John Stuart Ingle (1933 – October 30, 2010) was an American contemporary realist artist, known for his meticulously rendered watercolor paintings, typically still lifes.  Some criticism has characterized Ingle's work as a kind of magic realism.  Ingle was born in Indiana and died, aged 77, in Minnesota.

Significant critical recognition of Ingle's work has included the publication of a book, The Eye and the Heart: Watercolors of John Stuart Ingle (Rizzoli International, 1988), authored by Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist John Camp, and including an introduction by Frank H. Goodyear, Jr., president of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (and author of Contemporary Realism since 1960). The 110-page book on Ingle was published in conjunction with major solo exhibitions jointly sponsored by the Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford, Connecticut, and the Evansville Museum of Arts, History and Science in Evansville, Indiana.

Style: intense, "virtuoso" realism

A 1991 New York Times review by Vivien Raynor remarked that "John Stuart Ingle proves that Magic Realism lives in his virtuoso still life incorporating silver, peaches and a plant in a blue ceramic pot, all on a wood table".

The realism of Ingle's paintings can verge on the shocking, especially when, as is sometimes the case, a painting is radically larger than scale. In 2005, another New York Times reviewer wrote of "a giant, startlingly realistic watercolor by John Stuart Ingle showing tomatoes preserved in a Mason jar."

If Raynor is correct in characterizing Ingle as a kind of second- or third-generation magic realist, then this is a magic realism closer to the ideals espoused by Franz Roh in 1925 than to the style of what have commonly been called "magic realist" painters in the early 21st century. These latter-day magic realists have generally pursued a style closer to magic realism in literature, in which the realistic veers into the impossible or fantastic. In contrast, Roh advocated a faithful rendering of the exterior of what is actually observed, the idea being that when one really sees the world with full intensity, the inherent magic of things becomes evident, with no need to add fantastic, impossible, or supernatural elements to a picture. Ingle's own description of his approach to painting is philosophically in tune with Roh's ideal. Of his penetratingly precise realistic style, Ingle has written: "I don't want to make arbitrary changes in what I see to paint the picture, I want to paint what is given. The whole idea is to take something that's given and explore that reality as intensely as I can."

Askart.com further categorizes Ingle's style as not just realist, but photo-realist. This designation would not, however, appear to be appropriate, given that in the introduction to the aforementioned monograph on the artist, Frank Goodyear (page 14) writes, "While not a photorealist, although he [Ingle] does use the airbrush techniques of some photorealists, his finished watercolors do evince the incredible technical virtuosity of photorealism."

Collections

According to Askart.com, Ingle's work is in several notable public collections, including those of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Yale University Art Gallery, the Evansville Museum of Arts, History and Science,  and the Arkansas Arts Center (AAC). Below is an external link to a page providing information, with color images, on two works by Ingle in the AAC's collection. The Art Institute of Chicago also includes one of Ingle's watercolors in its collection, according to the Institute's online catalogue.

See also

Realism
Magic realism
Photo-realism

References

John Camp;  John Stuart Ingle (with introduction by Frank H. Goodyear);  Evansville Museum of Arts and Science;  Wadsworth Atheneum. The eye and the heart : watercolors of John Stuart Ingle (New York : Rizzoli; Evansville, Ind. : Evansville Museum of Arts & Science, 1988) (WorldCat link: ) ;
John Stuart Ingle;  Tatistcheff and Company. John Stuart Ingle : watercolors : November 2–30. (New York : Tatistcheff and Co., 1985) (Worldcat link:)  OCLC 46464611

External links
Askart.com pages on Ingle, including color images of the work
New York Times review: "ART; The Skill of the Watercolorist" - May 19, 1991 (Viven Raynor, reviewer)
Arkansas Art Center: information (with access to color images - click on 'objects') on two works by Ingle in the museum's collection
New York Times review: "ART REVIEW; From Celebrity Faces to Creatures From Children's Books" - March 4, 2005 (Ken Johnson, reviewer)

1933 births
2010 deaths
People from Evansville, Indiana
20th-century American painters
American male painters
21st-century American painters
21st-century American male artists
American watercolorists
People from Minnetonka, Minnesota
Artists from Minnesota
20th-century American male artists

John Stuart Ingle


Modal jazz is jazz that makes use of musical modes, often modulating among them to accompany the chords instead of relying on one tonal center used across the piece. Although precedents exist, modal jazz was crystallized as a theory by composer George Russell in his 1953 book Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization.

Though exerting influence to the present, modal jazz was most popular in the 1950s and 1960s, as evidenced by the success of Miles Davis's 1958 composition "Milestones" and 1959 album Kind of Blue, and John Coltrane's quartet from 1960 to 1965; both artists were directly inspired by Russell. Other performers of modal jazz include Chick Corea, Bill Evans, Herbie Hancock, Joe Henderson, Bobby Hutcherson, Pharoah Sanders, Woody Shaw, Wayne Shorter, McCoy Tyner, and Larry Young.

History
In bebop as well as in hard bop, musicians use chords to provide the background for solos. A piece starts out with a theme that introduces a series of chords for the solos. These chords repeat throughout the whole piece, while the soloists play new, improvised themes over the repeated chord progression. By the 1950s, improvising over chords had become such a dominant part of jazz that sidemen at recording dates were sometimes given nothing more than a list of chords to play from.

Mercer Ellington has stated that Juan Tizol conceived the melody to "Caravan" in 1936 as a result of his days studying music in Puerto Rico, where they could not afford much sheet music so the teacher would turn the music upside down after they had learned to play it right-side up. This "inversion" technique led to a modal sound throughout Tizol's work.

Sun Ra reportedly rehearsed a small group consisting of Harold Ousley, Vernel Fournier, and Wilbur Ware in 1950 that played original songs that were modal in which the melody was based on a single chord or vamp – ten years before this approach became popular in jazz.

Saxophonist Wayne Shorter has noted that the 1953 composition "Glass Enclosure" by pianist Bud Powell was one of the earliest jazz compositions to make use of Lydian chords, based on the Lydian mode that was not widely used in jazz until about a decade later. Powell's 1951 Un Poco Loco uses the lydian chords and even uses lydian chords stacked on top of each implying a polytonality (D major 7 over C major 7: CEGBDF#AC#) with the improvisation based on alternating lydian-ish polytonality and an altered dominant chord.

Towards the end of the 1950s, spurred by the experiments of composer and bandleader George Russell, musicians began using a modal approach. They chose not to write their pieces using conventional chord changes, but instead using modes. Musicians employing this technique include Miles Davis, Freddie Hubbard, Bill Evans, Herbie Hancock, and Wayne Shorter.

Among the significant compositions of modal jazz were "So What" by Miles Davis and "Impressions" by John Coltrane. "So What" and "Impressions" follow the same AABA structure and were in D Dorian for the A sections and modulated a half step up to E-flat Dorian for the B section. The Dorian mode is the natural minor scale with a raised sixth. Other compositions include Davis's "Flamenco Sketches", Bill Evans's "Peace Piece", and Shorter's "Footprints".

Miles Davis recorded one of the best selling jazz albums of all time in this modal framework. Kind of Blue is an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz. Davis acknowledged the crucial role played by Bill Evans, a former member of George Russell's ensembles, in his transition from hard bop to modal playing. Although his explorations of modal jazz were sporadic throughout the 1960s, he included several of the tunes from Kind of Blue in the repertoire of his second quintet.

Coltrane took the lead in extensively exploring the limits of modal improvisation and composition with his quartet, featuring Elvin Jones (drums), McCoy Tyner (piano), and Reggie Workman and Jimmy Garrison (bass). Several of Coltrane's albums from the period are recognized as examples of modal jazz: Africa/Brass (1961), Live! at the Village Vanguard (1962), Crescent (1964), A Love Supreme (1964), and Meditations (1965). Coltrane's compositions from this period such as "India", "Chasin' the Trane", "Crescent", and "Impressions" have entered the jazz repertoire, along with his interpretations of standards like Richard Rodgers's "My Favorite Things", and the traditional "Greensleeves".

References

Modal jazz


The Mandé peoples are an ethnolinguistic grouping of native African ethnic groups who speak Mande languages. Various Mandé speaking ethnic groups are found particularly in the western regions of West Africa. The Mandé-speaking languages are divided into two primary groups: East Mandé and West Mandé.

The Mandinka or Malinke, a western branch of the Mandé, are credited with the founding one of the largest West African empires. Other large Mandé speaking ethnicities include the Soninke and Susu as well as smaller ethnic groups such as the Ligbi, Vai, and Bissa. Mandé-speaking people inhabit the sparse Sahel, are organized mainly by their language group, and have a wide range of cuisines, cultures, and beliefs.

After migrating from the Central Sahara, Mandé-speaking peoples established Tichitt culture in the Western Saharan region of Mauritania, which had Dhar Tichitt as its primary regional center and possibly the Malian Lakes Region as its secondary regional center. Subsequently, toward the end of the Mauritanian Tichitt culture, Mande-speaking peoples began to spread and established Méma, Macina, Dia Shoma, and Jenne Jeno in the Middle Niger region as well as the Ghana Empire.

Today, Mandé-speaking people are predominantly Muslim and follow a caste system. Islam has played a central role in identifying the Mandé-speaking people who live in the Sahel regions. The Mandinka and Soninke have been described as transcending individual tribal affiliations. Influences from Mandé-speaking people have historically spread far beyond immediate areas to other neighboring Muslim West African groups who inhabited the Sahel and Savanna. The Mandé-speaking people conducted increased trade along the Niger River or overland, and achieved military conquest with the expansion of the Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Kaabu and Wassoulou states.

