The Centaur class aircraft carrier was the final iteration of the 1942 Design Light Fleet Carrier developed by the United Kingdom for the Royal Navy during the Second World War. They were designed in 1943 to operate higher-performance aircraft than the preceding . Four ships were laid down in 1944-1945 and completed in 1953-1959. Rapid developments in carrier warfare and technology overtook the ships even as they were under construction, and the associated costs of modernization led to ships being completed to different specifications. Only the last ship, , was fitted as a modern fixed-wing carrier; she was also the last of the class to retire in 2017 as .

Development
Britain hoped to order eight light fleet carriers in 1943 to supplement the . Matters were complicated by the demand to operate larger and higher performing aircraft; at the end of 1942 the Joint Technical Committee recommended that carriers be able to operate  aircraft with a landing speed of . A new light carrier design was required as the  could not be modified to handle the new requirements; it became the first British carrier design to be dominated by aircraft operations. A sketch design was prepared by the end of May 1943, and the final design was approved in March 1944; it was revised in 1947.

Eight of the new light carriers were ordered in 1943. It quickly became apparent that wartime demands on shipyard capacity made it impossible to complete the ships in 1946. Only three - Albion, Centaur, Elephant - started construction in 1944; Bulwark started in 1945; the remainder were cancelled on 15 October 1945 with Elephant being renamed Hermes after one of the cancelled ships. The remainder were completed in the 1950s

The cost of modernization saw the ships diverge in capability even before completion. Albion and Bulwark were completed with interim angled flight decks and hydraulic catapults. They were not modernized to operate modern aircraft, instead being converted into helicopter assault ships ("commando carriers"). Centaur was partially modernized with steam catapults shortly after being commissioned and limited to operating mainly de Havilland Sea Vixen fighters until retirement in 1965. Hermes was the last ship completed - in 1959 - and the only one to be fully modernized. Her career as a conventional carrier ended in 1970 while operating Sea Vixens and Blackburn Buccaneers; afterwards, she served as a helicopter carrier and then as a V/STOL carrier operating Sea Harrier fighters. Hermes was sold to India as , and continued to operate Sea Harriers from 1987 until retiring in 2017.

Design

The 1942 light fleet carrier was conceived as a wartime expedient to respond to the Royal Navy's desperate need for fast carriers. The design was ruthlessly simplified to reduce cost and construction times; the hull was unarmoured and built to merchant standards, armament was limited to light anti-aircraft guns, and it used existing cruiser machinery. During requirements discussions, it was suggested that durability was needed for just three years of service.

From the initial 1943 sketches, the Centaur was designed for longer post-war careers to a hybrid of merchant and warship standards. The flight deck, longtitudinal protective bulkhead, middle deck over the machinery, and lower decks over aviation fuel were constructed with hardened steel. The magazines and bomb rooms were covered by 2-inch non-cemented armour. The remainder of the hull was made of mild steel. The hull was enlarged to accommodate larger aircraft; the 1-inch of hardened steel construction of the flight deck also supported heavier aircraft. The axial flight deck included one catapult. The machinery was half the set used on the  for 76,000 shaft horsepower on two shafts; there was no capacity to develop new machinery. Armament neared fleet carrier standards with 4 twin 4.5-inch BD guns.

The design was modified in 1947. Living arrangements were upgraded to peacetime standards and to include centralized messing; the aft hangar was converted into additional living space. The addition of a second catapult may have also contributed to hangar length being reduced from  to 381 ft. The 4.5 inch guns were removed. The island was redesigned to add the new two-deck configuration for the action information organization. The intended radar suite was an air warning Type 980, a gunnery air search Type 293, and two pairs of air control Type 277Q; none of these were actually used.

Ships

Hermes (cancelled)
Hermes was the original name-ship of the class. She was ordered from Cammell Laird of Birkenhead on 12 July 1943. No work had been done when construction was ordered to be deferred in early 1944. The ship was cancelled on 15 October 1945. The name was transferred to Elephant.

Centaur

Centaur was the first ship completed and the only one completed to the original design. She was ordered from Harland & Wolff on 12 July 1943 and laid down on 30 May 1944. Construction was halted for two years. The ship was completed on 1 September 1953 and commissioned on 17 September. An interim 5.5-degree angled deck was fitted at Portsmouth Dockyard from October 1953 to May 1954. Centaur underwent a limited modernization refit from September 1956 to September 1958 during which the hydraulic catapults were replaced by BS-4 steam catapults; features required to operate modern strike aircraft, like a full angled flight deck, were not fitted due to yard capacity issues. Afterwards, she was limited to mainly Sea Vixen fighters and Fairey Gannet anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft.

Centaur operated as an aircraft carrier and a helicopter assault ship during the suppression of the Tanganyika Rifles in 1964. She decommissioned for the last time on 27 September 1965 and became an accommodation ship for the remainder of her life. Plans to convert the ship into a helicopter carrier were cancelled in 1966. The hulk was sold for scrapping on 11 August 1972.

Albion

Albion was ordered from Swan Hunter on 12 July 1943 and laid down at Wallsend-on-Tyne on 23 March 1944. Work slowed after 1945. The hull was launched on 6 May 1947 and then laid-up with machinery installed; construction resumed after August 1949. She was commissioned on 26 May 1954 as the first carrier ever to be completed with both an angled flight deck - an interim 5.5-degree one - and mirror landing aids. She participated in Operation Musketeer during the Suez Crisis in 1956.

Albion was to have been modernized with steam catapults after Centaur, but this was cancelled after the 1957 defence policy review. Instead, she became the second ship of the class - after Bulwark - to be converted into a helicopter assault ship; the refit was done at Portsmouth Dockyard from February 1961 to July 1962. Albion could carry 900 troops, a greater number than her sister's due to a more extensive conversion; Bulwark was later refitted to a similar standard. Another defence review in 1973 led to Albion being discarded - rather than being refitted - to pay for . She was decommissioned for the last time on 2 March 1973, to be replaced by  when the latter's conversion to a helicopter assault ship was completed in August 1973. Albion was sold on 22 October 1973 to be converted into a heavy-lift crane to support the North Sea oil industry; the scheme fell through and the hull was sold for scrapping a few weeks later.

Bulwark

Bulwark was ordered from Harland & Wolff on 12 July 1943, but deferred in early 1944. She was laid down on 10 May 1945, becoming the fourth ship of the class instead of Monmouth which Fairfield had been unable to start construction of in 1944. Work slowed after the war. The carrier commissioned on 29 October 1954, and was completed with an interim 5.5-degree angled flight deck on 4 November. Bulwark served as a trials and training carrier in 1955 and 1956, replacing  which was laid up in December 1954 and sold for scrapping in November 1956. The carrier returned to operational status in August 1956 and participated in Operation Musketeer during the Suez Crisis in November.

