Wylliam Martin (fl. 1504-1547) was the 34th Mayor of Galway.

Martin was a member of one of The Tribes of Galway, and had first served as a town bailiff for the term 1504-1505. He enjoyed two terms as Mayor, 1519–1520, and 1525-1526. He is noteworthy for introducing a statute concerning morality.

It is ordered that if any man, free or unfree, be found by nighttime in any mans house to have copulation or to do with the good mans servant girl or the daughter of a merchant became pregnant, that the man responsible would have to marry or provide for her.

Martin was also responsible for the erection during his term of Ceann an Bhalla (the head of the wall). This was an extension of the town wall from Martin's Tower to the bank of the Corrib, as a measure to protect the town's quays, which were located in the area once known as the Fish Market. It is now known as the Spanish Arch.

He was the first Mayor of the Martyn family, who would ultimately produce nineteen Mayors and almost thirty Bailiffs and Sheriffs of Galway. His only known child was Thomas Óge Martyn.

See also

 The Tribes of Galway

References
History of Galway, James Hardiman, Galway, 1820.
Old Galway, Maureen Donovan O'Sullivan, 1942.
Henry, William (2002). Role of Honour: The Mayors of Galway City 1485-2001. Galway: Galway City Council.
 Martyn, Adrian (2016). The Tribes of Galway: 1124-1642

16th-century Irish businesspeople
Politicians from County Galway
Irish merchants
Mayors of Galway
15th-century births
16th-century deaths

Wylliam Martin


The Pincian Hill ( ; ) is a hill in the northeast quadrant of the historical centre of Rome.  The hill lies to the north of the Quirinal, overlooking the Campus Martius. It was outside the original boundaries of the ancient city of Rome, and was not one of the Seven hills of Rome, but it lies within the wall built by Roman Emperor Aurelian between 270 and 273.

Villas and gardens
Several important families in Ancient Rome had villas and gardens (horti) on the south-facing slopes in the late Roman Republic, including the Horti Lucullani (created by Lucullus), the Horti Sallustiani (created by the historian Sallust), the Horti Pompeiani, and the Horti Aciliorum.  The hill came to be known in Roman times as Collis Hortorum (the "Hill of Gardens").  Its current name comes from the Pincii, one of the families that occupied it in the 4th century AD.

Modern Rome

The Pincio as seen today was laid out in 1809–14 by Giuseppe Valadier; the French Academy at Rome had moved into the Villa Medici in 1802. The orchards of the Pincian were laid out with wide gravelled allées (viali) that are struck through dense boschi to unite some pre-existing features: one viale extends a garden axis of the Villa Medici to the obelisk placed at the center of radiating viali. The obelisk was erected by Pope Pius VII in September 1822 to provide an eye-catcher in the vistas; it is a Roman obelisk, not an Egyptian one, erected under the Emperor Hadrian in the early 2nd century, as part of a memorial to his beloved Antinous outside the Porta Maggiore. The Piazza Napoleone – in fact Napoleon's grand urbanistic example was set from a distance, as he never visited Rome – is a grand open space that looks out over Piazza del Popolo, also laid out by Valadier, and provides views to the west, and of the skyline of Rome beyond. Valadier linked the two spaces with formal staircases broken by generous landings, and a switchback carriageway.

In 1873, a hydrochronometer on the 1867 design of Gian Battista Embriaco, O.P. inventor and professor of the College of St. Thomas in Rome was built on the Pincian Hill in emulation of the one at the College of St. Thomas.  Another version stands in the Villa Borghese gardens.  Embriaco had presented two prototypes of his invention at the Paris Universal Exposition in 1867 where it won prizes and great acclaim.

In the gardens of the Pincian, it was Giuseppe Mazzini's urging that lined the viali with busts of notable Italians.

Though the Villa Ludovisi was built over at the turn of the 20th century, several villas and their gardens still occupy the hill, including the Villa Borghese gardens, linked to the Pincio by a pedestrian bridge that crosses the via del Muro Torto in the narrow cleft below; the Muro Torto is the winding stretch of the Aurelian Wall, pierced by the Porta Pinciana.

See also

References

External links

Hills and walls of Ancient Rome
Samuel Ball Platner and Thomas Ashby, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, London: Oxford University Press, 1929: Pincius Mons
Pinician Hill at Rome Reborn at University of Virginia
"Cisterne, mosaici e terme private. La collina del Pincio scopre i suoi segreti" La Repubblica 11 December 2014

Hills of Rome
Rome R. IV Campo Marzio

Pincian Hill


The Moulin de Mougins is a celebrated restaurant in France, situated in a 16th-century mill (moulin) in the inland French Riviera town of Mougins. Founding chef Roger Vergé made the restaurant's name renowned with his novel and light Cuisine de Soleil. The Moulin is technically classified as an auberge or inn, as it has a couple of guest rooms.

As of 30 August 2009, the Moulin was rated four "knives and forks" in the Michelin Guide.

Following the retirement of Vergé, the Moulin was taken over by Alain Llorca, who had been head chef at the Michelin-starred Chantecler dining room in the Hotel Negresco in Nice.

In March 2009, Sébastien Chambru, who worked at the 'Restaurant Paul Bocuse' near Lyon, became the Chef des Cuisines at the Moulin.

In 1977, the famed French chef Alain Ducasse worked as an assistant at the Moulin de Mougins, where he learned the Provençal cooking methods for which he later became renowned.

In 2013, Sébastien Chambru left the restaurant and it is no longer operating.

References

External links
 Official site
 The Côte d'Azur web site page about the Moulin de Mougin, including map and directions
  Fodor's page on the restaurant and hotel
  The Michelin Guide page on the Moulin de Mougins
  Moulin de Mougins on Facebook

Mougins
Michelin Guide starred restaurants in France

Moulin de Mougins


Wellesley College is a private women's liberal arts college in Wellesley, Massachusetts. Founded in 1870 by Henry and Pauline Durant as a female seminary, it is a member of the Seven Sisters Colleges, an unofficial grouping of current and former women's colleges in the northeastern United States.

Wellesley contains  56 departmental and interdepartmental majors spanning the liberal arts, as well as over 150 student clubs and organizations. Wellesley athletes compete in the NCAA Division III New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference. Its 500-acre (200 ha) campus was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and houses the Davis Museum and a Botanic Garden. Wellesley's endowment of $3.226 billion is the largest out of all women's colleges and the 49th largest among all colleges and universities in the United States in 2019.

Notable alumnae and affiliates include two U.S. secretaries of state; the first female nominee for President of the United States from a major party; noted academics, journalists, writers, politicians, diplomats, activists, businesspeople, filmmakers, and entertainers; and recipients of Emmy, Tony, Academy, and Peabody Awards, the Nobel Prize, and the Pulitzer Prize.

History

Wellesley was founded by Pauline and Henry Fowle Durant, believers in educational opportunity for women, who intended that the college should prepare women for "...great conflicts, for vast reforms in social life".  Its charter was signed on March 17, 1870, by Massachusetts Governor William Claflin. The original name of the college was the Wellesley Female Seminary; its renaming to Wellesley College was approved by the Massachusetts legislature on March 7, 1873. Wellesley first opened its doors to students on September 8, 1875. At the time of its founding, Wellesley College's campus was actually situated in Needham; however, in 1880 residents of West Needham voted to secede and in 1881 the area was chartered as a new town, Wellesley.

Wellesley College was a leading center for women's study in the sciences. Between 1875 and 1921, Wellesley employed more female scientists than any other U.S. institution of high education. After MIT, it was the second college in the United States to initiate laboratory science instruction for undergraduates. In early 1896, Sarah Frances Whiting, the first professor of physics and astronomy, was among the first U.S. scientists to conduct experiments in X-rays.

The first president of Wellesley was Ada Howard. There have been thirteen more presidents in its history: Alice Elvira Freeman Palmer, Helen Almira Shafer, Julia Josephine Thomas Irvine, Caroline Hazard, Ellen Fitz Pendleton, Mildred H. McAfee (later Mildred McAfee Horton), Margaret Clapp, Ruth M. Adams, Barbara Warne Newell, Nannerl Overholser Keohane (later the president of Duke University from 1993 to 2004), Diana Chapman Walsh, H. Kim Bottomly, and current president Paula Johnson.

The original architecture of the college consisted of one very large building, College Hall, which was approximately  in length and five stories in height.  It was completed in 1875. The architect was Hammatt Billings. College Hall was both an academic building and a residential building. On March 17, 1914, it was destroyed by fire, the precise cause of which was never officially established. The fire was first noticed by students who lived on the fourth floor near the zoology laboratory. It has been suggested that an electrical or chemical accident in this laboratory—specifically, an electrical incubator used in the breeding of beetles—triggered the fire.

A group of residence halls known as the Tower Court complex is located on top of the hill where the old College Hall once stood.

After the loss of the Central College Hall in 1914, the college adopted a master plan in 1921 and expanded into several new buildings. The campus hosted a Naval Reserve Officer Training program during the Second World War, and the College President Mildred McAfee took a leave of absence to lead the Women's Reserve of the U.S. Navy. She received the Distinguished Service Medal in 1945. Wellesley College began to significantly revise its curriculum after the war and through the late 1960s; in 1968, the college began its exchange programs between other colleges in the area such as MIT. In 2013 the faculty adopted an open-access policy to make its scholarship publicly accessible online.

The school has admitted transgender, non-binary, and genderqueer students since adopting an inclusive admissions policy in 2015.

Campus

The  campus overlooks Lake Waban and includes evergreen, deciduous woodlands and open meadows. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., Boston's preeminent landscape architect at the beginning of the 20th century, described Wellesley's landscape as "not merely beautiful, but with a marked individual character not represented so far as I know on the ground of any other college in the country". He also wrote: "I must admit that the exceedingly intricate and complex topography and the peculiarly scattered arrangement of most of the buildings somewhat baffled me". The campus is adjacent to the privately owned Hunnewell Estates Historic District, the gardens of which can be viewed from the lake's edge on campus.

The original master plan for Wellesley's campus landscape was developed by Olmsted, Arthur Shurcliff, and Ralph Adams Cram in 1921. This landscape-based concept represented a break from the architecturally-defined courtyard and quadrangle campus arrangement that was typical of American campuses at the time. The  site's glaciated topography, a series of meadows, and native plant communities shaped the original layout of the campus, resulting in a campus architecture that is integrated into its landscape.

The campus offers multiple housing options, including Tower Court, which was built after College Hall burnt down, the Quad (Quint, including Munger), the "New Dorms", referring to the east-side dormitories erected in the 1950s, and multiple "Branch Halls", including both a Spanish and French-speaking house. In total, Wellesley offers 17 different residence halls for students to live in.

