Sir Patrick Hepburn of Dunsyre, 1st Lord Hailes (died 1483) was the feudal lord of Hailes and its castle in East Lothian and a Lord of Parliament.

Family
Sir Patrick Hepburn was the son of Sir Adam Hepburn of Hailes, Knt. (d. 1446), by his spouse Janet (her 1st marriage), daughter of William Borthwick, 1st of Borthwick (d. 1414) of that Ilk. On 29 June 1444, he had a charter from William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas, of certain lands in the lordship of Dunsyre, Lanarkshire, and was subsequently known by this designation until he became Lord Hailes. A charter dated 20 July 1456 mentions Patrick Hepburn Lord Hailes, and is witnessed by his brothers, William and George Hepburn.

With the Queen-Dowager
Before his father's death in 1446, he took possession of Dunbar Castle, without authority; Joan Beaufort, the Queen-Dowager, resided there for some time while he held it. But after her death there on 15 July 1445 he evacuated the place.  On 19 December 1450 he had a charter of the lands of Little Lamberton, commonly called Sherfbygyn, in Berwickshire.

Inherits Hailes
On 20 December 1451 he had a Crown charter of the Lordship of Hailes and other lordships and lands, which his predecessors formerly held in heritage of the Earls of March, who again held them of the Crown in chief; also the lands of Prendergast and others in the sheriffdom of Berwick, with all rights in the lands formerly held by George II, Earl of March, and forfeited by him:- the whole erected into a free barony to be called the feudal barony of Hailes. Between October 1452 and June 1453 he was created a Lord of Parliament as Lord Hailes.

Borders affairs
Patrick was one of the conservators of truces with England in the years 1449, 1451-7 and 1459, was confirmed as Shire-reeve (Sheriff) of Berwickshire on 20 May 1452, and he or his namesake grandson was the last Scottish Keeper & Captain, for less than a year in 1482, of Berwick Castle.

Heirs
He married Ellen Wallace, the daughter of Thomas Wallace of Auchinbothy. They had six sons and three daughters. His grandson Patrick (who would become the first Earl of Bothwell), succeeded him as Lord of Hailes, as his eldest son Adam predeceased him. His son John established Saint Leonards College in Saint Andrews. His daughter, Helen Hepburn, married John Somerville, 3rd Lord Somerville, and had issue.

See also
List of Provosts of Edinburgh

References
 The Scots Peerage by Sir James Balfour Paul, Edinburgh, 1905, 'Bothwell' p. 141/2.

External links
Hailes Castle & Mary, Queen of Scots

1483 deaths
Year of birth unknown

Scottish knights

Scottish diplomats
Nobility from East Lothian
Provosts of Edinburgh
Lords of Parliament (pre-1707)
15th-century Scottish peers
Peers created by James II of Scotland

Patrick Hepburn, 1st Lord Hailes


William George Storm (1826–1892) was a Canadian architect who designed a number of prominent monuments in Toronto, Ontario.

He was born in England and immigrated to Canada while still a child and was raised in Cobourg, Ontario. His father was a contractor and introduced him to the building trade. He apprenticed first under William Thomas and then under Frederick William Cumberland. Storm and Cumberland eventually formed a partnership, and the firm became one of the most prominent in nineteenth century Toronto. The firm won many of the city's most important commissions, including expanding Osgoode Hall, the chapel of St. James-the-Less, the tower of St. James Cathedral, and University College.

Storm and Cumberland's partnership dissolved in acrimony in 1871. Storm also encountered serious health problems that left him without work and confined to hospital. A friendship with Emerson Coatsworth gained Storm commission to design new elementary schools across the city. One of these buildings, today Inglenook Community High School, survives today. He then won a commission to build St. Andrew's Church. Perhaps his most noted building is the Richardsonian Romanesque main building for Victoria College.

Storm was a leading Mason and was Master of St. Andrew's Lodge No. 16 in 1858 and 1859.  He was also a founder of the local Commandery of Knights Templar. Masonic symbolism is incorporated into a number of his structures. He was also a founding member of the Ontario Association of Architects, and served as its first president. He was a founding member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts.

He died suddenly of a stroke in 1892.

Works

References
Storm, William George Dictionary of Canadian Biography.

1826 births
1892 deaths
People from Cobourg
19th-century Canadian architects
Members of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts

William George Storm


Drag boat racing is a form of drag racing which takes place on water rather than land. As with land-based drag racing, competitors race their vehicles for the lowest elapsed time (low ET) over a straight race course of a defined length. There are three standard drag race course lengths, 660 feet (1/8 mile), 1,320 foot (1/4 mile), and the most common length, used in professional drag boat racing, 1,000 feet (3/16 mile plus 10 feet). Unlike traditional drag racing on land, which begins from a standing start, drag boat racing begins from a short rolling start to a point that cannot be passed until the green "start" light illuminates, an idea which has now taken place with drag racing on land ("roll racing"). There are numerous categories of professional and sportsmen classes based on various engine configuration, fuel type, hull design and propulsion types. The premier category of drag boat racing being the Top Fuel Hydroplane class which is the water based equivalent to Top Fuel Dragsters capable of covering the liquid quarter mile in less than three seconds with a top speed of around 270 mph (434 km/h). The biggest event on the drag boat calendar is the LODBRS World Finals which takes place at Firebird Raceway Phoenix, Arizona.

Lake Lucas was the world's first purpose-built drag boat racing lake when built in 2011. The facility played host to drag boat races for eight straight years until the Lucas Oil Drag Boat Series was discontinued at the conclusion of the 2018 season.  Citing a need for the company to move in a new direction, then everything changed in 2020.

Drag Boats then returned to Lake Lucas in 2020 for events under SDBA, KDBA sanctions and then in 2021 for a three-day summer event Diamond Nartionals for drag boats with top fuel.

Notable drag boat racers
Eddie Hill
 Casey McClellan

See also

List of fatal accidents in motorboat racing
Austin Aqua Festival
Hydroplane (boat)
Lucas Oil

References

Drag boat racing


Ministry of Sound or Ministry of Sound Group is a multimedia entertainment business based in London with a nightclub, shared workspace and private members' club, worldwide events operation, music publishing business and fitness studio.

James Palumbo is the co-founder and former chairman and CEO of the Group. He handed over the day-to-day running of the business to Lohan Presencer in 2008. In 2018, Presencer became chairman.

Nightclub

Ministry of Sound began as the idea of Justin Berkmann. Inspired by New York's Paradise Garage - which he described as "an amazing club. It had lights, darkness, music, quiet – everything you wanted" As opposed to striking a balance between the typical hallmarks of a live music venue, Ministry of Sound was conceived as an arena purely dedicated to sound. Berkmann stated: "My concept for Ministry was purely this: 100% sound system first, lights second, design third (in that order); the reverse of everyone else's idea." According to him, they spent £500,000 on the club's sound system, and the same amount again on soundproofing the club using magnesite: they wanted to be able to turn the sound system up as loud as possible without disturbing the neighbours, and tested it to a volume of 156 decibels without the sound leaking outside. In addition to drawing inspiration from the Paradise Garage, the club borrowed the idea of using changing set designs from another New York City club, Area, with the first being based around Blade Runner, Berkmann's favourite film.

Berkmann was introduced to James Palumbo, who was working in property finance at the time, by Humphrey Waterhouse to realise the concept. The site, a disused bus garage, is located in Elephant & Castle in Southwark, London. The club opened on 21 September 1991 and has remained in this location since. Having considered "a load of daft names" for the club, including Get Off My Foot and The Ghost and Mrs Chicken, Berkmann came up with Ministry of Sound after walking past the Ministry of Defence Main Building.

With opening sets from American house and garage DJs Larry Levan, David Morales, Roger Sanchez and Tony Humphries, as well as Paul Oakenfold, Ministry of Sound grew as a clubbing venue. According to Berkmann, it managed to empty rival nightclub Tramp for its first six months by drawing its celebrity clientele, before "they stopped coming and it was more about the dance music community". It now attracts around 300,000 clubbers per year and has hosted sets from popular DJs including: Adam Beyer, DJ Harvey, Dixon, Marshmello, Jozeff and Pete Tong. It has won the IDMA 'World's Best Sound System' award four years in a row - every year they ran the category.

The capacity of The Box (the main room) is 600 people, and there are other smaller rooms within the club. There are three weekly club nights: Fridays feature Lock n Load brand The Gallery which are primarily trance music, whilst Saturdays host a number of club nights which are primarily house music. In 2016, these included Defected, Glitterbox, Rinse FM, Hospitality and Together. On Tuesday the club hosts a student session called Milkshake, established in 2002.

Threat of closure
Ministry of Sound's existence has been threatened on a number of occasions by nearby redevelopment in Elephant & Castle. The most notable concerned the redevelopment of Eileen House, a tower block opposite the nightclub's entrance. From 2009 to 2014, Ministry of Sound fought various public campaigns to save the club from the threat of closure. These culminated in a hearing before then-Mayor of London Boris Johnson at City Hall in November 2013. On 19 December 2013, a legal deal was agreed between Ministry of Sound and the developer Oakmayne to enable Eileen House to be redeveloped without jeopardizing the club's future.

Dolby Atmos
In 2016, Ministry of Sound partnered with Dolby Laboratories to bring surround sound Dolby Atmos to the nightclub, a first in the industry. The Box, Ministry of Sound's main room, now boasts a 64-speaker, 22-channel sound system, allowing the artists to control where certain sounds are sent across the space.

The Ministry

The Ministry is a new members club and shared workspace for creative businesses, which opened in 2018 in London. The first building on Borough Road includes four floors of tailored private offices, shared working areas, meeting spaces, soundproof studios, an immersive tech suite, a full-service restaurant, a bar 70 feet in length, an outdoor terrace, a 40-seater cinema and an events space with a diverse events programme.

Tours
Under its Ministry of Sound and Hed Kandi brands, the business hosts approximately 500 international tour events annually across the world. In 2017, the brand featured as part of the stage line-up at festivals including The Ark (cruise ship), Adria Summer Festival and Ultra Europe.

