Camuñas is a municipality located in the province of Toledo, Castile-La Mancha, Spain. According to the 2018 census (INE), the municipality had a population of 1,740 inhabitants.

Name
The noun "Camuñas" is said to come from the Arabic word kammuniya which has two meanings: one is "similar to cumin" and the other "all species of seed which is neither cereal nor legume". The name is probably taken as an anthropological nickname from the repopulator of the area during the Reconquista.

Coat of arms
Mantle shield: 1st, gules, the eight-pointed cross of Saint John, silver 2nd, gold, the mask or gules mask with obits and sable lips; on the tablecloth, of azure, a cumin, of gold. At the buzzer, royal crown closed.

Entrusting its historical justification to Fernando Jiménez de Gregorio, the heraldist José Luis Ruz Márquez made the coat of arms described, representing with the cross the belonging of Camuñas to the order of Saint John, with the mask of the Corpus Christi of the town, and the cumin in allusion to their crops. Endorsed by the Royal Academy of History on June 22, 1983, it was approved by the Castilla-La Mancha Community Board in Decree No. 11, of March 18, 1986.

Geography
The village is located in the hillside of the mountain Cabeza-gorda (literally fat head), in the left bank of Amarguillo river in La Mancha region. It borders with the villages of Puerto Lápice and Herencia, in the province of Ciudad Real, and Madridejos and Villafranca de los Caballeros, in the Toledo one.

The municipality consists on a wide meseta. The southern part is less plain, with precipices, gorges and mountains that reach 1,000 meters high. In the west can be found a meadow that reaches Amarguillo river, and the hill called Cañada de las Vacas, extended in both sides of the expressway autovía del Sur. In the right side of the road there is a hill in whose top there are three entrances to old mines, one of them of huge depth.

History
There are signs of a Roman and later Arab settlement; among the archaeological remains have been found lamps, ceramics and some epigraphic tombstone. Hispano-Roman settlements have also been documented in the areas of Las Varas, Palio and Lerma, as well as in the place called Los Villares de Almaén with both Hispano-Roman and Arab presence.

After the Reconquista, its repopulation was carried out around 1276 by the Order of San Juan. Camuñas was just a small village that depended on Consuegra until the middle of the 16th century. On April 5, 1557, the privilege of villazgo was granted to it by Princess Joanna of Austria (governor of the kingdoms in the absence of her brother Philip II of Spain), with the municipality having to deliver to the public treasury 1having to deliver the municipality to the public treasury the amount of 1,059,500 maravedís. At that time Camuñas had 160 neighbors with about 800 inhabitants. Since the 18th century it has had San Nicasio as its patron saint.

At the beginning of the 19th century the French invasion of Spain took place, from which a movement against the invader arose in the form of guerrillas. The village has one of the main guerrilla leaders in La Mancha and all the center of Spain during the Peninsular War, Tío Camuñas.

Years later, Luis Villaseñor y López de la Oliva, a nobleman with liberal ideas became mayor of the town and had clashes with the church (even expelled the priest). During the First Spanish Republic, the Cantonal rebellion begins and cantons are formed in various parts of Spain, independent states voluntarily federated in the Spanish Federation. The most famous was the Canton of Cartagena, but this town also formed its own canton, the Canton of Camuñas, which fell apart a few days later, being an anecdotal event. The main reason of the creation of this canton is very linked to the conversion of most of the village to Protestantism by the Galician evangelical missionary Félix Moreno Astray, unique case within the archdiocese of Toledo. According to Menéndez Pelayo, their aim was "a kind of Geneva from La Mancha and smuggler".

Economy
Its production is fundamentally agricultural, highlighting those of wine, oil and saffron with denominación de origen (DO) "La Mancha", "Montes de Toledo" and "Saffron of La Mancha", respectively.

Culture
Camuñas has no different cultural features compared to other villages in the province of Toledo or La Mancha.

Holidays

 Pecados y Danzantes de Camuñas: its name is Corpus Christi and takes places that same day, but it has nothing to do with the festivity of the same name in Toledo. It is an old tradition of the village, whose origin is unknown although probably dating back to the 16th and 17th centuries (over the centuries the ritual has been endowed with different interpretations). He currently performs through mimicry and dance, representing a fight between the bad (pecados) and the good (danzantes). Currently, this tradition has is declared of Regional Tourist Interest.
 San Nicasio: this is the patron of Camuñas and the village took it as patron in the 17th century after a serious epidemic that occurred at that time, from which they sought help. A hermitage was built in his honor, which was destroyed by the French.
 Francisquete (Tío Camuñas) Festival : it is reconstructed how Francisquete fought against the French, first weekend of August.

Main sights

 Iglesia parroquial de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción: church in the historic center of the town on the ruins of a previous building in Renaissance style, although with a Mudejar tower. It was restored in the 18th century with the contribution of the infante don Gabriel Antonio de Borbón (1752–88). Its roof was recently under restoration.
 Clock Tower: tower with a clock bought in 1910 at the Canseco central watchmaker, supplier to the royal house. It is located in the Plaza de Ramón y Cajal, next to the parish church.
 Molino de la Unión: windmill located almost in the top of tallest hill of Camuñas. Its name is due to the fact that it suffered a great fire and was rebuilt by the union of the entire town. It has been declared Bien de Interés Cultural (BIC).
 Camuñas Ethnological Museum: museum focused on the main festival in town, Pecados y Danzantes de Camuñas. It is located to the west of the municipality, near the Amarguillo river.
 Ermita de la Veracruz.

See also

 Madridejos
 Herencia
 Villafranca de los Caballeros

References

Municipalities in the Province of Toledo

Camuñas


Protosphyraena is a fossil genus of swordfish-like marine fish, that thrived worldwide during the Upper Cretaceous Period (Coniacian-Maastrichtian). Though fossil remains of this taxon have been found in both Europe and Asia, it is perhaps best known from the Smoky Hill Member of the Niobrara Chalk Formation of Kansas (Late Coniacian-Early Campanian). Protosphyraena was a large fish, averaging 2–3 metres in length. Protosphyraena shared the Cretaceous oceans with aquatic reptiles, such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, as well as with many other species of extinct predatory fish. The name Protosphyraena is a combination of the Greek word protos ("early") plus Sphyraena, the genus name for barracuda, as paleontologists initially mistook Protosphyraena for an ancestral barracuda. Recent research shows that the genus Protosphyraena is not at all related to the true swordfish-family Xiphiidae, but belongs to the extinct family Pachycormidae.

History and taxonomy

As is the case with many fossil vertebrates discovered by 19th century paleontologists, the taxonomy of Protosphyraena has had a confusing history. Fossil pectoral spines belonging to this taxon were first recognized in 1822, from chalk deposits in England, by Gideon Mantell, the physician and geologist who also discovered the dinosaur Iguanodon. In 1857, the fish was named Protosphyraena ferox by the renowned American naturalist and paleontologist, Joseph Leidy, based on Mantell's English finds. Earlier, Leidy had published an illustration of a Protosphyraena tooth from the Cretaceous-aged Navesink Formation of New Jersey (Maastrichtian), but mistakenly identified it as having come from a dinosaur. During the 1870s, B. F. Mudge, a fossil collector supplying material to rival paleontologists Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh, discovered a number of specimens of Protosphyraena in Niobrara exposures in Rooks and Ellis counties in Kansas and sent them back east. Between 1873 and 1877, Cope renamed three species based on Mudge's specimens, all of which would eventually be recognized as belonging to the genus Protosphyraena: Erisichte nitida, "Portheus" gladius, and "Pelecopterus" pernicciosus. Between 1895 and 1903, paleontologists in America and England, including Arthur Smith Woodward (1895), Loomis (1900), O. P. Hay (1903), in a series of important works, reviewed the genus, adding much to our understanding of this fish.

Today, two species of Protosphyraena are recognized from the Niobrara Chalk of the western United States: P. nitida and P. perniciosa. An additional species, P. bentonianum was named by Albin Stewart in 1898, based on a specimen from the older Lincoln Member of the Greenhorn Limestone (Upper Cenomanian). Perhaps the oldest remains of Protosphyraena in North America have come from the upper beds of the Dakota Sandstone (middle Cenomanian) in Russell County, Kansas (Everhart, 2005; p. 91).

Anatomy

In its general body plan, Protosphyraena resembled a modern sailfish, though it was smaller with a shorter rostrum, was somewhat less hydrodynamic, and adults possessed large blade-like teeth (adults of living swordfish species are toothless). Complete skeletons of Protosphyraena are relatively rare, but in parts of the Niobrara Chalk, the Mooreville Chalk Formation of Alabama, and other geological formations, fragmentary specimens are quite common and most often include isolated teeth, the distinctive rostrum, and fragments of the long saw-edged pectoral fin first described by Mantell. Usually, portions of the skull and postcranial skeleton are found separately. This preservational bias can be explained by the fact that the skeleton of Protosphyraena was less ossified than that of most bony fishes and tended to be torn apart by scavengers or decay before burial and fossilization (Everhart, 2005; p. 93). Like most of the Cretaceous marine fauna, Protosphyraena became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic; the resemblance to living swordfish apparently results from convergent evolution.

Gallery

References

Cope, E. D. 1873. On two new species of Saurodontidae. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 25:337-339.
Cope, E. D. 1874. Review of the vertebrata of the Cretaceous period found west of the Mississippi River. U. S. Geolological Survey of the Territories, Bulletin 1(2):3-48.
Cope, E. D. 1875. The Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Formations of the West. Report of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office):302 pp.
Everhart, M. J. 2005. Oceans of Kansas: A Natural History of the Western Interior Sea. Indiana University Press: 323 pp.