The most recent master plan for Wellesley College was completed in 1998 by Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates. According to the designers, this plan was intended to restore and recapture the original landscape character of the campus that had been partially lost as the campus evolved through the 20th century. In 2011, Wellesley was listed by Travel+Leisure as one of the most beautiful college campuses in the United States.

Wellesley is home to Green Hall, completed in 1931, the only building bearing the name of famed miser Hetty Green; the building was funded by her children. Part of the building is the Galen L. Stone Tower, housing a 32-bell carillon, which is routinely played between classes by members of the Guild of Carillonneurs.

Houghton Chapel was dedicated in 1899 in the center of the college campus.  The architectural firm of Heins & LaFarge designed Houghton of gray stone in the classic Latin cross floor plan. The exterior walls are pierced by stained glass windows. Window designers include Tiffany; John La Farge; Reynolds, Francis & Rohnstock; and Jeffrey Gibson.  The chapel can seat up to 750 people. Houghton is used by the college for a variety of religious and secular functions, like lectures and music concerts, and is also available for rental. The lower-level houses the Multifaith Center.

In 1905 Andrew Carnegie donated $125,000 to build what is now known as Clapp Library, on the condition that the college match the amount for an endowment.  The money was raised by 1907 and construction began June 5, 1909. In 1915 Carnegie gave another $95,446 towards an addition. This renovation added a recreational reading room, offices, archives, a reserve reading room, added space for rare books and additional stacks.  The building underwent renovations from 1956 to 1959, that doubled its size. From 1973 to 1975 a major addition was added to the right-hand side of the building.  In 1974 the building was renamed for Margaret Antoinette Clapp, a Pulitzer Prize-winning author and member of the 1930 class who served as the eighth college president from 1949 to 1966.

The Davis Museum, opened in 1993, was the first building in North America designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Rafael Moneo, whose notion of the museum as a "treasury" or "treasure chamber" informs its design.  The Davis is at the heart of the arts on the Wellesley campus adjacent to the academic quad and is connected by an enclosed bridge to the Jewett Arts Center, designed by Paul Rudolph. The collections span from ancient art from around the world to contemporary art exhibitions, and admission is free to the general public.

Administration

The current president of Wellesley College is Paula Johnson.  With a remarkable track record of accomplishments—she founded the Connors Center for Women's Health and Gender Biology at Brigham and Women's Hospital—she has led in the field of women's health, taking an interdisciplinary approach to biology by integrating insights from sociology, economics, and many other fields. Paula Johnson was the Grace A. Young Family Professor of Medicine in the Field of Women's Health at Harvard Medical School, as well as professor of epidemiology at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. Johnson succeeded H. Kim Bottomly to become Wellesley's 14th President in July 2016.

Wellesley's fund-raising campaign in 2005 set a record for liberal arts colleges with a total of $472.3 million, 18.1% more than the goal of $400 million. According to data compiled by The Chronicle of Higher Education, Wellesley's campaign total is the largest of any liberal arts college. In late 2015, the college launched another campaign, with a goal of $500 million. Many notable alumnae including Madeleine Albright, Hillary Clinton, Diane Sawyer, Susan Wagner, and Cokie Roberts collaborated on the campaign video and launch festivities. As of Fall 2017, over $446 million has been raised.

Wellesley Centers for Women
The Wellesley Centers for Women (WCW) is one of the largest gender-focused social science research-and-action organizations in the United States.  Located on and nearby the Wellesley College campus, WCW was established when the Center for Research on Women (founded 1974) and the Stone Center for Development Services and Studies at Wellesley College (founded 1981) merged into a single organization in 1995. It is home to several prominent American feminist scholars, including Jean Kilbourne and Peggy McIntosh. The current executive director of the Wellesley Centers for Women is Layli Maparyan. Since 1974, the Wellesley Centers for Women has produced over 200 scholarly articles and over 100 books.

The Wellesley Centers for Women has five key areas of research: education, economic security, mental health, youth and adolescent development, and gender-based violence.  WCW is also home to long-standing and highly successful action programs that engage in curriculum development and training, professional development, evaluation, field building, and theory building. Those programs include the National SEED Project, the National Institute on Out-of-School Time, Open Circle, the Jean Baker Miller Training Institute, and Women's Review of Books.

Academics

Wellesley's average class size is between 17 and 20 students, with a student-faculty ratio of 8:1. More than 50 departmental and interdepartmental majors are offered.

Wellesley offers support to nontraditional aged students through the Elisabeth Kaiser Davis Degree Program, open to students over the age of 24. The program allows women who, for various reasons, were unable to start or complete a bachelor's degree at a younger age to attend Wellesley.

Wellesley offers dual degree programs with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Olin College of Engineering, enabling students to receive a Bachelor of Science at those schools in addition to a Bachelor of Arts at Wellesley. Wellesley also has a joint 5-year BA/MA program with Brandeis University's International Business School, which allows qualified Wellesley students to receive a Masters of Arts degree from the school as well as a Bachelor of Arts at Wellesley.

Wellesley College offers research collaborations and cross-registration programs with other Boston-area institutions, including Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Babson College, Olin College, and Brandeis University.

Its most popular majors, based on 2021 graduates, were:
Econometrics and Quantitative Economics (80)
Computer and Information Sciences (42)
Research and Experimental Psychology (39)
Biology/Biological Sciences (36)
Neuroscience (34)
Political Science and Government (31)

Admissions

The 2020 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report categorizes admission to Wellesley as "most selective". For the Class of 2023 (enrolling fall 2019), the middle 50% range of SAT scores was 680–750 for evidence-based reading and 680–780 for math, while the middle 50% range for the ACT composite score was 31–34 for enrolled first-year students. For the incoming class of 2026, Wellesley received a record number of applications, totaling over 8,700 applications, and 13% of applicants were offered admission. The college is need-blind for domestic applicants.

Transgender applicants
The college's admissions policy was updated in 2015 to allow trans women and non-binary people assigned female at birth to be considered for admittance. While transgender and non-binary students have attended the college since its inception, media outlets recognize that the first Wellesley students who applied as out transgender women enrolled in Fall 2017.

Nontraditional age applicants
Wellesley began its program for non-traditional students in 1971 when the Continuing Education Program was launched. This program was renamed in 1991 for Elisabeth Kaiser Davis, a member of the Class of 1932. Wellesley allows applicants older than 24 who had begun but have not completed a bachelor's degree to apply to the Elizabeth Kaiser Davis Degree Program. Davis Scholars are fully integrated into the Wellesley community; they take the same classes as traditional students and can choose to live on campus. According to the Wellesley web site, Davis Scholars' "diverse backgrounds, experiences and perspectives enrich the lives of the whole student body."

Rankings

In its 2021 rankings of national liberal arts colleges in the U.S., U.S. News & World Report ranked Wellesley tied for fourth best overall, first for women's colleges, 13th for "best value", tied at 11th for "best undergraduate teaching", and tied at 63rd for "top performers on social mobility".

In 2020, Washington Monthly ranked Wellesley 13th among 218 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.

In addition, Forbes''' 2019 "America's Top Colleges" ranked the institution 44th among 650 U.S. colleges, service academies and universities. Wellesley College is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.

Student life
Approximately 98% of students live on campus. Some cooperative housing is available, including a sustainable living co-op, a feminist co-op, and a French language house located slightly off-campus. Wellesley offers housing for Davis Scholars as well, though not for their children or spouses, which is a point of frequent debate on campus.

For more than 50 years, Wellesley has offered a cross-registration program with MIT. Students can participate in research at MIT through the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP). In recent years, cross-registration opportunities have expanded to include nearby Babson College, Brandeis University, and Olin College of Engineering. To facilitate cross-registration, the Wellesley College Senate bus connects Wellesley to the Harvard University and MIT campuses in Cambridge, Massachusetts; additionally, the college also operates a shuttle to the Babson College and Olin College campuses. It is also a member of a number of exchange programs with other small colleges, including opportunities for students to study a year at Amherst, Connecticut College, Dartmouth, Mount Holyoke, Smith, Trinity, Vassar, Wesleyan, and Wheaton.

Organizations
The college has approximately 180 student organizations, ranging from cultural and political organizations to community service, publications, campus radio, and club sports.

WZLY is the college's campus radio station. It is entirely student-run and plays on 91.5 FM in the town of Wellesley and some surrounding areas. Founded in 1942, it holds claim to be the oldest still-running women's college radio station in the country.

Publications on campus include Counterpoint, the monthly journal of campus life; The Wellesley News, the campus newspaper; International Relations Council Journal, the internationally oriented campus publication; The Wellesley Review, the literary magazine; and W.Collective'', the fashion and lifestyle magazine.

Athletics

Wellesley fields 13 varsity sports teams – basketball, crew, cross country, fencing, field hockey, golf, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, and volleyball.  Wellesley does not have a mascot in the traditional sense – its sports teams are referred to both individually and collectively as "the Blue" (the school colors are royal blue and white). Wellesley is a member of the NCAA NCAA Division III and the Eastern Conference Athletic Conference (ECAC) and competes primarily as a member of the New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference (NEWMAC).

The Wellesley College Crew Team, affectionately known as "Blue Crew", was founded in 1970 and was the first women's intercollegiate rowing team in the country. In 2016, "Blue Crew" won the NCAA Division III Rowing Championship as a team for the first time in Wellesley history, with their first Varsity boat coming in first place and their second Varsity 8+ boat coming in second place. This historic win marked the first time a team from Wellesley College won a national championship, and also marked the first time a women's college won the NCAA Rowing Championships. In 2022, "Blue Crew" won the NCAA Division III Rowing Championship as a team for the second time in Wellesley history, with their first Varsity boat coming in second place and their second Varsity 8+ coming in second place. In 2023, Wellesley again won the NCAA Division III Rowing Championship as a team, with its first Varsity 8+ taking gold in the V8+ Grand Final and its second Varsity 8+ taking silver in the 2V8+ Grand Final.

Wellesley also fields club teams in archery, alpine & Nordic skiing, equestrian, ice hockey, rugby, sailing, squash, Ultimate Frisbee, and water polo. Squash was originally a varsity sport but was downgraded to a club sport status in 2017. In addition, there is a Quidditch team that competes with teams from other colleges and universities in the area.

From 1943 to 1946, Judy Atterbury won multiple national intercollegiate women's tennis championships in both singles (1943, 1946) and doubles (1943, 1944). Nadine Netter won the Eastern Women's College Tournament in 1962, and was the Eastern Intercollegiate Champion and New England Intercollegiate women's Tennis Championship winner in 1965.