Fitness

The fitness studio (previously the club's back-of-house vault where the alcohol was stored) opened in February 2017. The concept takes a club-style sound system and lighting rig and pairs it with a bespoke, instructor-led high intensity interval workout. Classes run from Monday to Sunday, and an on-site bar offers a range of drinks from protein shakes to alcoholic cocktails.

Music publishing
The music publishing business was established in 2015. It is independent of the record label that was acquired by Sony Music, and is headed up by Ben Bodie. The current roster of artists includes Mura Masa, iLL BLU, Will Arcane, KDA and John Calvert.

Record label

Ownership
On 10 August 2016, it was announced that Ministry of Sound's A&R and compilations recorded music business had been acquired by Sony Music. Rights to all recordings under the Ministry of Sound name are now held and mostly distributed by Sony Music (excluding London Grammar catalogue which is distributed by Universal Music Group in most of the world and Because Music in France), with the remaining Ministry of Sound businesses retained within the original group.

Ministry of Sound was an independent record label split into two divisions: Artist & Repertoire and Compilations.

Artist repertoire
The Artist & Repertoire division was established in the early 1990s with releases on a 'Sound of Ministry' label imprint. Sound of Ministry was superseded by in-house labels Open, Data, Substance, Smoove and Rulin', which between them released a string of UK and international chart hits.

In 2009, the artist labels were consolidated under 'Ministry of Sound Recordings'. The first artist signed was Example, who achieved two UK number 1 records, three top 10s, two top 20s, two gold albums and one platinum number 1 selling album, Playing in the Shadows. Other notable label signings include Wretch 32, DJ Fresh and, more recently, London Grammar, whose debut album If You Wait reached platinum sales status in the UK, gold status in France and was number 1 on the iTunes Album Chart in Australia. In 2014, London Grammar were nominated for 'British Breakthrough Act' at the BRIT Awards. If You Wait was also named iTunes 'Album of the Year 2013'
The artist label also continue to release dance singles, achieving three number 1 records in the UK in 2013 with Bingo Players feat. Far East Movement's "Get Up (Rattle)", Duke Dumont feat. A*M*E's "Need U (100%)", and Storm Queen's "Look Right Through".

Compilations
The compilations business was first established in 1993 with the release of Sessions Volume One, a compilation album of dance music mixed by Tony Humphries. The album was a commercial success. The business has now sold more than 55 million compilation albums worldwide.

Radio show
Ministry of Sound Radio was an online only service broadcasting 24-hours a day from Ministry of Sound's offices adjacent to the nightclub.

See also

The Annual
Chillout Sessions
Sessions (compilation series)
List of electronic dance music venues
 Superclub
Ministry of Sound Australia
Sony Music
Privilege Ibiza

References

External links

Mitsui
Sony Music
2016 mergers and acquisitions
British brands
Nightclubs in London
British record labels
English record labels
English electronic dance music record labels
Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Southwark
Electronic dance music venues

Ministry of Sound


The Civil Service of the People's Republic of China is the administrative system of the traditional Chinese government which consists of all levels who run the day-to-day affairs in China. The members of the civil service are selected through competitive examination.

Civil servants
As of 2009, China has about 10 million civil servants who are managed under the Civil Service Law. Most civil servants work in government agencies and departments. State leaders and cabinet members, who normally would be considered politicians in political systems with competing political parties and elections, also come under the civil service in China. Civil servants are not necessarily members of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), but 95 percent of civil servants in leading positions from division (county) level and above are CCP members. The vast majority of civil servants remain in the service for their entire careers.

The definition of civil servant (), a term formally codified in the 2006 Civil Service Law  is often ambiguous in China. Most broadly, civil servants in China are a subset of CCP cadres, the class of professional staff who administer and manage Chinese government, party, military, and major business institutions. More specifically, the term denotes public employees in higher positions of authority; according to academic Yuen Yuen Ang, they "form the elite strata of functionaries in the party-state hierarchy", in contrast to shiye renyuan (事业人员) or 'shiye' personnel, who are also public employees but are not considered gongwuyuan.

The definition of the civil service differs from that of many western countries. Civil servants are "the managers, administrators and professionals who work for government bodies," including leadership such as the Premier, state councillors, ministers, and provincial governors, among others. It excludes manual workers and many other types of cadre, such as those employed in public service units such as hospitals, universities, or state-owned enterprises, even though those positions are also paid and managed by the government. While not strictly part of the civil service, the judiciary is governed by the same personnel arrangements as the civil service.

History
A professional corps of dedicated bureaucrats, akin to a modern civil service, has been an integral feature of governance in Chinese civilization for much of its history. Part of the motivation was ideological; Confucian teaching discouraged overly involved, warlike, and rowdy rulers alike, making the delegation of legislative and executive authority particularly necessary. During the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 – 256 BC), records show that kings would send edicts encouraging local officials to identify promising candidates for office in the capital. This practice was intensified under Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141 – 87 BC), who standardized the selection process with the addition of question-and-answer elements on classic texts judged by a panel of scholars. This helped lay the groundwork for the Imperial examination system that would be formed under the short-lived Sui dynasty before being widely adopted thereafter. The examination system and the bureaucracy it engendered would remain in place in some form until the dissolution of the Qing dynasty in 1911.

Mao-era cadres
The People's Republic of China did not initially maintain a formal civil service like other countries of the era. As the CCP gained ground in the Chinese Civil War against the Kuomintang (KMT), it instead used dedicated Party cadres to oversee and administer territories it took over. The CCP, at the time of its victory in 1949, faced a serious shortage of qualified personnel to the fill over 2.7 million public positions needed to govern the country that had previously been occupied by KMT-affiliated officials, some of whom the Party had to allow to continue to work due to lack of suitable replacements. By the mid-1950s, China had developed a nomenklatura system modeled on the Soviet Union; there was no civil service independent of the ruling party.

Reform
Following the death of Mao Zedong and the rise of reformist Deng Xiaoping, efforts began to change the cadre system after the discord of the Cultural Revolution so that the Party would be able to effectively carry out the modernization of China. Reforms beginning in 1984 did not decrease the approximately 8.1 million cadre positions across China, but began to decentralize their management to authorities at provincial and local levels.

Zhao Ziyang, elected General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 1987, sought to transform the cadre system into a more independent body resembling a civil service. The civil service not completely subservient to the CCP, and thus reform the relationship between the Party and the Chinese state. In the aftermath of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, Zhao and his allies lost their influence among Party elite and the civil service reform project was denounced by remaining leaders. Zhao's proposals were subsequently heavily modified and implemented as the "Provisional Regulations on State Civil Servants" in 1993, albeit on a much less comprehensive scale.

Nevertheless, the Provisional Regulations established the first formal civil service in China since the founding of the People's Republic.

Since the early 2000s, recruitment quotas for non-Communist Party members, gender, and ethnic group, have been institutionalized to increase representation of such groups in the civil service.

Levels and ranking system
The current ranking system has 27 different ranks (from previously of total 15 levels) and a grade () system within each rank (at most 14 grades for each rank) to reflect seniority and  performance; a combination of rank and  ultimately determine pay and benefits. The highest tiers (including department chiefs, deputy department chiefs, and section chiefs) have significant involvement in policy-making. Within local governments, the highest level decision-makers are typically the party secretary, the state chief, and party committee members.

The 27 ranks are sub-divisions of 11 "levels". The following is a non-exhaustive list of party and state positions corresponding to their civil service rank. The list only comprises "leadership positions" (), but not civil servants who are not in leadership positions. Non-leading civil servants can be given high corresponding ranks. For example, an expert or advisor hired by the government on a long-term initiative does not manage any people or lead any organization, but may still receive a sub-provincial rank. Similarly, retired officials who take on lesser-ranked (usually ceremonial) positions after retirement would generally retain their highest rank. Occasionally, officials may hold a position but be of a higher rank than what the position indicates, for example a Deputy Prefecture-level Party Secretary who holds a full prefecture-level rank.

State Administration of Civil Service
The State Administration of Civil Service was created in March 2008 by the National People's Congress. It is under the management of the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, which resulted from the merger of the Ministry of Personnel and the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security. The function of the administration covers management, recruitment, assessment, training, rewards, supervision and other aspects related to civil service affairs. The administration also has several new functions. These include drawing up regulations on the trial periods of newly enrolled personnel, further protecting the legal rights of civil servants and having the responsibility of the registration of civil servants under central departments. Its establishment was part of the government's reshuffle in 2008. It aimed at a "super ministry" system to streamline government department functions.

Examinations
For decades, civil service jobs have been among the top career choices for college graduates. In 1993, the civil service examination and evaluation were established. Generally, more than a million people enroll each year in the civil service examination and success rates are approximately 2%.

An alternative route to civil service other than the examination is the assigned graduates system (xuandiaosheng, 选调生), which is available to student cadres who are at least probationary members of the Communist Party. Through the assigned graduates system, new university graduates enter a program that sends them to grassroots positions like village leadership roles or local Communist Youth League secretaries for a few years. Candidates for the assigned graduates system take written and oral examinations arranged by the Communist Party's Organization Department at its local or provincial levels. The examinations cover public service topics similar to those in the civil service examination, but are generally viewed as less competitive.

Programs similar to the assigned graduate system began appearing in the 1980s but were formalized after 2000.

Salary and allowances
There are three main components of civil service pay according to the 2006 pay regulation by the State Council of the People's Republic of China, namely base pay (基本工资), cost-of-living allowances (津补贴), and bonus (奖金).

See also

 Politics of China
 Cadre system of the Chinese Communist Party
 Orders of precedence in the People's Republic of China
 Administrative divisions of China
 Chinese Academy of Governance
 Chinese Public Administration Society
 Examination Yuan, the Republican era equivalent now operates on Taiwan since 1949.