Mantell, G. 1822. The fossils of the South Downs; or illustrations of the geology of Sussex. London: Lupton Relfe. xiv + 327 pp.

Woodward, A. S. 1895. Catalogue of the fossil fishes in the British Museum. Part 3. British Museum of Natural History, London.  pp. i-xliii, 1–544.

External links
Protosphyraena: A Late Cretaceous "Swordfish" at the Oceans of Kansas website. Includes detailed taxonomic history, life restorations, bibliography, many photos of fossil remains.
 The most complete skeleton of Protosphyraena pernicosa yet found, on display at the Rocky Mountain Dinosaur Resource Center.

Late Cretaceous fish of North America
Pachycormiformes
Marine fish genera
Prehistoric ray-finned fish genera
Cretaceous bony fish
Cretaceous fish of Europe
Coniacian genus first appearances
Maastrichtian genus extinctions
Demopolis Chalk

Protosphyraena


Charles Fisher (21 November 1914 – 23 January 2006) was a Welsh journalist, writer, poet and adventurer. Until 1953 he was based in Britain; afterwards, in Canada.

He was the last surviving member of the Kardomah group, a literary and artistic circle in Swansea circa 1930, which included Dylan Thomas, Vernon Watkins and Daniel Jones.

Life and career
Fisher was born in Swansea. He was educated at the Bishop Gore School, Swansea, where he acted  with the young Dylan Thomas in Galsworthy's Strife. He and Thomas were both taught English by Thomas's father, D.J. Thomas.

After school he and Thomas both become journalists for the South Wales Evening Post, where Fisher's father was head printer. Charles was a keen rider and fisherman, and wrote a column for the paper on angling, 'Blue Dun'. A handsome young man, he used the contacts which the newspaper gave him, to enjoy a busy social life. At that period Fisher collaborated with Dylan Thomas on early drafts of the spoof thriller, 'The King's Canary'; which was completed by Thomas and John Davenport, but not published until 1976. He and Thomas would meet at the Kardomah cafe, with other aspiring young artists, among them Vernon Watkins, Daniel Jones, John Prichard, Mabey Owen and Keidrych Rhys.

During World War II Fisher was an operative for British Intelligence. He saw active service in France.

After the War Fisher wrote for Reuters, the South Wales Evening Post and the BBC. He was a Reuter's correspondent at the British Parliament. His poems of this period were published, like those of Dylan Thomas and Vernon Watkins, in Keidrych Rhys's magazine, Wales (which had begun publication in 1937).  In London Fisher became an admirer of Eartha Kitt. He was briefly married to the Spanish opera singer, Isabel Elana Alonzo, but they were divorced before 1953.

In 1953, after attending Dylan Thomas's funeral at Laugharne, Fisher emigrated to Canada, where he became a Hansard reporter in the House of Commons of Canada. Fisher used his long vacations to travel widely - at first in Spain, where he became friendly with the Romani people at Granada and became an accomplished player of flamenco guitar; afterwards in Mexico, Morocco, India and east Asia.

In 1963 he married Jane Edwards, with whom he had one daughter, Caitlin. He and Jane had a house on Elgin Street, in Ottawa, Canada, famous in the 1960s and 70s for its vibrant company. He and Jane were later divorced, but remained friends.

After retirement he lived in Almonte, Ontario.

In the 80's and 90's he became a friend of Canadian experimental composer and artist, Oool Fjolkunnigr. The two collaborated in musical compositions, an improvised musical group, Rotton Kidz, and other artistic projects; and traveled extensively in the Tonga Islands, Thailand and India.

His book of poems, The Locust Years, was published in 1988.

In 2003 he visited Swansea, to take part in the festival at the Dylan Thomas Centre commemorating the 50th anniversary of Dylan Thomas's death.

Shortly before his death he completed his memoir, Adios Granada, about his life with Romani people in Sacremonte, Spain, in the 1950s and 1960s.

Charles Fisher died in Bangkok, aged 91. His body was cremated at a local temple, and his ashes were sent home to Canada. He was survived by his ex-wife, Jane, his daughter, Caitlin, and his two granddaughters.

References

External links
BBC reports on Fisher address on the 50th anniversary of Dylan Thomas' death
Guardian Obituary

British male journalists
Welsh male poets
Writers from Swansea
People educated at Bishop Gore School
1914 births
2006 deaths
20th-century Welsh poets
20th-century British male writers
British emigrants to Canada

Charles Fisher (poet)


Drosera kenneallyi is a carnivorous plant in the genus Drosera and is endemic to the Kimberley region in northern Western Australia. Its leaves are arranged in a compact basal rosette appressed to the soil. Narrowly oblanceolate petioles emerging from the center of the rosette are typically 1.5–2.2 mm wide at their widest. Red carnivorous leaves at the end of the petioles are small at 2–3 mm in diameter and elliptic to broadly ovate. Inflorescences are  long with white flowers being produced on 10- to 20-flowered racemes from November to December.

Drosera kenneallyi is found in sandy loam soils on the margins of the Airfield Swamp. The type material was collected under a Eucalyptus latifolia near the Airfield Swamp. During January and February, this species is frequently flooded with high-temperature water. It survives these conditions by altering the position of its petioles with the rise and fall of the surrounding water. This allows the insect-catching leaves to remain above the water's surface.

Drosera kenneallyi is native to the Mitchell Plateau in the Kimberley region of northern Western Australia and is common within a  radius around the Mitchell Plateau Airfield. It was first collected in 1982 by Kevin F. Kenneally, for whom this species is named. In 1993, Allen Lowrie traveled to the Kimberley with the Landscope expedition and collected this species, introducing it into cultivation. It was only then confirmed that D. kenneallyi is a distinct species from the other members of Drosera subgenus Lasiocephala. Lowrie formally described this species in a 1996 issue of Nuytsia, the journal of the Western Australian Herbarium. In his description, he noted that D. kenneallyi is most closely related to D. falconeri, which is found in similar habitats. Drosera kenneallyi can be distinguished from D. falconeri by its noticeably smaller leaves and shorter inflorescence, but the two species share many characteristics.

See also
 List of Drosera species
 Taxonomy of Drosera

References

External links

Carnivorous plants of Australia
Caryophyllales of Australia
Flora of Western Australia
Plants described in 1996
kenneallyi

Drosera kenneallyi


Radiotrophic fungi are fungi that can perform the hypothetical biological process called  radiosynthesis, which means using ionizing radiation as an energy source to drive metabolism. It has been claimed that radiotrophic fungi have been found in extreme environments such as in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.

Most radiotrophic fungi use melanin in some capacity to survive. The process of using radiation and melanin for energy has been termed radiosynthesis, and is thought to be analogous to anaerobic respiration. However, it is not known if multi-step processes such as photosynthesis or chemosynthesis are used in radiosynthesis or even if radiosynthesis exists in living organisms.

Discovery
Many fungi have been isolated from the area around the destroyed Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, some of which have been observed directing their growth of hyphae toward radioactive graphite from the disaster, a phenomenon called "radiotropism". Study has ruled out the presence of carbon as the resource attracting the fungal colonies, and in fact concluded that some fungi will preferentially grow in the direction of the source of beta and gamma ionizing radiation, but were not able to identify the biological mechanism behind this effect. It has also been observed that other melanin-rich fungi were discovered in the cooling water from some other, working, nuclear reactors. The light-absorbing compound in the fungus cell membranes had the effect of turning the water black. While there are many cases of extremophiles (organisms that can live in severe conditions such as that of the radioactive power plant), a hypothetical radiotrophic fungus would grow because of the radiation, rather than in spite of it.

Further research conducted at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine showed that three melanin-containing fungi—Cladosporium sphaerospermum, Wangiella dermatitidis, and Cryptococcus neoformans—increased in biomass and accumulated acetate faster in an environment in which the radiation level was 500 times higher than in the normal environment. C. sphaerospermum in particular was chosen due to this species being found in the reactor at Chernobyl. Exposure of C. neoformans cells to these radiation levels rapidly (within 20–40 minutes of exposure) altered the chemical properties of its melanin, and increased melanin-mediated rates of electron transfer (measured as reduction of ferricyanide by NADH) three- to four-fold compared with unexposed cells. However, each culture was performed with at least limited nutrients provided to each fungus. The increase in biomass and other effects could be caused either by the cells directly deriving energy from ionizing radiation, or by the radiation allowing the cells to utilize traditional nutrients either more efficiently or more rapidly.

Outside of the fungal studies, similar effects on melanin electron-transport capability were observed by the authors after exposure to non-ionizing radiation. The authors did not conclude whether light or heat radiation would have a similar effect on living fungal cells.

Role of melanin
Melanins are a family of naturally-occurring ancient pigments with radio-protective properties that are generally dark brown/black. It is important to note that melanin has a high molecular weight. This pigment can transduce and shield energy, therefore it can absorb electromagnetic radiation, including light. This quality suggests that melanin could protect melanized fungi from ionizing radiation. It has been suggested that Melanin's radio-protective properties are due to its ability to trap free radicals formed during radiolysis of water. Melanin is also an advantage to the fungus in that it can aid survival in many extreme, and varying environments. Examples of these environments include the damaged reactor at Chernobyl, the International Space Station, and the Antarctic mountains. Melanin may also be able to help the fungus metabolize radiation into energy, but more evidence and research is still needed.

Comparisons with non-melanized fungi
Melanization may come at some metabolic cost to the fungal cells. In the absence of radiation, some non-melanized fungi (that had been mutated in the melanin pathway) grew faster than their melanized counterparts. Limited uptake of nutrients due to the melanin molecules in the fungal cell wall or toxic intermediates formed in melanin biosynthesis have been suggested to contribute to this phenomenon. It is consistent with the observation that despite being capable of producing melanin, many fungi do not synthesize melanin constitutively (i.e., all the time), but often only in response to external stimuli or at different stages of their development. The exact biochemical processes in the suggested melanin-based synthesis of organic compounds or other metabolites for fungal growth, including the chemical intermediates (such as native electron donor and acceptor molecules) in the fungal cell and the location and chemical products of this process, are unknown.