Wellesley has won three team national championships (Blue Crew's win at the NCAA Championships in 2016, 2022, and 2023), three individual national championships, and two individual boat championships in its history.  In 1991, Karyn Cooper was the NCAA Tennis Singles Champion. In 2011, Randelle Boots was the NCAA Indoor Track & Field Champion in the mile. In 2015, Maura Sticco-Ivins was the NCAA National Champion in the three-meter diving competition and runner-up in the one-meter diving competition. Sticco-Ivins was named the 2015 NCAA Division III Diver of The Meet. Wellesley College Diving Coach Zach Lichter was voted the 2015 NCAA Division III Female Diving Coach of The Year. In 2022, Ari Marks won the NCAA DIII 10,000 Meter National Championship and the 5000 Meter NCAA DII National Championship. Marks was also named the 2022 NCAA Division III Women's Outdoor Track & Field National Track Athlete of the Year. In addition to these three individual champions, in 2016, Wellesley College's first Varsity 8+ boat became a national champion in its event at the NCAA Rowing Championships. Its first Varsity 8+ crew won gold again in 2023. Wellesley College Crew Team's head coach, Tessa Spillane, was voted the NCAA Division III Rowing Coach of The Year in 2010–11 and 2015-16. Additionally, Wellesley College Crew Team's coaching staff received the 2015-16 Division III National Coaching Staff of the Year award. In 2022, Wellesley College Crew Team's coaching staff were named the Collegiate Rowing Coaches Association NCAA Division III National Coach and Coaching Staff of the Year.

Traditions

Hoop rolling is an annual tradition at the college that dates to 1895. Each upperclasswoman has a wooden hoop, often passed down to her from her "big sister". Before graduation, the seniors, wearing their graduation robes, run a short race while rolling their hoops. In the early 20th century, the winner was said to be the first in her class to marry; in the 1980s, the winner was said to become the class's first CEO; and since the 1990 Commencement speech by then-First Lady Barbara Bush, the winner has been said to be the first to achieve success, however she defines it.

The Wellesley campus sits just before the halfway mark on the Boston Marathon course, and students come out to cheer runners in what has become known as the "Scream Tunnel". Student have been cheering on runners since the first running of the marathon. In 1966 the school heard word that a woman was running in the race and turned out in numbers in cheer her on.  Once women were officially allowed to register for the 1972 race, the campus cheer tradition became more popular.

Financial aid
In 2015, 58 percent of all Wellesley students received financial aid. In 2020–2021, the average annual aid offer was over $56,000. In February 2008, the college stopped offering financial-aid loans to students from families with incomes under $60,000, including international students and Davis Scholars, and it lowered the total amount of student loans by one-third (to a maximum of $8,600 total over four years) to students from families with incomes between $60,000 and $100,000. The maximum loan level for other students on aid is $12,825 total for four years.

Notable alumnae and faculty

Notable alumnae
Wellesley's alumnae are represented among business executives and also work in a variety of other fields, ranging from government and public service to the arts. They include the first woman to be named professor of clinical medicine Connie Guion, class of 1906; architect Ann Beha, class of 1972; author Harriet Stratemeyer Adams (author and publisher) class of 1914; astronomer Annie Jump Cannon, class of 1884; archaeologist Josephine Platner Shear, class of 1924; astronaut Pamela Melroy class of 1983; screenwriter Nora Ephron, class of 1962; composers Elizabeth Bell and Natalie Sleeth; and professor and songwriter Katharine Lee Bates. Journalists Callie Crossley, Diane Sawyer, Cokie Roberts, Lynn Sherr, and Michele Caruso-Cabrera also graduated from Wellesley as did Amalya Lyle Kearse, Judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Sandra Lynch, United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, and political scientist Jane Mansbridge, class of 1961. Rebecca Lancefield, a member of the National Academy of Sciences, graduated from Wellesley, as did Alice Ames Winter (B.A. 1886; M.A. 1889), president of the General Federation of Women's Clubs. Adaline Emerson Thompson, class of 1880, later served as a trustee for twenty years.

Both Madeleine Albright ('59), and Hillary Rodham Clinton ('69), have spoken about the formative impact their Wellesley experiences had on their careers. During her life, Secretary Albright returned annually to campus to lead the Madeleine Korbel Albright Institute for Global Affairs, a month-long pedagogical seminar where students learn more about global affairs through analysis and action. Additionally, three U.S. ambassadors (Julieta Valls Noyes, Anne Patterson, and Michele Sison) are Wellesley alumnae. Soong Mei-ling (also known as Madame Chiang Kai-shek), the former First Lady of China, graduated from Wellesley.

Other notable Wellesley graduates who have received the college's Alumnae Achievement Award include: Anna Medora Baetjer, class of 1920, public health expert, physiologist, toxicologist; Marian Burros '54, journalist, food writer; Sally Carrighar, class of 1922, writer, naturalist; Elyse Cherry '75, an entrepreneur, financial, and social equity activist; Suzanne Ciani '68, electronic music composer, recording artist; Phyllis Curtin '43, opera singer; Jocelyn Gill '38, astronomer; Marjory Stoneman Douglas, class of 1912, environmental activist, author; Persis Drell '77, particle physicist; Nora Ephron '62, writer and director; Helen Hays '53, ornithologist; Dorothea Jameson '42, psychologist; Jean Kilbourne '64, media educator; Judith Martin '59, (pen name Miss Manners) author; Nergis Mavalvala '90, a quantum astrophysicist; Lorraine O'Grady '55, conceptual artist and cultural critic; Santha Rama Rau '45, writer; Marilyn Yalom '54, historian, feminist scholar; and Patricia Zipprodt '46, costume designer.

Notable faculty

Notable Wellesley faculty include:

 Myrtilla Avery, art historian and a Monuments Men
 Emily Green Balch, economist and peace activist
 Katharine Lee Bates, poet, novelist, essayist
 Frank Bidart, poet
 Karl E. Case, economist
 Dan Chiasson, poet and writer
 Margaret Clapp, author
 Katharine Coman, economic historian
 Rose Laub Coser, sociologist
 Alona E. Evans, political scientist
 Jorge Guillén, poet and literary critic
 Charlotte Houtermans, physicist
 Grace E. Howard, botanist
 Jonathan B. Knudsen, historian
 Frances Lowater, physicist and astronomer
 Mary Kate McGowan, philosoher of language
 Peggy McIntosh, women's studies scholar
 Vladimir Nabokov, novelist
 Susan Mokotoff Reverby, Gender Studies professor
 Alan Schechter, political scientist
 Paul K. MacDonald, political scientist
 Adrian Piper, philosopher
 Helen L. Webster, philologist and educator
 Sarah Frances Whiting, physicist and astronomer

See also
Wellesley College Botanic Gardens
Wellesley College Tupelos
Women's colleges in the United States
 List of coordinate colleges

References

External links

 Wellesley College Athletics website

1875 establishments in Massachusetts
Universities and colleges established in 1875
Liberal arts colleges in Massachusetts
Seven Sister Colleges
Universities and colleges in Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Wellesley, Massachusetts
Women's universities and colleges in the United States
Private universities and colleges in Massachusetts
Need-blind educational institutions

Wellesley College


The Church of the Intercession of the Holy Mother of God of Kanaker ( (Kanakeri Surb Tiramor Rus Ughghap'ar Yekeghets'i), ), is an active Russian Orthodox church in the old area of Kanaker, Yerevan, Armenia.

History
The church was built in the village of Kanaker-since absorbed by Yerevan-7 kilometres north of the capital's old centre in 1912. Being part of the Yerevan Governorate of the Russian Empire, the church was built to serve the 2nd Caucasian division of the Russian troops deployed near Yerevan, which consisted mainly of Cossacks from Kuban and Poltava. It was designed by the Russian architect Fyodor Verzhbitsky after the fashion typical to military churches. Upon its inauguration, the church was named after Saint Alexander Nevsky.

During the Soviet period, the church was closed and turned into a warehouse, and was reopened with the independence of Armenia in 1991. It was entirely renovated in 2000. The centennial of the church's consecration was commemorated in October 2012, with representatives from the Russian Orthodox Church present.

Gallery

References

Churches completed in 1916
Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia
Russian Orthodox church buildings
Eastern Orthodox church buildings in Armenia
20th-century Eastern Orthodox church buildings
20th-century churches in Armenia


Weber v Ontario Hydro, [1995] 2 S.C.R. 929 is a leading decision of the Supreme Court of Canada where the Court held that a labour arbitration board was a "court of competent jurisdiction" within the meaning of section 24(1) of the Charter, and could grant declarations and damages. Consequently,  the board has exclusive jurisdiction over the matter, and so employees cannot bring suits concerning matters under a collective agreement to court.

Background
Murray Weber, an employee of Ontario Hydro, took a leave of absence due to a back injury. Ontario Hydro paid him sick benefits but after a time they became suspicious and hired a private investigator to spy on Weber. The investigators were able to gain access to Weber's home and found evidence showing that he was abusing the sick benefits.

In August 1989, Weber went to the union who then filed a grievance against Ontario Hydro claiming that the use of the private investigator violated the collective agreement.

While the arbitration was underway, Weber brought an action in court against Ontario Hydro for the torts of trespass, nuisance, deceit, and invasion of privacy, and for a violation of his Charter right to security under section 7 and privacy under section 8.

Ontario Hydro argued that the court could not hear Weber's action because the matter was in the jurisdiction of the arbitrator.

The motions judge struck down the action. He found that the action arose from the collective agreement and so the court did not have jurisdiction, moreover, it was a private dispute and so the Charter did not apply. The Court of Appeal upheld the decision, except held that the Charter claim was valid.

The question before the Court was whether the labour arbitrator had jurisdiction to grant remedies for Weber's claims.

Reasons of the court
Justice McLachlin, writing for the majority, held that the labour arbitrator had jurisdiction to grant the remedies and consequently, Weber could not bring an action in court.

McLachlin looked at the wording of the Ontario Labour Relations Act which gave the arbitrator exclusive authority to adjudicate over "all differences between the parties arising from the interpretation, application, administration or alleged violation of the agreement". She held that this meant that the arbitrator had jurisdiction over the subject matter which meant that the arbitrator necessarily had authority over remedies as well. Consequently, the arbitrator was a "court of competent jurisdiction" and had authority over Weber's claims.

See also
 List of Supreme Court of Canada cases (Lamer Court)

External links

summary of the case

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms case law
Supreme Court of Canada cases
Canadian labour case law
1995 in Canadian case law
Ontario Hydro
Jurisdiction
Canadian tribunals
Ontario law

Weber v Ontario Hydro


Håvard Fossum (born 7 June 1971 in Trondheim, Norway) is a Norwegian jazz musician (saxophone and flute), composer and arranger, situated in Oslo since January 2000. He is known from a series of recordings and cooperations with the likesog Tommy Dorsey, John Surman, Staffan William-Olsson, Jens Wendelboe, Anders Aarum and Jarle Vespestad.