References

Government of China


The Export Promotion Council of Kenya (EPC) is Kenya's premier institution in the development and promotion of export trade in the country. Established in 1992, EPC's primary objective was to address bottlenecks that were facing exporters and producers of export goods and services with a view to increasing the performance of the export sector. The Council was therefore established for the purpose of giving an outward orientation to an economy that was hitherto inward looking. Over time, the EPC has embraced the mandate of co-ordinating and harmonising export development and promotion activities in the country, providing leadership to all national export programmes. Today, EPC is the focal point for export development and promotion activities in the country.

The EPC was established on August 19, 1992 through Legal Notice No. 4342, with the mandate of developing and promoting Kenya's exports. In pursuit of its mandate, the EPC primary objective is to address bottlenecks facing exporters and producers of export goods and services in order to increase the performance level of the export sector. It also provides a forum for dialogue between the exporting fraternity and relevant public and private sector institutions and organizations through Sectoral Panels..

Sectors

The EPC is organized by industrial sector:
Horticulture and other Agriculturals
Textiles and Clothing
Commercial Crafts and SMEs (Small and Medium Size Enterprises)
Fish and Livestock products
Other manufactures
Services other than tourism

Associated organizations
Center for Business Information in Kenya (CBIK)
Fresh Produce Export Association of Kenya (FPEAK)
Kenya Flower Council

Official Site
Export Promotion Council official site

Associated directory site
Exporter's exhibition portal

Business organisations based in Kenya
1992 establishments in Kenya
Organisations based in Nairobi
Organizations established in 1992
Government agencies of Kenya
Export promotion agencies

Export Promotion Council


Buddleja sessiliflora, commonly known as Rio Grande butterfly-bush or tepozán, native to southern Arizona and the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas in the United States as well as much of central and northern Mexico excluding the Chihuahua Desert and Baja California Sur. The shrub grows in thorn savannah, forests, riparian zones, along roadsides and in disturbed areas from sea level to 2,800 m. The species was first named and described by Kunth in 1818.

Description

Buddleja sessiliflora is a trioecious shrub or small tree 1.5 – 5 m tall, the trunk reaching < 7 cm diameter, bark is yellow-brown in colour and fissured. The young branches are subquadrangular, yellowish, the youngest sections tomentose. The leaves vary widely, those at the base ovate, 9 – 23 cm long by 5 – 14 cm wide, the margins serrate, whilst the upper leaves are lanceolate or narrowly elliptic, 5 – 15 cm long by 1.5 – 3 cm wide, the margins entire or irregularly serrulate.  The upper surfaces of both are generally glabrescent. The yellow leafy-bracted inflorescences are 6 – 25 cm long, comprising sessile or short pedunculate heads 1 – 3 cm in diameter, each with 10–35 flowers. The scent of the flowers is generally regarded as unpleasant, 'like ammonia but sweeter'. Ploidy: 2n = 76.

Cultivation

The species is  known to be in cultivation in France at Le Jardin de Rochevieille.

References

External links

sessiliflora
Plants described in 1818
Flora of Arizona
Flora of the Rio Grande valleys
Flora of Mexico
Flora of Texas
Flora of the United States

Buddleja sessiliflora


Lichen morphology describes the external appearance and structures of a lichen. These can vary considerably from species to species. Lichen growth forms are used to group lichens by "vegetative" thallus types, and forms of "non-vegetative" reproductive parts. Some lichen thalli have the aspect of leaves (foliose lichens); others cover the substrate like a crust (crustose lichens) (illustration, right), others such as the genus Ramalina adopt shrubby forms (fruticose lichens), and there are gelatinous lichens such as the genus Collema.

Although the form of a lichen is determined by the genetic material of the fungal partner, association with a photobiont is required for the development of that form.  When grown in the laboratory in the absence of its photobiont, a lichen fungus develops as an undifferentiated mass of hyphae. If combined with its photobiont under appropriate conditions, its characteristic form emerges, in the process called morphogenesis. In a few remarkable cases, a single lichen fungus can develop into two very different lichen forms when associating with either a green algal or a cyanobacterial symbiont. Quite naturally, these alternative forms were at first considered to be different species, until they were found growing in a conjoined manner.

Under magnification, a section through a typical foliose lichen thallus reveals four layers of interlaced fungal filaments. The uppermost layer is formed by densely agglutinated fungal hyphae building a protective outer layer called the cortex, which can reach several hundred μm in thickness. This cortex may be further topped by an epicortex 0.6-1μm thick in some Parmeliaceae, which may be with or without pores, and is secreted by cells—it is not itself cellular. In lichens that include both green algal and cyanobacterial symbionts, the cyanobacteria may be held on the upper or lower surface in small pustules called cephalodia. Beneath the upper cortex is an algal layer composed of algal cells embedded in rather densely interwoven fungal hyphae. Each cell or group of cells of the photobiont is usually individually wrapped by hyphae, and in some cases penetrated by an haustorium. Beneath this algal layer is a third layer of loosely interwoven fungal hyphae without algal cells. This layer is called the medulla. Beneath the medulla, the bottom surface resembles the upper surface and is called the lower cortex, again consisting of densely packed fungal hyphae. The lower cortex of foliose lichens often bears rootlike fungal structures known as rhizines, which serve to attach the thallus to the substrate on which it grows. Lichens also sometimes contain structures made from fungal metabolites, for example crustose lichens sometimes have a polysaccharide layer in the cortex. Although each lichen thallus generally appears homogeneous, some evidence seems to suggest that the fungal component may consist of more than one genetic individual of that species. This seems to also be true of the photobiont species involved.

Reproductive structures
A podetium (plural podetia) is a lichenized stem-like structure of an apothecium rising from the primary body of the thallus. Since it is part of the reproductive tissue, it is not considered part of the thallus. The podetium may be branched, and sometimes cup-like. It usually bears the pycnidia or apothecia or both.

References

Lichenology
Morphology (biology)

Lichen morphology


The Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike is the common name of a  stretch of the Pennsylvania Turnpike that was bypassed in 1968 when a modern stretch opened to ease traffic congestion in the tunnels. In this case, the Sideling Hill Tunnel and Rays Hill Tunnel were bypassed, as was one of the Turnpike's travel plazas. The bypass is located just east of the heavily congested Breezewood interchange for Interstate 70 (I-70) eastbound at what is now I-76 exit 161. The section of the turnpike was at one time part of the South Pennsylvania Railroad.

History

Opening and realignment

When the Pennsylvania Turnpike opened in 1940, it was known as the "Tunnel Highway" because it traversed seven tunnels: from east to west, Blue Mountain, Kittatinny Mountain, Tuscarora Mountain, Sideling Hill, Rays Hill, Allegheny Mountain, and Laurel Hill. There was one tunnel through each mountain, and the highway was reduced to a single lane in each direction through each tunnel. These tunnels were originally built as part of the South Pennsylvania Railroad. The Quemahoning, Negro Mountain, and original Allegheny Mountain tunnels were bypassed during the original construction of the turnpike.

By the late 1950s, the turnpike was so heavily used that traffic congestion demanded expansion because bottlenecks at the two-lane tunnels on the Pennsylvania Turnpike became a major problem. Traffic jams formed at each tunnel, especially during the summer. The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission (PTC) conducted studies on either expanding or bypassing the tunnels. Following the studies, the PTC decided to construct new tubes at four of the tunnels and bypass the remaining three. The Sideling Hill and Rays Hill tunnels were bypassed by a  new highway, as was the Cove Valley Travel Plaza, which was located on the westbound side of the eastern portal of the Sideling Hill Tunnel. Instead, a new Sideling Hill Travel Plaza was built to cater for travelers in both directions of the highway. The turnpike bypass of Rays Hill and Sideling Hill tunnels opened to traffic on November 26, 1968.

Abandonment

Today, the Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike, as it is commonly known, is a popular tourist attraction. The PTC sold most of the property to the Southern Alleghenies Conservancy (SAC) for $1 in 2001. The property is managed by Friends of the Pike 2 Bike, a coalition of non-profit groups (including the SAC) to eventually convert the stretch into a bike trail. The property is officially closed to the public, and no motor vehicles are allowed on the property, but bicycle riders are free to use it at their own risk. The trail requires helmets and lights. Because this stretch sits on parts of the former right-of-way of the South Pennsylvania Railroad that was never completed but later formed the basis of the mainline turnpike, this makes the Pike2Bike unofficially a rail trail. The PTC still owns a stretch of about  on the west and  on the east for maintenance purposes.

The tunnel's entrances have deteriorated due to vandalism, and their signboards were taken sometime between 1981 and 1999. However, tunnel structure is still sound despite not having been maintained for decades.

A business plan and feasibility study was completed by Gannett Fleming in 2005. It proposed various ideas to make the trail as accessible as possible for cyclists, hikers, inline skaters, and equestrians.

, the trail is in the process of changing ownership to Bedford County. This is in response to the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources' need for a governmental body to own the trail before it can give out grants. The Friends of the Pike 2 Bike will continue to run and oversee the trail.

Later uses

In the early 1970s, the emission levels of unleaded gasoline were tested in Rays Hill Tunnel. A Plymouth Satellite was used as the test vehicle. The PTC and PennDOT used the highway to train maintenance workers, as well as for testing of rumble strips.

There have also been numerous military uses for the highway; the tunnels were considered as a storage area for weapons, as was the open highway for aircraft. The military also used the highway for training soldiers for Iraq in the early 2000s, even after the highway was sold to the SAC.

The site of the former Cove Valley Travel Plaza was used as a shooting range for the Pennsylvania State Police. Since the SAC bought the property, the site has not been used as a shooting range, although warning signs are still posted in the area.

In 2008 the highway was used for the filming of the Dimension Films movie The Road starring Viggo Mortensen. The studios mildly restored the exterior of the eastern portal of the Ray's Hill Tunnel when it was used for filming.

Access

In 2005, the PTC restricted access to the abandoned turnpike by demolishing an overpass over U.S. Route 30 (US 30) in Breezewood and an overpass on Pump Station Road near the site of the old Cove Valley Travel Plaza. The demolition of the overpasses removed the liability and expense of repairing the aging bridges, marked the property lines between the public and the PTC-owned sections of the property, and prevented motorized vehicles from easily entering the abandoned turnpike.