The non-Mande-speaking Fula, Songhai, Wolof, Hausa, and Voltaic peoples maintain varying degrees of close alignment with the Mandé-speaking peoples worldview, clothing, and other cultural artifacts (e.g., a shared written script, architecture, cuisine, and social norms).

History

Central Sahara

After the Kel Essuf Period and Round Head Period of the Central Sahara, the Pastoral Period followed. Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not. As a result of increasing aridification of the Green Sahara, Central Saharan hunter-gatherers and cattle herders may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to the Niger River and Chad Basin of West Africa. In 4000 BCE, the start of sophisticated social structure (e.g., trade of cattle as valued assets) developed among herders amid the Pastoral Period of the Sahara. Saharan pastoral culture was intricate, as evidenced by fields of tumuli, lustrous stone rings, axes, and other remnants. By 1800 BCE, Saharan pastoral culture expanded throughout the Saharan and Sahelian regions. The initial stages of sophisticated social structure among Saharan herders served as the segue for the development of sophisticated hierarchies found in African settlements, such as Dhar Tichitt.

Tichitt culture

After migrating from the Central Sahara, proto-Mande peoples established their civilization in the Tichitt region of the Western Sahara. The Tichitt Tradition of southeastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE to 200 BCE. Tichitt culture at Dhar Néma, Dhar Tagant, Dhar Tichitt, and Dhar Walata included a four-tiered hierarchal social structure, farming of cereals, metallurgy, numerous funerary tombs, and a rock art tradition. At Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata, pearl millet may have also been independently tamed amid the Neolithic. Dhar Tichitt, which includes Dakhlet el Atrouss, may have served as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of the Tichitt Tradition, and the Malian Lakes Region, which includes Tondidarou, may have served as a second regional center of the Tichitt Tradition. The urban Tichitt Tradition may have been the earliest large-scale, complexly organized society in West Africa, and an early civilization of the Sahara, which may have served as the segue for state formation in West Africa.

As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma. Farming of crops (e.g., millet) may have been a feature of the Tichitt cultural tradition as early as 3rd millennium BCE in Dhar Tichitt.

As part a broader trend of iron metallurgy in the West African Sahel in 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Dia Shoma and Walaldé, and iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai. The iron materials found are evidence of metalworking at Dhar Tagant. In the late period of the Tichitt Tradition at Dhar Néma, tamed pearl millet was used to temper the tuyeres of an oval-shaped low shaft iron furnace, one of 16 located on elevated ground. Iron metallurgy may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE. At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, copper was also utilized.

After its decline in Mauritania, the Tichitt Tradition spread to the Middle Niger region of Mali (e.g., at Méma, Macina, Dia Shoma, and Jenne Jeno), where it developed into and persisted as Faïta Facies ceramics between 1300 BCE and 400 BCE among rammed earth architecture and iron metallurgy (which developed after 900 BCE). Thereafter, the Ghana Empire developed in the 1st millennium CE.

Djenné-Djenno

The civilization of Djenné-Djenno was located in the Niger River valley in Mali and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centres and the best-known archaeological sites in Sub-Saharan Africa. The site is located about  away from the modern town of Djenné and is believed to have been involved in long-distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice. The site is believed to exceed . The city is believed to have been abandoned and moved to its current location due to the spread of Islam and the building of the Great Mosque of Djenné. Towns similar to Djenné-Jeno also developed at the site of Dia, also in Mali along the Niger River, from around 900 BC. Considerable commonalities, absent in modern North African cultures, are present and able to be found between Round Head paintings and modern Sub-Saharan African cultures. Modern Saharan ceramics are viewed as having clear likenesses with the oldest ceramics found in Djenné-Djenno, which have been dated to 250 BCE. The egalitarian civilization of Djenné-Djenno was likely established by the Mande progenitors of the Bozo people, which spanned from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE.

Ghana Empire

Since around (even prior to) 1500 BCE, a number of clans of proto-Soninke descent, the oldest branch of the Mandé speaking peoples, came together under the leadership of Dinga Cisse. The nation comprised a confederation of three independent, freely allied, states (Mali, Mema, and Wagadou) and 12 garrisoned provinces. Located midway between the desert, the main source of salt, and the gold fields of the upper Senegal River to the south, the confederation had a good location to take advantage of trade with the surrounding cities. They traded with the north by a coastal route leading to Morocco via Sijilmasa.

Ghanaian society included large pastoral and agricultural communities. Its commercial class was the most prosperous. The Soninke merchants of Ghâna came to dominate the luxury trade and slave trade; they had Saharan trade routes connecting their great cities of the Sahara to the northern coast of Africa. They enslaved neighboring Africans, either to sell them or to use them for domestic purposes; those who were not sold were usually assimilated into the Soninke community. Leather goods, ivory, salt, gold, and copper were also sold in exchange for various finished goods. By the 10th century, Ghâna was an immensely rich and prosperous empire, controlling an area the size of Texas, stretching across Senegal, Mali, and Mauritania. When visiting the capital city of Kumbi Saleh in 950 AD, Arab traveler Ibn Hawqal described the Ghanaian ruler as the "richest king in the world because of his gold."

In the 11th century, the kingdom began to weaken and decline for numerous reasons. The king lost his trading monopoly, a devastating drought damaged the cattle and cultivation industries, the clans were fractured, and the vassal states were rebelling. According to Arab tradition, Almoravid Muslims came from the North and invaded Ghâna.

The western Sanhaja was converted to Islam sometime in the 9th century. They were subsequently united in the 10th century. With the zeal of converts, they launched several campaigns against the "Sudanese", idolatrous Black peoples of West Africa and the Sahel.  Under their king Tinbarutan ibn Usfayshar, the Sanhaja Lamtuna erected or captured the citadel of Awdaghust, a critical stop on the trans-Saharan trade route.  After the collapse of the Sanhaja union, Awdagust was taken by the Ghana empire. The trans-Saharan routes were taken over by the Zenata Maghrawa of Sijilmassa

Before the Almoravids, the Islamic influence was gradual and did not involve any form of military takeover. In any event, following their subsequent withdrawal, new gold fields were mined further south and new trade routes were opening further east. Just as it appeared that Ghâna would reemerge, it became the target of attacks by the Susu people who were Mandinka  (another Mandé speaking people) and their leader Sumanguru. From this conflict in 1235, the Malinké (also known as Mandinka people) emerged under a new dynamic ruler, Sundiata Kéita. By the mid-13th century, the once great empire of Ghâna had utterly disintegrated. It soon became eclipsed by the Mali Empire of Sundiata.

Mali Empire

The most renowned Emperor of Mali was Sundiata's grandson, Mansa Musa (1307–1332), also known as "Kan Kan Mussa" or "The Lion of Mali". His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 quite literally put Mali on the European map. He took 60,000 porters with him, each carrying 3 kg of pure gold (180 tons in total, according to the UNESCO General History of Africa). He had so much gold that when he stopped in Egypt, the Egyptian currency lost some of its value. According to Cairo-born historian al-Maqurizi, "the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and 'Ethiopian' slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of the gold dinar fell by six dirhams." Consequently, the names of Mali and Timbuktu were shown on the 14th-century world map.

In the 12th century CE, the University of Sankore, which began as the Mosque of Sankore, served as an organization of higher learning in Timbuktu. The Mosque of Sankore, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya, and the Mosque of Djinguereber constitute what is referred to as the University of Timbuktu.

In a number of generations, Mali was eclipsed by the Songhai empire of Askia Muhammad I (Askia the Great).

Post-Songhai

Following the fall of the great Empires of the Northern Mandé speaking people (The Mandinka and Soninke ethnic groups), the presence of other Mande speaking people came about. These were the Mane, Southern Mande speakers (The Mende, Gbandi, Kpelle, Loma ethnic groups) who invaded the western coast of Africa from the east during the first half of the 16th century. Their origin was apparent in their dress and weapons (which were observed at the time by Europeans), their language, as well as in Mane tradition, recorded about 1625. The Mane advanced parallel to the coastline of modern Liberia, fighting in turn with each tribal group that they came across. They were almost invariably successful. They did not slow until encountering the Susu, another Mande people, in the north-west of what is now Sierra Leone. The Susu had similar weapons, military organization and tactics.

Painted rock art from Manding peoples are found largely in Mali, where Malinke and Bambara peoples reside. The Manding rock art, developed using black, white, or red paint, is primarily composed of geometric artforms, as well as animal (e.g., saurian) and human artforms. Some of the Manding rock art may relate to circumcision rituals for initiates. During the 15th century CE, migrations from the northern area of Guinea and southern area of Mali may have resulted in the creation of Manding rock art in the northern area of Mali (e.g., Yobri, Nabruk), southeastern area of Burkina Faso (e.g., Takoutala, Sourkoundingueye), and Dogon country.

French colonisation of West Africa greatly affected the life of Mandé speaking people. Constant wars with the French cost the lives of thousands of their soldiers. They relied increasingly on the Atlantic slave trade for revenues. The later creation of colonial boundaries by European powers divided the population. The Mandé speaking people are still active in West African politics; Many individuals from Mandé speaking ethnic groups have been elected as presidents in several states.

Existence amongst Mande speaking peoples concerning conflict with other African peoples has been exacerbated since the start of the 20th century. Because of desertification, they have been forced steadily southward in search of work and other resources. Frequently, the competition has resulted in fighting between them and other indigenous populations along the coast.