Career
Fossum holds a Bachelor's degree from the Jazz program at Trondheim Musikkonservatorium (NTNU, 1989–92), and a Master's degree in Jazz Saxophone Performance from the Frost School of Music at the University of Miami in Florida. Here he studied composition and arranging with Ron Miller ("Modal Jazz Composing and Arranging, Vol I & Vol II") and Gary Lindsay ("Jazz Arranging Techniques"). Fossum was awarded a grant of US$16 000,- by the "Norge-Amerika Foreningen" to take this education. After finishing his music studies in 1998, Fossum worked as a freelance musician in Miami for a year. It may be mentioned that in February–March 1999 he joined the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra on tour for two months.

He was nominated for the Spellemannprisen 2007 in the class Jazz for the album F.A.Q. - Frequently Asked Questions, within the Fossum-Aarum Quartet. The band comprises his brother Jens Fossum (double bass), Anders Aarum (piano) and Jarle Vespestad (drums).

Fossum plays within several both big bands and smaller bands like Funky Butt, "The Sinatra Songbook", "Kaba Orchestra", Halvard Kausland/Helle Brunvoll Septet, "Cannonballs" (including Eckhard Baur), "The New Swing Generation", "Inge Stangvik Quintet", John Surman's "Rainbow Studio Band", Erling Wicklund's "Take Five", Marvin Charles, "Lars Erik Gudim's Big Band", Jens Wendelboe's "Crazy Energy Orchestra", "Norske Store Orkester For Jazz", "Sharp Nine" (Staffan William-Olsson), Børre Dalhaug's BigBandBlast! and "Bunch Of Chops". As a freelance musician he has been involved in many TV shows.

Fossum is also a well recognized arranger and composer, and has written scars on various television shows, like "Skal Vi Danse" and "Drømmerollen", theater, jazz ensembles, big band, concert band / wind band, choir, jazz ensemble and a variety of events and concerts. Especially in big band format, he has an extensive production with a significant number of original compositions for artists and bands like Heine Totland, "Forsvarets Musikkorps/storband", "Det Norske Blåseensemble", Bergen Big Band, Julie Dahle Aagård, "Ett Fett Storband", "Sandvika Big Band", "Store Norske Orkester For Jazz", Kjell Karlsen's Orchestra, "Lars Erik Gudim's Big Band" and "Trøndelag Teater".

In 2007 he presented "Fossum Experience" with  Julie Dahle Aagård as special guest, at the club "Herr Nilsen" in Oslo, and was saxophone soloist with Bill Champlin from the legendary band Chicago and Kringkastingsorkesteret (KORK) in 2010.

In 2011 he released the album Examination Of What within Håvard Fossum/Børge-Are Halvorsen Quartet, (including his brother Jens and Håkon Mjåset Johansen.

Discography

Within the Fossum-Aarum Quartet
2006: F.A.Q. - Frequently Asked Questions, within the Fossum-Aarum Quartet (Schmell Records)

Within Håvard Fossum/Børge-Are Halvorsen Quartet
2011: Examination Of What (Losen Records), with Børge-Are Halvorsen

Other projects
1993: Gi Akt! (Sonet), within H.M. the King's Guard Band as arranger & leader
2009: Red (Ozella), with Randi Tytingvåg
2011: The Rainbow Band Sessions (Losen Records), with John Surman's Rainbow Band

References

1971 births
Living people
Musicians from Trondheim
Avant-garde jazz musicians
Norwegian University of Science and Technology alumni
Norwegian jazz saxophonists
Norwegian jazz composers
Losen Records artists
21st-century Norwegian saxophonists
Ensemble Denada members

Håvard Fossum


Lady Antonia Margaret Caroline Fraser CH DBE (née Pakenham; born 27 August 1932) is a British historian and author. She is best known for history books, biographies and detective stories.

Lady Antonia was the daughter of the 7th Earl and Countess of Longford. She was married to Hugh Fraser from 1956 until their divorce in 1977. She was then married to the playwright Harold Pinter from 1980 until his death in 2008. She attended the University of Oxford. Her first major book - a biography of Mary, Queen of Scots was published in 1969.

She was awarded a damehood in 2011 and was made a Companion of Honour in 2018.

1932 births
Living people
English historians

Antonia Fraser


Kourtney Kardashian Barker (born Kourtney Mary Kardashian, April 18, 1979) is an American media personality and socialite. In 2007, she and her family began starring in the reality television series Keeping Up with the Kardashians. Its success led to the creation of spin-offs including Kourtney and Khloé Take Miami and Kourtney and Kim Take New York. After she and her family made the decision to end their show after 20 seasons in 2021, they began appearing in an all new reality television series titled The Kardashians on Hulu in 2022.

With sisters Kim and Khloé, Kardashian is involved in the retail and fashion industries. They have launched several clothing collections and fragrances, and additionally released the book Kardashian Konfidential in 2010. Kourtney launched her own website called Poosh in early 2019.

Kardashian and her siblings are popular on social media and endorse products such as waist slimming pants, beauty products, Coca-Cola, and prescription drugs, for which they are paid (as of 2016) between $75,000 and $300,000 per post on Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter.

Early life
Kourtney Mary Kardashian was born in Los Angeles, California, on April 18, 1979, to Robert Kardashian and Kris (née Houghton). She has two younger sisters, Kim and Khloé, and a younger brother, Rob. In 1991, her parents divorced and her mother married Bruce Jenner, the 1976 Summer Olympics decathlon winner (in 2015, Jenner changed her name to Caitlyn), later that year. Through their marriage, Kardashian gained stepbrothers Burton "Burt", Brandon, and Brody; stepsister Casey; and later half-sisters Kendall and Kylie.

Kardashian attended Marymount High School, a Roman Catholic all-girls school in Los Angeles. Following graduation, she moved to Dallas, Texas, to attend Southern Methodist University for two years. Kardashian then lived in Tucson, Arizona, where she graduated from the University of Arizona with a bachelor's degree in Theatre Arts and a minor in Spanish. Her classmates included Nicole Richie and Luke Walton. In 1994, her father garnered public attention as an additional defense lawyer for football player O. J. Simpson during his murder trial.

Career

2005–2010: Career beginnings and international recognition
Kardashian first became known to reality-television audiences on the 2005 series, Filthy Rich: Cattle Drive, on which she earned money for charity. In February 2007, a sex tape made by her sister Kim and former boyfriend Ray J in 2003, Kim Kardashian, Superstar, was leaked, which largely contributed to her rise to prominence. Later that year, Kardashian's mother, Kris Jenner met with Ryan Seacrest to pursue a reality television show based on her family. Seacrest, who had his own production company, decided to develop the idea, having the popular family-based show The Osbournes in his mind. The show eventually was picked up to air on the E! cable network, with Kardashian's mother acting as the executive producer. The series debuted on October 14, 2007 and revolved around Kardashian, along with her parents, mother Kris and stepfather Bruce (now Caitlyn) as well as her siblings Kim, Khloé, Kendall, Kylie and Rob. The title of their reality television series Keeping Up with the Kardashians, and it chronicles the personal and professional lives of their family members. The series proved successful for E!, the network on which it is broadcast, and led to several spin-offs.

In April 2009, Kardashian and her sister Khloe announced that they were contracted to star in a spin-off that would follow their move to launch a D-A-S-H store in Miami, Florida. The series, Kourtney and Khloé Take Miami, debuted on E! on August 16, 2009. Kardashian and her sisters Kim and Khloe made a cameo appearance in the Season 3 premiere of the series 90210.

Kardashian and her mother opened children's clothing boutiques called Smooch in the Los Angeles area and New York City; the boutiques carry the brand Crib Rock Couture. With sisters Kim and Khloe, Kardashian co-owned D-A-S-H, a clothing boutique in Los Angeles, Miami, New York City, and a pop-up store in the Hamptons. It shut in May 2018.

In the spring of 2010, Kardashian and her sisters released a clothing line for Bebe. In August 2010, Kardashian announced that she and her sisters were working on another clothing line called K-Dash, sold on QVC. Later that year, they also created a sunless tanner called Kardashian Glamour Tan. Kardashian co-wrote the book Kardashian Konfidential with her sisters Khloe and Kim; released in November 2010.

2011–2018: Television and other ventures
In January 2011, Kardashian and her younger sister Kim appeared as the central cast members in Kourtney and Kim Take New York, alongside her partner Scott Disick and Kim's then-husband Kris Humphries. Later that year, the show was renewed for a second season, which premiered in November 2011.

Kardashian made her acting debut with a guest appearance on the ABC soap One Life to Live on March 28, 2011, appearing as attorney Kassandra Kavanaugh. In November 2011 she released a novel Dollhouse along with sisters Khloe and Kim.

The Kardashian sisters were spokeswomen for the diet supplement Quick Trim. In March 2012 the three sisters were named in a $5 million class-action lawsuit against QuickTrim. The complaint, filed in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, accused the Kardashians, along with QuickTrim's manufacturer Windmill Health Products; the retailer GNC; and others in the sales and marketing chain, of false and deceptive marketing. The plaintiffs, from several states, brought claims under their respective states' consumer protection laws.

Kardashian also represents the skincare line PerfectSkin with her sisters, which was developed by Dr. Ron DiSalvo for Perfect Science Labs. The three sisters also released a 20-piece collection of jewelry line for the company Virgins, Saints, and Angels, in March 2010. The jewelry is reflective of their partial Armenian background.

On March 26, 2014, E! announced a Keeping Up with the Kardashians spin-off series titled Kourtney & Khloé Take the Hamptons. The Hamptons follows Kourtney, Khloé, and Scott Disick as they relocate to The Hamptons while the girls work on the New York Dash store plus open a pop-up store.

In 2017, Kardashian launched her first solo fashion line as part of a collaboration with the site PrettyLittleThing. According to the website, the 32-piece line was inspired by Studio 54, classical Hollywood cinema, and the 1970s. She endorsed Calvin Klein along with her sisters in 2018. In the same year, she partnered with half-sister Kylie to launch a collection of lipsticks and palettes with Kylie Cosmetics.

2019–present: Business and continued television success

On March 5, 2019, Kardashian released her lifestyle website named Poosh. In November 2019, Kardashian partnered with her sisters Kim and Khloé to create three new perfumes (one for each sister) for Kim's brand KKW Fragrance. The collection introduces Yellow Diamond (Kourtney's fragrance), Pink Diamond (Khloé's fragrance) and pure Diamond (Kim's fragrance). Each scent is individually inspired by and unique to her, Kim, and Khloé.

