Bill Szymczyk
Songs written by Joe Vitale (musician)
Full Moon Records singles
Warner Records singles

Space Age Whiz Kids


Startup India is a scheme of the Government of India. It was announced by Prime Minister, Narendra Modi during his speech on 15 August 2015. 'Startup India Campaign' boost startup talent in India by providing tax exemptions with the condition. These benefits are available to new startups only. Existing businesses for more than 10 years cannot claim this benefit.

According to the startup India plan, all eligible entities under this scheme will get 3 consecutive years tax holiday on profits earned.

Eligibility
 Is a Private Limited, Limited Liability Partnership Firm or Partnership firm.
 Have not completed 10 years since incorporation or registration.
 Annual turnover is not more than 100 crore for any financial year.
 Is not formed by merger, splitting or reconstructing business already in existence.
 Entity working towards innovation, research and development and improvement of products and services generating employment in India.

Registration
 Companies must first incorporate or register the business as Limited Liability Partnership, Partnership or Private Limited Company.
 Post incorporation registration visit the startup India website.
 Fill up the form with details of the business.
 Enter the one-time password which is sent to your e-mail and other details like a startup as the type of user, name and stage of the startup, etc.
 After entering these details, the Startup India profile is created.

Objectives

Ease of Doing Business: The initiative aims to simplify regulatory processes for startups, reducing the bureaucratic hurdles they face when starting and operating businesses.

Startup Registration: Startups can register and obtain various benefits under this scheme, including tax exemptions, easier compliance, and access to government procurement opportunities.

Funding Support: The government has set up funds to provide financial support and venture capital to startups. This includes the creation of the Fund of Funds for Startups (FFS).

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Protection: Startup India provides assistance in filing patents and trademarks and offers incentives to encourage the protection of intellectual property.

Incubators and Accelerators: The program supports the establishment of incubators and accelerators to nurture and mentor startups, providing them with access to necessary resources and guidance.

Tax Benefits: Eligible startups can avail of income tax benefits, such as a three-year tax holiday, to encourage entrepreneurship.

Networking and Collaboration: Startup India promotes networking and collaboration among startups, industry associations, and educational institutions to facilitate knowledge exchange and partnerships.

Innovation Hub: The initiative encourages research and innovation through the establishment of innovation hubs and research parks.

Startup India


David Carl Dahlin, Jr. (September 3, 1917 – September 12, 2003) was a North American physician and pathologist who trained and worked at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota for virtually his entire career in medicine.  He was internationally recognized as an expert diagnostician with regard to tumors of the musculoskeletal system—especially the bones, but was also an experienced and skilled general surgical pathologist.

Early life and education

Dahlin was born in September 1917 to David and Rose Dahlin in Beresford, South Dakota. They were farmers who had little cash income; therefore, young David Jr.-- and his three brothers and sisters—learned frugality and the virtues of hard work from an early age.
As a teen, an entire summer of plowing sixty-five acres with a horse-drawn plow led him to conclude that another vocation was a wise choice.  Accordingly, despite the fact that the Dahlin family had virtually no money, David enrolled in the University of South Dakota in Vermillion, South Dakota.  He worked his way through school, graduating magna cum laude with a B.Sc. degree in 1938.

Medical education
Dahlin was accepted to Rush Medical College in Chicago, Illinois.  He again worked nights throughout his time as a medical student, usually for less than 40 cents per hour. Despite this arduous schedule and the demands of school, David graduated with an M.D. in the spring of 1940.  He then served as a rotating intern at Ancker General Hospital (formerly City & County Hospital) in St. Paul, Minnesota, and continued as a first-year resident in general pathology at that institution.  The United States entered World War II during his Ancker pathology training experience, and Dahlin enlisted in the U.S. Army Air Corps (USAAC) in 1942.

Military service

Once commissioned as an officer in the USAAC Medical Corps, Dahlin was accepted into the training program for flight surgeons.  He spent his first service year in the training command in Texas and North Carolina, and was then posted to Bari, Italy, as a medical officer in the 15th Air Force.  He supported the 5th Photo Reconnaissance Group, comprising P-38 fighter planes equipped with high-resolution photographic equipment.  After two years overseas, Dahlin was discharged from the Army in the fall of 1945 with the rank of Major (O4), having been awarded the Bronze Star.  Dahlin also held the European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal and the World War II Victory Medal. He retained a keen interest in the history of the European Theater of Operations in World War II throughout the rest of his life.

Residency and early career

Dahlin returned to Rochester in November 1945, intending to begin residency training in general surgery.  However, because of scheduling issues, he was assigned first to the surgical pathology laboratory at St. Mary's Hospital, under the tutelage of Dr. Malcolm Dockerty.  Dockerty was a dynamic and gifted pathologist, whose teaching captured Dahlin's interest and loyalty.  Hence, he switched his training emphasis to anatomic and clinical pathology, completing residency in 1948 and publishing his master's degree thesis (at the University of Minnesota) on systemic amyloidosis.  He was then appointed to the staff of the Mayo Clinic as a consultant in pathology.

Rapidly, Dahlin became a skilled general surgical pathologist in the mold of Dockerty, but began to develop special expertise in neoplasms of the skeletal system.  No one had previously studied such lesions systematically at the Mayo Clinic; indeed worldwide knowledge on that topic was then quite limited.  Working with Mark Coventry, an orthopedic oncologist, Dahlin cataloged the clinical, radiographic, macroscopic, and histopathologic features of virtually all bone tumors in the Mayo archive.  That undertaking eventuated in the publication of a book entitled "Bone Tumors: General Aspects and an Analysis of 2276 Cases," in 1957.  That text has subsequently gone through 5 additional editions and is still in print under the editorship of Krishnan K. Unni and Carrie Inwards.

Later career and honors

The publication of his book and other writings on bone tumors—eventually numbering over 200 original articles—prompted many invitations for lectureships throughout the world. Dahlin's opinion was sought internationally on a huge number of challenging bone tumor cases, not only for advice on pathologic interpretation but clinical management as well. He served as section-head of surgical pathology at Mayo for many years, and was a Professor in the Mayo Medical School.  Dahlin received a host of professional honors, including the first gold medal of the International Skeletal Society, the Distinguished Pathologist Award of the United States & Canadian Academy of Pathology, the Fred Stewart Award from Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, the Distinguished Alumnus Award from the Mayo Clinic, and an honorary doctorate from the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. Dahlin also was the first physician inducted into the South Dakota Hall of Fame. He retired from active practice in 1983, but continued to serve as an informal consultant for some years thereafter.

Personal life

Dahlin married Helen DePass in October 1941. She died of gallbladder carcinoma in March 1990 at the age of 69.  The couple had three children together—Brian, Eric (1948-2005), and Martha.  Dahlin was an avid sportsman, enjoying hunting, fishing, canoeing, camping, and handball.

Death

In July 2003, Dahlin was interviewed for the U.S. Veterans History Project.  Two months later, he contracted viral encephalitis while on a camping trip at the age of 86 and died of that illness on September 12, 2003. He is buried next to his wife and son in Rochester, Minnesota.

See also
 Pathology
 List of pathologists

References

External links

1917 births
2003 deaths
United States Army Medical Corps officers
American pathologists
People from Beresford, South Dakota
20th-century American educators
University of Minnesota alumni
People from Rochester, Minnesota
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
United States Army Air Forces officers
Physicians from South Dakota
Physicians of the Mayo Clinic
Military personnel from Minnesota

David Dahlin


Barry Lee Levinson (born April 6, 1942) is an American film director, producer and screenwriter. His best-known works are mid-budget comedy drama and drama films such as Diner (1982), The Natural (1984), Good Morning, Vietnam (1987), Bugsy (1991), and Wag the Dog (1997). Levinson won the Academy Award for Best Director for Rain Man (1988). In 2021, he co-executive produced the Hulu miniseries Dopesick and directed the first two episodes.

Early life
Levinson is of Russian-Jewish descent. After growing up in Forest Park, Baltimore and graduating from Forest Park Senior High School in 1960, Levinson attended Baltimore City Community College and American University in Washington, D.C. at the American University School of Communication, where he studied broadcast journalism.

He then moved to Los Angeles to work as an actor and writer and performed comedy routines. Levinson at one time shared an apartment with would-be drug smuggler (and subject of the movie Blow) George Jung.

Career
Levinson's first writing work was for variety shows such as The Marty Feldman Comedy Machine, The Lohman and Barkley Show, The Tim Conway Show, and The Carol Burnett Show. After some success as a screenwriter – notably the Mel Brooks comedies Silent Movie (1976) and High Anxiety (1977) (in which he played a bellboy) and the Oscar-nominated script (co-written by then-wife Valerie Curtin) ...And Justice for All (1979) – Levinson began his career as a film director.