Use in human spaceflight
It is hypothesized that radiotrophic fungi could potentially be used as a shield to protect against radiation, specifically in affiliation to the use of astronauts in space or other atmospheres. An experiment taking place at the International Space Station in December 2018 through January 2019 was conducted in order to test whether the use of radiotrophic fungi could aid in protection against ionizing radiation in space, as part of research efforts preceding a possible trip to Mars. This experiment used the radiotrophic strain of the fungi Cladosporium sphaerospermum. The growth of this fungi and its ability to deflect the effects of ionizing radiation were studied for 30 days aboard the International Space Station. This experimental trial yielded very promising results.

The amount of radiation deflected was found to have a direct correlation to the amount of fungus. There was no difference in the reduction of ionizing radiation between the experimental and control group within the first 24 hour period; however, once the radiotrophic fungi had reached an adequate maturation, and with a 180° protection radius, it was found that amounts of ionizing radiation were significantly reduced as compared to the control group. With a 1.7 mm thick shield of melanized radiotrophic Cladosporium sphaerospermum, measurements of radiation nearing the end of the experimental trial were found to be 2.42% lower, demonstrating radiation deflecting capabilities five times that of the control group. Under circumstances in which the fungi would fully encompass an entity, radiation levels would be reduced by an estimated 4.34±0.7%. Estimations indicate that approximately a 21 cm thick layer could significantly deflect the annual amount of radiation received on Mars' surface. Limitations to the use of a radiotrophic fungi based shield include increased mass on missions. However as a viable substitute to reduce overall mass on potential Mars missions, a mixture with equal mole concentration of Martian soil, melanin, and a layer of fungi roughly 9 cm thick, could be used.

See also

 Nylon-eating bacteria

References

External links
Einstein College of Medicine on radiotrophic fungi
The blacker the better… especially in Chernobyl at Earthling Nature.

Fungi by adaptation
Evolution by taxon
Radiation effects
Radiobiology
Gamma rays
Extremophiles

Radiotrophic fungus


Bewsey and Whitecross is a ward to the west of the town centre of Warrington (and includes much of the town centre), in the Warrington district, in the ceremonial county of Lancashire, England. The town's General Hospital is within the ward. The area is served by the 16/16A bus route from Dallam to Warrington. Sankey Valley Park runs through Bewsey, there are community centres at Whitecross and Bewsey Park, and a community and health hub is to be built to serve the former council estates of Bewsey and Dallam. There are five primary schools, while the nearest high schools are Beamont Collegiate Academy in the Orford area,  Great Sankey High School in Great Sankey, and St Gregory's RC High School.

Demographics
Note: Statistics expressed as percentages may not add up to 100%

Politics
Bewsey and Whitecross ward is represented on Warrington Borough Council by three councillors.

Census data
Data is based on that of Bewsey and Whitecross Ward

Population and Ethnicity
Bewsey and Whitecross ward has a population of 9,840 residents. Of which 49.3% are male and 50.7% are female.  The average age of the population at the census was 36.1 years.  Of the 9,840 residents, 96.2% of the population describe their ethnicity as white.  Other significant minorities are mixed (0.6%), black (0.4%)and Asian (2.1%).  Other races account for 0.7% of the population.

Housing and social situation
In the ward, there are 4,431 households, of which 51.5% are owner-occupied.  34.1% account for council housing, 11.2% are rented from private landlords and 3.1% of houses have residents who live rent free.  In the last two quarters of 2005, the average price of a house in Bewsey was £132,235.  The population density of Bewsey and Whitecross is 12.6 residents per hectare. Also, 8.3% of households are classed as overcrowded.  According to the ACORN index, 49.6% of residents describe Bewsey and Whitecross as a "hard-pressed" area.  According to the indices of multiple deprivation, the ward falls into the slightly below average ward economically. 12.8% of residents are on benefits.

Employment and education
In the ward, employment rate stands at 58.2% of the population. On top of this, 5.0% of all economically active residents are unemployed (this is significantly above the Warrington unemployment rate of 2.9%), 1.7% are students in full-time education. 35.0% are classed as "economically inactive" (due to long-term disability, retirement or full-time carer status). In terms of education, 37.25 have no qualifications whatsoever. The majority (46%) have level one (at least 1+ GCSE at A*-G or equivalent) or level two (at least 5+ GCSEs at A*-G or 1 A-Level at A-E or equivalent) qualifications. 11.0% have level three or higher (at least 2+ A-levels (A-E) or 4+ AS-levels at A-E or equivalent) qualifications.

Footnotes

Villages in Cheshire
Warrington

Bewsey


Zhang Chong (; February 26, 1900 – October 30, 1980) was a Chinese military and political leader. Initially a feared bandit chieftain and warlord of Yunnan, he distinguished himself as commander of the 50th Army during the Sino-Japanese War, then joined Mao Zedong and the Communists during the Chinese Civil War and went on to hold important positions in the new People's Republic of China, culminating in his service as Vice Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.

Life
Born in Luxi, Yunnan, Zhang Chong became a bandit in his teenage years, taking advantage of the chaotic Warlord era to become a feared and powerful figure in Southwest China through plunder, kidnapping and extortion. n 1926, Zhang was recruited by the warlord Long Yun, and his private bandit force was reorganized into the Fifth Division of the Yunnan Army. In 1935, when the Long March passed through Yunnan, Zhang Chong advised Long Yun to offer only token resistance, arguing that the Communists were Chiang Kai-shek's problem, and that there was no need to waste resources fighting them, and his proposal was adopted.

After the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, Zhang Chong's troops were reorganized into the 184th Division of the 60th Army of the National Revolutionary Army. In 1942, when the Japanese invaded Yunnan from Burma, Zhang Chong was appointed as the commander of the Yunnan Second Route Army, stationed in southern Yunnan. After the victory of the Anti-Japanese War, Zhang Chong was dismissed from the army. In October 1945, Long Yun was relieved of military power in Yunnan by Chiang Kai-shek , and since then Zhang Chong was in secret contact with the Chinese Communist Party .

In 1946, Zhang Chong secretly flew to Yan'an, supported Mao Zedong and, in February 1947, he officially joined the Communist Party of China.

During the Liaoshen campaign of the Chinese Civil War, Zhang Chong wrote a letter to persuade his old subordinate Zeng Zesheng to surrender, and made great contributions to the victory of the CCP in the siege of Changchun.

After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Zhang Chong became Vice Chairman of the Yunnan Provincial People's Government, serving under Lu Han, as well as a member of the Southwest China Military and Political Committee.

In 1954, he moved to Beijing and was elected to the National People's Congress, remaining a member until 1978, when he became a Vice Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.

In October 1980, Zhang Chong died in Beijing at the age of 80.

References

1900 births
1980 deaths
Vice Chairpersons of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
Yi people

Zhang Chong (politician)


Boston Custer (October 31, 1848 – June 25, 1876) was the youngest brother of U.S. Army Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer and two-time Medal of Honor recipient Captain Thomas Custer. He was killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn along with his two brothers.

Early life

Boston Custer was born in New Rumley, Ohio, one of five children born to Emanuel Henry Custer and Maria Ward Kirkpatrick Custer. In 1863, the family left Ohio and moved to Monroe, Michigan. Boston's older brother Nevin became a farmer due to asthma and rheumatism, while two other older brothers, George and Thomas ("Tom"), became military officers in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Boston had been unable to officially join the Army due to poor health.

Battle

A civilian contractor, Custer served as forage master for his brother George's U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment in the 1874 Black Hills expedition. He was employed as a guide, forager, packer and scout for the regiment for the 1876 expedition against the Lakota Indians. On June 25, 1876, along with his 18-year-old nephew Henry Armstrong "Autie" Reed, Custer was with the pack train at the rear of Lt. Col. George Custer's troops. Hearing from a messenger that Lt. Col. Custer had requested ammunition for an impending fight, they quickly left the pack train. The pair passed by Frederick Benteen's detachment and joined Custer's main column as it moved into position to attack a sprawling Indian village along the Little Big Horn River. Had they stayed with the pack train where they were assigned, Boston Custer and Autie Reed might have survived the battle.

Death

Like his brothers and nephew, Boston was killed at the area known as "Last Stand Hill". A marble marker commemorates the approximate place where his body was found and identified. Though originally buried on the battlefield, Autie Reed and Boston Custer's remains were exhumed, the only exceptions to the rule that only commissioned officers would be shipped home for reburial. They were reinterred January 8, 1878, at Woodland Cemetery in Monroe, Michigan, near today's Monroe County, Michigan Museum.

Film
Boston Custer was portrayed by actor Patrick Johnston in the TV miniseries Son of the Morning Star (1991).

References

Bibliography

External links

George Custer Lobbies for Boston Custer Second Lieutenant Appointment, 1872 Shapell Manuscript Foundation
A contemporary article on Boston Custer's burial

Boston Custer's marker (not his headstone)

1848 births
1876 deaths
Burials at Woodland Cemetery (Monroe, Michigan)
Boston
American military personnel killed in the American Indian Wars
People from Harrison County, Ohio
People from Monroe, Michigan
People of the Great Sioux War of 1876
Battle of the Little Bighorn
United States Army personnel of the Indian Wars
United States Army civilians

Boston Custer


Harry Tuchman Levin (July 18, 1912 – May 29, 1994) was an American literary critic and scholar of both modernism and comparative literature.