In 2021, Kardashian and her family announced that their reality show, Keeping Up With the Kardashians, would be ending after twenty seasons and almost 15 years on air.

On 12 September 2022, Kardashian announced the launch of her new health brand Lemme, which started selling three products. The brand specialises in vitamins and gummy supplements.

In April 2022, Kardashian and her family returned to the television screens with their brand new reality television show, titled The Kardashians, after they left the E! Network to join Hulu. The show features Kardashian, alongside her sisters Kim, Khloe Kendall and Kylie, and mother Kris Jenner, it also features Kardashian's ex Scott Disick, as well as her husband Travis Barker, other current and former partners that also appear in the show include Tristan Thompson, and Corey Gamble, with Kanye West making a guest appearance. The first season premiered on 14 April 2022, and its ten episodes can be streamed exclusively on Disney+. Later in 2022, the show was announced to be returning for a second season, which officially premiered on 22 September 2022. In late 2022, it was announced that the show had been officially renewed for a third season, set to premier in the first half of 2023. The third season officially aired on 25 May 2023.

Personal life
In October 2019, Kardashian and her children were baptized in an Armenian Apostolic ceremony at the Etchmiadzin Cathedral in Vagharshapat, Armenia. During the ceremony, she was christened with the Armenian name Gayane.

In October 2020, Kardashian posted messages and retweets in support of Armenia and Artsakh in regards to the Nagorno-Karabakh war.

Relationships and children
From 2006 to 2015, Kardashian was in an on-again, off-again relationship with Scott Disick. Kardashian has three children with Disick: two sons and one daughter.

Kardashian and Disick's relationship was featured on Keeping Up With the Kardashians and its numerous spin offs. Kardashian's pregnancies and the births of all three of her children were also featured on the show.

Kardashian was in another on-again, off-again relationship with model Younes Bendjima from 2016 to 2020.

In January 2021, it was confirmed that Kardashian was in a relationship with musician Travis Barker. In October 2021, Kardashian and Barker got engaged after he proposed to her at a beachside hotel in Montecito, California. They had an unofficial wedding on April 3, 2022, in Las Vegas, after the 64th Annual Grammy Awards. The couple officially married on May 15, 2022, in Santa Barbara, California, with a religious wedding ceremony in Portofino, Italy on May 22, 2022. On June 17, 2023, Kardashian announced at a Blink-182 concert that she is pregnant with the couple's first child together.

Filmography

As actress

As herself

Written works

Notes

References

External links

1979 births
American people of Armenian descent
American people of Dutch descent
American people of English descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American socialites
American Oriental Orthodox Christians
Armenian Apostolic Christians
Kourtney
Living people
Participants in American reality television series
Southern Methodist University alumni
University of Arizona alumni
American women in business

Kourtney Kardashian


Local elections were held in Norway on 14 September 2015. Voters elected representatives to municipal and county councils, which are responsible for education, public transport, health, and elderly care, and for the levy of certain taxes. The Labour Party became the largest party, gaining 33% of the vote, while the nationally governing Conservative and Progress parties suffered losses relative to their performances in the 2013 parliamentary and 2011 local elections.

Term of office was 1 January 2016 until 31 December 2019.

The results meant that the Conservatives were set to lose control of Norway's two most populous cities, Oslo and Bergen.

In Tromsø the Red Party garnered a record 14.4% of the votes. They formed a majority along with the Labour Party and the Socialist Left Party, and chose to phase out the local parliamentary system.

Results

Municipal

County councils

References

External links
 NRK: Valgresultater (election results) 2015 (in Norwegian)

2015
2015
2015 elections in Europe
2015 in Norway
September 2015 events in Europe

2015 Norwegian local elections


Jacob the Mutant is a novella by the Mexican writer Mario Bellatin. The novella takes the form of an exegesis meant to interpret The Border, a lost text by the Austrian novelist Joseph Roth. Organized as a set of fragmentary manuscripts from The Border, the story initially chronicles events in the life of Jacob Pliniak, an Eastern European rabbi and owner of a roadside tavern. As he flees a pogrom and resettles in the United States, reality shifts and so does Jacob. He mutates quite suddenly into a woman, while the novella transforms into another story altogether.

The novella's prose shifts constantly between this "found" material from The Border, a secondhand account of the recovered manuscript of The Border, and exegetic commentary on the text of The Border. Joseph Roth did write a text called Die Grenze (The Border). The work appeared in 1919 and belonged to Roth's journalistic production and has little to do with what Bellatin describes in Jacob the Mutant. Therefore, the novella operates as a work of fictionalized literary historiography.

The first Spanish-language edition was published by Alfaguara in Mexico in 2002. In 2015, an English translation by Jacob Steinberg was published by Phoneme Media.

References

Novellas
Mexican novels
Joseph Roth
Novels about novels
Novels about rabbis
Novels set in Europe
2002 novels
Alfaguara books

Jacob the Mutant


Araby (Portuguese:Arábia) is a 2017 Brazilian drama film, directed by João Dumans and Affonso Uchoa. The film was produced by Vitor Graize through Katásia Filmes, and Vasto Mundo. The film stars Murilo Caliari in the lead role alongside Aristides de Sousa, Renata Cabral, and Renan Rovida. The film premiered in 2017 at the International Film Festival Rotterdam.

Plot
Sent on an errand by his aunt, Andre (Murilo Caliari) finds a notebook of a factory worker, Cristiano (Aristides de Sousa), who has been seriously injured. The notebook reveals a handwritten memoir of Cristiano's travels over the last decade. Through this memoir, Cristiano reveals his life as a drifter, and the various people, places, and experiences he encounters along the way.

Cast

 Murilo Caliari as Andre
 Aristides de Sousa as Cristiano
 Renata Cabral as Ana
 Renan Rovida as Renan

Reception

Critical response
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 93% based on 27 reviews, and an average rating of 7.58. The website's critical consensus reads, "Araby peers unflinchingly into the gloom of its characters' lives to tell an undeniably grim story that builds to a poignantly affecting conclusion." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 82 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "Universal acclaim".

Robert Abele of Los Angeles Times  wrote "It's become a hallmark of the documentary/fiction hybrid that the realism on display feels both lived-in and poetic, and that's in De Sousa's face as well, which — like the obliquely titled "Araby" as it shuffles along to its unexpected, reflective conclusion — always registers a powerful synthesis of sensitivity and weariness."Glenn Kenny of The New York Times wrote, " ...thanks to Mr. de Sousa's superb performance, the movie often convincingly portrays not just the exploited condition of laborers such as Cristiano, but the nagging sadness of life itself."

References

External links

2017 films
2010s Portuguese-language films
Brazilian drama films
2017 drama films

Araby (2017 film)


Hazan, Chazan, Chasen, Hasson, and Khazan are all alternative spellings of Hazzan, a Hebrew word carried over into most other Jewish languages that refers to the cantor in the Jewish prayer tradition. The surname was commonly adopted throughout the Jewish diaspora. See also Hassan (surname).

Khazan is a Russian, Ukrainian, and Ashkenazi Jewish surname, and is a variant of the Hebrew 'Hazzan' and means cantor. When spelled Khazan, the name has typically been transliterated from Cyrillic characters (Хазан), suggesting people of Russian-Jewish descent.

Hazan is a Turkish and Romaniote Jewish surname, and is a variant of the Hebrew 'Hazzan' and means cantor. This variant is carried by the Romaniote Jews between Greece and Turkey.

People with the name Hazan include:

Abraham Chazan (1849–1917), Breslover rabbi
Adeline Hazan (born 1965), French politician
Al Hazan, American musician
Alon Hazan (born 1967), Israeli former association footballer, and head coach of the Israel national under-21 football team
John Hazan (1926–1988), British judge
Marcella Hazan (1924–2013), Italian writer
Nachman Chazan (1813–1884), Breslover rabbi
Naomi Hazan (born 1946), Israeli politician
Oren Hazan (born 1981), Israeli politician
Samuel Hazan (born 1983), Israeli footballer
Susan Hazan, Israeli museum curator
Shani Hazan (born 1992), Israeli model, singer, and Miss Israel 2012
Yaakov Hazan (1899–1992), Israeli politician
Yehiel Hazan (born 1958), Israeli politician

See also
Hazan, EMI recording name for Nazia and Zoheb 1980s Pakistan singers, The Hassans

References

Hebrew-language surnames
Surnames of Jewish origin

Ḥazzan (surname)


Sabrina the Teenage Witch is an American television sitcom created by Nell Scovell, based on the Archie Comics series of the same name. It premiered on September 27, 1996, on ABC to over 17 million viewers in its "T.G.I.F." lineup.

It stars Melissa Joan Hart as American teenager Sabrina Spellman, who, on her 16th birthday, learns she has magical powers (a departure from the Archie Comics series, in which she has known of her powers since an early age). She lives with her 600-year-old aunts, witches Hilda (played by Caroline Rhea) and Zelda (played by Beth Broderick), and their magical talking cat Salem (voiced by Nick Bakay), at 133 Collins Road in the fictional town of Westbridge, Massachusetts in the Greater Boston area.

The series aired on ABC for its first four seasons, with the final episode on the network on May 5, 2000. The final three seasons ran on The WB from September 22, 2000, to April 24, 2003.

Plot and premise
The show chronicles the adventures of Sabrina Spellman (played by Melissa Joan Hart), a girl who discovers on her 16th birthday that she is a witch. As a novice witch, her spells often go awry. Her witch aunts Hilda and Zelda Spellman (played by Caroline Rhea and Beth Broderick, respectively, until 2002) counsel her on the proper use of her magic and give her moral advice. Additionally, Hilda and Zelda must take care of Salem Saberhagen (voiced by Nick Bakay), a witch turned into a cat for trying to take over the world. Sabrina'''s basic premise and "genial loopiness" earned the show comparisons to the 1960s television series Bewitched.

The show included contemporary pop cultural references, with Sabrina often saying that she liked Britney Spears and No Doubt. It also mentioned human history alongside witch history, such as the Salem witch hunt, which Zelda tells Sabrina was not a hunt for real witches. Hilda mentions to Sabrina in Episode 1 that "for two months a bunny ruled all of England," causing the witches' council to turn back time, as if to say that mortals are ignorant at best. One episode also suggests that Jerry Springer is a witch when he hosts The Jerry Springer Show in the other realm.

While in the animated comic book series the story is set in the fictional town of Greendale, the television show is set in the fictional Boston suburb of Westbridge, Massachusetts.

The show spanned seven years over seven seasons, though each season was not a year.