His first directorial effort was Diner (1982), for which he also wrote the script, earned him an Oscar nomination for Best Original Screenplay. Diner was the first of four films set in the Baltimore of Levinson's youth. The other three were Tin Men (1987), a story of aluminum-siding salesmen in the 1960s starring Richard Dreyfuss and Danny DeVito; the immigrant family saga Avalon (1990) featuring Elijah Wood in one of his earliest screen appearances; and Liberty Heights (1999).

His biggest hit, both critically and financially, was Rain Man (1988), a sibling drama starring Dustin Hoffman and Tom Cruise in which Levinson appeared as a doctor in a cameo appearance. The film won four Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director. It also won the Golden Bear at the 39th Berlin International Film Festival.

Levinson directed the popular period baseball drama The Natural (1984), starring Robert Redford. Redford later directed Quiz Show (1994), and he cast Levinson as television personality Dave Garroway. Levinson also directed the classic war comedy Good Morning, Vietnam (1987), starring Robin Williams (as Adrian Cronauer), and he later collaborated with Williams on the fantasy film Toys (1992) and the political comedy Man of the Year (2006). Levinson also directed the critically acclaimed historical crime drama Bugsy (1991), which starred Warren Beatty and which was nominated for ten Academy Awards.

He directed Dustin Hoffman again in Wag the Dog (1997), a political comedy co-starring Robert De Niro about a war staged in a film studio. (Levinson had been an uncredited co-writer on Hoffman's 1982 hit comedy Tootsie.) The film won the Silver Bear – Special Jury Prize at the 48th Berlin International Film Festival.

Levinson partnered with producer Mark Johnson to form the film production company Baltimore Pictures, with 1990's Avalon as the company's first production. Johnson departed the firm in 1994. Levinson has been a producer or executive producer for such major productions as The Perfect Storm (2000), directed by Wolfgang Petersen; Analyze That (2002), starring De Niro as a neurotic mob boss and Billy Crystal as his therapist; and Possession (2002), based on the best-selling novel by A. S. Byatt.

Levinson has a television production company with Tom Fontana (The Levinson/Fontana Company) and has served as executive producer for a number of series, including Homicide: Life on the Street (which ran on NBC from 1993 to 1999) and the HBO prison drama Oz. Levinson also played an uncredited main role as a judge in the short-lived TV series The Jury.

Levinson published his first novel, Sixty-Six (), in 2003, and like several of his films, it is semi-autobiographical and set in Baltimore in the 1960s. In 2004, he directed two webisodes of the American Express ads "The Adventures of Seinfeld & Superman." In 2004, he was also the recipient of the Austin Film Festival's Distinguished Screenwriter Award. Levinson directed a documentary PoliWood about the 2008 Democratic and Republican National Conventions: the documentary — produced by Tim Daly, Robin Bronk and Robert E. Baruc — had its premiere at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival.

Levinson, in 2011, was developing a film based on Whitey Bulger, the Boston crime boss. The film Black Mass (script by Jim Sheridan, Jez Butterworth, and Russell Gewirtz) is based on the book by Dick Lehr and Gerard O'Neill, and it is said to be the "true story of Billy Bulger, Whitey Bulger, FBI agent John Connelly and the FBI's witness protection program created by J. Edgar Hoover." Levinson later left the project.

Levinson finished production on The Humbling (2014), starring Al Pacino. Levinson also directed Rock the Kasbah (2015), written by Mitch Glazer. The film starred Bill Murray, Bruce Willis, Kate Hudson, Zooey Deschanel, Leem Lubany, Scott Caan, Danny McBride, Kelly Lynch, Arian Moayed, Taylor Kinney, and Beejan Land.

In 2010 Levinson received the Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement, which is the lifetime achievement award from the Writers Guild of America.

Filmography

Awards and nominations

References

External links

Barry Levinson on Charlie Rose (March 24, 1994)

1942 births
Actors from Maryland
American film directors
American film producers
American male comedians
American male film actors
American male screenwriters
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American television directors
American television producers
American television writers
American University School of Communication alumni
Baltimore City Community College alumni
Best Directing Academy Award winners
Businesspeople from Baltimore
Comedians from Maryland
Directors Guild of America Award winners
Directors of Golden Bear winners
English-language film directors
Film directors from Maryland
Golden Globe Award-winning producers
Jewish American writers
Jews and Judaism in Baltimore
Living people
Screenwriters from Maryland
Writers from Baltimore
Writers Guild of America Award winners
Comedy film directors
21st-century American Jews

Barry Levinson


U.S. Route 66 or U.S. Highway 66 (US 66 or Route 66) was one of the original highways in the United States Numbered Highway System. It was established on November 11, 1926, with road signs erected the following year. The highway, which became one of the most famous roads in the United States, ran from Chicago, Illinois, through Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona before terminating in Santa Monica in Los Angeles County, California, covering a total of .

It was recognized in popular culture by both the 1946 hit song "(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66" and the Route 66 television series, which aired on CBS from 1960 to 1964. It was also featured in the Disney/Pixar animated feature film franchise Cars. In John Steinbeck's novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939), the highway symbolizes escape, loss, and the hope of a new beginning; Steinbeck dubbed it the Mother Road. Other designations and nicknames include the Will Rogers Highway and the Main Street of America.

US 66 was a primary route for those who migrated west, especially during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s, and it supported the economies of the communities through which it passed. People doing business along the route became prosperous, and they later fought to keep it alive in the face of the growing threat of being bypassed by the more advanced controlled-access highways of the Interstate Highway System in the 1960s and 70s.

US 66 underwent many improvements and realignments over its lifetime, but it was officially removed from the United States Highway System in 1985 after it was entirely replaced by segments of the Interstate Highway System. Portions of the road that passed through Illinois, Missouri, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona have been communally designated a National Scenic Byway by the name "Historic Route 66", returning the name to some maps. Several states have adopted significant bypassed sections of the former US 66 into their state road networks as State Route 66 and much of the former route within the San Bernardino County, California, is designated as County Route 66. The corridor is also being redeveloped into U.S. Bicycle Route 66, a part of the United States Bicycle Route System that was developed in the 2010s.

History

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Before the U.S. Highway System

In 1857, Lt. Edward Fitzgerald Beale, a naval officer in the service of the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers, was ordered by the War Department to build a government-funded wagon road along the 35th Parallel. His secondary orders were to test the feasibility of the use of camels as pack animals in the southwestern desert. This road became part of US 66.

Parts of the original Route 66 from 1913, prior to its official naming and commissioning, can still be seen north of the Cajon Pass. The paved road becomes a dirt road, south of Cajon, which was also the original Route 66.

Before a nationwide network of numbered highways was adopted by the states, auto trails were marked by private organizations. The route that became US 66 was covered by three highways:
The Lone Star Route passed through St. Louis on its way from Chicago to Cameron, Louisiana (although US 66 would take a shorter route through Bloomington rather than Peoria).
The transcontinental National Old Trails Road led via St. Louis to Los Angeles, but was not followed until New Mexico. Instead, US 66 used one of the main routes of the Ozark Trails system, which ended at the National Old Trails Road just south of Las Vegas, New Mexico. Again, a shorter route was taken, here following the Postal Highway between Oklahoma City and Amarillo.
The National Old Trails Road became the rest of the route to Los Angeles.

Legislation for public highways first appeared in 1916, with revisions in 1921, but the government did not execute a national highway construction plan until Congress enacted an even more comprehensive version of the act in 1925. The original inspiration for a road between Chicago and Los Angeles was planned by entrepreneurs Cyrus Avery of Tulsa, Oklahoma, and John Woodruff of Springfield, Missouri, who lobbied the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) for the creation of a route following the 1925 plans.

From the outset, public road planners intended US 66 to connect the main streets of rural and urban communities along its course for the most practical of reasons: Most small towns had no prior access to a major national thoroughfare.

Birthplace and rise of US 66

The numerical designation 66 was assigned to the Chicago-to-Los Angeles route on April 30, 1926, in Springfield, Missouri. A placard in Park Central Square was dedicated to the city by the Route 66 Association of Missouri, and traces of the "Mother Road" are still visible in downtown Springfield along Kearney Street, Glenstone Avenue, College, and St. Louis streets and on Route 266 to Halltown, Missouri.