Life and career
Levin was born in Minneapolis, the son of Beatrice Hirshler (née Tuchman) and Isadore Henry Levin. His family was Jewish. Levin was educated at Harvard University (where he was a contemporary of M. H. Abrams). According to a biographical memoir by Walter Jackson Bate:

After graduating summa cum laude in 1933, he was appointed Junior Fellow in then-new Harvard University Society of Fellows, the university's highest honour bestowed upon graduate students, where he pursued in depth what were to become his three major interests: Shakespeare and the English Renaissance; modern literature generally; and the relation of English and American to other literatures, from Greek and Latin antiquity to the present, all of which are reflected in his early publications, giving him a perspective lacking in the ordinary specialist and scarcely matched in his later years by more than three or four scholars here or abroad. In the 1930s, junior fellows did not normally take a Ph. D., so that Harry, like his noted predecessor, George Lyman Kittredge, remained an A.B., though he was in time to receive six honorary degrees, including ones from Oxford and the Sorbonne, and though he was, over the years, to supervise over ninety doctoral theses.

Levin began teaching at Harvard in 1939 and that same year he married Elena Zarudnaya. He was named Irving Babbitt Professor of Comparative Literature at Harvard in 1960 and retired in 1983. He continued to live near campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts, until his death in 1994. He was survived by his widow Elena and their daughter Marina.

Levin was an elected member of both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.

Levin's course in "Comedy on the Stage" inspired Leonard Lehrman to write the paper, "The Threepenny Cradle," comparing the Brecht-Weill Threepenny Opera to Marc Blitzstein's The Cradle Will Rock. In the fall of 1969, in a production of Cradle directed by Lehrman, Levin was the sole patron.  In 1970-1971 he encouraged, advised, and became a patron for two other Harvard productions by Lehrman: the U.S. premiere of Brecht's The Days of the Commune, and a triple-bill in memory of Blitzstein, which was attended by Leonard Bernstein.  It was at that production that Levin invited Bernstein to become Norton Lecturer at Harvard, which he did, a year later.

In 1985, the American Comparative Literature Association began awarding the Harry Levin Prize for books on literary history or criticism and in 1997, Harvard University endowed the new chair (position) of Harry Levin Professor of Literature.

Works
The Broken Column (1931), Harvard undergraduate essay published by Cambridge UP
Ben Jonson, Selected Works (1938) editor
James Joyce: A Critical Introduction (1941)
Toward Stendhal (1945)
The Portable James Joyce (1947) editor
Toward Balzac (1947)
Perspectives of Criticism (1950) editor
The overreacher, a study of Christopher Marlowe (1952)
Symbolism and Fiction (1956)
Contexts of Criticism (1957)
The Power of Blackness: Hawthorne, Poe, Melville (1958)
The Question of Hamlet (1959)
Irving Babbitt and the Teaching of Literature (1960) Inaugural Lecture
The Scarlet Letter and other Tales of the Puritans by Nathaniel Hawthorne (1961) editor
The Gates of Horn: A Study of Five French Realists (1963)
The Comedy of Errors (1965) editor
Refractions: Essays in Comparative Literature (1966)
The Myth of the Golden Age in the Renaissance (1969)
Playboys and Killjoys: An Essay on the Theory and Practice of Comedy (1988)

References

External links
 At Harvard University:
 Guide to the Papers of Harry Levin (with biography)
 At the American Comparative Literature Association:
 The Harry Levin and René Wellek Prizes (given in alternate years)

1912 births
1994 deaths
20th-century American academics
20th-century American biographers
20th-century American essayists
20th-century American historians
20th-century American Jews
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American educators
20th-century scholars
Academics from Massachusetts
Academics from Minnesota
American academics
American academics of English literature
American educators
American literary critics
American literary historians
American literary theorists
American male essayists
American male non-fiction writers
Comparative literature academics
Harvard University alumni
Harvard University faculty
Historians from Massachusetts
Historians from Minnesota
Historians of English literature
Humor researchers
Irony theorists
Jewish American academics
Jewish American historians
Jewish American non-fiction writers
Jewish American writers
Literacy and society theorists
Modernist writers
Trope theorists
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Harry Levin


A Curtain of Green was the first collection of short stories written by Eudora Welty. In these stories, Welty looks at the state of Mississippi through the eyes of its inhabitants, the common people, both black and white, and presents a realistic view of the racial relations that existed at the time. Welty, though, looks past race, not overtly focusing on the subject, and sees Mississippi as what it is. The stories subtly combine myth and reality to create portraits of odd, but undeniable, beauty. One of the finest pieces in the collection is titled "A Worn Path." Welty's skill as a writer perhaps reaches its finest point with this story of an aging woman who faces her greatest obstacle, the journey of life as she tries to cope with the grief from the death of her grandson she goes through a journey comparable to a Greek epic. Full of challenges that she had to overcome while still keeping her dignity. Welty writes "A Worn Path" to show the reader that even though they are not an epic hero they can still have dignity in their life.

Stories in the collection
"Lily Daw and the Three Ladies"
"A Piece of News"
"Petrified Man"
"The Key"
"Keela, the Outcast Indian Maiden"
"Why I Live at the P.O."
"The Whistle"
"The Hitch-Hikers"
"A Memory"
"Clytie"
"Old Mr. Marblehall"
"Flowers for Marjorie"
"A Curtain of Green"
"A Visit of Charity"
"Death of a Traveling Salesman"
"Powerhouse"
"A Worn Path"

Reception

Marianne Hauser, reviewing the book for The New York Times on November 18, 1941, praises "the author's fanatic love of people. With a few lines she draws the gesture of a deaf-mute, the windblown skirts of a Negro woman in the fields, the bewilderment of a child in the sickroom of an old people's asylum--and she has told more than many an author might tell in a novel of six hundred pages".

Katherine Anne Porter, who wrote the book's Introduction, said: These stories offer an extraordinary range of mood, pace, tone, and variety of material. The scene is limited to a town the author knows well; the farthest reaches of that scene never go beyond the boundaries of her own state....Dullness, bitterness, self-pity, baseness of all kinds can be most interesting material for a story provided these are not also the main elements in the mind of the author. There is nothing in the least vulgar or frustrated in Miss Welty's mind. She has simply an eye and an ear sharp, shrewd, and true as a tuning fork.

References

1941 short story collections
American short story collections
Short story collections by Eudora Welty
Doubleday (publisher) books
Mississippi in fiction

A Curtain of Green


Leila Benitez-McCollum (October 5, 1930 – April 9, 2020) was a Filipino-born American radio and television host, presenter, journalist and broadcaster.

Benitez, who was nicknamed as the "first lady of Philippine television", became a household name in the Philippines from the 1950s to the early 1970s due to a string of successful radio and television shows. She was best known for co-hosting Student Canteen, the country's first afternoon variety show, from 1959–64.

Biography
Benitez was born in Quezon City, Philippines. She received her bachelor's degree in psychology from Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.

Benitez was best known for hosting the variety show, Student Canteen, which began as a radio hitler  in the late 1950s before transitioning to a popular television show on what was then called the Chronicle Broadcasting Network (CBN). According to the book, "Kapitan: Geny Lopez and the Making of ABS-CBN", Benitez was the first host to be chosen for the television show, which became "the biggest daytime program of its era".

Benitez, who became a household name across the country, co-hosted the show alongside Eddie Ilarde, Bobby Ledesma, and Pepe Pimentel, from 1959–65. In a 2013 interview, Benitez recalled the show's popularity, "Mga estudyante, they used to come in. This was their noon break. It became so big and so popular that it became a big, live amateur show."

Benitez also hosted talk shows, including Darigold Jamboree and The Leila Benitez Celebrity Hour, where her guests included international stars such as Harry Belafonte, Ann-Margret, and Neil Sedaka.

Benitez was visiting the United States when martial law was declared by then-President Ferdinand Marcos in 1972, resulting, among other things, in the cancellation of her television shows. With her shows cancelled, Benitez decided to permanently remain in the United States, rather than returning to the Philippines under Marcos. She soon joined the Voice of America as an anchor for its Asia Pacific broadcasts. She also raised her children in the United States.

In 2003, Benitez-McCollum made her final visit to the Philippines, where she was honored by her former employer, ABS-CBN, during the 50th anniversary celebration of the television network. She was also honored by ABS-CBN during the network's 60th anniversary in 2013.

Benitez-McCollum, who lived in New York, contracted COVID-19 at a rehabilitation center. She was admitted to the hospital, where she tested positive for coronavirus. Leila Benitez-McCollum died from COVID-19 at Mount Sinai Hospital in Manhattan, New York City, on April 8, 2020, at age 89, during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City.

She was survived by her three sons—Gerry and Gil (born during her first marriage to Gerardo "Grau" Roses), and Martin (who was born during her marriage to her second husband, Mervyn Simpson) - as well as four grandchildren. Benitez was predeceased by her third husband, Donald McCollum, the founder of the first television marketing research company in the United States. They had been married for 38 years before his death.

She was the second major Filipino entertainment figure to die from COVID-19, following the passing of actor Menggie Cobarrubias in March.

References

1930 births
2020 deaths
Filipino television variety show hosts
Filipino television talk show hosts
Filipino television personalities
Filipino radio personalities
ABS-CBN personalities
Voice of America people
Georgetown University College of Arts & Sciences alumni
Filipino emigrants to the United States
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in New York (state)

Leila Benitez-McCollum


Eaman al-Gobory (Arabic language:إيمان الجبوري ) is a doctor from Iraq.  In 2008, she received the International Women of Courage Award.

Life

A-Gobory graduated from Baghdad Medical School.  Then she went to work in Yemen, because she did not want to be in Saddam Hussein's Baath Party in Iraq. She returned to Iraq in 2003, after the war started. She wanted to help the Iraqi people.