The 1957 defence policy review led to Bulwark being converted into a helicopter assault ship rather than being modernized for fixed-wing aircraft. The initial conversion was done at Portsmouth Dockyard from January 1959 to January 1960, with another refit occurring in 1963 to match the more extensive conversion of Albion. In June 1968, she demonstrated - for the first time - the reinforcement of Norway by assault carriers during NATO Exercise Polar Express.

The carrier was reduced to reserve in April 1976. In 1978,  was retired before the s entered service; Bulwark was refitted in 1977-1979 and returned to service on 23 February 1979 to fill the gap. The ship suffered a boiler room fire in March 1980; the damage was not fully repaired and her maximum speed was decreased. Another major fire, coupled with the ship's poor material state, led to her retirement six months earlier than planned; she decommissioned for the last time on 27 March 1981. The hull was used for demolitions training by the Royal Marines. A proposal to convert the hull into an aircraft maintenance carrier for the Falklands War was rejected due to her poor condition and insufficient equipment. Bulwark was sold for scrapping in 1984.

Hermes (ex-Elephant)

Elephant was ordered from Vickers-Armstrongs on 12 July 1943, and laid down at Barrow-in-Furness on 21 June 1944. She was renamed as Hermes on 5 November 1945 following the cancellation of the name-ship of the class. Construction was protracted due to work on the higher-priority  and major design revisions. The ship was launched in 1953 only to undergo full modernization that required partial disassembly and reconstruction; steam catapults, a full 8-degree angled flight deck, a side lift instead of a forward centerline lift, the Comprehensive Display System (CDS), and the Type 984 radar were installed. Hermes completed builder's trials on 18 November 1959 and was commissioned on 25 November.

Hermes was converted into a helicopter assault ship at Portsmouth Dockyard from 1 March 1971 to 14 August 1973; the steam catapults, arrestor gear, CDS, and the Type 984 were removed. She was refitted as an ASW carrier in 1977. The carrier trialled the Sea Harrier in 1977-1978. From May 1980 to 9 May 1981 she was refitted at Portsmouth into a general-purpose carrier operating Sea Harriers, and ASW and air assault helicopters; a 12-degree ski-jump and Ferranti 1600E computer were installed. She was flagship of the British taskforce during the Falklands War in 1982.

Hermes paid-off for the last time on 22 November 1983 and sold to India after the completion of . She was refitted at Devonport Dockyard for a year and then commissioned into the Indian Navy as INS Viraat on 12 May 1987. Viraat decommissioned on 6 March 2017, and scrapped starting in 2020.

Arrogant
Arrogant was ordered from Swan Hunter on 12 July 1943, deferred in early 1944, and then cancelled on 15 October 1945. No work appears to have been done. She was to be built at Wallsend-on-Tyne.

Monmouth
Monmouth was ordered from the Fairfield Shipbuilding & Engineering Company on 12 July 1943. She was to have been one of the four ships to start construction in 1944, but Fairfield was too overloaded to do so; Bulwark replaced Monmouth as the fourth ship in 1945. Monmouth was cancelled on 15 October 1945 with no work apparently having been done.

Polyphemus
Polyphemus was ordered from Devonport Dockyard on 11 August 1943, to be constructed after HMS Terrible. Construction was deferred in late 1943 and cancelled on 15 October 1945. Parsons Marine Engineering received orders for machinery before the deferral; the orders were cancelled before the ship was. The slipway would have required a slight extension to build the carrier; Fore Street was purchased to make room and walled off, and was only returned to Plymouth in 2005.

See also
 1942 Design Light Fleet Carrier
 Light aircraft carrier

 List of aircraft carriers of the Royal Navy

References

Citations

Sources

External links

HMS Bulwark Albion Centaur Photo Gallery

Light aircraft carrier classes

Ship classes of the Royal Navy

Centaur-class aircraft carrier


Avoda, or Avodah () in a modern context usual referring to business-type activities, it can also mean agricultural work and, more traditionally, serving God.

Original meaning
In its original, traditional sense, avodah was applied to sacrifices offered in the Temple in Jerusalem. The word was also used to describe the epitome of sacrificial rite, the complex and fraught main service of the High Priest on Yom Kippur (The Day of Atonement). Today it refers to a liturgical reenactment of the aforementioned ceremony which is recited during the Musaf Amidah of Yom Kippur.

In Chassidism avodah generally refers to divine service (or worship). For example, it is part of the divine service to serve God with joy.

Bnei Akiva: Torah ve'avoda
Avodah is one of the two concepts that underlie the ideology of the Bnei Akiva movement; the other is Torah.

In this ideological framework, the word was originally utilised in a strictly agricultural context. "Avodah" meant working on a kibbutz. In more recent years, Bnei Akiva has had to redefine the terminology. Tens of thousands of its members currently live, or plan to live in an urban setting in Israel and it is generally perceived that the needs of Israel have developed somewhat since Bnei Akiva was founded. The movement has therefore subtly redefined Avodah, to mean work that contributes towards the building up of the land of Israel.

See also
Torah im Derech Eretz

References

Political philosophy
Hebrew words and phrases
Work
Jewish animal sacrifice

Avodah


Luís Moniz Pereira (born in 1947 in Lisbon, Portugal) is Professor of Computer Science and Director of the AI centre at New University of Lisbon. His research is in the field of logic programming and in knowledge representation, reasoning and cognitive science more generally.

He was the founding president of the Portuguese AI association, and has been a founding member of the editorial boards of the journals of Logic Programming, Automated Reasoning, New Generation Computing, Theory and Practice of Logic Programming, Universal Computer Science, Applied Logic, Electronic Transactions on AI, and of the Computational Logic Newsletter. He is also advisory editor of the International Journal of Reasoning-Based Intelligent Systems and Associate Editor for Artificial Intelligence of the ACM Computing Surveys.

He was awarded the Doctor honoris causa by the Technical University of Dresden in 2006, and became an ECCAI Fellow in 2001. He coordinates the Erasmus Mundus European MSc in Computational Logic at UNL, is vice-president of EASE, the European Association for semantic Web Education, and belongs to the Board of Trustees and to the Scientific Advisory Board of the IMDEA Software Institute.

References

External links
Homepage

Academic staff of NOVA University Lisbon
1947 births
Living people
Logic programming researchers

Luís Moniz Pereira


German idealism is a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work of Immanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s, and was closely linked both with Romanticism and the revolutionary politics of the Enlightenment.

The period of German idealism after Kant is also known as post-Kantian idealism or simply post-Kantianism.