Championed by Avery when the first talks about a national highway system began, US 66 was first signed into law in 1927 as one of the original U.S. Highways, although it was not completely paved until 1938. Avery was adamant that the highway have a round number and had proposed number 60 to identify it. A controversy erupted over the number 60, largely from delegates from Kentucky who wanted a Virginia Beach–Los Angeles highway to be US 60 and US 62 between Chicago and Springfield, Missouri. Arguments and counterarguments continued throughout February, including a proposal to split the proposed route through Kentucky into Route 60 North (to Chicago) and Route 60 South (to Newport News). The final conclusion was to have US 60 run between Virginia Beach, Virginia, and Springfield, Missouri, and the Chicago–L.A. route be US 62. Avery and highway engineer John Page settled on "66", which was unassigned, despite the fact that in its entirety, US 66 was north of US 60.

The state of Missouri released its 1926 state highway map with the highway labeled as US 60.

After the new federal highway system was officially created, Cyrus Avery called for the establishment of the U.S. Highway 66 Association to promote the complete paving of the highway from end to end and to promote travel down the highway. In 1927, in Tulsa, the association was officially established with John T. Woodruff of Springfield, Missouri, elected the first president. In 1928, the association made its first attempt at publicity, the "Bunion Derby", a footrace from Los Angeles to New York City, of which the path from Los Angeles to Chicago would be on US 66. The publicity worked: several dignitaries, including Will Rogers, greeted the runners at certain points on the route. The race ended in Madison Square Garden, where the $25,000 first prize (equal to $ in ) was awarded to Andy Hartley Payne, a Cherokee runner from Oklahoma. The U.S. Highway 66 Association also placed its first advertisement in the July 16, 1932, issue of the Saturday Evening Post. The ad invited Americans to take US 66 to the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. A U.S. Highway 66 Association office in Oklahoma received hundreds of requests for information after the ad was published. The association went on to serve as a voice for businesses along the highway until it disbanded in 1976.

Traffic grew on the highway because of the geography through which it passed. Much of the highway was essentially flat and this made the highway a popular truck route. The Dust Bowl of the 1930s saw many farming families, mainly from Oklahoma, Arkansas, Kansas, and Texas, heading west for agricultural jobs in California. US 66 became the main road of travel for these people, often derogatorily called "Okies" or "Arkies". During the Depression, it gave some relief to communities located on the highway. The route passed through numerous small towns and, with the growing traffic on the highway, helped create the rise of mom-and-pop businesses, such as service stations, restaurants, and motor courts, all readily accessible to passing motorists.

Much of the early highway, like all the other early highways, was gravel or graded dirt. Due to the efforts of the U.S. Highway 66 Association, US 66 became the first highway to be completely paved in 1938. Several places were dangerous: more than one part of the highway was nicknamed "Bloody 66" and gradually work was done to realign these segments to remove dangerous curves. However, one section through the Black Mountains outside Oatman, Arizona, was fraught with hairpin turns and was the steepest along the entire route, so much so that some early travelers, too frightened at the prospect of driving such a potentially dangerous road, hired locals to navigate the winding grade. The section remained as US 66 until 1953 and is still open to traffic today as the Oatman Highway. Despite such hazards in some areas, US 66 continued to be a popular route.

Notable buildings include the art deco–styled U-Drop Inn, constructed in 1936 in Shamrock, in Wheeler County east of Amarillo, Texas, listed on the National Register of Historic Places. A restored Magnolia fuel station is also located in Shamrock as well as Vega, in Oldham County, west of Amarillo.

During World War II, more migration west occurred because of war-related industries in California. US 66, already popular and fully paved, became one of the main routes and also served for moving military equipment. Fort Leonard Wood in Missouri was located near the highway, which was locally upgraded quickly to a divided highway to help with military traffic. When Richard Feynman was working on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, he used to travel nearly  to visit his wife, who was dying of tuberculosis, in a sanatorium located on US 66 in Albuquerque.

In the 1950s, US 66 became the main highway for vacationers heading to Los Angeles. The road passed through the Painted Desert and near the Grand Canyon. Meteor Crater in Arizona was another popular stop. This sharp increase in tourism in turn gave rise to a burgeoning trade in all manner of roadside attractions, including teepee-shaped motels, frozen custard stands, Indian curio shops, and reptile farms. Meramec Caverns near St. Louis, began advertising on barns, billing itself as the "Jesse James hideout". The Big Texan advertised a free  steak dinner to anyone who could consume the entire meal in one hour. It also marked the birth of the fast-food industry: Red's Giant Hamburg in Springfield, Missouri, site of the first drive-through restaurant, and the first McDonald's in San Bernardino, California. Changes like these to the landscape further cemented 66's reputation as a near-perfect microcosm of the culture of America, now linked by the automobile.

Changes in routing

Many sections of US 66 underwent major realignments.

In 1930, between the Illinois cities of Springfield and East St. Louis, US 66 was shifted farther east to what is now roughly Interstate 55 (I-55). The original alignment followed the current Illinois Route 4 (IL 4).

From downtown St. Louis to Gray Summit, Missouri, US 66 originally went down Market Street and Manchester Road, which is largely Route 100. In 1932, this route was changed and the original alignment was never viewed as anything more than temporary. The planned route was down Watson Road, which is now Route 366 but Watson Road had not been completed yet.

In Oklahoma, from west of El Reno to Bridgeport, US 66 turned north to Calumet and then west to Geary, then southwest across the South Canadian River over a suspension toll bridge into Bridgeport. In 1933, a straighter cut-off route was completed from west of El Reno to  south of Bridgeport, crossing over a 38-span steel pony truss bridge over the South Canadian River, bypassing Calumet and Geary by several miles.

From west of Santa Rosa, New Mexico, to north of Los Lunas, New Mexico, the road originally turned north from current I-40 along much of what is now US 84 to near Las Vegas, New Mexico, followed (roughly) I-25—then the decertified US 85 through Santa Fe and Albuquerque to Los Lunas and then turned northwest along the present New Mexico State Road 6 (NM 6) alignment to a point near Laguna. In 1937, a straight-line route was completed from west of Santa Rosa through Moriarty and east–west through Albuquerque and west to Laguna. This newer routing saved travelers as much as four hours of travel through New Mexico. According to legend, the rerouting was done at the behest of Democratic Governor Arthur T. Hannett to punish the Republican Santa Fe Ring, which had long dominated New Mexico out of Santa Fe.

In 1940, the first freeway in Los Angeles was incorporated into US 66; this was the Arroyo Seco Parkway, later known as the Pasadena Freeway; now again known as Arroyo Seco Parkway.

In 1953, the Oatman Highway through the Black Mountains was completely bypassed by a new route between Kingman, Arizona, and Needles, California; by the 1960s, Oatman, Arizona, was virtually abandoned as a ghost town.

Since the 1950s, as Interstates were being constructed, sections of US 66 not only saw the traffic drain to them, but often the route number itself was moved to the faster means of travel. In some cases, such as to the east of St. Louis, this was done as soon as the Interstate was finished to the next exit. The displacement of US 66 signage to the new freeways, combined with restrictions in the 1965 Highway Beautification Act that often denied merchants on the old road access to signage on the freeway, became factors in the closure of many established US 66 businesses as travelers could no longer easily find or reach them.

In 1936, US 66 was extended from downtown Los Angeles to Santa Monica to end at US 101 Alt., today the intersection of Olympic and Lincoln Boulevards. Even though there is a plaque dedicating US 66 as the Will Rogers Highway placed at the intersection of Ocean Boulevard and Santa Monica Boulevard, the highway never terminated there.

US 66 was rerouted around several larger cities via bypass or beltline routes to permit travelers to avoid city traffic congestion. Some of those cities included Springfield, Illinois; St. Louis, Missouri; Rolla, Missouri; Springfield, Missouri; Joplin, Missouri; and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The route was also a foundation for many chain stores back in the 1920s, sprouting up next to it to increase business and sales.

Decline

The beginning of the decline for US 66 came in 1956 with the signing of the Interstate Highway Act by President Dwight D. Eisenhower who was influenced by his experiences in 1919 as a young Army officer crossing the country in a truck convoy (following the route of the Lincoln Highway), and his appreciation of the Autobahn network as a necessary component of a national defense system.

During its nearly 60-year existence, US 66 was under constant change. As highway engineering became more sophisticated, engineers constantly sought more direct routes between cities and towns. Increased traffic led to a number of major and minor realignments of US 66 through the years, particularly in the years immediately following World War II when Illinois began widening US 66 to four lanes through virtually the entire state from Chicago to the Mississippi River just east of St. Louis, and included bypasses around virtually all of the towns. By the early to mid-1950s, Missouri also upgraded its sections of US 66 to four lanes complete with bypasses. Most of the newer four-lane 66 paving in both states was upgraded to freeway status in later years.