The original plans for the removal included an access road, but somewhere along the way, it was removed and not known to Pike 2 Bike officials until it was too late. , the Friends of the Pike 2 Bike are seeking to obtain grants that will allow the building of an access road and to rebuild on it the last remaining original toll booth, which was obtained in 2006. The toll booth will be used to collect a parking donation that will be used to pay for maintenance. An access road was built in the late 2000s on the PTC-owned side of the former Pump Station Road overpass, making the  section still owned by the PTC a de facto access road to the active turnpike in itself; however, like other access roads along the turnpike, it is off-limits to the public and is only used by the PTC or Pennsylvania State Police.

There are three access points to the public section of the abandoned highway:
 The intersection of Tannery Road and US 30 is just east of the Breezewood interchange where I-70, US-30, and I-76 meet. It sits near the western end of the abandoned turnpike, which can be reached by climbing a small hill. Parking is available in front of the orange snow fence at the bottom of the hill. Rays Hill Tunnel lies about two miles east of this point.
 A parking lot exists on the trail at the eastern end of the turnpike off Pump Station Road north of US 30; the entrance is a service road just south of where a turnpike overpass was removed in 2005. This access point lies near the site of the former Cove Valley Travel Plaza and about one mile east of the Sideling Hill Tunnel.
 A forest service path called Oregon Road leaves US Route 30 at that highway's intersection with Pennsylvania Route 915 about a mile east of the crest of Ray's Hill. Oregon Road runs north from US Route 30 for several hundred feet, then bears to the right after it passes under the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-76). The road to the left is a privately owned driveway leading to Valley-Hi. The road to the right is Oregon Road, which runs for several miles of dirt and gravel road before reconnecting with PA 915 just south of Wells Tannery. Oregon Road runs parallel and adjacent to the abandoned highway for much of its length, and several clearings in the forest allow for parking and access to the road. These access points lie between the two tunnels: Rays Hill is about three miles west and Sideling Hill is about two miles east.

Other tunnel bypasses

The Abandoned Turnpike is perhaps the best-known of tunnel bypasses on toll roads. Among the other bypassed tunnels:
 The Laurel Hill Tunnel, which preceded the Sideling Hill and Rays Hill bypass by four years.
 The Memorial Tunnel on the West Virginia Turnpike was bypassed in 1987 to complete upgrading that highway to Interstate standards. Unlike the Pennsylvania Turnpike, the West Virginia Turnpike was built two lanes for its entire length, and needed an additional two lanes in order to get the I-77 and I-64 designations.
 The PTC considered bypassing the Lehigh Tunnel on the Northeast Extension before ultimately deciding on twinning the tunnel. Cost for the bypass and unnecessary added mileage to the highway were deciding factors.
 The PTC has been considering bypassing the deteriorating Allegheny Mountain Tunnel to alleviate traffic congestion. Boring a third tunnel is also being considered. Planning resumed in 2014.

See also

References

External links

 Old PA Pike Website
 Pike 2 Bike
 Abandoned Turnpike
 Solomons Island Cycling Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike Photos

Demolished highways in the United States
Historic trails and roads in Pennsylvania
Parks in Bedford County, Pennsylvania
Parks in Fulton County, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission
Protected areas of Bedford County, Pennsylvania
Protected areas of Fulton County, Pennsylvania

Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike


The Green Monster was the name of several vehicles built by Art Arfons and his half brother Walt Arfons. These ranged from dragsters to a turbojet-powered car which briefly held the land speed record three times during 1964 and 1965.

The land speed record Green Monster set the absolute record three times during the close competition of 1964 and 1965. It was powered by a General Electric J79 taken from an F-104 Starfighter. The jet engine had a four-stage afterburner.

Early dragsters
The first Green Monster appeared in 1952. It was a three-wheeled dragster powered by an Oldsmobile six cylinder engine, and painted with left-over green tractor paint. The name was applied on the car's first outing by the track announcer, Ed Piasczik (Paskey), who laughingly said "Okay folks here it comes; The Green Monster", and it stuck to all Arfons' creations. The car only reached ,  short of the fastest car, but by 1953, Green Monster 2, a  long six wheeled car powered by an Allison V12 aircraft engine, was hitting  in the quarter mile.

Green Monster 2 was painted by Arfons' mother to resemble the World War II Curtiss P-40 Flying Tigers fighter airplane, with an open mouth showing large teeth.  The top speed of the car was estimated at , and it could reach  in nine to ten seconds from a standing start. Running on passenger car tires, the car required four wheels on the rear drive axle to withstand the power. At the first World Series of Drag Racing at Lawrenceville, Illinois, it clocked the highest top speed at , and eventually a world record of .

The later cars had various paint schemes where green was not necessarily the dominant color. The six-wheeled Green Monster 6 became the first dragster to break  in the quarter mile. Green Monster 11, Art Arfons' favorite, hit  to beat Don Garlits.

Arfons used an Allison V1710 in several Green Monsters.

Land speed racing

The Arfons brothers then split up, and each became interested in land speed racing.

The most famous Green Monster was powered by a surplus F-104 Starfighter General Electric J79 jet engine, producing  static thrust  with four-stage afterburner, which Arfons purchased from a scrap dealer for $600 and rebuilt himself, over the objections of General Electric and the government, and despite all manuals for the engine being classified top secret.

The engine had been scrapped because of damage caused by ingesting a bolt. Arfons removed 60 blades out of approximately 1000 in the engine, removing broken blades and their counterparts at 180 degrees, or the pair at +/-120 degrees to maintain balance. He tested it by tying it to trees in his garden, a procedure which drew complaints from his neighbors.

This car, painted in red and blue, set the land speed record three times during the close competition of 1964 and 1965 with averages of  in the flying mile (despite blowing a tire on the last record run). It competed against Wingfoot Express (built by his brother Walt, who could not pilot the car himself, having suffered a stroke) and Craig Breedlove's Spirit of America – Sonic 1, which eventually set the record at .

In 1966, Arfons returned once again to Bonneville, but reached an average speed of only . On run number seven at 8:03 a.m. on November 17, Arfons crashed his vehicle travelling  when a wheel bearing seized. He subsequently built another Green Monster land speed record car, but sold it to California rancher Slick Gardner without ever driving it.

Later vehicles
In view of his wife's concern over the risk involved in land speed record racing, Arfons instead turned his talents to turbine powered tractor pulling with great success, fielding a series of Green Monster tractor pullers, along with his son and daughter.

However, in 1989, Arfons returned to Bonneville with Green Monster 27, an ,  long two-wheeler. The car left the ground at , and Arfons rebuilt it into a less radical four-wheeled vehicle for 1990, but could manage only . In 1991 he tried again, but once again had to give up with handling problems.

References

External links

Jet land speed record cars

Green Monster (automobile)


Emmeline Pankhurst (née Goulden; 15 July 1858 – 14 June 1928) was the leader of the British suffragette movement which helped women win the right to vote.

In 1999 Time named Pankhurst as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century, stating: "she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back." She was widely criticized for her militant tactics, but her work helped to achieve women's suffrage in Britain.

After her husband died in 1898, Pankhurst founded the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), an organisation dedicated to "deeds, not words". The group became infamous when its members smashed windows and assaulted police officers. Pankhurst, her daughters, and other WSPU activists were sentenced to repeated prison sentences, where they staged hunger strikes to secure better conditions. As Pankhurst's oldest daughter Christabel took the helm of the WSPU, antagonism between the group and the government grew. Eventually arson became a common tactic among WSPU members, and more moderate organisations spoke out against the Pankhurst family. In 1913 several prominent individuals left the WSPU, among them Pankhurst's daughters Adela and Sylvia. The family rift never healed.

With the advent of the First World War, Emmeline and Christabel called an immediate halt to militant suffrage activism in support of the British Government's stand against the "German Peril". They urged women to aid industrial production and encouraged young men to fight. In 1918 the Representation of the People Act granted votes to women over the age of 30 and the WSPU was disbanded.

Pankhurst transformed the WSPU machinery into the Women's Party, dedicated to promoting women's equality in public life. In her later years she became concerned with the 'Bolshevik menace' and – unhappy with the political alternatives – joined the Conservative Party. She died in 1928, 17 days before women got equal voting rights and was commemorated two years later with a statue in London's Victoria Tower Gardens.

References

Other websites

1958 births
1928 deaths
Suffragettes

Politicians from Manchester

Emmeline Pankhurst


John Bouvier Kennedy Schlossberg (born January 19, 1993) is an American attorney and public advocate. He is the son of U.S. Ambassador Caroline Kennedy and the only grandson of President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis.

Early life and education
John Bouvier Kennedy Schlossberg was born on January 19, 1993, to attorney Caroline Kennedy and fashion designer, Edwin Schlossberg in New York City. He is the youngest and only grandson of his maternal grandparents, John F. Kennedy, the 35th president of the United States and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis.

Schlossberg was named after his maternal grandfather, John F. Kennedy. He was sometimes described as a look-alike of his maternal uncle, John F. Kennedy Jr.. He has two older sisters named, Rose Schlossberg and Tatiana Schlossberg.

He attended schools and universities such as, The Collegiate School, Yale University, Harvard Law School, Harvard Business School.

Career
In November 2013, He attended the Medal of Freedom Award Dinner to remember the 50th anniversary of his grandfather's death which was hosted by President Barack Obama. Schlossberg is also a member of the John F. Kennedy Library New Frontier Award Committee.

In May 2018, Schlossberg made his acting debut as Officer Jack Hammer on the eighth-season finale of the television show Blue Bloods.

1993 births
Actors from New York City
Kennedy family
Living people
Lawyers from New York City

Jack Schlossberg


Jan Thiel Lagoon is an 80 ha area of hypersaline lagoons, surrounded by woodland, on the southern coast of Curaçao, a constituent island nation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Dutch Caribbean. It is adjacent to the capital, Willemstad. The site, comprising the lagoons, woodland and adjacent coastal waters, has been identified as a 432 ha Important Bird Area by BirdLife International. Birds for which the site was designated include breeding colonies of least and common terns. It is also an important foraging area for American flamingos.