One scheme divides German idealists into transcendental idealists, associated with Kant and Fichte, and absolute idealists, associated with Schelling and Hegel.

Meaning of idealism

The philosophical meaning of idealism is that those properties we discover in objects are dependent on the way that those objects appear to us. These properties belong to the appearance of objects, and are not necessarily something they possess "in themselves".

History

Immanuel Kant's work purports to bridge the two dominant philosophical schools in the 18th century: rationalism, which holds that knowledge could be attained by reason alone a priori (prior to experience), and empiricism, which holds that knowledge could be arrived at only through the senses a posteriori (after experience), as expressed by philosopher David Hume, whose skepticism Kant sought to rebut.

Kant's solution was to propose that, while we depend on objects of experience to know anything about the world, we can investigate a priori the form that our thoughts can take, determining the boundaries of possible experience. Kant calls this approach "critical philosophy". It is less concerned with setting out positive doctrine than with critiquing the limits to the theories we can set out.

There is, however, a positive doctrine: "transcendental idealism", which is distinct from classical idealism and subjective idealism. On this view, the world of appearances is "empirically real and transcendentally ideal." That is, the mind plays a central role in shaping our experience of the world: we perceive phenomena in time and space according to the categories of the understanding.

Theorists

The best-known German idealist thinkers, after Kant, are J. G. Fichte, F. W. J. Schelling, and G. W. F. Hegel. Critics of Kant's project such as F. H. Jacobi, Gottlob Ernst Schulze, and Salomon Maimon influenced the direction the movement would take in the philosophies of his would-be successors.

Kant
According to Immanuel Kant, the human mind is not capable of directly experiencing the external world as it is in itself. Instead, our experience of the world is mediated by the a priori categories and concepts that are inherent in the human mind. These categories and concepts, which Kant calls "transcendental" because they are necessary for any experience, structure and organize our experience of the world, but they do not provide us with direct access to the thing-in-itself, which is the ultimate reality.

Kant's transcendental idealism has two main components. The first is the idea that the human mind is not a passive recipient of sensory information, but is actively involved in shaping our experience of the world. The second is the idea that the nature of reality is ultimately unknowable to us, because our experience of the world is mediated by the structures of our own minds.

Kant restricted the domain of knowledge to objects of possible experience. His three most notable successors, however, would react against such stringent limits.

Jacobi

In 1787, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi addressed, in his book On Faith, or Idealism and Realism, Kant's concept of "thing-in-itself". Jacobi agreed that the objective thing-in-itself cannot be directly known. However, he stated, it must be taken on belief. A subject must believe that there is a real object in the external world that is related to its subjective representation. This belief is a result of revelation or immediately known, but logically unproved, truth. The real existence of a thing-in-itself is revealed or disclosed to the observing subject. In this way, the subject directly knows the ideal, subjective representations that appear in the mind, and strongly believes in the real, objective thing-in-itself that exists outside the mind. By presenting the external world as an object of belief, Jacobi aimed to legitimize belief – or faith – in general.

Reinhold
Karl Leonhard Reinhold published two volumes of Letters Concerning the Kantian Philosophy in 1790 and 1792. He tried to prove Kant's assertion that humans and other animals can know only phenomena, never things-in-themselves. In order to establish his proof, Reinhold stated an axiom that could not possibly be doubted. From this axiom, all knowledge of consciousness could be deduced. His axiom was: "Representation is distinguished in consciousness by the subject from the subject and object, and is referred to both."

He thereby started, not from definitions, but, from a principle that referred to representations in a conscious mind. In this way, he analyzed knowledge into (1) the knowing subject, or observer, (2) the known object, and (3) the image or representation in the subject's mind.

Schulze
Gottlob Ernst Schulze objected to Kant's critical philosophy as self-contradictory. According to Kant himself, the law of cause and effect only applies to the phenomena, not between phenomena and things-in-themselves. Yet, Kant directly claims that the thing-in-itself is the cause of phenomena.

Fichte
After Schulze had seriously criticized the notion of a thing-in-itself, Johann Gottlieb Fichte produced a philosophy similar to Kant's, but without a thing-in-itself. Fichte asserted that our representations are the productions of the "transcendental ego", that is, the knowing subject. For him, there is no external thing-in-itself. On the contrary, the subject is the source of the external thing, object, or non-ego.

Fichte claimed that this truth was apparent by means of intellectual intuition. That is, the truth can be immediately seen by the use of reason.

Schelling
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854) claimed that the Fichte's "I" needs the Not-I, because there is no subject without object, and vice versa. So subjective representations are identical to the extended objects which are external to the mind. According to Schelling's "absolute identity" or "indifferentism", there is no difference between the subjective and the objective, that is, the ideal and the real.

Schleiermacher
Friedrich Schleiermacher was a theologian who asserted that the ideal and the real are united in God. He understood the ideal as the subjective mental activities of thought, intellect, and reason. The real was, for him, the objective area of nature and physical being. Schleiermacher declared that the unity of the ideal and the real is manifested in God. The two divisions do not have a productive or causal effect on each other. Rather, they are both equally existent in the absolute transcendental entity which is God.

Maimon
Salomon Maimon influenced German idealism by criticizing Kant's dichotomies, claiming that Kant did not explain how opposites such as sensibility and understanding could relate to each other. As he clearly saw, this presented a serious skeptical objection to the Kantian project:

By thus pointing out these problematic dualisms, Maimon and the neo-Humean critics left a foothold open for skepticism within the framework of Kant's own philosophy. For now the question arose how two such heterogeneous realms as the intellectual and the sensible could be known to correspond with one another. The problem was no longer how we know that our representations correspond with things in themselves but how we know that a priori concepts apply to a posteriori intuitions.

Maimon attempted to resolve this problem by introducing the concept of "infinite mind". For this reason, Maimon can be said to have returned to pre-Kantian transcendent speculation. In the words of Frederick C. Beiser, "by reviving metaphysical ideas from within the problematic of the critical philosophy, he gave them a new legitimacy and opened up the possibility for a critical resurrection of metaphysics.

Hegel
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel responded to Kant's philosophy by suggesting that the unsolvable contradictions given by Kant in his Antinomies of Pure Reason applied more broadly to reality as such. Given that abstract thought is thus limited, he went on to consider how historical formations give rise to different philosophies and ways of thinking. In The Phenomenology of Spirit, he went on to trace formations of self-consciousness through history and the importance of other people in the awakening of self-consciousness. Thus Hegel introduced two important ideas to metaphysics and philosophy: the integral importance of history and intersubjectivity.