Work

Al-Gobory is the National Medical Officer for the International Organization of Migration, an international organization that helps people. She helps Iraqi children get medical care in the U.S. and around the world.  The children receive plastic surgery, prosthetic limbs and heart surgery.  The International Organization of Migration helped 300 men, women and children to go to hospitals in 19 countries.

Al-Gobory also helped build the Iraqi health care system with education.  She worked with Project Hope, Operation Smile, the National Spinal Cord Injury Association, and Operation Give.  She was also a senior advisor to Taha group, a member of the UNDC (Uniited Nations Global Compact), that helps with health and staff development.

In 2011, al-Gobory became the Iraqi Director of Wamar Medical Services, a part of Wamar International, LLC.  Wamar Medical Services works with NATO, the United States Department of State, and the International Office for Migration to bring medical care to Iraq and Afghanistan.

Publications

"Maintaining Baseline, Corrective Surgical Care during Asymmetrical Warfare: A Case Study of a Humanitarian Mission in the Safe Zone of a Neighboring Country", Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, February 2007, K.A. Kelly McQueen, Frederick M. Burkle, Eaman T. Al-Gobory and Christopher C. Anderson.

References

20th-century births
Iraqi people
Living people
Physicians
Year of birth missing (living people)

Eaman al-Gobory


Sustainable refurbishment describes working on existing buildings to improve their environmental performance using sustainable methods and materials. A refurbishment or retrofit is defined as: "any work to a building over and above maintenance to change its capacity, function or performance' in other words, any intervention to adjust, reuse, or upgrade a building to suit new conditions or requirements". Refurbishment can be done to a part of a building, an entire building, or a campus. Sustainable refurbishment takes this a step further to modify the existing building to perform better in terms of its environmental impact and its occupants' environment.

Most sustainable refubrishments are also green retrofits: any refurbishment of an existing building that aims to reduce the carbon emissions and environmental impact of the building. This can include improving the energy efficiency of the HVAC and other mechanical systems, increasing the quality of insulation in the building envelope, implementing sustainable energy generation, and aiming to improve occupant comfort and health.

Green retrofits have become increasingly prominent with their inclusion in a number of building rating systems, such as the USGBC's LEED for Existing Buildings: Operations & Maintenance, Passive House EnerPHit, and Green Globes for Existing Buildings. Some governments offer funding towards green retrofits as existing buildings make up a majority of operational buildings and have been identified as a growing area of consideration in the fight against climate change.

Overview
Sustainable refurbishment is the equivalent of sustainable development which relates to new developments of cities, buildings or industries etc.
Sustainable refurbishment includes insulation and related measures to reduce the energy consumption of buildings, installation of renewable energy sources such as solar water heating and photovoltaics, measures to reduce water consumption, and changes to reduce overheating, improve ventilation and improve internal comfort. The process of sustainable refurbishment includes minimizing the waste of existing components, recycling and using environmentally friendly materials, and minimizing energy use, noise and waste during the refurbishment.

The importance of sustainable refurbishment is that the majority of buildings in use are not new and thus were constructed when energy standards were low or non-existent, and are otherwise incompatible with current standards or the expectations of users. Much of the existing building stock is likely to be in use for many years to come since demolition and replacement is often unacceptable owing to cost, social disruption or because the building is of architectural and/or historical interest. The solution is to refurbish or renovate such buildings to make them appropriate for current and future use and to satisfy current requirements and standards of energy use and comfort.

Sustainable refurbishment is not a new concept but is gaining recognition and importance owing to current concerns about high energy use leading to climate change, overheating in buildings, the need for healthy internal environments, waste and environmental damage associated with materials production. Many governments are beginning to realize the importance of sustainably renovating their existing building stock, rather than just raising standards for new buildings and developments, and are producing guidance and grants and other support and stimulation activities. Think-tanks, lobby groups and voluntary organizations continue to publicize and promote the need for and practice of sustainable refurbishment. Examples and demonstration projects abound in many countries.

The techniques of sustainable refurbishment have been developing over many years and though the principles are very similar to those used on new buildings, the practice and details appropriate for the wide range of situations found in old buildings has required development of specific solutions and guidance to optimize the process and avoid subsequent problems. Detailed technical guidance is widely available from government-sponsored sources.

Retrofits
Most retrofits can be considered somewhat "green" because rather than constructing a new building, an existing one is improved. This saves resources that would otherwise be used to build an entirely new structure. A green retrofit typically aims to incorporate sustainability and save energy costs with each design decision.

Retrofitting a building inherently carries the constraints of the existing building and site. For example, the orientation of a building in regard to the sun has a great impact on its energy performance, but it's generally not within the scope of a retrofit to rotate the building. Budgetary constraints also often impact the energy conservation measures proposed.

Until recently, green retrofits have generally been considered as one-off projects for specific buildings or clients, but given the increased emphasis on improving the energy efficiency of existing building stock in the face of climate change, they are beginning to be reviewed systematically and at scale. The main challenge this presents for governments and advocacy groups is that the existing building stock is characterized by different uses, located in disparate climatic areas, and uses different construction traditions and system technologies. Because of these disparities, it is difficult to characterize strategies that apply to all buildings.

Green retrofits have recently garnered considerable research attention due to government emphasis on retrofitting old building stock to address climate change. It is estimated that up to half of building stock is always over 40 years old. Older buildings have significantly worse energy performance than their modern counterparts due to shortcomings in their design, deterioration in mechanical system efficiency, and increases in envelope permeability. The energy use intensity of houses in the United States dropped 9% from 1985 to 2004 due to improvements in end-use energy efficiency and code improvements. Unfortunately, this is offset by the overall increase in the total number of houses.

Why Sustainable Refurbishment?

Climate Change
One of the objectives of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change. More specifically, the UN supports the immediate reduction of building-related greenhouse gas emissions. Building refurbishment plays a key role in the decarbonization of the current building stock. Other than tearing down existing buildings, it is the only way to improve building performance or to develop zero-emission buildings. Energy-efficient refurbishments are a tool to reduce energy consumption in buildings, which will result in lower greenhouse gas emissions and resource use. Studies present the significance of the possible impact of widespread refurbishment implementation on individual GHG emissions, but also worldwide emissions and energy consumption.

Environmental Justice & Social Sustainability
Social sustainability relates to the impacts of a building on the surrounding or occupying society, community, and individuals. This is considered in environmental impact assessment tools, such as life cycle assessment (LCA). Sustainable refurbishment integrates economic, social, and environmental needs to improve upon the existing building conditions. For example, sustainable buildings are socially sustainable because they are healthier for occupants due to the use of materials that do not negatively impact health.

Indoor Environmental Quality
The indoor environmental quality of the existing building stock is known to often be more unsatisfactory and unhealthy than the outdoor environment due to the design and materials used. The leading argument for sustainable refurbishment, and sustainable building in general, is the belief that green buildings are healthier and more satisfactory for occupants. The specifications for sustainable refurbishments take measures to ensure that the materials and building framework does not radiate dangerous particulates and gasses, like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, into the indoor environment, and further measures are taken to filter indoor air for inhabitants. The "Citizen's Healthcare Principle" states that sustainable refurbishments must ensure that buildings are safe and improve living quality for those inside. The refurbishment design must consider both the indoor microclimate and the external environment around the building when developing the program. The microclimate parameters that should be considered include:
 Air velocity
 Humidity
 Dew point
 Lighting
 Air circulation velocity
 Acoustics
 Temperature

Historic Conservation
The preservation of historic buildings is inherently sustainable since it maximizes the lifespan of existing materials and infrastructure. Conserving the materials and existing structures reduces waste and preserves the character of small historic communities. Many argue that the epitome of sustainability is to not build at all, which equites to preservation and refurbishment.

Finite Resources: Materials and Energy
As a society, we have a finite amount of many resources, nonrenewable energy sources for example. Non-sustainable buildings, in terms of their operation, also consume a significant amount of non-renewable energy resources, relative to other industries. Again, it is necessary to increase the energy efficiency of the existing building stick to reduce non-renewable energy resource consumption, or even replace that with renewable sources entirely. Efficiency can be improved through sustainable building refurbishments that modify the building systems and building operations. With buildings becoming more energy efficient it is increasingly important to look at the life cycle impact of the materials that make up the building. Designing and constructing buildings that are not sustainable for long lifetimes allows for the construction and demolition of buildings with short lifetimes, which wastes construction materials that are not used for their entire lifetime capacity. Reusing existing buildings enables building owners to use the embodied energy that is already invested in the building composition, rather than wasting that embodied carbon and consuming more with a new building construction.

Development of the Goals of Sustainable Refurbishment
This section lays out a timeline and progression of the development of the goals of sustainable refurbishment from a few different authors:

The main goals of "sustainable development", by Baldwin in 1996, include minimizing the impact on human health and the environment, optimal use of non-renewable resources, utilizing renewable resources, and future planning and adaptability. Minimizing impact on the climate and ecological system is achieved through a reduction of emissions of greenhouse gasses, which is connected to the other goal of optimizing the use of non-renewable resources. By reducing the non-renewable energy sources used to construct and operate buildings, the embodied greenhouse gas emissions from buildings are also reduced. The refurbishment could also attempt to protect and enhance local ecology through landscape architecture. Human health is preserved by increasing ventilation and air filtration of indoor spaces and by avoiding potentially harmful construction materials that can impact respiratory health. This can also be achieved by encouraging the reuse or recycling of materials to reduce or eliminate material waste. The goal of renewable resource use can be achieved in a refurbishment by electrifying the home's heating and cooling systems, by installing on-site renewables generation and storage, or by using renewable resource products as building materials – like timber. Building for the future can be achieved through refurbishment by making an existing building more durable and extending the previous lifespan of the building.