References

Important Bird Areas of the Dutch Caribbean

Bodies of water of Curaçao

Jan Thiel Lagoon, Curaçao


Dastak () is a 1996 Indian Hindi language Psychological thriller film edited directed by Mahesh Bhatt, produced by Mukesh Bhatt with a script written by Vikram Bhatt starring Sushmita Sen in her debut film supported by Mukul Dev with Sharad Kapoor as the villain.

Plot
Dastak is the story of a mentally unstable genius (Sharad Kapoor) and his obsession for Miss Universe (Sushmita Sen). Sharad is so obsessed with Sushmita that he starts killing her near and dear ones in order to get to her. Here enters ACP Rohit Malhotra (Mukul dev); he meets Sushmita, provides her high-level protection and starts an investigation. Meanwhile, Sushmita faces another incident at an event, Rohit protects her and while calming down her, he calls her "Sush" (Sushmita's nickname which is known to only her parents and best friends) and from there she got to know that Rohit is her childhood friend who adores her since school days. She rejoices and eventually fall in love with him. They start seeing each other; she starts feeling protected and happy, but faces another terrible incident of her best friend's death (murdered by Sharad) which breaks her down. Rohit makes a plan of moving Sushmita to another country for a while and gets the news circulated on media, so that Sharad follow hers and gets in a trap. He joins her in Seychelles along with his trusted junior and is supported by local authorities. Their plan went successful as Sharad showed up and Rohit shoots him while chasing him. As his body is found Sushmita rejoices and celebrates with Rohit. But the happiness is short-lived as Sharad turns out to be alive, he kidnaps Sushmita and takes her to a distant isolated island in the Seychelles. There, he makes her life miserable. Sushmita tries every trick to get out of that hell. But ultimately, everything falls apart. Sushmita tries to reform Sharad by telling him that he should face his problems rather than inflicting the same physical and mental pain (that he went through in his childhood) on other people. But Sharad refuses to listen and amend his ways. She keep on trying to contact Rohit (who was devastated and keeps on searching her madly), plans to run away but fails every time. One day while Sharad was going to city for getting some things she gets a chance of coming out and writes "Help" on the speed boat. Her plan succeeds as Rohit and his subordinates see it and starts chasing him. Sharad saw the word "Help" and gets enraged and shoots down everyone; including Rohit. In the climax, he tries to kill Sushmita as he believes that she betrayed him by contacting Rohit. Sushmita tries to run away but Sharad catches her and when he is about to hit her, Rohit (who survived in the incident) jumps on him and saves Sushmita. Both men fight hard and Rohit gets stabbed by Sharad; while seeing Rohit in this condition Sushmita gets enraged and kills Sharad by hitting him with an axe in self-defense. As she and Rohit return to India, she writes a self-help book and dedicates it to people like Sharad and eventually settles down happily with Rohit.

Cast
Sushmita Sen as Miss Universe Sushmita Sen (Sush)
Mukul Dev as ACP Rohit Malhotra
Sharad Kapoor as Sharad Sule
Manoj Bajpayee as Avinash Banerjee
Vishwajeet Pradhan as Inspector
Tiku Talsania as Professor Fernandes

Soundtrack

The album was composed by Rajesh Roshan with lyrics by Javed Akhtar. All the songs were very popular and singers Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan, Abhijeet and Alka Yagnik rendered their voices in the album.

External links

 https://web.archive.org/web/20111117164303/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/cast/6132/index.html
 http://ibosnetwork.com/asp/filmbodetails.asp?id=Dastak+(1996)}

1996 films
1990s Hindi-language films
Films directed by Mahesh Bhatt
Films scored by Rajesh Roshan

Dastak (1996 film)


Evolución, (English: Evolution) a band that hails from San José, Costa Rica, started out in 1997. Their members originated in the underground alternative rock movement that struck the country in the early 1990s. They released "Musica para Sentir" (1997) their first album and quickly caught on to the local rock festivals. An immediate fan-favorite band, they released Absorbiendo la Magia (2001). Their break-through album "Mundo de Fantasia" (2003), was one of the top selling albums in Costa Rica for that year. Their video for "Voy por Ella" had huge success and great national exposure. "Digalo" (2004) helped consolidate the band's fan base and exposure through several videos for this album. In 2005 released "Sentimiento Antisocial" an album sound-alikes of demos from 1995-1998. Two of the band's members, Balerom and Moldo are now also solo artists.

Their latest album, "Amor Artificial" (2007) became the 3rd best selling album in Costa Rica in 2007, and it was released mid-year. This album shows a more mature band, with much more musical diversity and great melodic tunes.

Discography

Studio albums

Costa Rican rock music groups
Rock en Español music groups
Musical groups established in 1997

Evolución (band)


Versus Debates was a series of online debates created by Intelligence Squared and Google using Google Plus' +Hangout technology. The first debate was in March 2012, titled "It's time to end the War on Drugs".

Season 1
The first season of Versus was begun on 13 March 2012 with the debate "It's time to end the War on Drugs", featuring Richard Branson, Russell Brand, Antonio Maria Costa, Eliot Spitzer, Geoffrey Robertson QC, Fernando Cardoso and Julian Assange.
The second Versus event was "Hip-hop doesn't enhance society, it degrades it". Q-Tip, KRS-One, Jesse Jackson, Jason Whitlock, dream hampton and more debated the politics of hip-hop to a hall of 2,000 and an online audience of 80,000.

References

Debates
Google

Versus Debates


General Jack Gordon Merrell (April 8, 1915 – August 15, 1993) was a United States Air Force four-star general who served as Commander, Air Force Logistics Command (COMAFLC) from 1968 to 1972.

Early life
Merrell was born in Jeannette, Pennsylvania, in 1915. He graduated from high school in 1933, attended Braden's Preparatory  at Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York, and then entered the United States Military Academy at West Point from which he graduated in the class of 1939 with a bachelor of science degree in military science.

Military career
Merrell was first assigned to the Cavalry, but quickly secured a transfer to the United States Army Air Corps, finishing both primary and advanced flying school within a year after leaving West Point.

World War II
When the United States entered into World War II, Merrell was serving with the Army Air Corps Training Detachment at Lakeland, Florida. Tours of duty with the 39th and 491st Bombardment Groups as provisional commander, and deputy commander, respectively, followed. In May 1944 he went to England and became the air executive officer of the 491st Bombardment Group and later was commander of the 389th Bombardment Group, Eighth Air Force. At the end of the war he moved with the 389th Group to Charleston, South Carolina.

Postwar career
From November 1945 until June 1948, Merrell served with the Air Transport Command at Cincinnati, Ohio, Memphis, Tennessee, Fort Totten, New York, and Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts.

Postwar reorganization changed the Air Transport Command into the Military Air Transport Service; and in July 1948, Merrell became chief of staff for MATS' Atlantic Division. After a year, he was made commander of Kindley Air Force Base, Bermuda. In September 1951, he was assigned to command the 1600th Air Transport Wing, operating out of Westover Air Force Base. From that post he went to the Air War College at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, where he graduated in 1954.  He had his next duty tour at U.S. Air Force Headquarters in Washington where he was assigned to the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff, Personnel, chief of the Plans and Programs Division, in July 1954, and a year later as deputy director, Directorate of Personnel Planning.

Merrell was reassigned to MATS at McGuire Air Force Base, New Jersey, in 1959. There he was deputy commander, then commander of its Eastern Transport component. From McGuire he went to MATS Headquarters, Scott Air Force Base, Illinois, in September 1960 to become deputy chief of staff for plans.  In January 1962, he returned to Washington, D.C., to serve as director of the budget, Headquarters U.S. Air Force. He assumed the position of comptroller of the U.S. Air Force in November 1964.

Merrell was named vice commander of U.S. Air Forces in Europe in August 1967, and became commander of the Air Force Logistics Command in March 1968.

A command pilot, his decorations included the Distinguished Service Medal, Legion of Merit with oak leaf cluster, Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal, Army Commendation Medal, and the French Croix de Guerre.

Later life
Merrell retired from the Air Force on September 12, 1972 and died on August 15, 1993.

United States Air Force generals
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
United States Army personnel of World War II
Recipients of the Air Medal
United States Military Academy alumni
1915 births
1993 deaths
People from Jeannette, Pennsylvania
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
Military personnel from Pennsylvania

Jack G. Merrell


The president of Peru (), officially called the Constitutional President of the Republic of Peru (), is the head of state and head of government of Peru. The president is the head of the executive branch and is the Supreme Head of the Armed Forces and National Police of Peru. The office of president corresponds to the highest magistracy in the country, making the president the highest-ranking public official in Peru.

Due to broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru, the Congress of Peru can impeach the president without cause, effectively making the executive branch subject to the legislature.

The president is elected to direct the general policy of the government, work with the Congress of the Republic and the Council of Ministers to enact reform, and be an administrator of the state, enforcing the Constitution of 1993 which establishes the presidential requirements, rights, and obligations. The executive branch is located at the Palacio de Gobierno, located in the historic center of Lima. The building has been used and occupied by the heads of state of Peru, dating back to Francisco Pizarro and the viceroys of Peru.

The current president of Peru is Dina Boluarte, who succeeded Pedro Castillo on 7 December 2022.

Presidential terms and transitions

Constitutional limits
Ordinarily, the president is elected to a five-year term, and is barred from immediate reelection. A former president can run again after being out of office for a full term. The change of government takes place on 28 July, which is the date of independence from Spain and thus a national holiday.

The Congress of the Republic has the power to end a president's term prematurely through impeachment. Under Article 113 of the Constitution of 1993, the president can be removed due to death, "permanent moral or physical disability" determined by Congress, resignation, fleeing national territory without permission from Congress, or dismissal for committing infractions outlined in Article 117 of the Constitution.