One of the remnants of US 66 is the highway now known as Veterans Parkway, east and south of Normal, Illinois, and Bloomington, Illinois. The two sweeping curves on the southeast and southwest of the cities originally were intended to easily handle traffic at speeds up to , as part of an effort to make US 66 an Autobahn equivalent for military transport.

In 1953, the first major bypassing of US 66 occurred in Oklahoma with the opening of the Turner Turnpike between Tulsa and Oklahoma City. The new  toll road paralleled US 66 for its entire length and bypassed each of the towns along US 66. The Turner Turnpike was joined in 1957 by the new Will Rogers Turnpike, which connected Tulsa with the Oklahoma-Missouri border west of Joplin, Missouri, again paralleling US 66 and bypassing the towns in northeastern Oklahoma in addition to its entire stretch through Kansas. Both Oklahoma turnpikes were soon designated as I-44, along with the US 66 bypass at Tulsa that connected the city with both turnpikes.

In some cases, such as many areas in Illinois, the new Interstate Highway not only paralleled the old US 66, it actually used much of the same roadway. A typical approach was to build one new set of lanes, then move one direction of traffic to it, while retaining the original set of lanes for traffic flowing in the opposite direction. Then a second set of lanes for traffic flowing in the other direction would be constructed, finally followed by abandoning the other old set of lanes or converting them into a frontage road.

The same scenario was used in western Oklahoma when US 66 was initially upgraded to a four-lane highway such as from Sayre through Erick to the Texas border at Texola in 1957 and 1958 where the old paving was retained for westbound traffic and a new parallel lane built for eastbound traffic (much of this section was entirely bypassed by I-40 in 1975), and on two other sections; from Canute to Elk City in 1959 and Hydro to Weatherford in 1960, both of which were upgraded with the construction of a new westbound lane in 1966 to bring the highway up to full interstate standards and demoting the old US 66 paving to frontage road status. In the initial process of constructing I-40 across western Oklahoma, the state also included projects to upgrade the through routes in El Reno, Weatherford, Clinton, Canute, Elk City, Sayre, Erick, and Texola to four-lane highways not only to provide seamless transitions from the rural sections of I-40 from both ends of town but also to provide easy access to those cities in later years after the I-40 bypasses were completed.

In New Mexico, as in most other states, rural sections of I-40 were to be constructed first with bypasses around cities to come later. However, some business and civic leaders in cities along US 66 were completely opposed to bypassing fearing loss of business and tax revenues. In 1963, the New Mexico Legislature enacted legislation that banned the construction of interstate bypasses around cities by local request. This legislation was short-lived, however, due to pressures from Washington and threat of loss of federal highway funds so it was rescinded by 1965. In 1964, Tucumcari and San Jon became the first cities in New Mexico to work out an agreement with state and federal officials in determining the locations of their I-40 bypasses as close to their business areas as possible in order to permit easy access for highway travelers to their localities. Other cities soon fell in line including Santa Rosa, Moriarty, Grants and Gallup although it wasn't until well into the 1970s that most of those cities would be bypassed by I-40.

By the late 1960s, most of the rural sections of US 66 had been replaced by I-40 across New Mexico with the most notable exception being the  strip from the Texas border at Glenrio west through San Jon to Tucumcari, which was becoming increasingly treacherous due to heavier and heavier traffic on the narrow two-lane highway. During 1968 and 1969, this section of US 66 was often referred to by locals and travelers as "Slaughter Lane" due to numerous injury and fatal accidents on this stretch. Local and area business and civic leaders and news media called upon state and federal highway officials to get I-40 built through the area; however, disputes over proposed highway routing in the vicinity of San Jon held up construction plans for several years as federal officials proposed that I-40 run some  north of that city while local and state officials insisted on following a proposed route that touched the northern city limits of San Jon. In November 1969, a truce was reached when federal highway officials agreed to build the I-40 route just outside the city, therefore providing local businesses dependent on highway traffic easy access to and from the freeway via the north–south highway that crossed old US 66 in San Jon. I-40 was completed from Glenrio to the east side of San Jon in 1976 and extended west to Tucumcari in 1981, including the bypasses around both cities.

Originally, highway officials planned for the last section of US 66 to be bypassed by interstates in Texas, but as was the case in many places, lawsuits held up construction of the new interstates. The US Highway 66 Association had become a voice for the people who feared the loss of their businesses. Since the interstates only provided access via ramps at interchanges, travelers could not pull directly off a highway into a business. At first, plans were laid out to allow mainly national chains to be placed in interstate medians. Such lawsuits effectively prevented this on all but toll roads. Some towns in Missouri threatened to sue the state if the US 66 designation was removed from the road, though lawsuits never materialized. Several businesses were well known to be on US 66, and fear of losing the number resulted in the state of Missouri officially requesting the designation "Interstate 66" for the St. Louis to Oklahoma City section of the route, but it was denied. In 1984, Arizona also saw its final stretch of highway decommissioned with the completion of I-40 just north of Williams, Arizona. Finally, with decertification of the highway by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials the following year, US 66 officially ceased to exist.

With the decommissioning of US 66, no single interstate route was designated to replace it, with the route being covered by Interstate 55 from Chicago to St. Louis, Interstate 44 from St. Louis to Oklahoma City, Interstate 40 from Oklahoma City to Barstow; Interstate 15 from Barstow to San Bernardino, and a combination of California State Route 66, I-210 and State Route 2 (SR 2) or I-10 from San Bernardino across the Los Angeles metropolitan area to Santa Monica.

After decertification

When the highway was decommissioned, sections of the road were disposed of in various ways. Within many cities, the route became a "business loop" for the interstate. Some sections became state roads, local roads, or private drives, or were abandoned completely. Although it is no longer possible to drive US 66 uninterrupted all the way from Chicago to Los Angeles, much of the original route and alternate alignments are still drivable with careful planning. Some stretches are quite well preserved, including one between Springfield, Missouri, and Tulsa, Oklahoma. Some sections of US 66 still retain their historic  "sidewalk highway" form, never having been resurfaced to make them into full-width highways. These old sections have a single, paved lane, concrete curbs to mark the edge of the lane, and gravel shoulders for passing.

Some states have kept the 66 designation for parts of the highway, albeit as state roads. In Missouri, Routes 366, 266, and 66 are all original sections of the highway. State Highway 66 (SH-66) in Oklahoma remains as the alternate "free" route near its turnpikes. "Historic Route 66" runs for a significant distance in and near Flagstaff, Arizona. Farther west, a long segment of US 66 in Arizona runs significantly north of I-40, and much of it is designated as State Route 66 (SR 66). This runs from Seligman to Kingman, Arizona, via Peach Springs. A surface street stretch between San Bernardino and La Verne (known as Foothill Boulevard) to the east of Los Angeles retains its number as SR 66. Several county roads and city streets at various places along the old route have also retained the "66" number.

Revival

The first Route 66 associations were founded in Arizona in 1987 and Missouri in 1989 (incorporated in 1990). Other groups in the other US 66 states soon followed. In 1990, the state of Missouri declared US 66 in that state a "State Historic Route". The first "Historic Route 66" marker in Missouri was erected on Kearney Street at Glenstone Avenue in Springfield, Missouri (now replaced—the original sign has been placed at Route 66 State Park near Eureka). Other historic markers now line—at times sporadically—the entire  length of road. In many communities, local groups have painted or stenciled the "66" and U.S. Route shield or outline directly onto the road surface, along with the state's name. This is common in areas where conventional signage for "Historic Route 66" is a target of repeated theft by souvenir hunters.

Various sections of the road itself have been placed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Arroyo Seco Parkway in the Los Angeles Area and US 66 in New Mexico have been made into National Scenic Byways. Williams Historic Business District and Urban Route 66, Williams were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 and 1989, respectively. In 2005, the State of Missouri made the road a state scenic byway from Illinois to Kansas. In the cities of Rancho Cucamonga, Rialto, and San Bernardino in California, there are US 66 signs erected along Foothill Boulevard, and also on Huntington Drive in the city of Arcadia. "Historic Route 66" signs may be found along the old route on Colorado Boulevard in Pasadena, San Dimas, La Verne, and along Foothill Boulevard in Claremont, California. The city of Glendora, California, renamed Alosta Avenue, its section of US 66, by calling it "Route 66". Flagstaff, Arizona, renamed all but a few blocks of Santa Fe Avenue as "Route 66". Until 2017, when it was moved to the nearby Millennium Park, the annual June Chicago Blues Festival was held each year in Grant Park and included a "Route 66 Roadhouse" stage on Columbus Avenue, a few yards north of old US 66/Jackson Boulevard (both closed to traffic for the festival), and a block west of the route's former eastern terminus at US 41 Lake Shore Drive. Since 2001, Springfield, Illinois has annually held its "International Route 66 Mother Road Festival" in its downtown district surrounding the Old State Capitol.