Hegel also claims to sublate the traditional concept of God with his concept of absolute spirit. Spinoza, who changed the anthropomorphic concept of God into that of an underlying substance, was praised by Hegel whose concept of absolute knowing fulfilled a similar function. Hegel claimed that "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all".

Responses

Neo-Kantianism

Neo-Kantianism emphasizes the critical dimension of Kant's philosophy as against the perceived excesses of German Idealism. It was the dominant philosophy in Germany during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Although there was considerable disagreement among the neo-Kantians themselves, they shared a commitment to some version of the "transcendental method".

British idealism

In England, during the nineteenth century, philosopher Thomas Hill Green embraced German Idealism in order to support Christian monotheism as a basis for morality. His philosophy attempted to account for an eternal consciousness or mind that was similar to Berkeley's concept of God. John Rodman, in the introduction to his book on Thomas Hill Green's political theory, wrote: "Green is best seen as an exponent of German idealism as an answer to the dilemma posed by the discrediting of Christianity…."

United States

"German idealism was initially introduced to the broader community of American literati through a Vermont intellectual, James Marsh. Studying theology with Moses Stuart at Andover Seminary in the early 1820s, Marsh sought a Christian theology that would 'keep alive the heart in the head.' " Some American theologians and churchmen found value in German Idealism's theological concept of the infinite Absolute Ideal or Geist [Spirit]. It provided a religious alternative to the traditional Christian concept of the Deity. The Absolute Ideal Weltgeist [World Spirit] was invoked by American ministers as they "turned to German idealism in the hope of finding comfort against English positivism and empiricism." German idealism was a substitute for religion after the Civil War when "Americans were drawn to German idealism because of a 'loss of faith in traditional cosmic explanations.' " "By the early 1870s, the infiltration of German idealism was so pronounced that Walt Whitman declared in his personal notes that 'Only Hegel is fit for America — is large enough and free enough.' "

See also
 Geisteswissenschaft
 Naturphilosophie
 Speculative materialism
 Teleological idealism

References

Bibliography
 Karl Ameriks (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to German Idealism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. .
 Frederick C. Beiser, German Idealism. The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781-1801. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002.

 Josiah Royce, Lectures on Modern Idealism. New Haven: Yale University Press 1967.
 Solomon, R., and K. Higgins, (eds). 1993. Routledge History of Philosophy, Vol. VI: The Age of German Idealism. New York: Routledge.

External links

The London Philosophy Study Guide  offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Nineteenth-Century German Philosophy
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy articles on
Fichte
Hegel
Kant
Reinhold
Schelling
German Idealism from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Philosophical schools and traditions

German idealism


Ischemia o Ischaemia es un restriction in le copia sanguinari ad texito causante un carentia de oxygeno que es necessario  pro le  metabolismo cellular( ut sustener vivo  le texito).. Ischemia es generalmente causate per problemas con le vasso sanguinari, con resulta in damno o dysfunction de texito. Etiam ille significa anemia local in un parte dato de un corpore, a vices resultante de congestion ( sicut vasoconstriction, thrombosis or embolismo). Ischemia comprehende non solo le insufficientia de oxygeno, sed etiam le reducite disponibilitate de nutriente et inadequate subtraction del excremento metabolic. Ischemia pote esse partial(povre perfusion) o tal.

Ischemia or ischaemia is a restriction in blood supply to tissues, causing a shortage of oxygen that is needed for cellular metabolism (to keep tissue alive).[3] Ischemia is generally caused by problems with blood vessels, with resultant damage to or dysfunction of tissue. It also means local anemia in a given part of a body sometimes resulting from congestion (such as vasoconstriction, thrombosis or embolism). Ischemia comprises not only insufficiency of oxygen, but also reduced availability of nutrients and inadequate removal of metabolic wastes. Ischemia can be partial (poor perfusion) or total.

Contents  [show]

Signs and symptoms[edit]
Since oxygen is carried to tissues in the blood, insufficient blood supply causes tissue to become starved of oxygen. In the highly metabolically active tissues of the heart and brain, irreversible damage to tissues can occur in as little as 3–4 minutes at body temperature. The kidneys are also quickly damaged by loss of blood flow (renal ischemia). Tissues with slower metabolic rates may undergo irreversible damage after 20 minutes.
Clinical manifestations of acute limb ischemia (which can be summarized as the "six P's") include pain, pallor, pulseless, paresthesia, paralysis, and poikilothermia.[4]
Without immediate intervention, ischemia may progress quickly to tissue necrosis and gangrene within a few hours. Paralysis is a very late sign of acute arterial ischemia and signals the death of nerves supplying the extremity.

Ischemia


The NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament (also known as March Madness) is a single-elimination (if you lose a game, you stop playing) college basketball tournament. It has 68 college teams in it. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) created it in 1939. When it was started in 1939, only eight teams played in the tournament. The tournament is played from mid-March to early April.

32 of the teams in the tournament are the best teams in each Division I conference. 36 of the teams join the tournament by winning other basketball games. These teams are chosen by the NCAA to be in the tournament. For the tournament, there are four regions. Each team is put into a region. Each region has 16 teams. The tournament has seven rounds. It is three weeks long. The first round is called the First Four. It has eight teams in it. The four winning teams join the tournament.

Each team is given a number. It is from 1 to 16. In the tournament, the semifinals are known as the Sweet Sixteen. The finals are known as the Elite Eight. They are named for how many teams are in these rounds.

Thirty seven college basketball teams have won the tournament. As of 2023, UCLA has won it eleven times. The Kentucky Wildcats have won it eight times. The coach with the most wins is John Wooden. He coached UCLA. He has won it ten times.

Titles by school
The following is a list of all schools that have won at least one NCAA men's basketball tournament, along with the year(s) in which they won their championship(s).
*Vacated title not included

College basketball
National Collegiate Athletic Association


Bates Technical College is a public technical college located in Tacoma, Washington, US. The college offers two-year Associate of Applied Science degrees, academic certificates, and industry certifications. Bates is accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities, and maintains articulation agreements with several four-year colleges and universities. Some two-year degrees offered by this college are transferable.

Bates operates three campuses in Tacoma, occupying a total of approximately  of classrooms, shops, meeting rooms, and offices.

History
In 1940, a technical education program was founded in the basement of Hawthorne Elementary School. During the 1941–42 school year, the program was officially named the Tacoma Vocational School. In 1944, LaVerne Hazen Bates (L. H. Bates) became the school's director. In 1947, the school changed its name to the Tacoma Vocational-Technical Institute. After L. H. Bates retired in 1969, the Tacoma School Board changed the school's name to the "L. H. Bates Vocational Technical Institute." In 1991, the state separated the state's vocational technical institutes from the local school districts and they came under the auspices of the State Board for Community and Technical Colleges. In 1992, the college took over ownership of Tacoma-based PBS member station KTPS-TV from the Tacoma School District, subsequently changing the station's callsign to KBTC-TV on October 12.