Four presidents of Peru have attempted to resign: Guillermo Billinghurst (forced resignation), Andrés Avelino Cáceres, Alberto Fujimori, and Pedro Pablo Kuczynski. Three presidents have been impeached unsuccessfully, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, Martín Vizcarra (first impeachment), and Pedro Castillo (first and second impeachments) while the impeachments of Billinghurst, Fujimori, Vizcarra (second impeachment), and Castillo (third impeachment) have been successful.

The president is elected to a term of five years without immediate re-election. A presidential inauguration is held every five years on 28 July in Congress. The last directly elected president was Pedro Castillo, who was elected for a term from 2021 to 2026. His Vice President, Dina Boluarte, a former civil servant, succeeded him as president following his impeachment after a failed coup attempt.

There have also been a number of unrecognized presidents. In 1992 and 2019, after the dissolution of the Congress, the legislative body unsuccessfully removed the president from office and swore in vice presidents as the de facto president.

There are 14 presidents that became presidents through a coup d'état. The last successful coup d'état was carried out by Alberto Fujimori in 1992, who is now imprisoned for human rights violations and corruption.

Inauguration

Setting and attendees
Presidential inaugurations take place in the Congress of the Republic of Peru in the capital city of Lima. Presidential inaugurations always take place on 28 July of its respective year, although in the case of constitutional succession, an inauguration is on the day that the presidential successor arrives in Lima, Peru. The presidential inauguration precedes the National Parade of the Military of Peru.

Foreign dignitaries have often assisted the democratic transition of power in Peru.

Presidential oath
The contemporary placed presidential oath in Spanish is as follows:Yo, Martín Alberto Vizcarra Cornejo, juro por Dios, por la patria, y por todos los peruanos que ejerceré fielmente el cargo de Presidente de la República que me ha confiado el nación para el periodo 2018 a 2021, que defenderé la soberanía nacional y la integridad física y moral de la República, que cumpliré y hare cumplir la constitución política y las leyes del Perú, y que reconocerá, respetando la libertad de corto, la importancia de la Iglesia Católica en la formación cultural y moral de los peruanos.

Martín Alberto Vizcarra Cornejo, Presidential Oath of Office July 28, 2018 In EnglishThe English translation is as follows:I, [complete name of presidential elect], swear to God, to the Homeland, and to all Peruvians that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the Republic of Peru that has been entrusted to me by the Nation for the period [start of mandate] to [end of mandate], that I will defend the sovereignty of the nation as well as the physical and moral integrity of the Nation, that I will comply and enforce the political constitution and laws of Peru, and that I will recognize, respecting freedoms, the importance of the Roman Catholic Church in the cultural and moral formation of Peruvians.   The president of Congress conventionally holds the presidential sash before the president-elect takes the oath of office. Once the president-elect has taken the oath of office, the president is recognized by all branches of the government of Peru as the democratic president of the Republic of Peru, symbolized by the president of the Congress passing the presidential sash. The nominee is recognized as the president of Peru with and only with the presidential sash.

As of 2019, there have been two illegitimate presidential inaugurations performed by the Congress of Peru, but not recognized by either the executive branch or the armed forces: one in 1995 and the inauguration of Mercedes Aráoz in 2019 amidst a confrontation between the executive and legislative powers of Peru.

There is also an emphasis on Christianity and the Roman Catholic Church in the oath of office. All presidents of Peru have been Catholic and have taken the oath of office alongside the Christian Bible, and in front of a Catholic Crucifix.

Origin

Pre-Columbian era
The first state recognizable as such under current concepts in the central Andes was the Wari civilization, whose system of government has not yet been fully unraveled. Later, between the thirteenth century and the sixteenth century, the Inca civilization developed, whose State, based on the political management of reciprocity and alien to all European conceptions of then and now, had the Sapa Inca at its head.

The modern Peruvian state is the heir of the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1532, the Spanish conquerors arrived in the territory, imposed their dominion and managed to establish a Spanish dependency. This dependence began as governorships corresponding to the conquerors, with the title of Governor. The Governorate of the New Toledo (Diego de Almagro) – which otherwise never consolidated – had as its capital the city of Cusco, the current historical capital of Peru. The Governorate of the New Castile (Francisco Pizarro) had as its capital the City of Kings, as Lima was also called initially and it was on this that the viceroyalty was instituted after the civil wars.

In 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru was established, whose government was held by the representative of the king of Spain (head of state) with the title of Viceroy of Peru (head of government). The true organizer of the viceregal state was Francisco de Toledo.

This period had only two stages corresponding to the two Spanish dynasties, the houses of Habsburg and Bourbon, and lasted 282 years from its establishment in 1542 to the Capitulation of Ayacucho in 1824, despite the independence of Peru in 1821.

José Fernando de Abascal was in charge of centralizing Spanish political and military power in Peru. His successors, the last viceroys of Peru were parallel to Jose de San Martin and his first successors. Joaquín de la Pezuela and José de la Serna faced the liberating armies and the last of them signed the capitulation. Finally, Pío Tristán was the interim viceroy in charge of transferring power to the patriots.

Republic era
In July 1821, during the Peruvian War of Independence, the autonomous states lying in the viceroyalty of Peru declared themselves as independent and sovereign from influence and mediation from the Spanish Empire. Recognizing the impending threat of Spanish backlash to regain their lost colonies, the autonomous viceroyalty began to draft a constitution on which they would decide to base the sovereign nation. Working closely with the Constituent Congress of Peru in 1822, a formal constitution was created, named the Constitution of 1823. Francisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro, a Peruvian politician, presided and led the Constituent Congress of Peru, leading to him being subjectively regarded as the first informal President of Peru.

The first articles of the 1823 Constitution consisted of 24 items, known as the "Bases". These bases formally defined the borders of the Andean nation and formally created the First Republic of Peru, which still holds until the present day. The governing board, led by Luna Pizarro, declared Peruvian autonomy from Spain and a Catholic state. Additionally, the Constitution defined the three powers of the government, the executive, judicial and the legislative power. The governing board, a colloquial terminology that was used to classify the ten politicians that devised these 24 items, was the first representation of executive power and the executive branch in Peruvian history.

Later, issues arose around the bases which granted the protectorate of Peru, Simon Bolivar, overwhelming power over the legislative and executive organs of the Peruvian government. At the same time, Bolivar was already undergoing a campaign to establish a dictatorship around Andean Latin American nations. As a precursor, this incentivized the initial drafters of the constitution and the Governing Board to accelerate the process of defining reasonable executive powers, balance the three branches of power, and begin to draft an idea for the roles and powers of the official position of state leader of Peru.

The Act of Independence was signed in Lima on 15 August 1821, and soon after the government was left under the charge of José de San Martín with the title of Protector. Later, the legislative branch occupied the executive branch. In 1823 the Congress appointed José de la Riva Agüero as the first President of the Republic of the history of Peru. Since then, that has been the main denomination that has held the great majority of the rulers of Peru. The same first Political Constitution of 1823 (after the appointment of Riva Agüero) recognizes the position, and says ex officio: "Article 72. Resides exclusively the exercise of executive power in a citizen with the name of President of the Republic."

Only two constitutions have been contrary, partially, to the presidential republican system, the Lifetime Political Constitution of 1826 emanating from Simón Bolívar and expressing:The exercise of the Executive Power resides in a Life President, a Vice President, and four Secretaries of State.By 1827, an outline of an executive along with the executive branch had been drawn out to prevent a Bolivarian dictatorship which would be seen by the populace as a general return to Spanish tyrannical rule. As a result, on 28 July 1827, Manuel Salazar assumed the formal office of the presidency and became the first president of Peru to be elected by the populace, marking the start of the Presidency of Peru.

Powers and duties

1823 Constitution
The President is head of the general administration of the Republic, and their authority extends both to the preservation of public order internally, and to external security in accordance with the Constitution and laws.

The duties exclusive to the President have been defined in the 1823 Constitution as:

 To promulgate, execute, protect, and comply with the laws, decrees, and resolutions of the Congress of Peru and to issue the orders indispensable for its effect.
 To have supreme command over the armed forces of Peru.
 To order and verify democratic free elections on the days indicated by the Constitution.
 To declare war when appropriate after being passed through the Congress of Peru.
 To regulate and join peace treaties, alliances, and other agreements coming from foreign states according to the Constitution.
 To oversee and determine the investment of the funds allocated by the Congress of Peru to the various branches of the public administration.
 Appoint officers and officials of the Peruvian Armed Forces with the agreement and consent of Congress.
 Appoint Ministers, members of the Presidential Cabinet, the Prime Minister, and diplomats with the agreement and consent of Congress.
 Ensure the proper administration of justice in the Peruvian Judicial System and on the compliance of the judgments that they pronounce, as well as establish the trial by jury courts.
 Inform the legislature of the political and military status quo of the Republic of Peru, indicating substantial improvements or suitable reforms in every branch of Peruvian society.

Limitations of the executive power

 The President cannot and will not personally command the armed force without the consent of Congress.
 The President cannot and will not leave the nation without permission from Congress.
 Under no pretext can the President conduct business with members of the Supreme Court.
 The President cannot and will not deprive any Peruvian of personal liberty, and if public security requires the arrest or detention of any person, the President may order the appropriate detention with the indispensable condition that within twenty-four hours the detainee will be available to their respective judge.
 Furthermore, the President cannot and will not impose any penalties. The Minister who signed the order of detention, and the official who executes it can act on behalf of the detainee's individual freedom.
 The President cannot and will not defer or suspend sessions of the Congress under any circumstances.