Season 1 (1996–1997)
The pilot episode opens with Sabrina asleep on her 16th birthday, levitating above her bed. In the morning, her aunts reveal to her that she is a witch, but Sabrina does not believe them until she has a magical talk with her father from inside a book and her father reveals that he is a witch and Sabrina's mother is mortal. It is also revealed that Sabrina cannot see her mother (living in Peru) or the latter will be permanently transformed into a ball of wax.

After a rough day at school, Sabrina accidentally turns Libby Chessler, the most popular but also the meanest girl in school, into a pineapple. Fearing that she will appear "weird" to her crush, Harvey Kinkle, Sabrina asks the witches' council to let her relive the day. The first season follows Sabrina as she tries to keep the balance between being a teenager and possessing magical powers. Sabrina's friend Jenny Kelley and her teacher, Mr. Pool, both exit the series without explanation after the first season.

Season 2 (1997–1998)

At the beginning of the second season, Sabrina turns 17 and learns that she must earn her witch's license or otherwise lose her magic abilities. However, she neglects her aunts' warnings to study for the license test and consequently fails it. Sabrina then must attend witch boot camp before she can take a makeup test, which she passes, though she only receives a learner's permit. Her aunts explain that she will be able to earn her license when she turns 18 ("when she can pay for the insurance") and that she will be tested throughout the year by a Quizmaster, Albert (Alimi Ballard), a witch who instructs other witches earning their licenses. Also introduced during the season are Sabrina's neurotic friend Valerie and the new school vice principal, Mr. Kraft, who finds Sabrina to be very odd and has a crush on Hilda.

Season 3 (1998–1999)
At the beginning of the third season, Sabrina earns her license, but learns that in order to use it, she must solve her family's secret. Throughout the season, family members visit her and provide clues. At the end of the season, she solves the family secret, that every member of the Spellman family is born with a twin. The season ends with Sabrina finally being granted her license.

Season 4 (1999–2000)
The fourth season begins with the news that Valerie has moved away while Libby has gone to boarding school. As one of the conditions for her witch's licence Sabrina is assigned to be a mentor, which is similar to a Quizmaster, except that Quizmasters are paid. Sabrina's charge is Dreama, a witch newly immigrated from the Other Realm. A new student, Brad Alcero, who is also Harvey's best friend, transfers to Sabrina's school. Because Brad has a witch-hunter gene (which allows him to turn a witch into a mouse if the witch reveals his/her magic), he takes an instant dislike to Sabrina who must keep herself and Dreama from using magic in front of Brad.

Sabrina begins working at Bean There, Brewed That, a coffee shop, where Sabrina meets and is attracted to Josh (played by David Lascher), a college student and manager of the shop. After she kisses Josh, Harvey breaks up with her, though they soon get back together. Both Dreama and Brad are written out of the series without explanation over the course of the season. At the end of the season, Harvey reaches his "spell quota" meaning that no more spells may be used on him and rendering him immune to a memory spell that was recently placed on him. The season ends with Harvey confronting Sabrina over the fact she is a witch.

Season 5 (2000–2001)
At the beginning of the fifth season, Sabrina starts college at Adams College and moves out of her aunts' house and into a house with other students at Adams. It is revealed that Harvey broke up with Sabrina following the revelation she was a witch and went to college elsewhere, although he later calls her to make amends. Sabrina's roommates are Morgan Cavanaugh, a shallow girl (played by Elisa Donovan), Roxie King (played by Soleil Moon Frye), a social feminist and Miles Goodman (played by Trevor Lissauer), a geek who is obsessed with science fiction and the paranormal. Hilda and Zelda, feeling lonely without Sabrina, find ways to stay close to her. Hilda buys the coffee shop where Sabrina works and Zelda becomes a professor at Adams and starts dating Sabrina's English professor. The season ends with Sabrina and Josh giving into their feelings and sharing a passionate kiss.

Season 6 (2001–2002)
At the beginning of the sixth season, Josh and Sabrina get together but soon face a tough decision when Josh is tempted to move abroad to work as a photographer. More complications ensue when Harvey reappears, this time dating Morgan. At the end of the season, Sabrina sacrifices true love to save Hilda after Sabrina sabotages her relationship. Hilda recovers and is married, but Sabrina is crushed when Josh, Harvey and an attractive waiter announce they are all moving away and will never see her again. The season ends on a cliffhanger as Sabrina turns to stone and falls to pieces.

Season 7 (2002–2003)
At the beginning of the seventh and final season, Sabrina is put back together after Zelda sacrifices her adult years to save Sabrina. Zelda and Hilda move to the Other Realm while Sabrina moves back into the house along with Morgan and Roxie (Miles simply disappears between seasons without explanation). Sabrina gets a job as a writer for the entertainment magazine Scorch, but this storyline and all of its associated characters are dropped midway through the season. Sabrina then meets Aaron, the man to whom she becomes engaged. In the series finale, Sabrina calls off her wedding with Aaron and runs off with her soulmate Harvey at 12:36 p.m., the time of day when they had first met (a plot point in the Season 1 episode "As Westbridge Turns"). In the last scene of the series, Sabrina and Harvey ride off on his motorcycle to the song "Running" by No Doubt, Sabrina's favorite band.

Cast and characters

 Melissa Joan Hart as Sabrina Spellman, a teenager who discovers on her sixteenth birthday that she is a witch and comes from a long line of witches. As she struggles to master her magic, she often wreaks havoc on those around her. Sabrina moved into her college's dormitories at the beginning of the fifth season and then back into her aunts' house in the seventh season after they left for the Other Realm.
 Caroline Rhea as Hilda Spellman (seasons 1–6, guest season 7), one of the Spellman sisters. Hilda is the less rational and the more impulsive one. After giving up violin in the fourth season (she destroyed her violin with dynamite), Hilda purchased a clock shop. Later, after Sabrina moved out of the house, she purchased Bean There, Brewed That, the coffee shop where Sabrina worked, and renamed it Hilda's Coffee House. After her marriage at the end of the sixth season, she moved away with her husband. Hilda returned for the series finale. Her middle name, 'Sucker', is revealed in season 6, although her middle name was Antoinette in season 2. In the second episode of season 4, Hilda states that she is 620 years old. However, in episode 12 of season 5 Sabrina mentions she's about to celebrate her 650th birthday.
 Beth Broderick as Zelda Spellman (seasons 1–6, guest season 7), Sabrina's aunt and Hilda's older sister. Zelda, a scientist and college professor, is the more rational of the two Spellman sisters and is often the voice of reason when Hilda or Sabrina uses magic irresponsibly. At the end of the sixth season she gives up her maturity in order for Sabrina to be changed back to flesh and blood after being turned into stone when she lost her true loves. Sabrina advises a now child Zelda to leave for the other realm with a newly married Hilda, ensuring her that she is okay to live on her own. Zelda makes an appearance as a candle in the last episode to allow Sabrina's mother to attend Sabrina's wedding. In episode 6 of season 6 Hilda states that Zelda is 658 years old.
 Nick Bakay as Salem Saberhagen [Voice], a 500-year-old witch who was sentenced to live 100 years as a talking, black American Shorthair cat for plotting to take over the world. Besides Sabrina herself, he is the only character to remain for the entire seven seasons, appearing in every episode alongside her.
 Nate Richert as Harvey Kinkle (seasons 1–4 and 6 & 7, cameos in season 5), Sabrina's boyfriend in the first four seasons. He breaks up with her when he finds out she is a witch. Amanda, Sabrina's cousin, tells him about Sabrina getting married and gives him his soul stone. He arrives at the church on his bike as Sabrina is running out. He is revealed to be her soul mate because their soul stones fit together. In the end, Sabrina leaves Aaron at the altar. Then Harvey and Sabrina run off together after they share a final kiss with Sabrina's favorite band, No Doubt, playing in the background as the closing theme.
 Jenna Leigh Green as Libby Chessler (seasons 1–3), Sabrina's arch-enemy while at high school. Libby is a spoiled rich girl and is often at the other end of Sabrina's spells as she learns to use them, leading Libby to often call Sabrina a "Freak" or "Freakster". Libby, a cheerleader, is seen to fancy Sabrina's love interest, Harvey, and makes many attempts to ask him out. Libby was sent to boarding school following the end of season 3.
 Michelle Beaudoin as Jenny Kelley (season 1), Sabrina's best friend during high school in the first season. Jenny befriended Sabrina on her first day, and also introduced Sabrina to Harvey. Jenny walked into the closet at the Spellman house and ended up in the Other Realm, where Sabrina and her aunts had to rescue her and make it out as a dream. Jenny is absent from the second season onwards without explanation, and is never mentioned again.
 Paul Feig as Mr. Eugene Pool (season 1), Sabrina's favorite teacher who teaches Biology during the first season. He was sometimes bitter and sarcastic, but always interesting and usually lively. Mr. Pool is not mentioned after season 1.
 Lindsay Sloane as Valerie Birkhead (seasons 2 & 3), Sabrina's best friend from the second season. She comes across as dim but it becomes apparent that she suffers from self-doubt when Sabrina casts a spell on her that backfired, making her overconfident and careless. She discovers that Sabrina is a witch after Sabrina tells her and Harvey on Friday the 13th. Valerie left to move to Alaska with her parents at the start of season 4.
 Martin Mull as Willard Kraft (seasons 2–4), the vice principal, and later principal, of Westbridge High, Sabrina's high school, and the on/off boyfriend of both Hilda and Zelda. Hilda mentions that she and Zelda have stopped using magic on Willard, as it is starting to affect his mental state. This is also mentioned at the Jerry Springer Show when Zelda and Willard's ex-wife Lucy (who is a witch, unbeknownst to him) fight for his affections. In an adaption to the lie detector test, they performed the potion detector test showing he had extremely high amounts of magic in his system. The character left the series after season 4.
 Alimi Ballard as Quizmaster (season 2), also known as Albert, is Sabrina's tutor who helps teach her to use her magic properly to acquire her witch's license. As Sabrina gained her license in the first episode of season 3, the character's last appearance was in the last episode of season 2.
 David Lascher as Josh Blackhart (seasons 4–6), Sabrina's handsome co-worker in the Coffee Shop and later, love interest. Josh struggles with his career throughout his first two seasons, until he decides he wants to be a photographer. His relationship with Sabrina is much less consistent than that of her and Harvey. They often have problems to overcome. In the end, he leaves for Prague after Sabrina gives up her love life to save Hilda's life.
 Jon Huertas as Brad Alcerro (season 4), the new kid in school, but used to attend Westbridge High, before Sabrina went to that school. Brad is a witch hunter but doesn't know it. Sabrina tries to stay away from him, but every time she is in school and uses magic, Brad always sees it. In the episode "Dreama, the Mouse", Dreama makes a water fountain appear, Brad sees and says "You know, sometimes I think you're a real witch" and then Dreama turns into a mouse. In that same episode Brad loses his witch hunter gene through an operation. That is when Sabrina realized that he's just a jerk and now she can use magic on him.
 China Shavers as Dreama (season 4), the new kid in school, who causes a lot of trouble because she uses magic. She later turns out to be Sabrina's student. Sabrina has to teach Dreama how to control her magic. At the end of season 4 and the beginning of season 5, she is not mentioned and we don't know if she passed her test to get her witch's license.
 Soleil Moon Frye as Roxie King (seasons 5–7), Sabrina's mortal roommate during her college years and remains a very close friend to her after their graduation. An activist with a very cynical humor, her opinion often clashes with Sabrina's more preppy attitude towards life. Later, both seem to have an effect on each other, as Roxie grows to be much more honest and compassionate, while Sabrina matures and becomes more socially conscious.
 Elisa Donovan as Morgan Cavanaugh (seasons 5–7), Sabrina's third and final housemate, as well as her tutor, during her college years. Morgan is a talented fashion designer and a very good friend, but can also be shallow and even mischievous at times. She's the only known character who dated both of Sabrina's long term romantic interests (Harvey and Josh) as well as expressed interest in her fiancé, Aaron.
 Trevor Lissauer as Miles Goodman (seasons 5 & 6), Sabrina's housemate during her college years though, unlike Roxie and Morgan, he's never seen nor mentioned after the graduation. Miles is a goodhearted, but nerdy boy obsessed with all things supernatural. Miles often comes close to discovering Sabrina's secret. Throughout the series, he develops a crush on Zelda, and is hinted to harbor similar feelings for Sabrina and Roxie.