Many preservation groups have tried to save and even landmark the old motels and neon signs along the road in some states.

In 1999, President Bill Clinton signed a National Route 66 Preservation Bill that provided for $10 million in matching fund grants for preserving and restoring the historic features along the route.

In 2008, the World Monuments Fund added US 66 to the World Monuments Watch as sites along the route such as gas stations, motels, cafés, trading posts and drive-in movie theaters are threatened by development in urban areas and by abandonment and decay in rural areas. The National Park Service developed a Route 66 Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary describing over one hundred individual historic sites. As the popularity and mythical stature of US 66 has continued to grow, demands have begun to mount to improve signage, return US 66 to road atlases and revive its status as a continuous routing.

The U.S. Route 66 Recommissioning Initiative is a group that seeks to recertify US 66 as a US Highway along a combination of historic and modern alignments. The group's redesignation proposal does not enjoy universal support, as requirements that the route meet modern US Highway system specifications could force upgrades that compromise its historic integrity or require US 66 signage be moved to Interstate highways for some portions of the route.

In 2018, the AASHTO designated the first sections of U.S. Bicycle Route 66, part of the United States Bicycle Route System, in Kansas and Missouri.

National Museum of American History
The National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C. has a section on US 66 in its "America on the Move" exhibition. In the exhibit is a portion of pavement of the route taken from Bridgeport, Oklahoma and a restored car and truck of the type that would have been driven on the road in the 1930s. Also on display is a "Hamons Court" neon sign that hung at a gas station and tourist cabins near Hydro, Oklahoma, a "CABINS" neon sign that pointed to Ring's Rest tourist cabins in Muirkirk, Maryland, as well as several post cards a traveler sent back to his future wife while touring the route.

Museums and monuments in Oklahoma
Elk City, Oklahoma has the National Route 66 & Transportation Museum, which encompasses all eight states through which the Mother Road ran. Clinton has the Oklahoma Route 66 Museum, designed to display the iconic ideas, images, and myths of the Mother Road.  A memorial museum to the Route's namesake, Will Rogers, is located in Claremore, while his birthplace ranch is maintained in Oologah. In Sapulpa, the Heart of Route 66 Auto Museum features a  replica gas pump, the world's tallest.

Tulsa has multiple sites, starting with the Cyrus Avery Centennial Plaza, located at the east end of the historic 11th Street Bridge over which the route passed, and which includes a giant sculpture weighing  called "East Meets West". The sculpture depicts the Avery family riding west in a Model T Ford meeting an eastbound horse-drawn carriage. In 2020, Avery Plaza Southwest opened, at the west end of the bridge, which features a "neon park" with replicas of the neon signs from Tulsa-area Route 66 motels of the era, including the Tulsa Auto Court, the Oil Capital Motel, and the famous bucking-bronco sign of the Will Rogers Motor Court. Future plans for that site also include a Route 66 Museum.  Also, Tulsa has installed "Route 66 Rising", a  sculpture on the road's former eastern approach to town at East Admiral Place and Mingo Road.

On Tulsa's Southwest Boulevard, between W. 23rd and W. 24th Streets there is a granite marker dedicated to Route 66 as the Will Rogers Highway which features an image of namesake Will Rogers together with information on the route from Michael Wallis, author of Route 66: The Mother Road; and, at Howard Park just past W. 25th Street, three Indiana limestone pillars are dedicated to Route 66 through Tulsa, with Route 66 #1 devoted to Transportation, Route 66 #2 devoted to Tulsa Industry and Native American Heritage, and Route 66 #3 devoted to Art Deco Architecture and American Culture.  At 3770 Southwest Blvd. is the Route 66 Historical Village, which includes a tourism information center modeled after a 1920s-1930s gas station, and other period-appropriate artifacts such as the Frisco 4500 steam locomotive with train cars.  Elsewhere, Tulsa has constructed twenty-nine historical markers scattered along the 26-mile route of the highway through Tulsa, containing tourist-oriented stories, historical photos, and a map showing the location of historical sites and the other markers.  The markers are mostly along the highway's post-1932 alignment down 11th Street, with some along the road's 1926 path down Admiral Place.

Route description
Over the years, US 66 received numerous nicknames. Right after US 66 was commissioned, it was known as "The Great Diagonal Way" because the Chicago-to-Oklahoma City stretch ran northeast to southwest. Later, US 66 was advertised by the U.S. Highway 66 Association as "The Main Street of America". The title had also been claimed by supporters of US 40, but the US 66 group was more successful. In the John Steinbeck novel The Grapes of Wrath, the highway is called "The Mother Road", its prevailing title today. Lastly, US 66 was unofficially named "The Will Rogers Highway" by the U.S. Highway 66 Association in 1952, although a sign along the road with that name appeared in the John Ford film, The Grapes of Wrath, which was released in 1940, twelve years before the association gave the road that name. A plaque dedicating the highway to Will Rogers is still located in Santa Monica, California. There are more plaques like this; one can be found in Galena, Kansas. It was originally located on the Kansas-Missouri state line, but moved to the Howard Litch Memorial Park in 2001.

California

US 66 had its western terminus in California, and covered  in the state. The terminus was located at the Pacific Coast Highway, then US 101 Alternate and now SR 1, in Santa Monica, California. The highway ran through major cities such as Santa Monica, Los Angeles, and San Bernardino. San Bernardino also contains one of the two surviving Wigwam Motels along US 66. The highway had major intersections with US 101 in Hollywood, I-5 in Los Angeles, I-15, and I-40 in Barstow, and US 95 in Needles. It also ran concurrent to I-40 at California's very eastern end.

Arizona

In Arizona, the highway originally covered  in the state. Along much of the way, US 66 paralleled I-40. It entered across the Topock Gorge, passing through Oatman along the way to Kingman. Between Kingman and Seligman, the route is still signed as SR 66. Notably, just between Seligman and Flagstaff, Williams was the last point on US 66 to be bypassed by an Interstate. The route also passed through the once-incorporated community of Winona. Holbrook contains one of the two surviving Wigwam Motels on the route.

New Mexico

US 66 covered  in the state and passed through many Indian reservations in the western half of New Mexico. East of those reservations, the highway passed through Albuquerque, Santa Fe, and Las Vegas. As in Arizona, in New Mexico, U.S. 66 paralleled I-40.

Texas

US 66 covered  in the Texas Panhandle, travelling in an east–west line between Glenrio, New Mexico and Texas and Texola, Oklahoma. Adrian, in the western Panhandle, was notable as the midpoint of the route. East of there, the highway passed through Amarillo (famous for the Cadillac Ranch), Conway, Groom, and Shamrock.

Oklahoma and Kansas

The highway covered  in Oklahoma. Today, it is marked by I-40 west of Oklahoma City, and SH-66 east of there. After entering at Texola, US 66 passed through Sayre, Elk City, and Clinton before entering Oklahoma City. Beyond Oklahoma City, the highway passed through Edmond on its way to Tulsa. Past there, US 66 passed through Miami, North Miami, Commerce, and Quapaw before entering Kansas where it covered only . Only three towns are located on the route in Kansas: Galena, Riverton and Baxter Springs.

Missouri

US 66 covered  in Missouri. Upon entering from Galena, Kansas, the highway passed through Joplin. From there, it passed through Carthage, Springfield, where Red's Giant Hamburg, the world's first drive-thru stands, Waynesville, Devils Elbow, Lebanon and Rolla before passing through St. Louis.

Illinois

US 66 covered  in Illinois. It entered Illinois in East St. Louis after crossing the Mississippi River. Near there, it passed by Cahokia Mounds, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The highway then passed through Hamel, Springfield, passing by the Illinois State Capitol, Bloomington-Normal, Pontiac, and Gardner. It then entered the Chicago area. After passing through the suburbs, U.S. 66 entered Chicago itself, where it terminated at Lake Shore Drive.