1826 Constitution
The powers of the President of the Republic are:

 Open sessions of the Congress, and present the legislative body a message about the State of the Republic yearly.
 Propose the Vice President of Peru to Congress and appoint Secretaries of the Republic.
 Dismiss the Vice President and Secretaries of the Republic, whenever the President deems it appropriate.
 Send, publish, circulate, and enforce the laws.
 Authorize the regulations and orders that maximizes compliance with the Constitution, laws and public treaties of the Republic.
 Send and enforce the judgments of the Courts of Justice.
 Request the extension of ordinary sessions of the Legislative Body for up to thirty days.
 Convene the Legislative Body for extraordinary sessions, in a case where it is absolutely necessary.
 To have the permanent force of the sea and land for exterior defense of the Republic.
 To send in person the armies of the Republic in peace and in war. When the President is absent from the capital, the Vice President in charge of the Republic will take the duties and responsibilities of the President.
 When the President leads the war in person, the President may reside in all the territory occupied by national arms.
 Have the National Militia for internal security, within the limits of its departments and outside of them, with the consent of the Legislative Body.
 Name all employees of the Army and Navy.
 Establish military schools, and nautical schools.
 Command to establish military hospitals and homes for the disabled.
 Give withdrawals and licenses. Grant the pensions of the military and their families in accordance with the laws, and arrange, according to them, all the rest consequent to this branch.
 Declare war on behalf of the Republic, after the decree of the Legislative Body.
 Grant patents for privateering.
 Take care of the collection and investment of contributions according to the laws.
 Name employees.
 Direct diplomatic negotiations, and celebrate treaties of peace, friendship, federation, alliance, truces, armed neutrality, trade, and any other, always having to precede the approval of the Legislative Body.
 Appoint the Public Ministers, Consuls and subordinates of the Department of Foreign Affairs.
 Receive foreign ministers
 Grant the pass, or suspend the conciliar decisions, pontifical, brief and resigned with the consent of the Power to whom it corresponds.
 Propose to the Chamber of Censors, in short, individuals for the Supreme Court of Justice, and those who have to submit to the Archbishoprics, Bishoprics, Canongias and perks.
 Present to the Senate for approval one of the list of candidates proposed by the Electoral Body for Prefects, Governors and Corregidores.
 Choose one of the list of candidates proposed by the Ecclesiastical Government for priests and vicars of the provinces.
 Suspend up to three months for employees, provided there is cause for it.
 Commute the capital sentences decreed to the inmates by the Courts.
 Issue, on behalf of the Republic, titles or appointments to all employees.

Limitations of executive power

 The President may not deprive any Peruvian of their liberty, nor impose on them any penalty.
 When the security of the Republic requires the arrest of one or more citizens, it may not exceed forty-eight hours without placing the accused at the disposal of the competent Court or Judge.
 They may not deprive any individual of their property, but in the event that the public interest so requires, but they must precede a just compensation to the owner.
 It will not be able to prevent the elections or the other functions that by the laws compete to the Powers of the Republic.
 They can not absent themselves from the territory of the Republic, nor from the capital, without permission from the Legislative Body.

1860 Constitution
The powers of the President of the Republic are:

 To preserve the internal order and the external security of the Republic without contravening the laws.
 Convene the ordinary Congress and the extraordinary, when there is a need.
 Concurring to the opening of the Congress, presenting a message about the state of the Republic and about the improvements and reforms it deems appropriate.
 Take part in the formation of laws, in accordance with this constitution.
 Enact and enforce the laws and other resolutions of the Congress; and give decrees, orders, regulations and instructions for their better compliance.
 Give the necessary orders for the collection and investment of public revenues in accordance with the law.
 Require judges and courts for the prompt and accurate administration of justice.
 Enforce the judgments of the courts and courts.
 Organize the forces of sea and land: distribute them, and dispose of them for the service of the Republic.
 Have the National Guard in their respective provinces, without being able to remove them, but in case of sedition on the border, or in the war outside.
 To direct diplomatic negotiations and to conclude treaties, placing on them the express condition that they will be submitted to the Congress.
 Receive foreign Ministers and admit the Consuls.
 Appoint and remove the Ministers of State and the Diplomatic Agents.
 To clear licenses and pensions, according to the laws.
 Exercise the Board in accordance with the laws and current practice.
 Present to Archbishops and Bishops, with the approval of Congress, those who are elected according to the law.
 Present for the Dignities and Canongias of the Cathedrals, for the parishes and other ecclesiastical benefits, in accordance with the laws and current practice.
 Celebrate concordats with the Apostolic Chair, following the instructions given by Congress.
 Grant or deny the passage to the conciliar decrees, papal bulls, briefs and rescripts, with the consent of the Congress, and previously hearing the Supreme Court of Justice, if they were related to contentious matters.
 Provide vacant jobs, whose appointment corresponds according to the Constitution and special laws.

1993 Constitution
The President of the Republic, in addition to the Head of State, is the Head of the national Government. Its functions are explicit in the Constitution and the Organic Law of the Executive Power.

 Comply and enforce the Constitution and treaties, laws and other legal provisions.
 Represent the State, inside and outside the Republic.
 Direct the general policy of the Government.
 Ensure the internal order and the external security of the Republic.
 Convene elections for President of the Republic and for representatives to Congress, as well as for mayors and aldermen and other officials indicated by law.
 Summon the Congress to an extraordinary legislature; and sign, in that case, the decree of convocation.
 Direct messages to the Congress at any time and obligatorily, in a personal form and in writing, upon the installation of the first annual ordinary legislature. The annual messages contain a detailed exposition of the situation of the Republic and the improvements and reforms that the President deems necessary and convenient for consideration by the Congress. The messages of the President of the Republic, except for the first one, are approved by the Council of Ministers.
 Exercise the power to regulate the laws without transgressing or denaturing them; and, within such limits, issue decrees and resolutions.
 Comply and enforce the judgments and resolutions of the jurisdictional bodies.
 Fulfill and enforce the resolutions of the National Elections Jury.
 Direct foreign policy and international relations; and celebrate and ratify treaties.
 Appoint ambassadors and plenipotentiary ministers, with the approval of the Council of Ministers, with the responsibility of reporting to the Congress.
 Receive foreign diplomatic agents and authorize the consuls to exercise their functions.
 Preside over the National Defense System; and organize, distribute and arrange the employment of the Armed Forces and the National Police.
 Adopt the necessary measures for the defence of the Republic, the integrity of the territory and the sovereignty of the State.
 Declare war and sign peace, with authorization from Congress.
 Manage public finances
 Negotiate loans
 Dictate extraordinary measures, by emergency decrees with the force of law, in economic and financial matters, when the national interest requires it and with a charge of reporting to the Congress. Congress may modify or repeal the aforementioned emergency decrees.
 Regulate tariff rates.
 Grant pardons and commute sentences. Exercising the right of grace for the benefit of the accused in cases where the stage of instruction has exceeded twice its term plus its extension.
 Confer decorations on behalf of the Nation.
 Authorize Peruvians to serve in a foreign army.
 Grant extradition, with the approval of the Council of Ministers, following a report from the Supreme Court of Justice of the Republic.
 Preside over the Forum of the National Agreement, being able to delegate this function to the President of the Council of Ministers.
 Exercise the other functions of government and administration that the Constitution and the laws entrust to it.

The acts of the President of the Republic that lack ministerial endorsement are null. It corresponds to the President of the Republic to preside over the Council of Ministers when it is convened or when he attends its sessions. The President of the Republic appoints and removes the President of the council. Appoints and removes the other ministers, on the proposal and with an agreement, respectively, from the President of the council.

The ministers are individually responsible for their own acts and for the presidential acts they endorse. All ministers are jointly and severally liable for criminal acts or violations of the Constitution or the laws that the President of the Republic incurs or that are agreed upon in the council, even if they save their vote unless they resign immediately.

The Constitution of 1993, a product of the Presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), is the constitution that is currently in place.

Presidential symbols

Presidential sash

The presidential sash is the most distinctive feature that the President wears and has been used since the beginning of the Republic. It was inherited from the last Viceroys. The placement and delivery of the presidential sash symbolize a democratic transition of power. The band is used by the President of Congress until the new president is sworn in.

It is a bicolor band that carries the national colors (red and white). This band is worn diagonally from the right shoulder to the left side of the waist. At the waist, like a brooch, the band was embroidered in golden thread the Coat of arms of Peru. There is a Lima family that has traditionally made them. They are made to measure for each President and have been used normally with formal suit: suit, tuxedo or military uniform. Since 2006, the Shield was moved up to chest height.

A symbolic act narrated by Ricardo Palma in his famous Peruvian Traditions was made during the confused first half of the 1840s, by President Justo Figuerola. This, in front of the protests made by the pope in front of his home, he asked his daughter to take the presidential band out of the dresser drawer and give it to the people from the balcony. The crowd left happy and alive to Figuerola and went to find someone to impose the garment, which, so many times coveted, this time did not find who wanted to stick it.

The Ministers of State wear a red-and-white sash; Supreme Members, Congressmen of the Republic, Magistrates of the Constitutional Court, Members of the National Council of the Magistracy, Supreme Prosecutors, the Ombudsman, etc., wear red-and-white collars with medals that recognize them as such.

Grand Necklace of Brilliance
The necklace is the symbol of the highest authority in the country. It is composed of gold and encrusted with diamonds, bearing at the center a medal that contains the coat of arms of Peru. Presidents Oscar R. Benavides Larrea, Manuel Prado y Ugarteche and Jose Luis Bustamante y Rivero notably used the large necklace and other insignias. Its use disappeared after the administration of Fernando Belaúnde Terry. Recently its use was 'revived' by Alan García Pérez in the European Union Summit held precisely in Lima in May 2008.

Plaque
The President of the Republic carries a plaque in the left upper pocket of the bag in the manner of a lanyard with the insignia of the military command that recognizes them as the Supreme Chief of the Armed Forces. It is the heir of the distinctive and military honors worn by presidents belonging to the Armed Forces throughout the history of the country. It is golden and has the shape of a radiant sun.

Staff
The staff originates from the Spanish custom of symbolizing power with a cane. The custom was introduced in the eighteenth century in the Andes, after the rebellion of José Gabriel Túpac Amaru and Túpac Catari in 1780 to represent the dignity of mayor of Incas. Unlike Argentina, the use of a cane that symbolizes the power and office of President (symbolically, varayoc), has not been common in the history of the Peruvian presidency and has been replaced innumerable times by the saber or the sword of the military presidents. There is only a handful of remarkable cases. Mariano Ignacio Prado, José Balta and Augusto B. Leguía used it in pictures and presidential photographs. Recently, Alejandro Toledo, made use of the cane in his symbolic assumption to the charge in Cusco and also on a few other occasions. Its most recent use corresponds to 29 July 2008, the date of the traditional military parade, when Alan García carried a small presidential staff, the same one used by Ollanta Humala in the military parade on 29 July 2011.