History and production

The unofficial pilot of the series was the April 1996 television movie Sabrina the Teenage Witch. The movie, produced by Viacom and Hartbreak Films and aired on Showtime, starred Melissa Joan Hart as the title character, Sabrina Sawyer, and Charlene Fernetz and Sherry Miller as Sabrina's aunts Zelda and Hilda, respectively. When the television series debuted on ABC later that year, Hart became Sabrina Spellman, and Beth Broderick and Caroline Rhea replaced Fernetz and Miller as Zelda and Hilda Spellman, respectively. In 2000, the show was dropped by ABC and picked up by The WB. When viewership began to wane, the show was canceled after seven seasons.

The television series was produced by Hartbreak Films and Viacom Productions, with Finishing the Hat Productions involved for the first season only.

Opening sequence
The opening titles of the first three seasons show Sabrina in front of a mirror posing with four different costumes and outfits as the cast members' names quickly flash on the bottom of the screen. The first three outfits are always the same, but the fourth one changes from episode to episode. At the end, Sabrina would say something related to the last costume (often a pun or a joke related to the costume or the content of the episode), and then magically disappear from head on down.

The opening sequence was changed for the fourth season, featuring a completely new theme and the show's main characters, starting with Sabrina, floating in bubbles while their names are displayed in gold letters and a voice chants "Secret" in the background.

The opening credits for the final three seasons are accompanied by a new vocal theme song and feature Sabrina at various locations around Boston: Harvard Bridge, Boston Common, Union Oyster House, Massachusetts State House, Quincy Market, Newbury Street, Harvard University, Tufts University and Beacon Hill. In the credits for Seasons 5 and 6, after leaving Newbury Comics on Newbury Street, Sabrina walks down a flight of stairs and computer graphics morph Sabrina into her room, lying on her bed next to Salem. In the seventh and final season, the computer graphics morph Sabrina arriving at Scorch. Upon pushing the door open, she is revealed to be walking into her house to greet Roxie, Morgan and Salem.

The house pictured as the Spellman residence is a Victorian mansion located at 64 E. Main St. in Freehold, New Jersey. The exteriors for Westbridge High School are those of Dwight Morrow High School in Englewood, New Jersey.

Departures
The show went through many cast changes, the first of which involved the unexplained departure of Sabrina's best friend Jenny Kelly (Michelle Beaudoin) and her teacher Mr. Pool (Paul Feig) at the end of the first season.

At the beginning of the fourth season, Valerie permanently departs the show along with Libby. Valerie's character moves away to Alaska with her family, while Libby transfers to a boarding school.

After the fourth season, several secondary actors left the show, including Martin Mull and Nate Richert, who played Sabrina's boyfriend Harvey since the first season. Harvey's character was dropped in order to give the show a different look as Sabrina was about to attend college. The decision was later rescinded, and Richert appeared in three episodes of Season 5 and then returned as a series regular in Seasons 6 and 7.

After the sixth season, Caroline Rhea and Beth Broderick, who had portrayed Sabrina's aunts since the show's premiere, decided to leave the show. When the character of Sabrina started to attend college, the role of her aunts became less important. Broderick felt that the role of Zelda had nothing more to offer, while Rhea landed her own syndicated talk show, The Caroline Rhea Show.

Trevor Lissauer, who played Sabrina's housemate Miles, left the show after appearing in Seasons 5 and 6. Producers felt that his character was not well received by fans and also had to make some budget cuts for the show's seventh and final season. Miles was never properly written out, leaving his fate undetermined.

Sabrina's love interest Josh, played by David Lascher, left for Prague after appearing from Seasons 4 through 6; Lascher reportedly wanted to pursue other projects. To fill the void, the producers brought in Aaron, played by Dylan Neal, as Sabrina's love interest in the show's final season.

Broadcast and release
In 2000 The WB network picked up the series after ABC canceled it.

United States syndication
The show was syndicated by Paramount Domestic Television for reruns on local stations, including Tribune-owned WB affiliates.

Reruns have aired on ABC Family, Nickelodeon/Nick at Nite, Noggin (as part of its teen block The N), TeenNick, MTV2, Hub Network, Logo TV, Antenna TV and Fuse. It currently airs on Rewind TV and is available to stream on Hulu, The Roku Channel, Amazon Prime Video, Pluto TV and Paramount+.

International syndication

In the United Kingdom, Sabrina previously aired on ITV and Nickelodeon, while it later began airing on Pop Girl, a free-to-air children's channel. The series was slightly edited for content on UK children's channels. In July 2012, which previously broadcast the first two seasons and the two subsequent movies before shutting down in October 2015. It has aired on 4Music since 2019, and previously on The Vault since 2014 until its subsequent rebrand as Trace Vault. In October 2021, the entire series became available to stream on Amazon Prime Video, but was removed at the end of September 2022.

The show can be seen in the Republic of Ireland on RTÉ2 weekdays at 5:10 p.m. as part of the youth-oriented show TRTÉ.

In Italy, the show aired on Italia 1 under the name Sabrina, vita da strega (Sabrina, life as a witch) from September 3, 1998 until May 28, 2004.

In Australia, the show aired on Eleven, the free-to-air channel owned by Network Ten (upon which repeats of Sabrina had previously aired) at 6:00 p.m. and until December 6, 2013, with repeats at 12:30 a.m., seven days a week. It originally aired in Australia on the Seven Network during its first run.

In Canada, the show is available on Paramount+ (formerly CBS All Access) since the 2021 international launch and rebranding of the service.

In Russia, the first show of the series took place on the TV channel "Russia" on November 8, 2003, where it was originally broadcast until January 31, 2004 under the name "Academy of Witchcraft" and the first season was shown. Later, all seven seasons were shown in the period 2004-2006 on the STS channel (premiered on March 9, 2004).

Home media
In 2007, CBS Home Entertainment (through Paramount Home Entertainment) released seasons 1–3 on DVD. CBS later released seasons 4–7 on DVD. The official copyright holder for the series (as with all series originally produced by Viacom Productions) is CBS Studios Productions, LLC. For this home video release, music has been changed and many episodes are edited. Some musical performances were cut due to music licensing.

Episodes and U.S. ratings history

During its four-year run on ABC, Sabrina was the highest-rated series among the network's TGIF line-up. In the 2000–2001 season, the show moved to The WB after a negotiation dispute with ABC. While ABC was willing to renew the show for a fifth season, the network was not willing to pay the reported $1.5 million per episode that Viacom Productions, which produced the show, wanted. The WB then picked up the show for a mere $675,000 per episode, but agreed to commit to 66 episodes.

In other media

Soundtrack

On October 27, 1998, Geffen Records released a soundtrack for the series. The album features songs by contemporary pop artists such as Spice Girls, Backstreet Boys, and Britney Spears. It also features Melissa Joan Heart's cover of "One Way or Another" from the Season 2 episode "The Band Episode". The album was certified Gold by the RIAA in the United States, double Platinum in Canada, and has sold over 700,000 copies worldwide.

Video games
On June 11, 1999, Knowledge Adventure through Simon & Schuster Interactive and Havas Interactive officially announced the video games Sabrina the Teenage Witch: Spellbound, Sabrina the Teenage Witch: Brat Attack and Sabrina the Teenage Witch: Bundle of Magic for Macintosh and Microsoft Windows operating systems.

On March 29, 2001, Knowledge Adventure through Simon & Schuster Interactive and Havas Interactive officially announced the video game Sabrina the Teenage Witch: A Twitch in Time! for the PlayStation game system.

Multimedia

Animated series

An animated spin-off of the show, Sabrina: The Animated Series, started airing during the live action show's 4th season. The role of Sabrina was voiced by Hart's younger sister Emily Hart. Melissa Joan Hart voiced both aunts, Hilda and Zelda, and Nick Backay reprises his role of Salem. This series was followed by a television film, Sabrina: Friends Forever, which in turn was followed by another series titled Sabrina's Secret Life. Neither Emily Hart nor Melissa Joan Hart returned for the television film or the follow-up series. An animated spin-off focusing on Salem the Cat was also slated to debut in the 2001-02 season before it was scrapped.

A new animated spin-off was produced by Hub Network in 2013 called Sabrina: Secrets of a Teenage Witch''. In this version, Sabrina (voiced by Ashley Tisdale) is a witch princess in training so that she can one day rule the other realm.