Culture
Mandé speaking ethnic groups typically have a patrilineal kinship system and patriarchal society. Several Mandé speaking ethnic groups practice Islam, like the Mandinka and Soninke (though often mixed with indigenous beliefs), and usually observe ritual washing and the daily prayers of Islam. Their women wear veils. The Mandinka in particular practise the social concept of sanankuya or "joking relationship" among clans.

Secret societies
Amongst the Mende, Kpelle, Gbandi and Loma Mandé speaking ethnic groups of Sierra Leone and Liberia, there exists secret fraternal orders and sororities, known as Poro and Sande, or Bundu, respectively based on ancient traditions believed to have emerged about 1000 CE. These govern the internal order of their society, with important rites of passage and entry into the gender societies as boys and girls come of age in puberty.

Caste system
Amongst specific Mande speaking ethnic groups, such as the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu, there traditionally exists a caste-based system. Amongst these Mandé speaking ethnic groups societies are hierarchies or "caste"-based systems, with nobility and vassals. There were also serfs (Jonw/Jong(o)), often prisoners or captives taken in warfare, and usually from competitors of their territory. The descendants of former kings and generals had a higher status than both their nomadic and more settled compatriots.

Many Mandé speaking ethnic groups cultures traditionally have castes of crafts people (including as blacksmiths, leatherworkers, potters, and woodworkers/woodcarvers) and bards (the latter being known in several European languages as griots). These craft and bardic castes are collectively called "nyamakala" among peoples of Manding branch of the Mandé speaking family (Mandinka people), and "Nyaxamalo" among the Soninke people,

Mandé-influenced caste systems, and elements thereof, sometimes spread, due to Mande influences, to non-Mande-speaking ethnic groups (in and near regions where Mande cultures settled) and were adopted by certain non-Mande peoples of Senegal, parts of Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, and elsewhere the Western Sudan and Western Sahel regions of West Africa. Among the non-Mande Wolof people, craft and bardic castes were collectively termed "nyeno".

With time, in many cases, status differences have eroded, corresponding to the economic fortunes of the groups. Although the Mandé arrived in many of their present locations as raiders or traders, they gradually adapted to their regions. In the 21st century, most work either as settled agriculturalists or nomadic fishermen. Some are skilled as blacksmiths, cattle herders, and griots or bards.

Fadenya

Fadenya or "father-childness" is a word used by the Manding, a Mande speaking People (e.g. Mandinka), originally to describe the tensions between half-brothers with the same father and different mothers. The concept of fadenya has been stretched and is often used to describe the political and social dynamism of the Mandé Speaking world. Fadenya is often discussed in contrast to badenya, or mother-childness.

Oral tradition
Amongst the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu Mandé speaking ethnic groups cultures history is passed orally, one famous instance being the Epic of Sundiata of the Mandinka. Among the Mandinka, and some closely related groups, teaching centers known as kumayoro teach the oral histories and techniques under keepers of tradition known as nyamankala. These nyamankala form an important part of Mandinka culture due to their role in preserving oral tradition. Kela school, the most notable, is vital in perpetuating oral tradition. Because of their strong work, the versions of the Sundiata epic tend to be fairly similar. The Kela version is considered the official one, and the epic is performed every seven years. The Kela version includes a written document called a tariku. This intersection of written and oral history is unique to Mandinka culture.

The epic is typically performed in two ways: one is intended for teaching or rehearsing, and the other is more official, intended to convey the important information to a large audience. Part of the teaching performance involves the presentation of gifts from clans involved in the epic.  The official version can use a musical instrument; it does not allow audience interruptions. Different Mandé clans play different instruments in their performances of the epic.

The Kandasi also started a school for oral history.

Literature
Mandé literature includes the Epic of Sundiata, an epic poem of the Manding peoples (a branch of Mande family) recounting the rise of Sundiata Keita, the founder of the Mali Empire. Ethnomusicologist Eric Charry notes that these tales "form a vast body of oral and written literature" ranging from Ibn Khaldun's 14th-century Arabic-language account to French colonial anthologies collecting local oral histories to modern recordings, transcriptions, translations, and performance. Tarikh al-Fattash and Tarikh al-Sudan are two important Timbuktu chronicles. By the late 1990s, there were reportedly 64 published versions of the Epic of Sunjata. Although traditionally attributed to Mahmud Kati, Tarikh al-Fattash was written by at least three different authors. Among the Mande speaking ethnic groups such as the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu, griots are a group, traditionally a specialized caste<ref>"Griot" in Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (2d ed.; eds. Anthony Appiah & Henry Louis Gates: Vol. 3: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 78-79.</ref> who are bards, storytellers, and oral historians.

Religion

Many of the Mandé speaking ethnic groups in the westernmost part of West Africa have been predominantly Muslim since the 13th century. Others, such as the Bambara, a Mandinka group, converted to Islam as late as the 19th century with some retaining their traditional beliefs. Muslim Mandinka also hold traditional beliefs, such as in the rituals of initiation groups like Chiwara, and Dwo, and beliefs in the power of nyama (a spiritual power existing in nature). Many smaller Mande speaking ethnic groups, such as the Bobo, retain pre-Islamic belief systems in their entirety. Many Mande-speaking groups in Sierra Leone and Liberia were also, for the most part, not islamized.

According to oral histories, Mandé speaking people, in particular the Soninke ethnic group, contributed through trade and settlement to the Islamization of non-Mandé Gur groups at the edge of the Sahel in West Africa.

Arts
Much Mandé art is in the form of jewelry and carvings. The masks associated with the fraternal and sorority associations of the Marka and the Mendé are probably the best-known, and finely crafted in the region. The Mandé also produce beautifully woven fabrics which are popular throughout western Africa. They also create gold and silver necklaces, bracelets, armlets, and earrings. The Bambara people and related groups also traditionally produce wooden sculpture. And sculpture in wood, metal, and terra-cotta, have been found, associated with ancient peoples related to the Soninke in Mali.

The bells on the necklaces are of the type believed to be heard by spirits, ringing in both worlds, that of the ancestors and the living. Mandé hunters often wear a single bell, which can be easily silenced when stealth is necessary. Women, on the other hand, often wear multiple bells, representative of concepts of community, since the bells ring harmoniously together.

Djenné-Djenno, an ancient city on the Niger River in central Mali built by Soninke-related peoples, is famous for its terracotta figurines which depict humans and animals including snakes and horses, some dating to the first millennium and early second millennium AD.  It is believed that these statuettes served a ritual function and hypothesized that some are the representations of household or ancestral spirits, as ancestral cults are known to have flourished in the area as late as the 20th century.

Music
The best known  type of traditional music Amongst the Mande speaking people is played on the kora, a stringed instrument with 21 or more strings mainly associated by the Mandinka people. It is performed by families of musicians known in Mandinka as Jeliw (sing. Jeli''), or in French as griots. The kora is a unique harp-lute with a notched wooden bridge. It is arguably the most complex chordophone of Africa.

The N'goni is the ancestor of the modern banjo, and is also played by jelis.

Griots are professional bards in northern West Africa, keepers of their great oral epic traditions and history. They are trusted and powerful advisors of Mandinka leaders. Among the most celebrated of these today are Toumani Diabate, Mamadou Diabate, and Kandia Kouyaté.

See also
 Griot
 Djembe
 N'goni
 Kora (instrument)
 List of Mandé peoples of Africa
 Mande Studies Association
 Mande languages

References

Bibliography

 Gillow, John. (2003), African Textiles. 29 p.

 Metropolitan Museum of Art's collection of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas.
 UNESCO General History of Africa, Volume IV, pp. 197–200.
 Mauny, R. (1971), "The Western Sudan" in Shinnie: 66-87.
 Monteil, Charles (1953), "La Légende du Ouagadou et l'Origine des Soninke" in Mélanges Ethnologiques (Dakar: Bulletin del'Institut Francais del'Afrique Noir).
 Fage, John D. (2001), History of Africa. Routledge; 4th edition.
 Boone, Sylvia Ardyn.  (1986), Radiance from the Waters.
 Kouyaté, Dani (Director). (1995). Keïta: Heritage of a Griot [Motion picture]. Burkina Faso.
 Kevin C. MacDonald, Robert Vernet, Marcos Martinón-Torres & Dorian Q. Fuller. "Dhar Néma: from early agriculture to metallurgy in southeastern Mauritania"/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00671990902811330

Mandé people

es:Mandinga

Mandé peoples


In the Catholic Church, a secular institute is one of the forms of consecrated life recognized in Church law (1983 Code of Canon Law Canons 710–730).

Secular consecrated persons profess the Evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty, and obedience while living in the world, as compared to members of a religious institute who belong to a particular congregations, often with specific apostolates.

Description
The historical origins of these institutes go back to the end of the sixteenth century, even though their juridic recognition as a state of consecrated life approved by the Church took place only on 2 February 1947, with Pope Pius XII's Apostolic Constitution Provida Mater Ecclesia.

Most members of secular institutes do not live together—though some do. They lead their normal lives "in the world" in a variety of occupations. Each institute has a particular spirituality shaped by its founders and leaders.

Secular institutes are recognized either by a bishop (diocesan right) or by the Holy See. Most are registered with the World Conference of Secular Institutes. There are nine secular institutes in the UK; these institutes belong to the National Conference of Secular Institutes (NCSI), an association for cooperation and mutual support of those secular institutes which have membership in the United Kingdom. The NCSI is affiliated with the Conference Mondiale des Instituts Seculiers (CMIS) which represents all secular institutes in the world. There are 30 secular institutes in the United States  As of 2018, CMIS reported a total of 184 secular institutes worldwide.