Eligibility

The Constitution of 1823, the first constitution of this country, indicates that to be the President of Peru one must:

 Be a person born in Peru.
 Gather the same qualities as to be a leader.
 Be a citizen in practice.
 Be over 35 years old
 Be from Peru
 Have a property or income of eight hundred soles at least, or exercise any industry that yields them annually, or be a public professor of some science.

The Constitution of 1826, on the other hand, incorporating some subjective concepts, requires the following:

 Be a practicing citizen, and a native of Peru.
 Be over thirty years of age.
 Have done important services to the Republic.
 Have well-known talents in the administration of the State.
 Never have been convicted by the Courts, even for minor offenses.

The Constitution of 1856 states the requirements to be president: be Peruvian by birth, citizen in office and thirty-five years of age and ten of domicile in the Republic, which will remain virtually unchanged until today. As of 1979, the requirement of having resided in the country for the last ten years is eliminated.

Constitution of 1993 (contemporary)

 A President must be Peruvian by birth (those who are Peruvians by naturalization can not access the position). They must be more than thirty-five years of age at the time they are applying for a job and fully exercising their civil rights, that is, they must not bear any penal sanction or civil declaration of disability, which includes the right to vote.
 They can not be candidates for the presidency if they have not left office six months before the election:
The Ministers and Deputy Ministers of State, the Comptroller General.
The members of the Constitutional Court, the National Council of the Judiciary, the Judicial Power, the Public Ministry, the National Elections Jury, and the Ombuds.
The President of the Central Reserve Bank, the Superintendent of Banking, Insurance and Private Administrators of Pension Funds and the National Superintendent of Tax Administration.
The members of the Armed Forces and the National Police in activity.
The other cases that the Constitution provides.

According to the Organic Law of Elections, they can not run for the Presidency or Vice Presidencies of the Republic:

 The Ministers and Deputy Ministers of State, the Comptroller General of the Republic and the regional authorities, if they have not resigned at least six months before the election.
 The members of the Constitutional Court, of the National Council of the Judiciary, of the Judicial Power, of the Public Ministry, of the organisms that comprise the Electoral System and the Ombudsperson, if they have not left office 6 (six) months before the election
 The President of the Central Reserve Bank, the Superintendent of Banking and Insurance, the Superintendent of Tax Administration, the National Superintendent of Customs and the Superintendent of Private Pension Funds Administrators, if they have not resigned at least six months before the election.
 The members of the Armed Forces and the National Police who have not retreated to the retirement situation at least six months before the election
 The spouse and consanguineous relatives within the fourth degree, and the related ones within the second, of the one that exercises the Presidency or has exercised it in the year preceding the election.

History

During its more than 190 years of independence, Peru has been ruled by the military leaders who fought for independence, the leaders of the War of the Pacific, representatives of the aristocracy, and democratically elected leaders. Also, the history of the presidency has involved civil wars, coups and violence. More than once, several individuals claimed the right to be president at the same time.

Different titles have been used, such as "Protector of Peru" (used by José de San Martín), and "Supreme Protector" (by Andrés de Santa Cruz).

List of presidents of Peru

Post-presidency
All former elected presidents of Peru since 1985 have been prosecuted since leaving office:
Prior to his resignation in 2000, Alberto Fujimori escaped to Japan seeking political refuge, where he faxed his resignation to Peru. He unsuccessfully attempted to run for a parliamentary position in the Parliament of Japan, and ultimately returned to Latin America in 2006 to run for the 2006 presidential elections. The refugee president's flight diverted to Chile, where he stayed for six days. Peruvian officials and the President of Peru during the time expressed discontent at Chilean officials for allowing the indicted former president into the continent without repercussion. Ultimately, Fujimori flew back to Peru for unstated reasons and was arrested. Fujimori was convicted of corruption, bribery, human rights violations, crimes against humanities, murder, and other charges, for 25 years of prison until 2031. Fujimori served his sentence until 2017, where then Peruvian President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski issued a presidential pardon, clearing Fujimori of his conviction. Following the resignation of Kuczynski, the pardon was declared illegitimate and Fujimori was arrested and returned to confinement. Presently, Fujimori remains in custody, serving the rest of his 25-year sentence.
Following the end of his term in 2006, Alejandro Toledo abruptly withdrew from Peruvian politics. Toledo and his spouse, Eliane Karp, both moved to California, in the United States, where they have resided since, to avoid prosecution. Toledo and his wife were charged with multiple offenses of corruption and probing, and have been summoned to Peru for a trial. Toledo ignored this warning and proceeded to remain in the United States. Toledo claimed to have been a professor at Stanford University, but the university verified that Toledo was solely invited as a one-time guest speaker to the institution. Many efforts have been made by former President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and President Martin Vizcarra to extradite Toledo, but no responses have been heard from the United States government. In March 2019, Toledo was temporarily arrested for public drunkenness in California, and was released later that night. Via a call in, Toledo denied that he was arrested. There is currently a $25,000 reward for the ex-president. In August 2019, Toledo was arrested in Northern California as part of an extradition request from the Ministry of Justice of Peru. He was held in custody until he was extradited in June 2023.
Ollanta Humala and his wife, Nadine Heredia, were abruptly arrested following the end of his term. Both of them were detained for 6 months for investigation on the means of corruption, but were later released. There were no conclusions or evidence provided by the investigation. Humala continues to reside in Lima awaiting his trial.
Following his resignation in March 2018, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski quietly left the Government Palace and returned to his home in the district of San Isidro. Kuczynski remained out of the public eye for the following ten months, but was then summoned to the Department of Justice. All of Kuczynski's bank accounts were frozen and he was prohibited from leaving the country. Kuczynski made few public appearances, but on the first anniversary of his resignation, Kuczynski made his first major public appearance on El Comercio, a major Peruvian newspaper. The former president mentioned his present financial ruins and the amounts of loans he was forced to make. Additionally, Kuczynski mentioned that he felt betrayed by Martin Vizcarra, the incumbent President of Peru who succeeded Kuczynski following his resignation. On 10 April 2019, Kuczynski was arrested for primary corruption charges on the basis of an ongoing investigation into his connections with Odebrecht, money laundering, and bribery. At the end of his detention, Kuczynski was sentenced to three years of house imprisonment until 2022.
Martín Vizcarra faced several allegations of corruption following his impeachment and was banned from public office for ten years in 2021 due to his involvement in Vacunagate.
Manuel Merino was president for five days from 10 to 15 November 2020, following the impeachment and removal of Martín Vizcarra by the Peruvian Congress, before stepping down amid widespread protests resulting in casualties. He was inaugurated as president following the line of succession established in the constitution. After his presidency, he was investigated for human rights violations that occurred during mass protests.
Alan García faced an investigation due to his involvement in the Odebrecht scandal. While police attempted to arrest him in April 2019, Garcia committed suicide.
Pedro Castillo was removed from office following a failed self-coup attempt and was arrested while attempting to flee towards the Mexican embassy in Lima. Currently, Castillo is imprisoned for charges of rebellion, while also facing several corruption investigations.
Current President Dina Boluarte is facing an investigation for genocide and crimes against humanity due to her administration's harsh response to social unrest.
In addition, Francisco Morales Bermudez, who was president from 1975 to 1980, was sentenced to life in prison by an Italian court in January 2017.

Demographics of the presidents
In contemporary history, two presidents are known not to have been of direct Peruvian descent, being Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000) and Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018). Fujimori is of Japanese descent and Kuczynski is of German, Jewish, French and Polish descent. A majority of presidents have been born in Lima.

Three presidents have been assassinated in Peru's history—Felipe Santiago Salaverry, Tomás Gutiérrez, and Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro. One president, Alan García (1985–1990, 2006–2011), committed suicide.

The tallest recorded president is Alan García, who stood at 1.93 m. The shortest is Alejandro Toledo (2001–2006), who stands at 1.65 m. The oldest person to assume the presidency was Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018) who assumed the presidency at 78 years and 217 days, with the second being Fernando Belaunde Terry (1963–1968, 1980–1985) who assumed his second presidency at 78 years and 39 days.

The president who has reached the longest life span is Francisco Morales Bermúdez (1975–1980), who lived to be 100. Three Peruvian presidents lived into their nineties:

Francisco Morales Bermúdez (4 October 1921 – 14 July 2022) (age ), the longest-lived Peruvian President and Prime Minister
José Luis Bustamante y Rivero (15 January 1894 – 11 January 1989) (aged )
Manuel María Ponce Brousset (5 April 1874 – 18 July 1966) ()

Line of succession

Names of incumbents :
 'President of the Republic: Dina Boluarte
 First Vice President: (vacant)
 Second Vice President: (vacant'')
 President of Congress: Alejandro Soto Reyes
 First Vice President of Congress:
 Second Vice President of Congress: Waldemar Cerrón
 Third Vice President of Congress:

See also
Prime Minister of Peru

References

Peru

Presidents
Presidents
1821 establishments in Peru

President of Peru


In the mathematics of chaotic dynamical systems, in the Pyragas method of stabilizing a periodic orbit, an appropriate continuous controlling signal is injected into the system, whose intensity is nearly zero as the system evolves close to the desired periodic orbit but increases when it drifts away from the desired orbit. Both the Pyragas and OGY (Ott, Grebogi and Yorke) methods are part of a general class of methods called "closed loop" or "feedback" methods which can be applied based on knowledge of the system obtained through solely observing the behavior of the system as a whole over a suitable period of time.
The method was proposed by Lithuanian physicist .

References

External links
 Kęstutis Pyragas homepage

Chaos theory
Nonlinear systems

Pyragas method