In 1996, Keeping and Shiers described the goals of "green refurbishments" as having three parts. The first part includes lower utility costs since less energy is consumed due to a combination of efficient and passive heating and cooling systems. The second part ensures lower maintenance costs since the refurbished systems are simpler and were installed to be accessible for repairs. Finally, the third portion claims that buildings with green refurbishments are healthier and more comfortable for occupants.

Ultimately, in 2006, Sitar et al. defined the principles of "sustainable refurbishments". The goals include decreasing the energy used during operation, which includes heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, etc. Another goal is the utilization of both renewable energy sources and low-impact materials regarding the indoor micro-environment, as well as the exterior macro-environment. They claim to achieve improvement in living conditions in terms of human health, user-friendly controls, and adaptability for future needs. The goal is that this all be achieved through innovation planning to develop a design that is environmentally, economically, and socially beneficial.

Characteristics of Sustainable Refurbishment

Holistic Improvement
Sustainable refurbishments aim to reach "total building performance optimization" with the integrates of multiple systems throughout the building and the community. The refurbishment not only decreases energy consumption but also improves occupant comfort in terms of noise, temperature, lighting, etc. It extends the life cycle of the building, reduces environmental impact, and creates healthy occupant conditions.

Environmental Responsibility
Sustainable refurbishments aim to minimize the negative environmental impacts of the renovation by reducing quantities of harmful materials, utilizing energy-saving technology, and retrofitting the building for renewable energy use, as opposed to non-renewable energy sources. Some responsible environmental measures that can be incorporated in a building retrofit include energy and water efficiency, waste reduction and recycling, use of low environmental impact materials, and effective building operation. An example of energy-efficient designs could include high-efficiency lighting and smart controls. Similarly, an example of water-efficient design could include dual-flushing toilets, greywater recycling, or aerating water fixtures.

Energy Efficiency
A sustainable retrofit ensures that the energy performance of the building after renovation is significantly better than it was before the work. The increase in energy performance must meet the current building regulations for new buildings. The sustainable approach would be to even design beyond the code minimum and plan for future requirements. A deep energy refurbishment should include the integration of energy generation on-site from renewable energy sources, with the goal of developing a nearly zero-energy building. The energy efficiency gained through the architectural retrofit makes the integration of renewable energy sources cost-effective. A study in the United Kingdom showed that, after a refurbishment, buildings had lower operating costs even if sustainability was not a priority of the retrofit.

A study of energy refurbishments of residential buildings showed that the refurbishment led to an average thermal energy savings of 59% during the heating season. The savings consisted of 25% from thermal insulation addition in exterior walls and floor, 10% from window insulation improvements, 6% from a reduction in air exchange, and 18% from the installation of heating controls. The retrofit of the building envelope and operation reduced the energy consumption of the building, the associated greenhouse gas emissions during the operation phase, and the overall environmental impact.

Sustainable refurbishment ensures energy efficiency by improving the following systems:
 Insulation
 Building Envelope Tightness
 Heating
 Cooling
 Conditioning
 Lighting

There are typical strategies to improve upon each of the above systems. Innovative insulation materials can be utilized that have a lower environmental impact, but even non-sustainable insulation additions can improve the energy performance of the building. The building envelope can be improved by replacing the existing windows with efficient windows in terms of thermal bridging and optimizing solar gain. The use of passive ventilation strategies or hybrid systems that use both passive and active strategies reduces the energy required for conditioning. Buildings' heating and cooling systems can be powered with solar energy, or even use solar-heated water, which both reduce non-renewable energy consumption through heating and cooling. Finally, the electricity used for lighting can be reduced by optimizing daylighting in occupiable spaces.

Improved Materials Based on Impact
The overall environmental impact of a sustainable refurbishment is highly dependent on the material choices for the refurbishment. The Rational Resources Principle for refurbishment encourages the efficient use of construction materials and natural resources. This is quantified through life cycle analysis that measures the impact of a material over its lifetime, which stretches into the "D phase" that includes end-of-life waste after the building is demolished. Waste transportation adds costs to both construction and building maintenance. Designing refurbishments that reduce waste, and maximize reuse, minimize waste hauling costs in the short-term and long-term by using materials for their entire intended life.

When materials can be compared on the basis of a common bottom line, through life cycle analysis, an optimum path for the design appears. Ultimately, since the refurbishment will require additional construction materials, there will be a negative environmental impact, but the aim of sustainable refurbishment is to minimize these impacts. For example, reusing on-site timber, using reclaimed timber, and using timber from renewable certified sources are sustainable material choices based on taking advantage of the embodied carbon that has already been invested in those materials. As was mentioned prior, the analysis of the life cycle of building materials' primary energy demand and global warming potential is becoming more important as buildings are consuming less energy during their operation. The human health impact of materials is also included in their life cycle assessment, meaning that a construction material cannot be sustainable if it harms its occupants. Therefore, sustainable refurbishments should not include adhesives, paints, or glues that expel low-volatile organic compounds into the indoor air of the building. Materials that harm indoor occupants or the exterior ecology are considered lethal and are therefore not utilized in sustainable refurbishments.

Concept Model
The image shown is a conceptual model of sustainable refurbishment. The dimensions of the model include technical, economic, architectural, social, ecological, and cultural. The dimensions are all related and influence each other and the refurbishment design itself. The model depicts how stakeholders expect the refurbishment  design to yield energy savings, increased occupant comfort and health, extension of the building's lifetime, environmental protection, and, of course, an economic outcome. These expectation align with the goals for sustainable refurbishment that were developed in the previous section. The concept model also introduces the steps of the refurbishment process that will be discussed next in this article.

Steps of Sustainable Refurbishment Process
The principle of sustainable refurbishment should be incorporated into the project development from the first schematic through building commissioning and turnover. This section provides a generalized list of steps in the design process for a sustainable refurbishment:

1. Data collection:
 Problem formulation
 Project goals developed
2. Determination of the degree of refurbishment necessary:
 Physical deterioration?
 Presence of moisture?
 Thermal bridging?
 Current code requirements not met?
 High energy demand/consumption?
 Poor indoor environmental quality and/or air quality?
 Poor outdoor air quality?
 Unsatisfied occupants?
3. Modeling phase:
 Analyze data collected
 Develop criteria to base the alternative comparison on
 Develop design alternatives (consider stakeholders and look at best practices)
4. Selection Phase:
 Evaluate alternatives (address strengths and weaknesses)
 Choose a recommendation
 Optimize chosen design
5. Implementation Phase

In the modeling phase, it is important to consider the greater environment that the refurbishment is impacting because decisions cannot be made separate from this context. The social and political conditions of the community need to be considered, specifically the living conditions and standards. The other context to consider is the ecological conditions, like the average temperature, humidity, soil quality, natural resources, topography, etc..

Components of a green retrofit

Integrated design
Green retrofits utilize an integrated design strategy. This is in opposition to the traditional waterfall design strategy, in which architects, engineers, and contractors operate independently from one another. In an integrated design strategy, these teams work together to leverage their areas of expertise and solve design problems while also considering the building as a whole. This is imperative for a green retrofit, where the design solutions are often constrained by the existing site. This could relate to the orientation and geometry of the existing building form, the size of the site, or the installation requirements of the existing and proposed mechanical systems. Because these constraints affect all aspects of building design, the only way sustainable, effective, and cost-efficient solutions can be synthesized is when project teams consider all these aspects from the project start.

Occupant behavior
Many sustainable building practices are passive and can be automated, like insulation or light controls. Others depend on the behavior of the building's occupants to realize their full energy efficiency potential. An energy efficient heating system does very little good if the windows are left open in winter. Per Ascione et al., "the first lever of energy efficiency is a proper energy-education of users". Green retrofits can involve training building occupants in sustainable practices and building systems that they'll interact with, which helps ensure that any energy conservation measures used will reach their full design potential. Training can be handled by system manufacturers or the project design team.

Lighting retrofits
One of the most common forms of a green retrofit is a full or partial lighting retrofit. A lighting retrofit usually consists of replacing all or some of the lightbulbs in a building with newer, more efficient models. This can also include changing light fixtures, ballasts, and drivers. LED bulbs are generally the preferred choice in a lighting retrofit because of their greatly increased efficiency compared to incandescent bulbs, but other types of bulbs like compact fluorescent or metal halides may be used as well.

Lighting retrofits are a popular form of green retrofit because, compared to other methods of improving energy efficiency, they are relatively straightforward to plan and execute, and the energy savings often provide a quick return on investment. Most modern LED and compact fluorescent bulbs are designed to work with existing light fixtures and rarely involve any additional work than removing and screwing in a new lightbulb. The installation is also relatively quick compared to more invasive energy conservation measures.

Lighting retrofits can also include implementing new lighting controls like occupancy sensors, daylight sensors, and timers. When correctly implemented, these controls can reduce the demand for lighting. However, due to the complicated nature of lighting controls, there is debate as to whether or not they are an effective energy conserving measure because of the prevalence of over-optimistic energy usage reduction estimates and the difficulty in predicting the actions of human occupants.

HVAC retrofits
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) account for around 50% of a building's operating energy consumption, and HVAC retrofits can account for 40-70% of energy savings. Reducing this consumption can provide both energy and cost savings, so it is the main focus of many green retrofits, especially in colder climates where heating accounts for over 60% of energy use. The heating system, cooling system, air handling systems, humidification systems, and ductwork in the building are often considered.

Heat recovery ventilation is recommended for newly air-sealed homes as it uses the heat from the warm, moist, stale air that is being vented from the home to warm the cool, fresh, and filtered air that is entering the home. This allows for minimal heat loss while mitigating concerns of carbon monoxide poisoning, radon gas, or harmful particulates accumulating in the home.