The exact number of members of secular institutes worldwide is unclear. A 2018 survey by CMIS reported approximately 24,000 members, but noted that not all institutes surveyed provided data, and that some institutes provided inconsistent responses. Most of the members of secular institutes are lay people. Some join as diocesan priests or deacons, and some institutes are founded specifically for diocesan priests who wish to take vows and lead a consecrated life while still being incardinated in their diocese and working in the diocesan framework. Some secular institutes even train and incardinate their own priests.

Notable secular institutes
 Company of St. Ursula
 Institute of the Maids of the Poor (M.O.P.)
 Schoenstatt Apostolic Movement
 Secular Institute Pius X (I.S.P.X.)
 Servite Secular Institute (S.S.I.)

See also

Religious institute
Society of apostolic life
Vocational discernment in the Catholic Church

References

External links
 Concerning Secular Institutes in the Code of Canon Law (1983), can. 710–730
 Provida Mater Ecclesia at the Vatican website
 United States Conference of Secular Institutes
 World Conference of Secular Institutes

Catholic lay organisations

Secular institute


Elizabeta Nemeth is an American physiologist who has made many contributions to the understanding of inflammatory disorders, thalassemias, and iron overload diseases.

Biography
Nemeth obtained her degree in molecular biology and physiology from the University of Belgrade and then earned a neuroscience degree from the University of Hawaii in 1998. She did postdoctoral research in the area of ovarian cancer and later worked at the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California. In 2001, she became a member of the Department of Medicine at UCLA, where she worked on iron metabolism and the hormone hepcidin. In 2007, the American College of Nutrition honored her with the Grace Goldsmith Award. Currently she is a co-founder of Intrinsic LifeSciences, and is an associate professor at the UCLA Center for Iron Disorders. Her research has suggested treatments for anemia and iron overload.

References

Living people
20th-century births
American physiologists
Women physiologists
Year of birth missing (living people)

Elizabeta Nemeth


Gingee Fort or Senji Fort (also known as Chenji, Chanchi, Jinji or Senchi) in Tamil Nadu, India is one of the surviving forts in Tamil Nadu, India. It lies in Villupuram District, 160 kilometres (99 mi) from the state capital, Chennai, and is close to the Union Territory of Puducherry. The fort is so fortified, that Shivaji, the Maratha king, ranked it as the "most impregnable fortress in India" and it was called the "Troy of the East" by the British. The nearest town with a railway station is Tindivanam and the nearest airport is Chennai (Madras), located 150 kilometres (93 mi) away.

Originally the site of a small fort built by the Chola dynasty during the 9th century AD, Gingee Fort was modified by Kurumbar during the 13th century. As per one account, the fort was built during the 15–16th century by the Nayaks, the lieutenants of the Vijayanagara Empire and who later became independent kings (Nayaks of Gingee ). The fort passed to the Marathas under the leadership of Shivaji in 1677 AD, Bijapur sultans, the Moghuls, Carnatic Nawabs, French and the British in 1761. The fort is closely associated with Raja Tej Singh, who unsuccessfully revolted against the Nawab of Arcot and eventually lost his life in a battle.

Reference

Viluppuram district

Gingee Fort


Orville Dewey (March 28, 1794 – March 21, 1882) was an American Unitarian minister.

Early life
Dewey was born in Sheffield, Massachusetts. His ancestors were among the first settlers of Sheffield, where he spent his early life, alternately working upon his father's farm and attending the village school. He was naturally thoughtful, and was encouraged in his love of reading by his father. His mother's piety had great influence in the formation of his character. The strict Calvinism that colored the religious life around him was greatly tempered by his intercourse with his cousin, Paul Dewey, who was an able mathematician and a skeptic with regard to the prevailing theology.

Dewey's parents had him so thoroughly prepared for College that he entered the sophomore class in Williams College, where he was graduated in 1814. He then returned to Sheffield, where he engaged in teaching, and afterward went to New York, becoming a clerk in a dry goods house. He was graduated at Andover Theological Seminary in 1819, and for eight months was agent for the American Education Society, having declined an immediate and permanent pastorate on account of his unsettled views regarding theology.

Notwithstanding a very candid expression of his opinions, he was offered a pulpit in Gloucester, which he accepted temporarily. He soon became a Unitarian, and was appointed to be the assistant of Dr. William Ellery Channing, in Boston, with whom he formed a lasting friendship, and whose Church he supplied during its pastor's travels in Europe.

Career
In 1823 he became pastor of the Unitarian Church in New Bedford, remaining there for ten years, until he went to Europe on account of his health. He was called to the second Unitarian Church of New York in 1835, which during his ministry built the Church of the Messiah. In 1840, he was elected to the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician. In 1842 his health again failed, and he went a second time to Europe, returning in 1844.

He was compelled to resign his charge in 1848, and retired to his farm in Sheffield, where he prepared a course of lectures for the Lowell Institute of Boston, on the "Problem of Human Life and Destiny", which course was repeated twice in New York, and delivered in many other cities. This was followed by a second Lowell course, in 1855, on the "Education of the Human Race", which was widely repeated. Dr. Dewey was called to a church in Albany, where he remained one year, and to Washington, D.C., where he spent two years.

In 1858 he again settled in Boston as pastor of the New South Church, but retired after four years of service. He returned to his farm in Sheffield, where he resided until his death.

He lectured frequently, and appeared in public for the last time in the old Congregational Church at the centennial celebration, June 18, 1876. His controversial articles and sermons were reprinted in a cheap form by the Unitarian Association. His first book was Letters on Revivals. His works were issued in a collected edition (1 vol., London, 1844), and reissued (3 vols., New York, 1847). His daughter, Mary Elizabeth Dewey, born in Sheffield, was an author and editor; she translated George Sand's novel The  Miller of Angibault and edited Life and Letters of Catharine M. Sedgwick (New York, 1871).

Orville Wright was named after him.

References

External links

 The papers of Orville Dewey are in the Harvard Divinity School Library at Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

 1893 Biographical Sketch

1794 births
1882 deaths
American Unitarian clergy
19th-century American clergy

Orville Dewey


Rocky Comfort is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in northeastern McDonald County, Missouri, United States, on Route 76. It is part of the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers, AR-MO Metropolitan Statistical Area.

A post office called Rocky Comfort has been in operation since 1876. Some say the community was named for the rocky terrain in an idyllic setting, while others believe the name is a transfer from Rocky Comfort, Arkansas. The community is mentioned in Dennis Murphy's poem of 1941, The Doomed Race, and is both title and setting for Wayne Holmes' 2009 memoir, Rocky Comfort. From 1902 to 1908, when it moved to nearby Fairview, the Horner Institute, a private school offering courses from the eighth grade through high school, was located in Rocky Comfort.

Demographics

Notable person
 Travis Phelps, former Major League Baseball pitcher who was born in Rocky Comfort

References

McDonald County
Northwest Arkansas
Unincorporated communities in Missouri

Rocky Comfort, Missouri


Pipecolic acidemia is a very rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorder that is caused by a peroxisomal defect.

Pipecolic acidemia can also be an associated component of Refsum disease with increased pipecolic acidemia (RDPA), as well as other peroxisomal disorders, including both infantile and adult Refsum disease, and Zellweger syndrome.

The disorder is characterized by an increase in pipecolic acid levels in the blood, leading to neuropathy and hepatomegaly.

See also
 AASDHPPT
 PHYH

References

External links

Amino acid metabolism disorders
Autosomal recessive disorders
Rare diseases

Pipecolic acidemia


A health system, health care system or healthcare system is an organization of people, institutions, and resources that delivers health care services to meet the health needs of target populations.

There is a wide variety of health systems around the world, with as many histories and organizational structures as there are nations. Implicitly, nations must design and develop health systems in accordance with their needs and resources, although common elements in virtually all health systems are primary healthcare and public health measures. In certain nations, the orchestration of health system planning is decentralized, with various stakeholders in the market assuming responsibilities. In contrast, in other regions, a collaborative endeavor exists among governmental entities, labor unions, philanthropic organizations, religious institutions, or other organized bodies, aimed at the meticulous provision of healthcare services tailored to the specific needs of their respective populations. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that the process of healthcare planning is frequently characterized as an evolutionary progression rather than a revolutionary transformation. As with other social institutional structures, health systems are likely to reflect the history, culture and economics of the states in which they evolve. These peculiarities bedevil and complicate international comparisons and preclude any universal standard of performance.

Goals
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations system, healthcare systems' goals are good health for the citizens, responsiveness to the expectations of the population, and fair means of funding operations. Progress towards them depends on how systems carry out four vital functions: provision of health care services, resource generation, financing, and stewardship. Other dimensions for the evaluation of health systems include quality, efficiency, acceptability, and equity. They have also been described in the United States as "the five C's": Cost, Coverage, Consistency, Complexity, and Chronic Illness. Also, continuity of health care is a major goal.

Definitions
Often health system has been defined with a reductionist perspective. Some authors have developed arguments to expand the concept of health systems, indicating additional dimensions that should be considered:
 Health systems should not be expressed in terms of their components only, but also of their interrelationships;
 Health systems should include not only the institutional or supply side of the health system but also the population;
 Health systems must be seen in terms of their goals, which include not only health improvement, but also equity, responsiveness to legitimate expectations, respect of dignity, and fair financing, among others;
 Health systems must also be defined in terms of their functions, including the direct provision of services, whether they are medical or public health services, but also "other enabling functions, such as stewardship, financing, and resource generation, including what is probably the most complex of all challenges, the health workforce."