Enrollment and academics
Classes at Bates run from September to August with quarter-based academic and enrollment calendar. Weekly information sessions are held to help students select and develop an area of interest.

Classroom settings are similar to the workplace in a related field, and students are evaluated as they would be at a business. The college claims to works closely with industries pertaining to career education areas to improve their curriculum. The college offers workforce education, continuing education, child studies programs, and apprenticeship training.

Students can earn an Associate of Applied Science degree, Associate of Applied Science-Transfer degree, Certificate of Competency, or a Certificate of Training. Classes are also offered in basic studies, ESL and GED preparation. A technical high school and a Running Start program are available to students 16–20 years of age who have not yet earned a high school diploma. High School+ is offered to adults who seek a high school diploma. High school students who follow an associate degree path as part of their career program may receive their high school diploma without any further high school requirements, including state assessments.  Worker retraining funds provide unemployed and laid-off workers with immediate access to training at Bates.

Community relations
Bates has been a part of the Puget Sound community for nearly 80 years. The college has partnerships with businesses and industry organizations, both locally and internationally The student body and employees are involved in public events, hosted at Bates and throughout the community, including an annual Veterans Day Celebration, the Martin Luther King, Jr. Celebration, and a Disability Awareness Day.

Bates is also ranked as one of the best schools for Associates of Technology in HVAC.

References

External links

Universities and colleges in Tacoma, Washington
Community colleges in Washington (state)
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
Technological universities in the United States
Universities and colleges established in 1940
1940 establishments in Washington (state)

Bates Technical College


Overview
Erasmus+ is the EU's programme to support education, training, youth and sport in Europe. Launched in 1987, the "Erasmus" programme was originally established to promote closer cooperation between universities and higher education institutions across Europe. Over time, the programme has expanded and is now referred to as Erasmus+, or Erasmus Plus, combining the EU's different schemes for translational cooperation and mobility in education, training, youth and sport in Europe and beyond. The 'Erasmus+' programme concluded its first funding cycle from 2014 to 2020 and is now in its second cycle, spanning from 2021 to 2027. Noted for its participation among staff, students, young people, and learners across age groups, as of 2021, the programme has engaged over 13 million participants. The origins of its name refers to Erasmus of Rotterdam a leading scholar and inspiring lecturer during the Renaissance period who travelled extensively in Europe to teach and study at a number of universities. But at the same time, the word "Erasmus" also served as the acronym for "EuRopean Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students".

In 1989, the Erasmus Bureau invited 32 former Erasmus students for an evaluation meeting in Ghent, Belgium. The lack of peer-to-peer support was singled out as a major issue, but it was also a driving force behind the creation of the Erasmus Student Network. The organization supports students from Erasmus programme and other bilateral agreement and cooperates with national agencies in order to help international students.                                                As of 23 July 2020, the Erasmus Student Network consists of 534 local associations ("sections") in 42 countries and has more than 15,000 volunteers across Europe.

As of 2014, 27 years after its creation, the programme has promoted the mobility of more than 3.3 million students within the European community. More than 5,000 higher education institutions from 38 countries are participating in the project.

The Erasmus Programme, together with a number of other independent programmes, was incorporated into the Socrates programme established by the European Commission in 1994. The Socrates programme ended on 31 December 1999 and was replaced with the Socrates II programme on 24 January 2000, which in turn was replaced by the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013 on 1 January 2007.

Beside the more popular student mobility (SMS), the Erasmus+ programme promotes the teacher mobility (STA), by which university teachers can spend a short period, for a minimum of 2 teaching days and a maximum of 2 months, teaching at least 8 hours in a foreign partner university. The average and suggested stay is of 5 teaching days.

Background and history

Origins of the name

The programme is named after the Dutch philosopher, theologian, Renaissance Humanist, monk, and devout Roman Catholic, Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists". Erasmus, along with his good friend Thomas More, became one of the main figures of European intellectual life during the Renaissance. Known for his satire, Erasmus urged internal reform of the Catholic Church. He encouraged a recovery of the Catholic Patristic tradition against what he considered to be contemporary abuses of the Sacraments and certain excessive devotional practices. He famously clashed with Protestant revolutionary Martin Luther on the subject of free will. ERASMUS is a backronym meaning European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students. Erasmus travelled widely across Europe and he was a pioneer of the European Republic of Letters. He was one of the first intellectuals to use as a vehicle of diffusion of his ideas a path-breaking technology, namely the movable type and spent a lot of his time inside printing workshops.

The programme's origins can be traced through a series of significant events documented on the official European Commission programme page:

 From 1973 to 1976, the first European-level education action programme was established.

 Between 1976 and 1987, the foundations for what would later become Erasmus were laid through the "Joint Study Programme" (JSP) scheme in higher education. This initiative gained traction as more universities and students participated, contributing to the development of mobility, partnership, and joint curricula.

 From 1985 to 1987, the "Erasmus" proposal was developed and negotiated. In 1985, the Directorate for Education and Training presented the proposal to the Council and European Parliament. The Council officially adopted the "Erasmus" programme on June 15, 1987, and it was officially launched on July 1, 1987.

The idea of promoting cultural, social, and academic exchanges between European students originated in 1969, with Italian Sofia Corradi (nicknamed "Mamma Erasmus"), an educator and scientific consultant for the permanent conference of Italian university rectors. Her role allowed her to raise awareness about this idea and make it known in the academic and institutional spheres. The project was born after an initiative of the EGEE student association (now AEGEE) founded by Franck Biancheri (who later became president of the trans-European movement Newropeans) which in 1986–1987 convinced French president François Mitterrand to support the creation of the Erasmus programme.

This active collaboration between AEGEE and the European Commission and especially Domenico Lenarduzzi, Ministry of Public Education, allowed the approval of the Erasmus programme in 1987. It became an integral part of the Socrates I (1994–1999) and Socrates II (2000–2006) programmes. From 2007 it became one of the elements of the Lifelong Learning Programme (2007–2013).

In June 1984, the European Council decided in Fontainebleau to establish an ad-hoc European citizens' committee with the mission to make proposals in order to improve the image of the European Union. Each council member would select a member and together they should present a set of proposals to be approved at a future European Council. Under the chairmanship of Pietro Adonnino, the committee presented two successive reports that were approved at the Council session in Milano on the 28–29 of June 1985. Under the proposals that were advanced in these reports was the suggestion (to be found in the second report from number 5.6: University Cooperation) that the ministers for education and universities and higher-education establishments
 should establish a cross-frontier cooperation enabling students to pursue part of their studies in an establishment in a member state other than their own;
 should implement, a comprehensive European inter-university programme of exchanges and studies aimed at giving this opportunity to a significant section of the EU's student population.
These suggestions were advanced by the Belgian member Prosper Thuysbaert and were discussed and approved by the committee.