Other green HVAC retrofits can include implementing a newer, more efficient model of the same type as the existing system, such as replacing an old water boiler with a more efficient one to feed a hydronic heating system. Sometimes a larger system overhaul is merited—for example, exchanging an old boiler for a newer ground or air source heat pump system.

Building envelope retrofits
Thermal insulation and building envelope performance are key to the overall energy performance of any building. Many older buildings are not insulated up to current standards, let alone up to the standards recommended in many green building rating systems. Many of these buildings spend energy and money heating, cooling, or conditioning the air inside them only to see it seep out through leaks in the building envelope or through poorly insulated windows.

During many green retrofits, the first step towards improving the building's envelope is to evaluate its current shortcomings. Air-sealing is an easily accessible and cost-efficient way to improve the energy efficiency of a home that is mechanically heated or cooled. Caulking can be used to fill gaps in immobile areas like window and door frames and or poorly sealed appliances. Weather stripping can be used where moving parts meet, such as the area between the door and the doorframe or windows that can open. These drafty areas can be found by feeling for temperature differences and drafts on days when the temperature inside the house is dramatically different than the temperature outside the house, burning incense and watching how the smoke moves to detect drafts, or hiring a professional to perform a blower door test. In a blower door test, a door with a fan and a gauge is installed into one of the doorways and the house is depressurized. The gauge can then measure the air changes per hour (ACH), or how many times the volume of air in the house is completely replaced in one hour. The draftier a house is, the higher the air changes per hour will be.

Window retrofits
Windows are the weakest point of insulation in a building's envelope and contribute greatly to how thermally effective that envelope is. Because of this, windows are another common area of focus for a green retrofit. Similar to a lighting retrofit, windows are a relatively straightforward aspect of a building to retrofit, with easy-to-calculate payback periods. Modern, efficient windows are generally sized for existing window openings and can usually be installed without much additional work on the building envelope.

Most green retrofits will replace older single-pane windows with more efficient triple-paned varieties that are filled with an inert gas such as argon or krypton. These windows have greater R-values, so they insulate a space far better than single-pane windows. Some windows have low-e coatings to control the solar heat gain coefficient.

Green roof retrofits

Green roofs, also called living roofs, have a number of major benefits, including reducing stormwater runoff and urban heat island effect, increasing roof insulation, improving building acoustics, and providing biodiversity.

There are many factors to account for when considering a green roof for a green retrofit. Extensive green roofs use a thin substrate layer for the often shorter vegetation that needs less room for roots to grow. Intensive green roofs use a thicker growing substrate to accommodate larger plant species that require more space for their roots. Semi-intensive green roofs fall somewhere in between the two. The strength of the existing structure must be considered; many existing structures were not designed for an intensive green roof, which can carry a considerable structural load. The existing roof also needs to be evaluated for stripping or re-waterproofing. Some roofs can simply be laid over with sedum mats, while others require additional work to prepare. A peaked or sloped roof does not preclude the installation of a green roofing system but can influence the installation costs and product choices available.

In general, older buildings with lower existing insulation values benefit the most from green roof retrofits, and where there are no modifications necessary to install one, green roofs have been shown to have many benefits.

Passive design
Passive design is a design strategy that uses the shape and placement of the architecture and landscaping to heat, cool, light, ventilate, and sometimes provide power to the building. Often, this impacts the shape of the building envelope, the orientation of the building, and the placement of the building. The shape of the building can also create microclimates in which the building is designed to trap heat or funnel breezes for warming in the winter or cooling in the summer. While these passive design elements are more often applied in newly built green buildings, passive design can still be a consideration in green retrofits. For example, if there are windows that receive very little sunlight in the winter or a large amount of sunlight in the summer, those may be replaced first to reduce an undesirable amount of heat lost in the winter or gained in the summer. Using landscaping, such as planting a deciduous tree in front of south-facing windows to maximize solar heat gain in the winter while shading the windows in the summer, is also an example of passive design.

Sustainable Refurbishment Case Study
A 2019 case study in Vienna explored the impact of a sustainable refurbishment that included a Multi-Active Façade System. The assumption of the study was that the improvement of the outermost layer of the structure, the façade shell, was the most important regarding energy efficiency. Insulation, specifically, was a major contributor to energy savings during building operation, and a life cycle analysis was required to make an informed decision about the insulation material. The façade system in this study reduced the building's energy demand with insulation and corrugated board, which passively increased the solar gain in the winter when extra heat was required to minimize energy consumption and reduced the solar gain during the summer. This was achieved by installing the façade at a strategic angle to allow ultraviolet rays to pass through only when the sun is at its lower winter angle. The façade also integrated renewable energy generation into the shell itself, as well as energy storage for when there is no active radiation. After the sustainable refurbishment with the new facade, the heating demand for the building was modeled to be about 53% less than the baseline value. The low energy demand even exceeded the new building standard requirements for 2021 by about 45%, making the design adaptable and resilient for the future.

Costs, barriers, and benefits
Possible benefits of green retrofits include:

 Improved energy security
 Reduced air pollution
 Reduced greenhouse gas emissions and impact on climate change
 Increased thermal comfort
 Enhanced indoor air quality and occupant health
 Generation of local jobs
 Reduction of peak electrical demand

Possible barriers to green retrofits include:

 Initial cost and financing
 Lack of knowledge and experience of the designers, architects, construction workers, inspectors, and financial institutions involved in the project
 Building code regulations
 Lack of consumer interest

The scope of a green retrofit can vary widely. It can involve specific building systems, like the lighting, or can be a full renovation of all non-structural components. While a lighting retrofit is straightforward to execute and relatively unobtrusive to building occupants, it will not generally carry as much of a benefit or cost as an insulation retrofit. When weighing the benefits and costs of a green retrofit, each of these components must be considered towards the project as a whole.

While green retrofits do have an up-front cost, the amount depends on how extensive the retrofits are. Likewise, the kind of retrofit that is implemented will also impact how fast the investment is returned in savings. The economic feasibility of a green retrofit depends on the state of installed systems of the existing building, the proposed design, the energy costs of the local utility grid, and the climatic conditions of the site. Any economic incentives granted will depend on what country or state the project is in. These incentives differ regionally and can affect the total project feasibility. In Ireland, for example, "shallow" green retrofits have been found to be economically feasible, but "deep" retrofits are often not feasible without government grant aid to offset the initial capital costs.

The EU has found that implementing green retrofit programs comes with the benefit of "energy security, job creation, fuel poverty alleviation, health and indoor comfort".

Green retrofits can carry benefits such as the re-use of existing building material. Concrete and steel have some of the highest embodied energy impacts of any building material and can account for up to 60% of the carbon used in the construction of a building. They are primarily used in the structure of a building, which usually remains untouched in retrofits.

Most types of green retrofit introduce new building materials into the space which can themselves emit harmful indoor air pollutants. The amount, type, and exposure to these pollutants will depend on the material itself, what it is used for, and how it is installed. Often, green retrofits call for sealing leaks in the building envelope to prevent the escape of conditioned air, but if this is not offset by an increase in ventilation, it can contribute to higher concentrations of indoor air pollutants in the building.

Criticism

Technological Developments Needed
There is criticism of the efficacy of sustainable refurbishment in terms of decarbonizing the current building stock. This criticism is directed specifically toward large-scale energy refurbishments of industrial structures. One could argue that the embodied and operational carbon of those types of buildings are significantly larger than that of smaller residential or office buildings which are discussed in this article. However, the technology to efficiently heat, cool, and power these structures do not yet exist, and they cannot completely rely on passive strategies due to more stringent code restrictions. It cannot be expected that these large-impact buildings be refurbished if it cannot be done economically. This argument impacts the hopeful global energy consumption decrease that researchers propose for sustainable refurbishments.

Adaptability of Current Housing Stock
Another criticism of sustainable refurbishments is that not all existing buildings are good candidates for refurbishment. Put plainly, it is challenging to improve on buildings that were poorly designed from the start. It was proven that floor plans that are typical, with deep shapes, were more adaptable than irregular designs. Similarly, floor-to-floor heights impact the designer and contractor's ability to modify utility ducts, meaning that taller buildings are easier to refurbish. Research also shows that structures that qualify as "higher grade" building stock experience greater levels and frequency of sustainable refurbishment. There seem to be a number of reasons for this, one being that premium buildings undergo retrofit earlier in their lifecycle in order to compete with newer sustainable buildings. It can be argued that it is not sustainable to replace building systems early in their lifecycle, just to invest in additional embodied carbon and discard the old equipment into a landfill. However, there is an opportunity for "young" removed materials to be utilized in lower-quality refurbishments in low-income communities. In an Australian study using data from 2007, it was found that about 89% of all premium retrofits were to buildings that were less than 25 years old, with the remaining 11% aged between 26 and 50 years old. The same study showed that no refurbishments occurred in the "least desirable" stock locations.

Social Justice
This gap in building improvement should be addressed by policymakers to avoid an environmental justice issue with a "two-tiered" market. Of course, the premium stock has high rental prices which incentivize owners to invest in them further, which is not the case for the lower quality stock. It is not fair or just that only occupants that can afford premium housing get to live in the ensured healthy and comfortable environment of a sustainable refurbishment. The Affordability Principle states that sustainable refurbishments should be affordable for the general population. In addition, information about sustainable refurbishment should be shared and freely available to people of all income levels, ages, races, etc. because everyone deserves an equal opportunity to live better.