World Health Organization definition
The World Health Organization defines health systems as follows:

Financial resources

There are generally five primary methods of funding health systems:

 general taxation to the state, county or municipality
 national health insurance
 voluntary or private health insurance
 out-of-pocket payments
 donations to charities

Most countries' systems feature a mix of all five models. One study based on data from the OECD concluded that all types of health care finance "are compatible with" an efficient health system. The study also found no relationship between financing and cost control. Another study examining single payer and multi payer systems in OECD countries found that single payer systems have significantly less hospital beds per 100,000 people than in multi payer systems.

The term health insurance is generally used to describe a form of insurance that pays for medical expenses. It is sometimes used more broadly to include insurance covering disability or long-term nursing or custodial care needs. It may be provided through a social insurance program, or from private insurance companies. It may be obtained on a group basis (e.g., by a firm to cover its employees) or purchased by individual consumers. In each case premiums or taxes protect the insured from high or unexpected health care expenses.

Through the calculation of the comprehensive cost of healthcare expenditures, it becomes feasible to construct a standard financial framework, which may involve mechanisms like monthly premiums or annual taxes. This ensures the availability of funds to cover the healthcare benefits delineated in the insurance agreement. Typically, the administration of these benefits is overseen by a government agency, a nonprofit health fund, or a commercial corporation.

Many commercial health insurers control their costs by restricting the benefits provided, by such means as deductibles, co-payments, coinsurance, policy exclusions, and total coverage limits. They will also severely restrict or refuse coverage of pre-existing conditions. Many government systems also have co-payment arrangements but express exclusions are rare or limited because of political pressure. The larger insurance systems may also negotiate fees with providers.

Many forms of social insurance systems control their costs by using the bargaining power of the community they are intended to serve to control costs in the health care delivery system. They may attempt to do so by, for example, negotiating drug prices directly with pharmaceutical companies, negotiating standard fees with the medical profession, or reducing unnecessary health care costs. Social systems sometimes feature contributions related to earnings as part of a system to deliver universal health care, which may or may not also involve the use of commercial and non-commercial insurers. Essentially the wealthier users pay proportionately more into the system to cover the needs of the poorer users who therefore contribute proportionately less. There are usually caps on the contributions of the wealthy and minimum payments that must be made by the insured (often in the form of a minimum contribution, similar to a deductible in commercial insurance models).

In addition to these traditional health care financing methods, some lower income countries and development partners are also implementing non-traditional or innovative financing mechanisms for scaling up delivery and sustainability of health care, such as micro-contributions, public-private partnerships, and market-based financial transaction taxes. For example, as of June 2011, UNITAID had collected more than one billion dollars from 29 member countries, including several from Africa, through an air ticket solidarity levy to expand access to care and treatment for HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria in 94 countries.

Payment models
In most countries, wage costs for healthcare practitioners are estimated to represent between 65% and 80% of renewable health system expenditures. There are three ways to pay medical practitioners: fee for service, capitation, and salary. There has been growing interest in blending elements of these systems.

Fee-for-service
Fee-for-service arrangements pay general practitioners (GPs) based on the service. They are even more widely used for specialists working in ambulatory care.

There are two ways to set fee levels:
 By individual practitioners.
 Central negotiations (as in Japan, Germany, Canada and in France) or hybrid model (such as in Australia, France's sector 2, and New Zealand) where GPs can charge extra fees on top of standardized patient reimbursement rates.

Capitation
In capitation payment systems, GPs are paid for each patient on their "list", usually with adjustments for factors such as age and gender. According to OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), "these systems are used in Italy (with some fees), in all four countries of the United Kingdom (with some fees and allowances for specific services), Austria (with fees for specific services), Denmark (one third of income with remainder fee for service), Ireland (since 1989), the Netherlands (fee-for-service for privately insured patients and public employees) and Sweden (from 1994). Capitation payments have become more frequent in "managed care" environments in the United States."

According to OECD, "capitation systems allow funders to control the overall level of primary health expenditures, and the allocation of funding among GPs is determined by patient registrations". However, under this approach, GPs may register too many patients and under-serve them, select the better risks and refer on patients who could have been treated by the GP directly. Freedom of consumer choice over doctors, coupled with the principle of "money following the patient" may moderate some of these risks. Aside from selection, these problems are likely to be less marked than under salary-type arrangements.'

Salary arrangements
In several OECD countries, general practitioners (GPs) are employed on salaries for the government. According to OECD, "Salary arrangements allow funders to control primary care costs directly; however, they may lead to under-provision of services (to ease workloads), excessive referrals to secondary providers and lack of attention to the preferences of patients." There has been movement away from this system.

Value-based care
In recent years, providers have been switching from fee-for-service payment models to a value-based care payment system, where they are compensated for providing value to patients. In this system, providers are given incentives to close gaps in care and provide better quality care for patients.

Spending

Expand the OECD charts below to see the breakdown:
 "Government/compulsory": Government spending and compulsory health insurance.
 "Voluntary": Voluntary health insurance and private funds such as households' out-of-pocket payments, NGOs and private corporations.
 They are represented by columns starting at zero. They are not stacked. The 2 are combined to get the total.
 At the source you can run your cursor over the columns to get the year and the total for that country.
 Click the table tab at the source to get 3 lists (one after another) of amounts by country: "Total", "Government/compulsory", and "Voluntary".

Information resources

Sound information plays an increasingly critical role in the delivery of modern health care and efficiency of health systems. Health informatics – the intersection of information science, medicine and healthcare – deals with the resources, devices, and methods required to optimize the acquisition and use of information in health and biomedicine. Necessary tools for proper health information coding and management include clinical guidelines, formal medical terminologies, and computers and other information and communication technologies. The kinds of health data processed may include patients' medical records, hospital administration and clinical functions, and human resources information.

The use of health information lies at the root of evidence-based policy and evidence-based management in health care. Increasingly, information and communication technologies are being utilised to improve health systems in developing countries through: the standardisation of health information; computer-aided diagnosis and treatment monitoring; informing population groups on health and treatment.

Management

The management of any health system is typically directed through a set of policies and plans adopted by government, private sector business and other groups in areas such as personal healthcare delivery and financing, pharmaceuticals, health human resources, and public health.

Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a pandemic). Public health is typically divided into epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental, social, behavioral, and occupational health are also important subfields.

Today, most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, the effects of ageing and health inequities, although public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. For example, most countries have a vaccination policy, supporting public health programs in providing vaccinations to promote health. Vaccinations are voluntary in some countries and mandatory in some countries. Some governments pay all or part of the costs for vaccines in a national vaccination schedule.

The rapid emergence of many chronic diseases, which require costly long-term care and treatment, is making many health managers and policy makers re-examine their healthcare delivery practices. An important health issue facing the world currently is HIV/AIDS. Another major public health concern is diabetes. In 2006, according to the World Health Organization, at least 171 million people worldwide had diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is estimated that by 2030, this number will double. A controversial aspect of public health is the control of tobacco smoking, linked to cancer and other chronic illnesses.

Antibiotic resistance is another major concern, leading to the reemergence of diseases such as tuberculosis. The World Health Organization, for its World Health Day 2011 campaign, called for intensified global commitment to safeguard antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines for future generations.

Health systems performance

Since 2000, more and more initiatives have been taken at the international and national levels in order to strengthen national health systems as the core components of the global health system. Having this scope in mind, it is essential to have a clear, and unrestricted, vision of national health systems that might generate further progress in global health. The elaboration and the selection of performance indicators are indeed both highly dependent on the conceptual framework adopted for the evaluation of the health systems performance. Like most social systems, health systems are complex adaptive systems where change does not necessarily follow rigid management models. In complex systems path dependency, emergent properties and other non-linear patterns are seen, which can lead to the development of inappropriate guidelines for developing responsive health systems.

An increasing number of tools and guidelines are being published by international agencies and development partners to assist health system decision-makers to monitor and assess health systems strengthening including human resources development using standard definitions, indicators and measures. In response to a series of papers published in 2012 by members of the World Health Organization's Task Force on Developing Health Systems Guidance, researchers from the Future Health Systems consortium argue that there is insufficient focus on the 'policy implementation gap'. Recognizing the diversity of stakeholders and complexity of health systems is crucial to ensure that evidence-based guidelines are tested with requisite humility and without a rigid adherence to models dominated by a limited number of disciplines. Healthcare services often implement Quality Improvement Initiatives to overcome this policy implementation gap. Although many of these initiatives deliver improved healthcare, a large proportion fail to be sustained. Numerous tools and frameworks have been created to respond to this challenge and increase improvement longevity. One tool highlighted the need for these tools to respond to user preferences and settings to optimize impact.

Health Policy and Systems Research (HPSR) is an emerging multidisciplinary field that challenges 'disciplinary capture' by dominant health research traditions, arguing that these traditions generate premature and inappropriately narrow definitions that impede rather than enhance health systems strengthening. HPSR focuses on low- and middle-income countries and draws on the relativist social science paradigm which recognises that all phenomena are constructed through human behaviour and interpretation. In using this approach, HPSR offers insight into health systems by generating a complex understanding of context in order to enhance health policy learning. HPSR calls for greater involvement of local actors, including policy makers, civil society and researchers, in decisions that are made around funding health policy research and health systems strengthening.

International comparisons

Health systems can vary substantially from country to country, and in the last few years, comparisons have been made on an international basis. The World Health Organization, in its World Health Report 2000, provided a ranking of health systems around the world according to criteria of the overall level and distribution of health in the populations, and the responsiveness and fair financing of health care services. The goals for health systems, according to the WHO's World Health Report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance (WHO, 2000), are good health, responsiveness to the expectations of the population, and fair financial contribution. There have been several debates around the results of this WHO exercise, and especially based on the country ranking linked to it, insofar as it appeared to depend mostly on the choice of the retained indicators.