1987 European Commission proposal
By the time the Erasmus Programme was adopted in June 1987, the European Commission had been supporting pilot student exchanges for six years. It proposed the original Erasmus Programme in early 1986, but reaction from the then member states varied: those with substantial exchange programmes of their own (essentially France, Germany and the United Kingdom) were broadly hostile; the remaining countries were broadly in favour. Exchanges between the member states and the European Commission deteriorated, and the latter withdrew the proposal in early 1987 to protest against the inadequacy of the triennial budget proposed by some member states.

European Court of Justice decision
This method of voting, a simple majority, was not accepted by some of the opposing member states, who challenged the adoption of the decision before the European Court of Justice. Although the court held that the adoption was procedurally flawed, it maintained the substance of the decision; a further decision, adapted in the light of the jurisprudence, was rapidly adopted by the Council of Ministers.

Adoption and growth
The programme built on the 1981–1986 pilot student exchanges, and although it was formally adopted only shortly before the beginning of the academic year 1987–1988, it was still possible for 3,244 students to participate in Erasmus in its first year. In 2006, over 150,000 students, or almost 1% of the European student population, took part. The proportion is higher among university teachers, where Erasmus teacher mobility is 1.9% of the teacher population in Europe, or 20,877 people.

From 1987 to 2006, over two million students benefited from Erasmus grants, and the European Commission aimed to reach a total of 3 million by 2012. In 2004 Erasmus Programme was awarded the Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation.

Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013
After 2007, the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013 replaced the Socrates programme as the overall umbrella under which the Erasmus (and other) programmes operated.

Erasmus Mundus

The Erasmus Mundus programme is a parallel programme oriented towards globalising European education and is open to non-Europeans with Europeans being exceptional cases.

Citizens' initiative for more money 2014–2020
In May 2012, Fraternité 2020 was registered as Europe's first European Citizens' Initiative and a goal to increase the budget for EU exchange programmes like Erasmus or the European Voluntary Service starting in 2014.  It ultimately collected only 71,057 signatures from citizens across the EU out of 1 million signatures needed by 1 November 2013.

Erasmus+ Programme 2014–2020
Erasmus+ also called Erasmus Plus, has been the new 14.7 billion euro catch-all framework programme for education, training, youth and sport from 2014 to 2020. The Erasmus+ programme combined all the EU's schemes for education, training, youth and sport, including the Lifelong Learning Programme (Erasmus, Leonardo da Vinci, Comenius, Grundtvig), Youth in Action and five international co-operation programmes (Erasmus Mundus, Tempus, Alfa, Edulink and the programme for co-operation with industrialised countries). The Erasmus+ regulation was signed on 11 December 2013.

Erasmus+ provided grants for a wide range of actions including the opportunity for students to undertake work placements abroad and for teachers and education staff to attend training courses. Projects are divided into two parts – formal and non-formal education – each of them with three key actions. Erasmus+ key action one provides a unique opportunity for teachers, headmasters, trainers and other staff of education institutions to participate in international training courses in different European countries.

The staff home institution must apply to receive the grant to send its staff members abroad for training.

Erasmus+ conducted projects in Central Asia's Kazakhstan, funding 40 projects involving 47 Kazach universities with more than 35.5 million euros.

Erasmus+ Programme 2021–2027
On 30 May 2018, the European Commission adopted its proposal for the next Erasmus programme, with a doubling of the budget to 30 billion euros for the period 2021–2027. Further negotiations were expected to take place during the 2019–2024 European parliamentary term with the European Parliament and the European Council before the final programme is adopted. The agreement between the European Parliament and the European Council was adopted and the publication of the new regulation 2021/817 establishing the new Erasmus+ programme was made on 28 May 2021.

With Brexit, the UK government decision not to participate in Erasmus meant UK students lost access to the Erasmus programme and EU students lost access to UK universities, despite some Conservatives such as Suella Braverman having benefitted from it and promises made by then-Prime Minister Boris Johnson that "There is no threat to the ERASMUS scheme."

Participation and impact of the programme

More than 9 million people have participated in the Erasmus programme since its creation. The number of young participants has increased significantly since 1987. Nearly 300,000 a year compared with only 3,244 in 1987. Spain is the country that has allowed most people to participate in Erasmus with more than 40,000 per year, slightly ahead of France, Germany and Italy. The countries receiving the most Erasmus students are Spain with more than 47,000 students and then Germany with 32,800. There are currently more than 4,000 higher institutions participating in Erasmus across the 37 countries. In 2012–13, 270,000 took part, the most popular destinations being Spain, Germany, Italy and France. Erasmus students represented 5 percent of European graduates as of 2012.

Studies have discussed issues related to the selection into the programme and the representativeness of the participants. Some studies have raised doubts about the inclusiveness of the programme, by socio-economic background, level of study, or academic performance. Thus, one study analyses the financial issues and family background of Erasmus students, showing that despite the fact that access to the programme has been moderately widened, there are still important socio-economic barriers to participation in the programme. Another study uncovered what seems to be an adverse self-selection of Erasmus students based on their prior academic performance, with higher-performing students less likely to participate than lower-performing ones. However, this case was based on a number of four hundred graduates in a Spanish university only. Inversely, one study looking in details at French and Italian students found that the primary predictor of participation to Erasmus was students' prior academic records, not the occupation of their parents.

Requirements
The Erasmus Programme had previously been restricted to applicants who had completed at least one year of tertiary-level study, but it is now also available to secondary school students.

Details
Students who join the Erasmus Programme study at least three months or do an internship for a period of at least 2 months to an academic year in another European country. The former case is called a Student Mobility for Studies or SMS, while the latter case is called a Student Mobility of Placement or SMP. The Erasmus Programme guarantees that the period spent abroad is recognised by their university when they come back, as long as they abide by terms previously agreed. Switzerland has been suspended as a participant in the Erasmus programme as of 2015, following the popular vote to limit the immigration of EU citizens into Switzerland. As a consequence, Swiss students will not be able to apply for the programme and European students will not be able to spend time at a Swiss university under that programme.

A main part of the programme is that students do not pay extra tuition fees to the university that they visit. Students can also apply for an Erasmus grant to help cover the additional expense of living abroad. Students with disabilities can apply for an additional grant to cover extraordinary expenses.