Special routes

Several alternate alignments of US 66 occurred because of traffic issues. Business routes (BUS), bypass routes (BYP),
alternate routes (ALT), and "optional routes" (OPT) (an early designation for alternate routes) came into being.
 U.S. Route 66 Alternate: Bolingbrook–Gardner, Illinois
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Towanda–Bloomington, Illinois
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Lincoln, Illinois
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Springfield, Illinois
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Mitchell–East St. Louis, Illinois
 U.S. Route 66 Business: St. Louis–Sunset Hills, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Optional: Venice, Illinois–St. Louis, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Bypass: Mitchell, Illinois–Sunset Hills, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Springfield, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Bypass: Springfield, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Alternate Business: Springfield, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Alternate: Carthage, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Carterville–Webb City, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Alternate: Webb City–Joplin, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Joplin, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Bypass: Joplin, Missouri
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Tulsa, Oklahoma
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Clinton, Oklahoma
 U.S. Route 66 Business: Amarillo, Texas
 U.S. Route 66 Business: San Bernardino, California
 U.S. Route 66 Alternate: Pasadena–Los Angeles, California

In popular culture
US 66 has been a fixture in popular culture. American pop-culture artists publicized US 66 and the experience, through song and television. Bobby Troup wrote "(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66", which was later covered by artists ranging from Chuck Berry and Glenn Frey to John Mayer and Brian Setzer, as well as the Rolling Stones in their eponymous debut album. The highway lent its name to the Route 66 TV series in the 1960s, which itself had a popular theme song written and arranged by Nelson Riddle. The novel The Grapes of Wrath, adapted to film in 1940, depicts the Joad family traveling to California on US 66 after being evicted from their small farm in Oklahoma.

66 is the path of a people in flight, refugees from dust and shrinking land, from the thunder of tractors and shrinking ownership, from the desert's slow northward invasion, from the twisting winds that howl up out of Texas, from the floods that bring no richness to the land and steal what little richness is there. From all of these the people are in flight, and they come into 66 from the tributary side roads, from the wagon tracks and the rutted country roads. 66 is the mother road, the road of flight.

The 2006 animated film Cars had the working title Route 66, and described the decline of the fictional Radiator Springs, nearly a ghost town once its mother road, US 66, was bypassed by Interstate 40. The title was eventually changed to simply Cars to avoid confusion with the 60's TV series.

On April 30, 2022, the 96th anniversary of the route's numerical designation, Route 66 was honored with a video Google Doodle.

See also

 Inland Empire 66ers of San Bernardino, named after US 66
 List of landmarks on U.S. Route 66
 List of Route 66 museums
 National Old Trails Highway, precursor to western portion of US 66
 Phillips 66, a petroleum company named for the route
 Southern Transcon railroad equivalent, runs parallel to US 66 for significant portions of its length
 Tulsa 66ers, named after US 66

References

Further reading

  Entire issue about Route 66.

External links

66
All-American Roads
Routeandnbsp;66
Scenic highways in Arizona
1926 establishments in the United States
1985 disestablishments in the United States
66
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U.S. Route 66


German Christians () were a pressure group and a movement within the German Evangelical Church that existed between 1932 and 1945, aligned towards the antisemitic, racist and Führerprinzip ideological principles of Nazism with the goal to align German Protestantism as a whole towards those principles. Their advocacy of these principles led to a schism within 23 of the initially 28 regional church bodies (Landeskirchen) in Germany and the attendant foundation of the opposing Confessing Church in 1934. Theologians Karl Barth and Dietrich Bonhoeffer drafted the Barmen Declaration the same year opposing Nazi doctrines.

History

Antecedents

Lutheranism

Imperial Germany
During the period of the German Empire, before the Weimar Republic, the Protestant churches (Landeskirchen) in Germany were divided along state and provincial borders. Each state or provincial church was supported by and affiliated with the regnal house—if it was Protestant—in its particular region; the crown provided financial and institutional support to its church. Church and state were therefore, to a large extent, combined on a regional basis. Monarchies of Roman Catholic dynasties also organised church bodies that were territorially defined by their state borders. The same was true for the three republican German states within the pre-1918 Empire. In Alsace-Lorraine the Napoleonic system of établissements publics du culte for the Calvinist, Jewish, Lutheran and Roman Catholic congregations and umbrellas remained in effect.

Austria-Hungary
Karl Lueger's antisemitic Christian Social Party is sometimes viewed as a model for Adolf Hitler's Nazism. Hitler praised Lueger in his book Mein Kampf as an inspiration. In 1943, Nazi Germany produced the biographical film Vienna 1910 about Lueger, which was given the predicate "special political value".

Weimar Republic
With the end of World War I and the resulting political and social turmoil, the regional churches lost their secular rulers. With revolutionary fervor in the air, the conservative church leaders had to contend with socialists who favored disestablishment.

After considerable political maneuvering, state churches were abolished (in name) under Weimar, but the anti-disestablishmentarians prevailed in substance: churches remained public corporations and retained their subsidies from government. Religious instruction in the schools continued, as did the theological faculties in the universities. The rights formerly held by the princes in the German Empire simply devolved to church councils.

Accordingly, in this initial period of the Weimar Republic, the Protestant Church in Germany now operated as a federation of 28 regional (or provincial) churches. The federation operated officially through the representative German Evangelical Church Confederation (Deutscher Evangelischer Kirchenbund (DEKB)); the League was itself established in 1922 by the rather loose annual convention called Church General Assembly (Kirchentag), which was composed of the members of the various regional churches. The League was governed and administered by a 36-member Executive Committee (Kirchenausschuss) which was responsible for ongoing governance between the annual conventions of the Kirchentag.

Save for the organizational matters under the jurisdiction of the national League, the regional churches remained independent in other matters, including theology, and the federal system allowed for a great deal of regional autonomy.

Nazi Germany

Ideology
The Deutsche Christen were, for the most part, a "group of fanatically Nazi Protestants." They began as an interest group and eventually came to represent one of the schismatic factions of German Protestantism.

Their movement was sustained and encouraged by factors such as:
 the 400th anniversary (in 1917) of Martin Luther's publication of the Ninety-five Theses in 1517, an event which endorsed German nationalism, stoked hostility toward foreign peoples, granted Germany a preferred place in the Protestant tradition, and legitimized antisemitism;
 the antisemitic writings of Martin Luther; cf. On the Jews and Their Lies;
 the Luther Renaissance Movement of Professor Emmanuel Hirsch; supported by publications by Guida Diehl, the first speaker of the National Socialist Women's League;
 the revival of völkisch traditions;
 the de-emphasis of the Old Testament in Lutheran theology, and the partial or total removal of Jewishness from the Bible;
 the respect for temporal (secular) authority, which had been emphasized by Luther. The movement used scriptural support (Romans 13) to justify this position.

The Deutsche Christen were sympathetic to the Nazi regime's goal of "co-ordinating" (see Gleichschaltung) the individual Protestant churches into a single and uniform Reich church, consistent with the Volk ethos and the Führerprinzip.

The editor Prof. Wilhelm Knevels of the journal Christentum und Leben (i.e. Christianity and Life) also worked for the "Institute for Research and the Elimination of Jewish influence on German Church Life"—and his journal published articles like "Heroic Christianity" ("Heroisches Christentum", 1935) and "Why not only God? Why Jesus?" ("Warum nicht nur Gott? Warum Jesus?", April 1942).

The "Martin Luther Memorial Church" (Martin-Luther-Gedächtniskirche), which was built in Berlin from 1933 to 1935 included a pulpit that showed the Sermon on the Mount with a Stahlhelm-wearing Wehrmacht soldier listening to Jesus and a baptismal font which featured an SA stormtrooper. The swastikas were removed after the war and the former church has been reconstructed as a memorial to Nazi crimes against humanity.

Under the authority of Alfred Rosenberg and his religious theories the Protestant minister  established an Institute of Religious Studies as part of the Advanced School of the NSDAP.

Formation
The Deutsche Christen were organized as a Kirchenpartei (church party, i.e. a nominating group) in 1931 to help win elections of presbyteries and synods (i.e. legislating church assemblies) in the Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union, the largest of the independent Landeskirchen. They were led by Ludwig Müller, a rather incompetent "old fighter" who had no particular leadership skills or qualifications, except having been a longtime faithful Nazi. He was advised by Emanuel Hirsch. In 1931 the book Salvation from chaotic madness by Guida Diehl, the first speaker of the National Socialist Women's League, got an admiring review by the Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte—she was praised for fighting against the "ridicule of Christ" and "showing the way for German Christians". The Berlin section was founded by Wilhelm Kube in 1932. The group achieved no particular notoriety before the Nazi assumption of political power in January 1933. In the Prussian church elections of November 1932, Deutsche Christen won one-third of the vote.