Direct comparisons of health statistics across nations are complex. The Commonwealth Fund, in its annual survey, "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall", compares the performance of the health systems in Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada and the United States. Its 2007 study found that, although the United States system is the most expensive, it consistently underperforms compared to the other countries. A major difference between the United States and the other countries in the study is that the United States is the only country without universal health care. The OECD also collects comparative statistics, and has published brief country profiles. Health Consumer Powerhouse makes comparisons between both national health care systems in the Euro health consumer index and specific areas of health care such as diabetes or hepatitis.

Ipsos MORI produces an annual study of public perceptions of healthcare services across 30 countries.

Physicians and hospital beds per 1000 inhabitants vs Health Care Spending in 2008 for OECD Countries. The data source is OECD.org - OECD.

See also

 Acronyms in healthcare
 Catholic Church and health care
 Clinical Health Promotion
 Community health
 Comparison of the health care systems in Canada and the United States
 Consumer-driven health care
 Cultural competence in health care
 Global health
 Genetic testing
 List of countries by health insurance coverage
 Health administration
 Health care
 Health care provider
 Health care reform
 Health crisis
 Health economics
 Health equity
 Health human resources
 Health insurance
 Health policy
 Health promotion
 Health services research
 Healthy city
 Hospital network
 Medicine
 National health insurance
 Occupational safety and health
 Philosophy of healthcare
 Primary care
 Primary health care
 Public health
 Publicly funded health care
 Single-payer health care
 Social determinants of health
 Socialized medicine
 Timeline of global health
 Two-tier health care
 Universal health care

References

External links
 World Health Organization: Health Systems
 HRC/Eldis Health Systems Resource Guide research and other resources on health systems in developing countries
 OECD: Health policies, a list of latest publications by OECD

Health care
Health economics
Health policy
Health care quality
Health care brands
Health
Public health education
Universal health care
Health sciences
Primary care

Health system


Breakfast in Hollywood, also known as The Mad Hatter, is a 1946 American comedy film directed by Harold D. Schuster and written by Earl Baldwin. The film stars Tom Breneman, Bonita Granville, Beulah Bondi, Edward Ryan, Raymond Walburn, Billie Burke, ZaSu Pitts, Hedda Hopper, Andy Russell, Spike Jones and Nat King Cole. The film was released on February 26, 1946, by United Artists.

Plot
A woman comes to Hollywood to meet her fiancé, who does not show up.  Given a ticket to a radio show, she meets a sailor who was a friend of her fiancé.  The sailor falls in love with the girl, before he tells her that her fiancé had married someone else.  The girl, angry with the boy's advances, leaves on a bus to return to her home in Minnesota.  The radio program host plays a fairy godmother role, having the police arrest the girl, and reunite the couple, who decide to get married.

Cast
Tom Breneman as Tom Breneman
Bonita Granville as Dorothy Larson
Beulah Bondi as Mrs. Annie Reed
Edward Ryan as Ken Smith
Raymond Walburn as Richard Cartwright
Billie Burke as Mrs. Frances Cartwright
ZaSu Pitts as Elvira Spriggens
Hedda Hopper as Hedda Hopper
Andy Russell as Andy Russell
Spike Jones as Spike Jones
Nat King Cole as Nat King Cole

References

External links

1946 films
American black-and-white films
Films directed by Kurt Neumann
United Artists films
1946 comedy films
American comedy films
Films directed by Harold D. Schuster
Films based on radio series
1940s English-language films
1940s American films
English-language comedy films

Breakfast in Hollywood (film)


Drakkhen is an early-3D role-playing video game, initially developed and published by Infogrames for the Amiga and Atari ST, and subsequently ported to several other platforms, including MS-DOS and Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It was a very early game in the North American SNES library, and as such, received almost universal coverage in previews of the then-upcoming SNES in gaming magazines of 1990 and early 1991.

Drakkhen was notable for being among the first role-playing games to feature a three-dimensional playing field and for being an early example of the real time tactics genre. It did not employ a fully 3D game engine, instead implementing a hybrid approach using vectors and bitmapped character-scaling algorithms. Drakkhen features an animated day-night cycle, and the ability to wander freely about the game world, both rarities for a game of its era. The game spawned a sequel, Dragon View, for the SNES.

Gameplay

A player may freely travel the entirety of Drakkhen's game world not long after beginning a new game, although this can be unwise in practice. Chance encounters with hostile monsters are regular, but in contrast to other RPGs, the player may be attacked while stationary. All battles are automated by default but allow the player to micromanage their four combatants. The player is given time to focus on the real-time tactics of each enemy encounter, such as activating defense magic, moving around, or switching weapons on the fly. The player's party may also be accosted at night when viewing constellations in the sky, or any time after bumping into a half-buried urn.

The player may attempt to flee from attackers or retaliate against foes who, when defeated, grants all party members experience points that go towards leveling up and improving character stats.
Each of the characters in the player's party have health points, magic points for spellcasting, power, defense, physique, fortune, intelligence, knowledge, and agility; each stat has a direct effect on how a character plays. Character stats are assigned by the player at the start of the game using a cap-and-trade system. Each party member fills one of the four roles: scout, wizard, fighter, and priest, each with different strengths and abilities. Items can be purchased from traveling merchants who ambush the party, or at the tavern. Items are categorized as armor, weapons, healing items, rings, and misc. (such as torches).

Past castles can be revisited at any time, which themselves act like Temples found in Legend of Zelda games. Castles are self-contained levels with obstacles, loot, enemies, and maze-like architecture; and they each must be visited at least once.

Drakkhen's gameplay is colored by its early-game brutality and surreal enemy encounters, the former especially in the SNES version. One special enemy is relegated solely to appearing when the player kicks one of the many urns in the ground. Upon doing so, a black, stationary canine head rises from beneath the floor to shoot bolts from its eyes. These encounters are quickly fatal to new players who don't know any better. They offer no experience points, suggesting that kicking an urn is frowned upon. Another difficult enemy is the "Shadow Man", a tall figure that can unexpectedly lift itself out of the ground, accompanied by an ominous tune. Each enemy has movement and attack differences, some being less subtle than others, such as enemies that zigzag sporadically at a much greater speed than the player's party can keep up with. The game contains over one hundred different enemy variants.

Differences between computer and SNES game
The SNES version of Drakkhen is drastically different to its PC predecessor, especially in visual layout and color scheme.

Predating both Ultima Underworld (1992) and Eye of the Beholder (1991), Drakkhen was among the first action RPGs to utilize a permanent, real-time, text-adventure log window, demonstrating large influence from MUD games. This log functions like a dungeon master, frequently telling the player how much damage an attack did, explaining the outcome of intended actions, acting as the player's five senses, et cetera. This feature was de-emphasized and presented more elegantly for the SNES. The computer versions made heavier use of the adventure game buttons within castles to solve deeper and more plentiful obstacles. The originals were criticized for lacking a compass, which the SNES developers took to heart when they made changes to the new version. The SNES doesn't use a visual compass but instead tells the player which of the 360-degrees he or she faces anytime the game is paused. The computer versions allow for greater nuance when traveling the 3D island, playing to the strength of utilizing a mouse cursor, while the SNES version uses the directional pad. As such, maneuvering around scenery is clunkier.

The short story collection that came with the game, aside from expanding the story of the game itself, also incorporated clues as to what the player needed to do, what enemies would be difficult, and other such context that the player was expected to know before playing. The SNES re-release of Drakkhen didn't come with this supplemental book that was written by Gary Gygax, who had a hand in designing the gameplay and story of the original, as well as many enemies. This exclusion was likely because the game story was entirely rewritten, which nevertheless rendered the SNES version without the context necessary to experience the game the way the developers intended. With one or more party members dead at any point in the game, the player is at a crippling disadvantage and is incentivized to go on a pilgrimage to the nearest Anak holy temple to revive their dead. In general, the SNES version has fewer NPCs that can be approached.

Fleeing any battle in the SNES version is as simple as tapping the L and R bumpers, which makes all battles outside castles entirely optional, as this doesn't give enemies the opportunity to attack. The interface was changed to utilize visual means to more quickly communicate ideas, and the clutter originally covering the left half of the screen was condensed into the bottom. In the original two versions, crossing the borders between continental divisions would require a wait while the game loaded. In the SNES version, crossings are instantaneous; however, if the player attempts to cross between areas before the first few story beats, they are sharply rebuked.

Background

The setting of Drakkhen is a large rectangular island, divided laterally into four smaller regions. Each region has its own terrain and climate and is ruled by two members of the Drakkhen caste, with each of them living in their own castle. The continent is bounded on all sides by a vast ocean; walking into this, or any other body of water, will result in the speedy drowning of all party members.

Much of the game is spent traveling between castles, carrying out various political missions at the behest of the ruling Drakkhen elite. A player may also wander around without having a particular goal or destination, perhaps in the spirit of adventure, or exploration, or to fight wildlife, monsters, and strange supernatural entities, who may yield loot if they are defeated. Serious setbacks can easily occur through the death of one or more party members in combat, and bringing them back to life will often involve difficult and arduous travel in order to reach an Anak, where healing and resurrection are performed pro bono. If all four characters succumb to injury or drowning, the player will be informed of the dire consequences for the game world, before being returned to the title screen.

Storyline

The story differs depending on which version is being played.