Notes

References

External links

Sabrina the Teenage Witch at TeenNick's official website
Sabrina the Teenage Witch at TV Guide

1996 American television series debuts
1990s American high school television series
1990s American single-camera sitcoms
1990s American teen sitcoms
2000s American college television series
2000s American high school television series
2000s American single-camera sitcoms
2000s American teen sitcoms
2003 American television series endings
American Broadcasting Company original programming
American fantasy comedy television series
American television shows featuring puppetry
English-language television shows
Television about magic
Television shows based on Archie Comics
Television series about families
Television shows set in Massachusetts
Television series by CBS Studios
The WB original programming
Television shows adapted into video games
Television series about witchcraft
Television series created by Nell Scovell
TGIF (TV programming block)
Television series about teenagers

Sabrina the Teenage Witch (1996 TV series)


Charles G. Osborne was an American football player and coach. He played at the tackle position for Harvard University from 1904 to 1906.  In 1906, Osborne was selected as a first-team All-American. He was a player who reportedly "enjoyed the game himself every minute he was playing" and "played football purely for the fun he got out of it."  After graduating in 1907, Osborne became an assistant coach to the Harvard football team.  In the fall of 1907, he wrote a letter to the Harvard Crimson advocating the formation of an alumni football team that would play against Harvard's varsity team each fall.  Under Osborne's proposal, the alumni players "would be enabled to keep up their football for a few weeks every fall," and they would benefit the varsity team by allowing them regularly to play "against the strongest possible kind of scrub team."

References

1880s births
All-American college football players
American football tackles
Harvard Crimson football players
Harvard Crimson football coaches
Year of death missing

Charles Osborne (American football)


Christianity is the official and largest religion in Samoa, with its various denominations accounting for around 98% of the total population. The article 1 of the Constitution of Samoa states that "Samoa is a Christian nation founded of God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit".

The following is a distribution of Christian groups as of 2011 (the most recent census available): Congregational Christian (32 percent), Roman Catholic (19 percent), The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (15 percent), Methodist (14 percent), Assemblies of God (8 percent) and Seventh-day Adventist (4 percent). Groups together constituting less than 5 percent of the population include Bahá'í, Jehovah's Witnesses, Congregational Church of Jesus, Nazarene, nondenominational Protestant, Baptist, Worship Centre, Peace Chapel, Samoa Evangelism, Elim Church, and Anglican. A comparison of the 2006 and 2011 censuses shows a slight decline in the membership of major denominations and an increase in participation in nontraditional and evangelical groups.

Although there is no official estimate, there are reportedly small numbers of Hindus, Buddhists, Jews and traditional believers, primarily in Apia. The country has one of the world's eight Bahá'í Houses of Worship.

There is a small Muslim community and one mosque. The history of Islam in Samoa dates back to before 1985, when Samoa had a number of Muslim workers who were working either for the government or for a United Nations program, but their number was small and hardly affected the local population. In the mid-1980s, the World Assembly of Muslim Youth began operating in the Pacific, and consequently some Samoans began converting to Islam. According to the 2001 census, the number of Samoan Muslims was 48, or 0.03% of the total population. This number has increased to 61 Muslims, or 0.04% of the population, according to the 2006 census.

Demographics

Status of government respect for religious freedom
The constitution and other laws and policies protect religious freedom. The constitution provides for the right to choose, practice, and change the religion of one's choice.

The government does not require religious groups to register.

There is no religious education in public schools, but prayers may be used during the school day.

In 2012, the government observed the following religious holidays as national holidays: Good Friday, Easter Monday, White Monday (Children's Day), Feast of the Ascension and Christmas.

In June 2017, the Samoan Parliament passed a bill to increase support for Christianity in the country's constitution, including a reference to the Trinity. According to The Diplomat, "What Samoa has done is shift references to Christianity into the body of the constitution, giving the text far more potential to be used in legal processes." The preamble to the constitution already described the country as "an independent State based on Christian principles and Samoan custom and traditions."

Status of societal respect for religious freedom

Traditionally, villages tended to have one primary Christian church. Village chiefs often chose the religious denomination of their extended families. Many larger villages had multiple churches serving different denominations and coexisting peacefully.

There can be strong societal pressure at village and local levels to participate in church services and other activities, and to support church leaders and projects financially. In some denominations, financial contributions often totaled more than 30% of family income.

In the past there have been minor tensions between Fa'a Samoa (the Samoan way) and individual religious rights. One of the elements of Fa'a Samoa was the traditional, tightly-knit village community. Often, village elders and the community at large were not receptive toward those who attempted to introduce another denomination or religion into the community. Observers stated that, in many villages throughout the country, leaders forbade individuals to belong to churches outside of the village or to exercise their right not to worship. Villagers in violation of such rules faced fines or banishment from the village.

Freedom of religion in the 2020s

In 2023, the country was scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom; it was noted that provisions in three government-backed bills (the Constitution Amendment Bill 2020, the Lands and Titles Court Bill 2020, and the Judicature Amendment Bill 2020) could limit religious freedom by changing how legal decisions on Land and Titles are reviewed.

Gallery

See also
 Bahá'í Faith in Samoa
 Roman Catholicism in Samoa
 Piula Theological College
 Samoan Assemblies of God
 Samoan mythology
 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Samoa

References

Religion in Samoa


Sturgeon's law is a saying that 90 % of anything is really bad. It was created by Theodore Sturgeon to defend science fiction from people who didn't like it. It is often quoted as "No doubt 90 % of science fiction is crap then again 90 % of anything is crap". Since then the saying was used about other things.

Science fiction

Sturgeon's law


A Virginia Courtship is a 1921 American silent drama film directed by Frank O'Connor and written by Edfrid A. Bingham based upon the play of the same name by Eugene Wiley Presbrey. The film stars May McAvoy, Alec B. Francis, Jane Keckley, L. M. Wells, Casson Ferguson, Kathlyn Williams, and Richard Tucker. The film was released in December 1921, by Paramount Pictures.

Plot
As described in a film magazine, Prudence Fairfax (McAvoy) is the ward of Colonel Fairfax (Francis), a lovable old Southern gentleman who has remained single because of a misunderstanding, some fifteen years previous, with his next door neighbor and childhood sweetheart Constance Llewellyn (Williams). While staging a chariot race she had seen on a poster, Pru is thrown from a runaway horse into a stream running through the Llewellyn estate and is rescued by Constance. They become fast friends. When the Fairfax Manor is about to be sold for a debt, Pru buys it through her broker Robin which almost precipitates a duel. However, a happy ending ensues when the old romance between the Colonel and Constance is renewed, and Pru marries the Colonel's nephew Tom (Ferguson) instead of Dwight Neville (Tucker), who is arrested for counterfeiting.

Cast
May McAvoy as Prudence Fairfax
Alec B. Francis as Colonel Fairfax
Jane Keckley as Betty Fairfax
L. M. Wells as Squire Fenwick
Casson Ferguson as	Tom Fairfax
Kathlyn Williams as Constance Llewellyn
Richard Tucker as Dwight Neville
Guy Oliver as Buck Lawton
Verne Winter as Zeb
George Reed as Sam
Blue Washington

Preservation status
The film is now lost.

References

External links

1921 films
1920s English-language films
Silent American drama films
1921 drama films
Paramount Pictures films
American black-and-white films
Lost American drama films
American silent feature films
1921 lost films
Films directed by Frank O'Connor
1920s American films
English-language drama films

A Virginia Courtship


The transmission coefficient is used in physics and electrical engineering when wave propagation in a medium containing discontinuities is considered. A transmission coefficient describes the amplitude, intensity, or total power of a transmitted wave relative to an incident wave.

Overview
Different fields of application have different definitions for the term. All the meanings are very similar in concept: In chemistry, the transmission coefficient refers to a chemical reaction overcoming a potential barrier; in optics and telecommunications it is the amplitude of a wave transmitted through a medium or conductor to that of the incident wave; in quantum mechanics it is used to describe the behavior of waves incident on a barrier, in a way similar to optics and telecommunications.

Although conceptually the same, the details in each field differ, and in some cases the terms are not an exact analogy.

Chemistry
In chemistry, in particular in transition state theory, there appears a certain "transmission coefficient" for overcoming a potential barrier. It is (often) taken to be unity for monomolecular reactions. It appears in the Eyring equation.

Optics

In optics, transmission is the property of a substance to permit the passage of light, with some or none of the incident light being absorbed in the process. If some light is absorbed by the substance, then the transmitted light will be a combination of the wavelengths of the light that was transmitted and not absorbed. For example, a blue light filter appears blue because it absorbs red and green wavelengths. If white light is shone through the filter, the light transmitted also appears blue because of the absorption of the red and green wavelengths.

The transmission coefficient is a measure of how much of an electromagnetic wave (light) passes through a surface or an optical element. Transmission coefficients can be calculated for either the amplitude or the intensity of the wave. Either is calculated by taking the ratio of the value after the surface or element to the value before. The transmission coefficient for total power is generally the same as the coefficient for intensity.

Telecommunications

In telecommunication, the transmission coefficient is the ratio of the amplitude of the complex transmitted wave to that of the incident wave at a discontinuity in the transmission line.

Consider a wave travelling through a transmission line with a step in impedance from   to . When the wave transitions through the impedance step, a portion  of the wave  will be reflected back to the source. Because the voltage on a transmission line is always the sum of the forward and reflected waves at that point, if the incident wave amplitude is 1, and the reflected wave is , then the amplitude of the forward wave must be sum of the two waves  or .

The value for  is uniquely determined from first principles by noting that the incident power on the discontinuity must equal the sum of the power in the reflected and transmitted waves:
.

Solving the quadratic for  leads both to the reflection coefficient:
,
and to the transmission coefficient:
.

The probability that a portion of a communications system, such as a line, circuit, channel or trunk, will meet specified performance criteria is also sometimes called the "transmission coefficient" of that portion of the system. The value of the transmission coefficient is inversely related to the quality of the line, circuit, channel or trunk.

Quantum mechanics

In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the transmission coefficient and related reflection coefficient are used to describe the behavior of waves incident on a barrier. The transmission coefficient represents the probability flux of the transmitted wave relative to that of the incident wave. This coefficient is often used to describe the probability of a particle tunneling through a barrier.

The transmission coefficient is defined in terms of the incident and transmitted  probability current density J according to:

where  is the probability current in the wave incident upon the barrier with normal unit vector  and  is the probability current in the wave moving away from the barrier on the other side.

The reflection coefficient R is defined analogously:

Law of total probability requires that , which in one dimension reduces to the fact that the sum of the transmitted and reflected currents is equal in magnitude to the incident current.

For sample calculations, see rectangular potential barrier.

WKB approximation

Using the WKB approximation, one can obtain a tunnelling coefficient that looks like

where  are the two classical turning points for the potential barrier. In the classical limit of all other physical parameters much larger than Planck's constant, abbreviated as , the transmission coefficient goes to zero.  This classical limit would have failed in the situation of a square potential.

If the transmission coefficient is much less than 1, it can be approximated with the following formula:

where  is the length of the barrier potential.

See also
 Reflection coefficient
 Reflections of signals on conducting lines

References

Quantum mechanics
Geometrical optics
Physical optics
Fiber-optic communications

Transmission coefficient