Hitler was appointed Chancellor on 30 January 1933 and the process of Gleichschaltung was in its full sway in the first few months of the regime. In late April 1933 the leadership of the 1922-founded German Evangelical Church Confederation, in the spirit of the new regime, agreed to write a new constitution for a brand new, unitary "national" church, which would be called the German Evangelical Church (Deutsche Evangelische Kirche or DEK). The new and unified national DEK would completely replace and supersede the old federated church with its representative league.

This church reorganization had been a goal of the Deutsche Christen for some time, as such a centralization would enhance the coordination of Church and State, as a part of the overall Nazi process of Gleichschaltung. The Deutsche Christen agitated for Müller to be elected as the new Church's bishop (Reichsbischof).

Bishopric
Müller had poor political skills, little political support within the Church and no real qualifications for the job, other than his commitment to Nazism and a desire to exercise power. When the federation council met in May 1933 to approve the new constitution, it elected Friedrich von Bodelschwingh as Reichsbischof of the new Protestant Reich Church by a wide margin, largely on the advice and support of the church leadership.

Hitler was infuriated with the rejection of his candidate, and things began to change. By June 1933 the Deutsche Christen had gained leadership of some Landeskirchen within the DEK and were, of course, supported by Nazi propaganda in their efforts to reverse the humiliating loss to Bodelschwingh. After a series of Nazi-directed political maneuvers, Bodelschwingh resigned and Müller was appointed as the new Reichsbischof in July 1933.

Aryan paragraph
Further pro-Nazi developments followed the elevation of Müller to the DEK bishopric: in late summer the old-Prussian general synod (led by Müller) adopted the Aryan paragraph, effectively defrocking clergy of Jewish descent and even clergy married to non-Aryans.

With their Gleichschaltungspolitik and their attempts to incorporate the Aryan paragraph into the church constitution so as to exclude Jewish Christians, the Deutsche Christen entered into a Kirchenkampf with other evangelical Christians.  Their opponents founded the Confessing Church in 1934, which condemned the Deutsche Christen as heretics and claimed to be the true German Protestant Church.

Impact

The Nazis found the Deutsche Christen group useful during the initial consolidation of power, but removed most of its leaders from their posts shortly afterwards; Reichsbischof Müller continued until 1945, but his power was effectively removed in favor of a government agency as a result of his obvious incompetence.

The Deutsche Christen were supportive of the Nazi ideas about race. They issued public statements that Christians in Germany with Jewish ancestors "remain Christians in a New Testament sense, but are not German Christians." They also supported the Nazi party platform's advocacy of a "Positive Christianity" that did not stress the belief in human sinfulness. Some went so far as to call for the total removal of all Jewish elements from the Bible, including the Old Testament. Their symbol was a traditional Christian cross with a swastika in the middle and the group's German initials "D" and "C".

It was claimed and remembered by the Deutsche Christen, as a "fact", that the Jews had killed Christ, which appealed to and actively encouraged existing anti-Semitic sentiments among Christians in Nazi Germany.

Precursors

19th century
The forerunner of the Deutsche Christen ideology came from certain Protestant groups of the German Empire. These groups sought a return to perceived völkisch, nationalistic and racist ideas within traditional Christianity, and looked to turn Christianity in Germany into a reformed intrinsic folk-religion (). They found their model in the Berlin Hofprediger Adolf Stoecker, who was politically active and tried to position the Christian working-classes and lower-middle-classes against what he perceived as Jewish Überfremdung.

The Bayreuther Blätter devoted its June 1892 issue to a memorial of Paul de Lagarde and it emphatically recommended his work to its readers. Ludwig Schemann, one of the most prolific of Bayreuth Germanics and racists, and later the author of a full-length biography of Lagarde, summarized his life and work and concluded that "for the comprehension of Lagarde's whole being one must above all remember that he always considered himself the prophet and guide of his people — which of course he actually was." For Schemann his legacy consisted largely of his struggle against the Jews: "Not since the days of Schopenhauer and Wagner is the German thinker so mightily opposed this alien people, which desecrates our holy possessions, poisons our people, and seeks to wrest our property from us so as to completely trample on us, as Lagarde has" It was this image of Lagarde, the anti-Semitic prophet of a purified and heroic Germany, which the political Wagnerites and the Bayreuther Blätter kept alive. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Wagner's son-in-law and intellectual disciple, wrote: "For us, the Deutsche Schriften have for a long time belonged to our most precious books, and we consider Lagarde's unabashed exposure of the inferiority of Semitic religious instincts and the pernicious effects on Christianity as an achievement that deserves our admiration and gratitude."

In 1896 Arthur Bonus advocated a "Germanization of Christianity". Max Bewer alleged in his 1907 book Der deutsche Christus (The German Christ), Jesus stemmed from German soldiers in the Roman garrison in Galilee and his preaching showed the influence of "German blood". He concluded that the Germans were the best Christians among all peoples, only prevented from the full flowering of their spiritual faculties by the materialistic Jews. Julius Bode, however, concluded that the Christianisation of the Germans was the imposition of an "un-German" religious understanding, and that Germanic feeling remained alien to it and so should remain exempt from it.

20th century
On the 400th anniversary of the Protestant Reformation, in 1917, the Flensburg pastor Friedrich Andersen, the writer Adolf Bartels and Hans Paul Freiherr von Wolzogen presented 95 Thesen on which a "German Christianity on a Protestant basis" should be founded.  It stated:

For the authors of the Thesen, the "angry thunder-god" Jehovah was the same as the "Father" and "[Holy] Ghost", that Christ preached and that the Germans would have guessed.  Childlike confidence in God and selfless love was, to them, the essence of the Germanic "people's-soul" in contrast to Jewish "menial fear of God" and "materialistic morality."  Church was not an "institution for the dissemination of Judaism", and they felt religious and confirmation materials should no longer teach the Old Testament and the Ten Commandments, nor even the New Testament, which they held to be of Jewish influence that had to be "cleaned" so that the child Jesus could be used as a model for "self sacrifice" and "male heroism".

In 1920 minister Karl Gerecke published Biblical anti-Semitism in the Volksverlag of Ernst Boepple, one of the founders of the German Workers' Party.

Dietrich Eckart, an early mentor of Adolf Hitler, also emphasized the "manliness" of Jesus Christ and compared him to the Norse god Baldr.

In 1921 Andersen wrote Der deutsche Heiland (The German Saviour), in which he opposed Jewish migration as an apocalyptic decision:

Against the "contamination by Jewish ideas", mainly from the Old Testament, the Churches and Germany should (he argued) be "mutually benefits and supports", and then Christianity would win back its status as "a religion of the Volk and of the struggle" and "the great exploiter of humanity, the evil enemy of our Volk [would] finally be destroyed".

In the same year, 1921, the Protestant-dominated and völkisch-oriented League for German Churches () was founded in Berlin.  Andersen, pastor Ernst Bublitz and teacher Kurd Joachim Niedlich brought out the twice-monthly The German Church () magazine, which in 12,000 articles advanced the Bund'''s ideas.  Jesus should be a "tragic-Nordic figure" against the Old Testament's "religious idea", with the Old Testament replaced by a "German myth".  Each biblical story was to be "measured under German feelings, so that German Christianity escapes from Semitic influence as Beelzebub did before the Cross."

In 1925 groups such as the Bund united with ten völkisch, Germanophile and anti-Semitic organizations to form the German Christian Working Group ().  The Christian-Spirit Religious Society (), founded in 1927 in Nuremberg by Artur Dinter, saw more effect in the churches, striving for the 'de-Judification' () and the building of a non-denominational People's Church ().

The proposed abolition of the Old Testament was in part fiercely opposed among Christian German nationalists, seeing it as a racist attack on the foundations of their faith from inside and outside. The theologian Johannes Schneider, a member of the German National People's Party ( or DNVP) (a party fairly close to the political aims of the NSDAP), wrote in 1925:

In 1927 the Protestant Church League () reacted to the growing radicalization of German Christian groups with a Churches Day in Königsberg, aiming to clarify Christianity's relation to "Fatherland", "Nation", "Volkstum", "Blood" and "Race".  Many local church-officers tried to delineate, such as with regards to racism, but this only served to show how deeply it had intruded into their thinking. Paul Althaus, for example, wrote:

On this basis, the radical German-Christians' ideas were hardly slowed down.  In 1928 they gathered in Thuringia to found the Thuringian German Christians' Church Movement (), seeking contact with the Nazi party and naming their newsletter "Letters to German Christians" ().

Pagan and anti-Christian trends
Alfred Rosenberg's book The Myth of the Twentieth Century () resonated in these circles and gave them renewed impetus.  His polemic against all "un-German" and "root-stock" elements in Christianity was directed against the Christianity and the denominational organisations of the time. Marxism and Catholic Internationalism were attacked as two facets of the Jewish spirit, and Rosenberg stated the need for a new national religion to complete the Reformation.