The original versions
Long ago, the magic of "the world" faded away with the slaying of the final dragon by a selfish paladin all the while a plague is decimating humanity. Long after, a caravel ship of foreign countrymen shipwrecked on the island where the final dragon died, only to be attacked and sunk by a foe unknown and unseen from their perspective. These foes revealed themselves to be lizard-people, thought to be the evolved survivors of the ancient dragons and the dominant people of the island. Four survivors made it ashore and vowed to stick together. They soon discovered that to take back the island in the name of humanity and to end the curse, they will need to pillage the nine gem tears and use them to summon the dragon god. To their surprise, certain princes and princess of the Drakkhen clan offer their support—even their life—for the party, believing that their kind was never meant for Earth. As such, the four heroes get caught up in an ongoing war between those acting for the survival of their own kind, and those who see themselves as abominations.

An included short story book expands the backstory.

SNES alternate storyline
The storyline for the SNES game is the result of a broken translation and rewrite of the original, as well as lack of supplemental stories. Drakkhen was developed by a French team, which was then translated into Japanese for the Super Famicom, which was then translated to English and further rewritten with help from the original French developers. To exemplify the telephone effect of all this, the original game contained a French translation of an Emily Dickinson poem as quoted by a mysterious wizard, and that French translation of an English poem was then translated further into Japanese for the Super Famicom version, and then translated again back into English from Japanese. The version of the Dickinson poem that survived into the SNES version of the game is almost unrecognizable and difficult to comprehend.

According to the SNES game, a subset of humans known as the Drakkonian people are presently doomed, for the dragon gods of the four elements judged them as unworthy and are soon to put an end to their survival. Each god has a son and daughter dragon prince and princess who rule the island of Drakkhen. Drakkhen, himself, is a 5th dragon god, one who the other four stole eight of the nine, magic, blue artifacts (the Nine Tears) from, to do their cruel bidding upon the Drakkonian people. Four warriors stepped up to the challenge of proving their worth as a people to Drakkhen. Their agreement is that if they can recover his eight Tears, their people will be spared, and the four Gods, their offspring, and their offspring's lizard-people armies will all perish instead. Like in the other version of the story, some sons and daughters of the Gods agree to help the player even if it means they suffer extinction for doing so, demonstrating a deep selflessness.

Continental divisions

 Arctic WastelandDomain of the Prince and Princess of Air, both of whom live in large glacier-shaped castles.
 Swampland (dark green)Domain of the Prince and Princess of Water, the former living in a large castle and the latter in what resembles a pagoda. This area has the greatest number of rivers and lakes.
 Grassland (light green)Domain of the Prince and Princess of Earth, who live in identical-looking castles. This is where the adventure begins. In the centre is a glowing boundary that is heavily guarded.
 Desert Domain of the Prince and Princess of Fire, the former living in what resembles an Aztec pyramid and the latter in a large Taj Mahal or mosque-like building (incorrectly called a "minaret").

Music and audio
Drakkhen is known for its unusual sound effects; in lieu of speech, monsters and NPCs make noises that resemble belching, chittering, or inarticulate rumbling. Early releases made only limited use of music during gameplay, but the game's soundtrack was expanded for the SNES version.

The SNES version of the game censors the screams of the "Love Monster." In the original, a shadow shaped like a frantic, giant woman repeatedly shouts "I love you" in a chorus of demonic voices, but in the SNES version, she instead moans not unlike how other enemies do. This may be related to Nintendo wanting to keep their reputation as a family-friendly operation without any traces of sensuality.

Development and ports
Drakkhen was originally released in 1989 by Infogrames two years after being presented at gaming expos. It was translated for North American release in 1990 by Draconian, a label from Data East. By the time review copies of the original were given to the press, Infogrames claimed to have no "immediate" intention of porting the game. The many subsequent computer ports were unannounced until the DOS port was about to be released in late 1989. In 1991, Drakkhen was ported to the Super Nintendo by Kemco-Seika, who made several revisions to the game, mostly by necessity.

In February 2018, the DOS version of the game was made available on Steam and in June 2018 on GOG.com. It was published under Piko Interactive's Classics Digital brand. It was also released for Evercade, included in Piko Interactive Collection 1 cartridge.

Reception

Drakkhen was a commercial success, with sales of more than 350,000 units.

In the May 1990 edition of Games International, Mike Siggins noted the new-at-the-time open sandbox design, where players could wander in any direction, seeking adventure. However, Siggins was peeved by "the regular use of problems and puzzles to impede progress." He liked the "well-done" documentation, and admired the graphics. He concluded by giving the game an average score of 7 out of 10, although he gave the graphics an excellent rating of 9 out of 10, saying, "These games are really fantasy wargames rather than true role-playing exercises but Drakkhen at least pushes the standard out a little further and makes for a tough game with plenty of scope, graced with those remarkable Infogrames graphics."

In the August 1990 edition of Dragon (Issue #160), Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser admired the Amiga versions's "amazing graphics, enthralling music, and incredible game environment", but admitted that it was "one of the toughest fantasy adventure games for a novice to survive that we've yet encountered." They gave the game an excellent rating of 4½ out of 5, saying, "If you are easily put off by frustration, avoid this adventure. But if a challenge is your desire, and if superb animation and plot are what you want, Drakkhen is for you [...] Drakkhen offers a high dollar-to-entertainment ratio and provides gamers with a chance to experience gaming originality, new programming techniques, and superb sound and music enhancements."

Editor Paul Rand of Computer and Video Game Magazine gave the original versions 83 out of 100, praising the music and graphics, but finding the value of the game to be lukewarm. He was also impressed by the imaginative creatures and the sense of terror some enemies caused him.

Nintendo Power gave the SNES version a mixed, aggregate score of 3.1 out of 5 stars. Super Gamer reviewed the SNES Version and gave an overall score of 84% writing: "The perspective is unusual for an RPG; a fast-scrolling 3-D landscape heavily populated with well-drawn monsters. Imaginative and unusual this is a decent introduction to RPGs." Retrospective reception of the SNES version has been very mixed, with many YouTubers and bloggers calling it confusing and "unplayable" by modern standards, while others find it appealing for its experimental nature; openness-to-interpretation, unintentionally-cryptic story; and intense absurdities.

Reviews
White Wolf #24 (Dec./Jan., 1990)
Jeux & Stratégie nouvelle formule #4

Notes

References

External links

1989 video games
Amiga games
Atari ST games
DOS games
FM Towns games
Infogrames games
Kemco games
Linux games
MacOS games
NEC PC-9801 games
Piko Interactive games
Role-playing video games
X68000 games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Video games about dragons
Video games developed in France
Video games developed in Japan
Windows games
Single-player video games

Drakkhen


Juliana of Hesse-Darmstadt (14 April 1606 in Darmstadt – 15 January 1659 in Osterode am Harz) was the wife of Count Ulrich II of East Frisia and was regent for her minor son Enno Louis from 1648 to 1651.  Her parents were Landgrave Louis V of Hesse-Darmstadt and Magdalene of Brandenburg, daughter of Elector John George von Brandenburg.

Juliana arrived in East Frisia on 5 March 1631 and married count Ulrich II on the same day.  She and her husband had three sons:  Enno Louis, George Christian and Edzard Ferdinand.  Even during the turmoil of the Thirty Years' War Ulrich managed to build a Lustschloss for his wife at Sandhorst.  It was completed in 1648 even though East Frisia had to endure great hardship during the war, due to various foreign occupiers.

After her husband's death, she was appointed guardian of her minor sons, and regent of the county.  However, she sent her cumbersome sons abroad and lived a life of decadence, leaving the management of the badly damaged county in the hands of her favourites, who managed the county poorly.  This led to increasing problems with the East Frisian Estates.

Most notable among these favourites were Secret Councillor Johann von Marenholz and his wife Elisabeth von Ungnad zu Sonneck, who a been a lady-in-waiting for Juliana.  Juliana was alleged to have had an affair with Marenholz, which later proved his undoing.  He was executed in Wittmund on 21 July 1651, after a show trial.  In the meantime, Juliana had moved the court from Aurich to Sandhorst to be able to indulge in the sweet life undisturbedly.  Many East Frisians held that under Marenholz and his wife, the problems of the county had gotten out of hand and urged the young Count Enno Louis to return to his County.

Emperor Ferdinand III declared Enno Louis to be an adult in 1651 and in May that year Enno Louis removed his mother from government.  She was sent to her Wittum at Berum Castle.  In 1654 she bought the farm Westerhof in Osterode am Harz, where she died on 15 January 1659.

Ancestors

References and sources
 Tielke, Martin (ed.): Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland, Ostfriesisches Landschaftliche Verlag- u. Vertriebsgeschäft, Aurich, vol. 1  (1993), vol. 2  (1997), vol. 3  (2001)
 Franz Kurowski: Das Volk am Meer – Die dramatische Geschichte der Friesen, Türmer-Verlag 1984, .
 Mathilde Raven: Elisabeth von Ungnad – Biographischer Roman aus der Geschichte Oldenburg – Ostfrieslands  Lohse-Eissing Verlag, .

1606 births
1659 deaths
Nobility from Darmstadt
Landgravines of Hesse-Darmstadt
East Frisia
Regents of East Frisia
House of Hesse
House of Cirksena
17th-century women rulers
Daughters of monarchs

Juliana of Hesse-Darmstadt


Walter "King" Fleming (May 4, 1922 – April 1, 2014) was an American jazz pianist and bandleader. He was born in Chicago, Illinois.

Between 1960 and 1965, he recorded three piano trio albums for Argo and Cadet Records, which were Phil and Leonard Chess's jazz labels.  He also appeared on two singles released locally by singer George Green.