Example demonstration projects
 http://www.dena.de
 http://www.superhomes.org.uk

Sources of technical guidance
 http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk
 http://www.ademe.fr
 http://www.nps.gov/tps/standards/rehabilitation/guidelines/index.htm

See also

General
 Architectural Engineering
 Building Science
 Carbon neutrality
 Greening
 HOME STAR
 PACE financing
 Sustainable refurbishment
 Deep energy retrofit
 Efficient energy use
 Sustainable design
 Environmental design

Energy and HVAC
 Deep energy retrofit
 Low-energy_building
 Zero-energy building
 Zero_heating_building
 List_of_low-energy_building_techniques
 Efficient_energy_use

Indoor Environmental Quality
 Greening
 Sick building syndrome
 Healthy_building

Material Choices
 Deconstruction
 Sustainable architecture
 Sustainable_materials_management
 Building_insulation_material
 Insulated_glazing
 Life-cycle_assessment
 Environmental_Product_Declaration

Design Standards
 Passive_house
 LEED
 Living_Building_Challenge
 BREEAM

References

Further reading
Several books on the subject have been published aimed at different audiences, for example:
 for architects and other professionals:

 for the DIY market:

External links
 Residential Sector: Designing a prescriptive whole house retrofit program, Michael Wheeler, California Public Utilities Commission.
Buildings, Project Regeneration. 2021.

Sustainable architecture
Low-energy building
Sustainable building
Environmental social science concepts

Sustainable refurbishment


The Western barred bandicoot (Perameles bougainville), also known as the Shark Bay bandicoot or the Marl, is a small species of bandicoot; now extinct across most of its former range, the western barred bandicoot only survives on offshore islands and in fenced sanctuaries on the mainland.

Description
The Western barred bandicoot Is much smaller than its relative the eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), and is darker in its colouring, which is a grizzled brown. It measures about  in length. It has two "bars" across its rump and has a short, tapered tail. It was a solitary and crepuscular hunter, eating insects, spiders, and worms and occasionally tubers and roots. When the bandicoot feels threatened, it typically leaps into the air and then burrows to safety.

Taxonomy
The first description of the Western barred bandicoot was from a specimen taken at Peron Peninsula in 1817 by naturalists on the Uranie. Populations of the Perameles species have been referred to by various names, in different regions of Australia;

 P. myosurus myosurus – King George Sound, Western Australia
 P. fasciata – Liverpool Plains, New South Wales
 P. myosuros notina – St Vincent Gulf, South Australia
 P. bougainville – Shark Bay, Western Australia

Since all mainland species are naturally extinct it is believed early taxonomists described the same species based in local populations on pelage colour, however this remains unresolved due to the lack of mainland specimens. In the year 2000 the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 identified two different taxa, P. bougainville fasciata as extinct, and P. bougainville bougainville as endangered. Today they are all identified under the one species Perameles bougainville.

Ecology
The distribution history shows that the species used a variety of vegetation types as habitats, dependent of its locality on mainland Australia; from Allocasuarina seedlings, open salt bush, blue bush plains, stony ridges bordering scrub and along the Murray-Darling river system. The last natural species habitats are in vegetated beach dune scrub, low heath and hummock grasslands.

Breeding season has been recorded to be triggered from the first considerable rainfall after the summer drought in Autumn. Females reach sexual maturity at 3–5 months and weigh an average of . The female carries between 1–3 young in her pouch, averaging 2 young, with the litter size increasing with a larger mother. Four young have been recorded in pouches in South Australia. The female carries her young between the months of March to November. The male Western barred bandicoot matures at 4–6 months and weighs an average of . The female Western barred bandicoot is larger than the male, being the only recorded species of bandicoot with a larger female.

The Western barred bandicoot are known as solitary omnivorous animal, foraging on their own, eating plant matter, invertebrates and skinks. They have an isolated well concealed nest made from the litter of their habitat, most often using the same nest each night. Females are known to be the only individuals who share their nests, and only with their young.

Distribution
At the time of European settlement the Western barred bandicoot was widespread across southern mainland Australia from Western Australia to central New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia in arid and semi-arid areas of the Mainland. The last known record of the species occurring on mainland Australia, is in Ooldea, South Australia in 1922 and Rawlinna, Western Australia in 1929. It was assessed as being extinct on the Australian mainland, Dirk Hartog and  Faure islands before reintroduction projects. The only surviving natural populations are on Bernier and Dorre islands in Shark Bay, Western Australia.

The reintroduction program for threatened marsupials saw the Western barred bandicoot reintroduced back to mainland Australia in 1995 to Heirisson Prong, Shark Bay; 66 years after the last known mainland recording. The translocation was ultimately a failure, with the species recently identified as locally extinct on Heirisson Prong.

However the species was successfully reintroduced into the fenced Arid Recovery Reserve at Roxby Downs, South Australia in 2000, and to Faure island, Shark Bay in 2005. It was reintroduced to a large fenced reserve at Western Australia's Mount Gibson Sanctuary in 2017, to Dirk Hartog Island in October 2019, to a fenced landscape within Sturt National Park in 2021, and to a fenced private reserve on South Australia's Eyre Peninsula in August 2021.

In September 2023, the species was released at two large fenced reserves within New South Wales; in the Pilliga Forest and Mallee Cliffs.

Captive, contained breeding facility populations on the mainland at Dryandra Woodland, in Western Australia were not successful, though there are captive populations within the Barna Mia Nocturnal Animal Sanctuary, allowing people to see the animals in a controlled environment within the Dryandra Woodland.

Disease
In 1999 the Western barred bandicoot was found to have lesions, identified as papillomatosis and carcinomatosis syndrome. It is described as a wart-like syndrome and was first found in captive populations in 1999, wild populations were first observed as being affected in 2001. The disease has been described as an emerging disease and is unlike any skin diseases previously documented on any Australian marsupials. The disease is known to occur only in adult Western barred bandicoots, with the average onset recorded from 3 years and 2 months with lesions increasing in size until they become debilitating. Infected individuals average survival age is 4 years and 6 months, with individuals surviving an average of 1 year and 4.5 months after becoming affected, either through natural death or euthanasia. Today the disease is confined to Bernier Island, and captive populations sourced from Bernier Island. The disease has until recently restricted the translocation of species to only those from Dorre island, however a 2019 introduction of animals to Dirk Hartog Island included animals from Bernier, which were visually screened for evidence of the disease.

Predators
There are records of predation by the native Gould's monitor (Varanus gouldii) and the western quoll (Dasyurus geoffroii).

Predation from introduced species and human impact are believed to be the biggest causes of species loss since European settlement. Predominately affecting rodents and marsupials weighing between 35-5500 grams, up to 49% of the original species of New South Wales have been affected, including the extinction of the Western barred bandicoot from mainland Australia. Feral cats are believed to be primarily responsible for regional extinctions of native mammals before 1857. Foxes have become well established and are also identified as a contributor for the decline and extinction of many Australian mammal species.

Introduced rabbits are not a predator, however they out-compete and modify the vegetation required for food and habitat of the Western barred bandicoot. Rabbit populations also interfere with the litter size of bandicoots; a decrease in rabbit abundance will increase the litter sizes recorded for Western barred bandicoots.

A fence designed to exclude foxes and feral cats was constructed across a narrow neck of Heirisson Prong in 1990, intended to protect a 1200 ha area at the tip of the peninsula from exotic predators. The original population from Dorre Island consisted of 14 individuals. This area was a heavily monitored and managed area and provided a safe refuge area of . Numbers fluctuated, with the highest number of 470 individuals recorded in 2006; fluctuations were directly linked to the invasion of foxes and cats within the controlled fenced area. Feral cats were believed primarily responsible for the local extinction of western barred bandicoots on Heirisson Prong in 2008.

Conservation
Conservation efforts for the Western barred bandicoot have been ongoing since 1995, when 14 bandicoots derived from Dorre Island were reintroduced to Heirisson Prong. A fence designed to exclude foxes and feral cats was constructed across a narrow neck of Heirisson Prong in 1990, allowing a  area of the tip of the peninsula to be rid of exotic predators.

Low levels of genetic diversity can indicate vulnerability for conservation of endangered species. Captive breeding recovery programs will have higher success rates with an understanding of genetic data. Diversity losses of genetic drifting due to island bottle necking are likely to counteract the fitness of the species, leaving them vulnerable to diseases, which is already evident.

The few Western barred bandicoot population locations have restricted areas of occupancy, the species is highly susceptible to human activities, climate change, disease and predators, placing pressure on the species survival. These circumstances formulate the vulnerability of becoming critically endangered or extinct in a very short period of time.

Conservation listings

 International – Vulnerable;
  The species was previously listed as rare (1982–1990), and endangered (1994–2008).  On 16 March 2014 the IUCN updated the listing to Vulnerable D2.
 National – Endangered;
 The species P.bougainville bougainville from Shark Bay is listed as endangered under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 from 16 July 2000.
 National – Extinct;
 The species P.bougainville fasciata,  (eastern), Liverpool Plains Striped Bandicoot is listed as extinct under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 from 16 July 2000.
 Western Australia – Vulnerable;
 Vulnerable under the Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (Wildlife Conservation  (Specially Protected Fauna) Notice 2018, schedule 3)
 South Australia – Endangered;
 National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972—1.7.2015 Schedule 7
 Victoria – Extinct;
 - Western Barred Bandicoot (eastern subspecies) Perameles bougainville fasciata   Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988.
 New South Wales – Extinct;
 Perameles bougainville fasciata Gray, 1841 Western Barred Bandicoot (mainland) NSW Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016.

References

External links

 ARKive on Western Barred Bandicoot
 Arid Recovery
 Australianfauna.com on Western Barred Bandicoot

Endangered fauna of Australia
Extinct mammals of South Australia
Mammals of Victoria (state)
Mammals of Western Australia
Marsupials of Australia
Peramelemorphs
Mammals described in 1824

Western barred bandicoot