The Associated German Religious Movement (), founded in Eisenach at the end of 1933, was also an attempt to create a national religion outside and against the churches.  It combined six earlier Nordic-völkisch oriented groups and a further five groups were represented by individual members. Jakob Wilhelm Hauer became the group's "leader and representative" by acclamation, and other members included the philosopher Ernst Bergmann (1881–1945), the racial ideologue Hans F. K. Günther, the writer Ernst Graf zu Reventlow, the historian Herman Wirth, Ludwig Fahrenkrog and Lothar Stengel-von Rutkowski.

Attempts to "de-Judaize" the Bible

In 1939 with the approval of eleven of the German Protestant regional churches the Eisenacher Institute for the Study and Elimination of Jewish Influence on German Church Life (called the "Dejudaization Institute") was founded, led by Siegfried Leffler and Walter Grundmann. One of its main tasks was to compile a "People's Testament" () in the sense of what Alfred Rosenberg called a "Fifth Gospel", to announce the myth of the "Aryan Jesus".  It became clear in 1994 that the Testament's poetic text was written by the famous ballad-poet and proprietor of the Eugen-Diederichs-Verlag, . Despite broad church support for it (even many Confessing Christians advocated such an approach, in the hope that the disaffiliation of 1937 to 1940 could be curbed), the first edition of the text did not meet with the expected enthusiastic response.

After 1945
After 1945, the remaining German Christian currents formed smaller communities and circles distanced from the newly formed umbrella of the independent church bodies Protestant Church in Germany. German Christian-related parties sought to influence the historiography of the Kirchenkampf in the so-called "church-historical working group", but they had little effect from then on in theology and politics.  Other former members of the German Christians moved into the numerically insignificant religious communities known as the Free People's Christian Church () and the People's Movement of Free Church Christians () after 1945.

In 1980, in the context of a statement entitled "Towards Renovation of the Relationship of Christians and Jews (Zur Erneuerung des Verhältnisses von Christen und Juden), the Synod of the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland stated that it recognized and "confess, with dismay, the co-responsibility and guilt of German Christians for the Holocaust." On May 6, 2019, eighty years after the founding of the "Dejudaization Institute", the "Dejudaization Institute" Memorial" was unveiled in Eisenach at the behest of eight Protestant regional churches. It is intended to be understood as the Protestant churches' confession of guilt and as a memorial to the victims of the church's anti-Judaism and anti-Semitism.

 See also
 Ariosophy
 Christian Identity
 Esoteric Nazism
 The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century German Faith Movement
 Institute for the Study and Elimination of Jewish Influence on German Church Life
 List of white nationalist organizations
 Marcion of Sinope
 Race and appearance of Jesus
 Positive Christianity
 Religious aspects of Nazism
 Religious views of Adolf Hitler

Notes and references

Bibliography
English

   (Bergen)
 Jochen Birkenmeier, Michael Weise (2020): Study and Eradication. The Church's "Dejudaization Institute", 1939–1945. Companion Volume to the Exhibition, Stiftung Lutherhaus Eisenach: Eisenach.

German
 Friedrich Baumgärtel: Wider die Kirchenkampflegenden; Freimund Verlag 19762 (19591),
 Otto Diem: Der Kirchenkampf. Evangelische Kirche und Nationalsozialismus; Hamburg 19702
 Heiner Faulenbach: Artikel Deutsche Christen; in: 4, 1999
 Rainer Lächele: Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Glaube. Die "Deutschen Christen" in Württemberg 1925–1960; Stuttgart 1994
 Kurt Meier: Die Deutschen Christen; Halle 1964 [Standardwerk]
 Kurt Meier: Kreuz und Hakenkreuz. Die evangelische Kirche im Dritten Reich; Munich 20012
 Klaus Scholder: Die Kirchen und das Dritte ReichVolume 1: Vorgeschichte und Zeit der Illusionen, 1918–1934; Berlin 1977
Volume 2: Das Jahr der Ernüchterung 1934; Berlin 1985
 Günther van Norden u.a. (ed.): Wir verwerfen die falsche Lehre. Arbeits- und Lesebuch zur Barmer Theologischen Erklärung Marikje Smid: Deutscher Protestantismus und Judentum 1932–33; München: Christian Kaiser, 1990;
 Hans Prolingheuer: Kleine politische Kirchengeschichte. 50 Jahre evangelischer Kirchenkampf; Cologne: Pahl-Rugenstein, 1984;
 Joachim Beckmann (eds): Kirchliches Jahrbuch für die evangelische Kirche in Deutschland 1933–1945. It: Evangelische Kirche im Dritten Reich, Gütersloh 1948
 Julius Sammetreuther: Die falsche Lehre der Deutschen Christen; Bekennende Kirche Heft 15; Munich 19343
 Leonore Siegele-Wenschkewitz (ed.): Christlicher Antijudaismus und Antisemitismus. Theologische und kirchliche Programme Deutscher Christen; Arnoldshainer Texte Band 85; Frankfurt/M.: Haag + Herchen Verlag, 1994;
it (S. 201–234) Birgit Jerke: Wie wurde das Neue Testament zu einem sogenannten Volkstestament "entjudet"? Aus der Arbeit des Eisenacher "Instituts zur Erforschung und Beseitung des jüdischen Einflusses auf das deutsch kirchliche Leben" Karl Heussi: Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte''; Tübingen: Mohr, 198116; ; S. 521–528

External links

  Religion in the service of an ethno-nationalist construction of identity: discussions on the examples of the "German Christians" and Japanese Shinto

  Die evangelische Kirche und der Holocaust
  Humanist.de: Die christlichen Wurzeln des Nationalsozialismus
  Andreas Herzog: "Wider den jüdischen Geist". Christian Anti-Semitic arguments 1871–1933

Nazi Party organizations
Nazi Germany and Protestantism
Christian organizations established in 1932
Christian movements
Late modern Christian antisemitism
Kirchenkampf
Protestant denominations established in the 20th century

German Christians (movement)


Ralph Andrews Barry (November 30, 1883 – December 10, 1939), of New York City, was a renowned writer of philatelic literature and was often referred to as the "Dean of American Philatelic Writers."

Philatelic activity
Barry was known not only for his philatelic literature but also for his encouraging the collecting of postage stamps and coins. He helped cover the events and exhibitions at various stamp shows and other philatelic events. At the New York Herald Tribune he was the stamp and coin editor from 1933 until he died in 1939.

Ralph Barry discussed the pleasures and techniques of the hobby of stamp collecting on various media, including on radio. He authored the book "A Glossary for the Stamp Collector" in 1936, and it was updated and revised in 1938 and 1940.

Honors and awards
Because of his extensive work in encouraging stamp collecting, the Ralph A. Barry Award was established in 1942 and is given to writers whose newspaper stamp column quality deserves acknowledgement.

References
 Ralph Andrews Barry

1883 births
1939 deaths
Philatelic literature
American philatelists
Writers from New York City
American Philatelic Society

Ralph Andrews Barry


Freeloaders is a 2012 American ensemble comedy film directed by Dan Rosen, and written by Rosen and singer Dave Gibbs. The film is produced by the Broken Lizard comedy troupe and is independently financed. Freeloaders stars Clifton Collins Jr., Josh Lawson, Kevin Sussman, Zoe Boyle, Nat Faxon, Warren Hutcherson, Jane Seymour, Olivia Munn, Dave Foley, and Counting Crows lead singer Adam Duritz.  It follows a group of friends who find their luxurious lifestyle threatened when the rock star they freeload off decides to sell his home.

Premise
Six slackers who mooch off Counting Crows frontman Adam Duritz and have been crashing at his California mansion for years struggle to maintain their lifestyle when he informs them that he is selling his home. Individually, the friends seek new living arrangements to no avail, so they attempt to prevent the sale of the home altogether, as well as raise money to purchase it.

Cast

Development
Freeloaders was brought to Broken Lizard early into its development, to help gain funding to produce the project. Principal photography was scheduled to begin in January 2009.  As of October 2010, Freeloaders had entered into post-production and was awaiting distribution.  On October 1, 2010, the film was privately screened by Broken Lizard and Duritz at the John Anson Ford Amphitheatre in Los Angeles. On November 3, 2011, Myriad Pictures acquired all distribution rights to the film outside of North America.

References

External links

2012 comedy films
2012 films
Broken Lizard
American comedy films
Films set in country houses
2010s English-language films
2010s American films
English-language comedy films

Freeloaders (film)