In order to reduce expenses and increase mobility, many students also use the European Commission-supported accommodation network, CasaSwap, FlatClub, Erasmusinn, Eurasmus, Erasmate or Student Mundial, which are free websites where students and young people can rent, sublet, offer and swap accommodation – on a national and international basis. A derived benefit is that students can share knowledge and exchange tips and hints with each other before and after going abroad.

Erasmus in the media and popular culture

The "Erasmus experience"

For many higher education students, the "Erasmus" Programme is their first time living and studying in another country. Alongside academic study or practical training, the programme fosters learning and understanding of the host country, and the "Erasmus" experience is considered both a time for learning as well as a chance to socialize and experience a different culture, not to mention self-discovery. In this respect, and thanks to its popularity among students, it has emerged as a contemporary cultural phenomenon, inspiring books and films that explore the Erasmus experience.

Films
Most of the characters in the French-Spanish film L'Auberge espagnole are enrolled in the programme, which plays a central role in the film.

Various documentary films have been produced around the programme, notably the Italian documentary Erasmus 24 7 or Erasmus, notre plus belle année

Books
The self-finding experiences of "Erasmus" students in France form the basis for Davide Faraldi's first novel Generazione Erasmus (2008).

In David Mitchell's 1997 novel Slade House, an "Erasmus" party is the scene for an important experience for fresher student Sally Timms.

Pakistani novelist Nimra Ahmed's novel Jannat K Patte (Leaves of Heaven) is based on the Erasmus programme, where the protagonist Haya goes to Sabancı University Turkey through Erasmus Mundus, which marks a turning point in her life.

In the novel Normal People (2020) and its subsequent adaptation by Irish author Sally Rooney and its subsequent adaptation for television, Marianne goes to Sweden via the "Erasmus" programme.

Cafébabel
The online public forum Cafébabel was founded in 2001 by Erasmus exchange programme students, and is headquartered in Paris. The forum is based on the principle of participatory journalism. As of June 2020 it had over 15,000 contributors as well as a team of professional editors and journalists in Paris, Brussels, Rome, Madrid and Berlin. Volunteer contributors simultaneously translate the forum into six languages – French, English, German, Italian, Spanish and Polish.

The Erasmus generation
Some academics have speculated that former Erasmus students will prove to be a powerful force in creating a pan-European identity. In 2005, the political scientist Stefan Wolff, for example, has argued that "Give it 15, 20 or 25 years, and Europe will be run by leaders with a completely different socialisation from those of today", referring to the so-called 'Erasmus generation'. This term describes young Europeans who participate in Erasmus programme and are assumed to support European integration more actively when compared with their elder generations. The assumption is that young Europeans, who enjoyed the benefits of European integration, think of themselves as European citizens, and therefore create a base of support for further European integration. However, questions are raised about whether there is positive correlation between the programme and pro-European integration.

According to the former European Commissioner for Education, Culture, Youth and Sport, Tibor Navracsics, Erasmus programme is a soft power tool and it reflects the political motivation behind its creation, including the task of legitimising the European institutions. This conception has already presented in the project of Sofia Corradi, an Italian educationalist creator of the Erasmus Programme. She gives a particular attention to the need to activate an exchange between young people from all over Europe to contribute to the strengthening of its unity and integrity.

One issue discussed is whether participation in the Erasmus programma helps generate more European solidarity. A study carried out by the European Commission in 2010, shows that participating to Erasmus strengthens tolerance. Another issue is whether Erasmus enables the mixing of Europeans. For example, more than a quarter of Erasmus participants meet their life partner through it and participation in Erasmus encourages mobility between European countries. Umberto Eco called it sexual integration. The European Commission estimates that the program has resulted directly in the births of over 1 million children, sometimes called "Erasmus Babies".

As to whether Erasmus fosters a sense of European identity the results are mixed. Some research indicates that those participating in Erasmus exchanges are already significantly predisposed to be pro-European, leading some scholars to conclude that such exchange programmes are 'preaching to the converted'. However, more recent research has critised the earlier findings for being methodically flawed, relying primarily on the experience of British students and for using relatively small samples. Relying on a larger scale survey conducted on some 1700 students in six countries, Mitchell found that 'participation in an Erasmus exchange is significantly and positively related to changes in both identification as European and identification with Europe'. In addition, it has also been submitted that the earlier literature confused cause and effect, since the existence of such programmes constitutes a tangible benefit provided by the EU to prospective students interested in going abroad, which may cause them to view the EU positively even prior to participation.

See also
 Academic mobility
 Comenius programme
 Erasmus Student Network (ESN) – non-profit European students organisation
 Association des États Généraux des Étudiants de l'Europe (AEGEE) – non-profit European students organisation
 European Students' Union (ESU) – non-profit European students organisation
 European Medical Students' Association (EMSA) – non-profit European medical students organisation
 European Students of Industrial Engineering and Management (ESTIEM) – non-profit European students organisation
 European Credit Transfer System (ECTS)
 European Higher Education Area
 Socrates Network for Translator Training
 University Mobility in Asia and the Pacific
 Student exchange programme
 Public diplomacy
 Enhancing Student Mobility through Online Support

References

Further reading
 Benjamin Feyen/Ewa Krzaklewska (eds.): "The ERASMUS Phenomenon – Symbol of a New European Generation?" Peter Lang Publishing, 2013,

External links
 Erasmus website of the European Commission
 Cafébabel
 Erasmus Student Network

Educational policies and initiatives of the European Union
Academic transfer
Programme
Scholarships
Government scholarships
Erasmus Programme

Erasmus Programme


Tom O'Brien, American politician, is the Treasurer of Plymouth County, Massachusetts. O'Brien was first appointed in 2006 and voters returned him to the position in a win over his Republican challenger in the fall 2008 elections.

O'Brien served as the Massachusetts State Representative for the 12th Plymouth District, which includes the towns of Kingston and Plympton and parts of Plymouth, Duxbury, Halifax, and Middleborough. He is a Democrat. Elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1996, he served on a number of Committees including the Joint Committees on Tourism, Arts, and Cultural Development, Healthcare Financing, and Municipalities and Regional Government.  He also served on several caucuses within the House of Representatives, including the Elder Caucus, the Children's Caucus, the Southeastern Massachusetts Legislators' Caucus, the Coastal Caucus, and the Boating Caucus.  During his tenure in the House of Representatives, O'Brien maintained a perfect voting record and cast more than 3,500 consecutive roll call votes.

O'Brien was named Legislator of the Year by the Massachusetts Town Clerk's Association in both 2000 and 2003, named "Environmental Hero" by the South Shore Recycling Cooperative in 2000, named Legislator of the Year by the Massachusetts Chapter of the National Arthritis Foundation for 2002, bestowed the Library Advocacy Award from the Massachusetts Library Association in 2002, and the Legislative Leadership Award from the Cape Cod Cranberry Growers Association in 2003.