After many years during which his trio worked steadily in the Chicago area without drawing interest from the recording industry, King Fleming resurfaced on the Southport label in 1996.

Fleming died at the age of 91 at a retirement home in Manteno, Illinois on April 1, 2014.

References

1922 births
2014 deaths
American jazz musicians
American pianists
Musicians from Chicago

King Fleming


The Verband Deutscher KonzertChöre (VDKC, Association of German Concert Choirs) is a national association with seven state organisations. It represents more than 550 member choirs with more than 30,400 singers. It is a non-profit organisation, which based in Neuss.

The members are concert choirs, oratorio choirs and chamber choirs who perform concerts of high quality, in genres such as Gregorian Chant, Baroque cantata, romantic period motet, contemporary oratorio and choral gospel music.

History
The association was founded in 1921 as Schutzverband Deutscher Konzertgebender Vereine. It was renamed in 1925 as Reichsverband der gemischten Chöre Deutschlands. It was newly founded after World War II as Verband gemischter Chöre Deutschlands, renamed in 1956 as Verband Deutscher Oratorien- und Kammerchöre. After the reunification of German, a common national organisation was formed, labelled Verband Deutscher KonzertChöre.  The national office is in Weimar, led from 2000 by general secretary Ralf Schöne. In 2013, Ekkehard Klemm was elected president of the VDKC.

The organisation offers their members contracts with GEMA and provides advice in artistic, organisational and legal matters. Facts and news around choral concert singing are published in the trade paper Chor und Konzert, once a year. The festival Deutsches Chorfestival is held irregularly, around four years apart. The association represents the members in the Deutscher Musikrat (German Music Council).

References

External links

Music organisations based in Germany
1921 establishments in Germany
Non-profit organisations based in North Rhine-Westphalia

Verband Deutscher Konzertchöre


Lophira alata, commonly known as azobé, ekki or the red ironwood tree, is a species of plant in the family Ochnaceae. It is found in Cameroon, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and Uganda. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.

The timber is extremely hard and used for railroad ties, groynes and bridge planking.

Description
The trunk of Lophira alata is usually straight, without buttress roots, but sometimes with a swollen base, and is usually clear of branches up to about . The bark is typically red-brown in colour, up to two centimetres thick, and has a bright yellow layer underneath. Young trees under four metres in height have greenish-grey bark, which becomes pink or light brown as the tree matures. Inside, the living sapwood is pale pink or whitish in colour, while the inner heartwood is dark red-brown to chocolate brown, with conspicuous white deposits of silica. The leaves of L. alata are up to  long and are tough, fairly narrow and elongated, with a rounded or slightly indented tip, and tend to occur in clusters at the ends of the twigs.

Biology
Lophira alata sheds all its leaves during a short period of one to two weeks, usually in December, and the re-growth of bright red young leaves, often simultaneously on all L. alata trees in an area, can set the canopy ablaze with colour. The flowers of L. alata are white, fairly large, strong-smelling, and grouped in loose, branched, terminal inflorescences. Flowering occurs in adult trees with trunks over 50 centimetres in diameter, and takes place from the time the new leaves appear. L. alata is monoecious, meaning that male and female flowers are found on the same tree, and the flowers are insect-pollinated. Fruiting takes place between January and March, the fruits becoming mature around March to April, although fruits do not always appear every year. The fruits, which are wind-dispersed, contain a single, oil-rich seed in a conical capsule, which is brown when mature and is surrounded by two unequally-sized membranous 'wings', one up to six centimetres long and the other twice that size. Although L. alata needs full sunlight to grow, seedlings can persist for some time in the shady undergrowth and resume growth if breaks in the canopy occur.

Uses
The timber, known as azobe, is strong and resistant making it useful for demanding constructions outdoors. The timber also has better electrical properties than other wood making it possible to use it in poles for electric fences without separate isolators. The colour is reddish brown and the wood is abrasive, dulling tools rapidly.

Sniffing the bark is used as a traditional treatment for headache. The leaves of Lophira alata afforded two new biflavonoids, lophirone L (1) and lophirone M (2), and the known luteolin and lithospermoside. Both biflavonoids were obtained in small quantities, and their structures show some new and unusual biflavonoid diversity. Likewise, two chalcone tetramers were isolated as inhibitors of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)-activation induced by a tumor promoter, teleocidin B-4, from Lophira alata. One of them was identified as lophirachalcone. The other, named alatachalcone, was new, and the structure was determined by spectral properties. Both compounds also showed potent inhibitory activities against teleocidin B-4-induced inflammation on mouse ear. In an initiation-promotion experiment on mouse skin, alatachalcone (16 nmol) significantly inhibited tumor promotion caused by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA, 1.6 nmol).

References

External links

Ochnaceae
Vulnerable plants
Flora of Cameroon
Flora of the Republic of the Congo
Trees of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Flora of Ivory Coast
Flora of Equatorial Guinea
Flora of Gabon
Flora of Ghana
Flora of Liberia
Flora of Nigeria
Flora of Sierra Leone
Flora of Sudan
Flora of Uganda
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Lophira alata


Henri d'Astier de La Vigerie (11 September 1897 – 10 October 1952) was a French soldier, Résistance member, and conservative politician.

Life
Henri d'Astier was born in Villedieu-sur-Indre, a small village in the Indre département of central France. His military career began in 1915, and, by the end of World War I, he had reached the rank of lieutenant, and he had been awarded the Legion of Honor.

Politically, d'Astier was strongly conservative and Roman Catholic. In particular, he believed that the republican form of government was inherently weak and ineffective and that France would be stronger under a traditional monarchy. He was an admirer of Charles Maurras, a prominent monarchist intellectual and poet. It is possible that d'Astier was involved in La Cagoule, a fascist-leaning organisation that sought the French Republic's overthrow.

When World War II broke out, d'Astier was called back into active service. Although his political views could be deemed close to fascism, he was also determined to see France stand as a strong nation, and, therefore, he vehemently opposed the German invasion. His reaction contrasted sharply with the attitude of some of his ideological colleagues, who urged collaboration and alliance with the Nazis against a perceived threat from Communism. After the French defeat in June 1940, d'Astier became active in the French Resistance.

He was eventually forced to flee, however, when the capture of a colleague threatened to expose him. He escaped to Oran, Algeria, in 1941. There, d'Astier and the local Resistance infiltrated the Vichy infrastructure in North Africa. The allies invaded North Africa in 1942, and, as the invasion troops were approaching the shore, approximately four hundred members of the French Resistance, under the command of d'Astier and José Aboulker, staged a coup in the city of Algiers. They seized key facilities, including the telephone exchange, the radio station, the governor's house, and the headquarters of the French 19th Corps. They arrested General Alphonse Juin, commander of all Vichy troops in North Africa and Admiral François Darlan, the commander-in-chief of the Vichy military.

Early the next morning, the Vichy gendarmerie arrived and released Juin and Darlan. However, afterwards, Vichy troops lost time retaking the positions seized by the Resistance during the coup, and this allowed the Allied forces to encircle Algiers with little opposition. Breaking with the Vichy régime, Darlan negotiated a surrender with the Allies that allowed him to retain control of the local  civil administration.

Despite his surrender, however, Darlan was soon assassinated by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, a member of the Resistance. Although La Chapelle is believed to have acted alone, Darlan's successor, Henri Giraud, accused the Resistance of organising the assassination, and he launched a crackdown. Many of the key figures in the Resistance were arrested, and d'Astier went into hiding. He was found and arrested in early 1943. When Charles de Gaulle became the sole head of the Free French forces, d'Astier was released. Shortly thereafter, he was appointed to De Gaulle's Commission of National Defense.

In 1944, d'Astier led a 45-man detachment in France, operating behind enemy lines to prepare the way for the Allied invasion. He continued to fight in France for the remainder of the war.

Henri d'Astier died in Geneva in 1952.

See also
 Emmanuel d'Astier de la Vigerie
 François d'Astier de la Vigerie

Bibliography

War Official reports
 Les Cahiers Français, La part de la Résistance Française dans les événements d'Afrique du Nord (Official reports of French Resistance Group leaders who seized Algiers on 8 November 1942, to allow allied landing), Commissariat à l'Information of Free French Comité National, London, Aug. 1943.

Academic works about these events
 George F. Howe, North West Africa: Seizing the initiative in the West, Center of Military History, U.S Army, Library of Congress, 1991.
 Arthur L. Funck, The politics of Torch, University Press of Kansas, 1974.
 Professeur Yves Maxime Danan, La vie politique à Alger de 1940 à 1944, Paris, L.G.D.J., 1963.
 Christine Levisse-Touzé, L'Afrique du Nord dans la guerre, 1939-1945, Paris, Albin Michel, 1998.

1897 births
1952 deaths
People from Indre
French Roman Catholics
Barons of France
People affiliated with Action Française
Members of the Provisional Consultative Assembly
French military personnel of World War I
French military personnel of World War II
French Resistance members
Companions of the Liberation
Officers of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)

Henri d'Astier de la Vigerie


Arotromima is a genus of moth in the family Gelechiidae. It contains the species Arotromima politica, which is found in Guyana.

The wingspan is about 14 mm. The forewings are white, tinged grey on the posterior third, darker near the apex and with the costal edge blackish at the base, some slight brownish suffusion beneath this. There is some brown suffusion along the posterior half of the costa and the stigmata are indicated by faint greyish suffusion. There are three small black marginal marks around the apex. The hindwings are pale grey.

References

Gelechiinae
Taxa named by Edward Meyrick
Monotypic moth genera
Moths of South America
Gelechiidae genera

Arotromima