As a State Representative, O'Brien introduced bills providing an incentive for the motion picture industry to come to Massachusetts, to assist unenrolled voters, to offer an early retirement option for teachers, and to provide for baby safe havens in the Commonwealth.  During most of his tenure, he was the only Eagle Scout serving in the Massachusetts legislature.

O'Brien lives in Kingston with his wife Kristina and his two children. He earned a bachelor's degree from Georgetown University.

References

Georgetown University alumni
Members of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
People from Kingston, Massachusetts
Living people
County treasurers in Massachusetts
Year of birth missing (living people)

Thomas J. O'Brien (Massachusetts politician)


Turnpike Lane is a street in Haringey, north London.

Description

Turnpike Lane forms part of the A504 route, running roughly east–west for less than one mile.

The road is characterised by independent retailers with flats above the shops. It is also a local transport hub: Turnpike Lane Underground station and Turnpike Lane bus station are both situated near the eastern end of the street.

A small park named Ducketts Common is situated at the eastern end of the road, opposite the Underground and bus stations. It was once an area of common land where people had the right to graze their animals.

Turnpike Lane is a busy cosmopolitan shopping street and an important traffic thoroughfare. Speciality shops remain open until late at night, and there are a number of restaurants.

The name Turnpike Lane is also used to refer more generally to the area at the southern end of Wood Green High Road and its surroundings.

Nearby places

 Crouch End
 Harringay
 Hornsey
 West Green
 Wood Green

Popular culture
 The Bus Driver's Prayer
 Mark Knopfler's song "Junkie Doll"
Razorlight's song "Los Angeles Waltz"

References

Streets in the London Borough of Haringey
Transport in the London Borough of Haringey

Turnpike Lane, Haringey


Henry Donn (otherwise Henry Dunn) (died 21 September 1586) was one of the conspirators executed for his involvement in the Babington Plot, a plot in 1586 to assassinate Queen Elizabeth, a Protestant, and put Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic, on the English throne.

Dunn came from a fairly wealthy Catholic family. He was the son of Christopher Dunn, of Addington, Kent. All parish records give the name as Dunn. The Lord of the Manor was Thomas Watton (1547–1622), married to Martha Roper, a great-granddaughter of Sir Thomas More. Watton was fined for recusancy during the reign of James I, but towards the end of his life joined the Church of England. (Calendar of State Papers Domestic, 1603–1610). Henry would have been one of Christopher Dunn's youngest children, as three of his siblings married at Addington Church between 1570 and 1576. In "A brief account of the many Rebellions & Conspiracies against Queen Elizabeth etc. etc.", Henry Dunne is described as clerk in the Office of First Fruits and Tenths. (Calendar of State Paper, Domestic, 1581–1590).

Henry Dunn's final address from the scaffold and his execution were recorded in the Calendar of Scottish Papers, 1547–1603, ed. William K. Boyd, Vol. IV, 1586-8 under: 1586 Sep 21: Confession of Salusburie and others. Part of Dunn's address follows:

"I lyved here joyfullie and pleasantlie under her majestie, and tenne weeks agoe I mette with Anthonie Babington, who toulde me of all his treasons and devises, & he urged me thereunto to give my consent, but I refused and disswaded him also. Then he toulde me that I was one whom he loved well, & therefore he woulde bestowe me wem (SIC). And soe urged me againe. And to confes a truthe, I said I would doe the best I coulde and consented." At the end of his confession, in which he used the word "sorrowfull" four times, he begged: "Last of all I hastelie aske my prince forgiveness & I praie she & one & all maie be eternized with eternall blessedness." He then politely refused to say the Lord's Prayer in English and intoned it in Latin before being "thrown off the ladder, where he hanged until he was thoroughlie dead". Henry Dunn's father had also been examined, on 10 August 1586, but he denied any knowledge of the affair and was exonerated.

Executed people from Kent
Mary, Queen of Scots
1586 deaths
People executed under Elizabeth I
Year of birth unknown
People from Tonbridge and Malling (district)
People executed by the Kingdom of England by hanging

Henry Donn


Bellahouston Academy is a non-denominational state-run secondary school in Bellahouston, south-west Glasgow, Scotland.

History
Bellahouston Academy first opened in 1876 as a private school run by Alexander Sim. It was taken over by the Govan School Board in 1885, and has been a state school ever since. The school buildings have recently been refurbished to provide for 1100 pupils.

The site of the academy was donated by the Misses Steven of Bellahouston whose generosity also provided the clocktower, and the building was designed by a Bath Street architect, Robert Balde. The advertisement which announced the opening of the academy described it as a 'Boy's High Class School and Ladies' College'. For its first nine years, the academy struggled to function privately; this became increasingly difficult with the opening of new schools in the area which were supported by rates and government grants, despite such economies as dispensing with the office and salary of the rector. In 1885 therefore, the academy ceased to be a private school, and was sold for £15,000 to Govan Parish School Board who added a swimming pool, one of the first in Scotland.

In 1901, the institute was opened to train pupil-teachers, but when this system was replaced in 1907 by a junior system, the Institute became part of the academy, which by now had become a Secondary School and Junior Student Centre. In 1905, the main building was renovated and a new gymnasium and baths were built.

In 1919, the academy passed into the care of the new Glasgow Education Authority, which itself was replaced in 1929 by the Education Committee of the Corporation of Glasgow. In the 1930s, the academy lost its title and was renamed Bellahouston Secondary School, but its name never changed locally, and like other schools, it was permitted to revert to its old title.

Roll
Attendance for  2010-2011 was 864. Attendance in Oct 2023 is 1117.

New school

In 1962, the modern building in Gower Terrace was opened and took in pupils and staff from Pollokshields Secondary, (a former rival, Albert Road Academy). In 1973, due to increasing numbers, the old building on Paisley Road West was re-opened. This building is now an Ethnic Minority Business Centre.

Pupils going to the school were disrupted by the building of the M8/M77 interchange which was completed in 1977. There was a major fire in 1991 in which part of the building was structurally damaged and had to be demolished. In 1996, the school returned to the refurbished main building, which is designed to hold 1,100 pupils.

Curriculum

The school is non-denominational and co-educational, and the roll in Oct 2022 was 1080. The local Ibrox Complex is used to run league football; Bellahouston Ski Centre is used for ski-ing and snowboarding lessons. Golf is catered for at Haggs Castle Golf Course.

Glasgow School of Sport
Scotland's first school dedicated to sport has been developed at Bellahouston Academy. The Glasgow School of Sport aims to develop the talents of young sportsmen and women. The Sports Hall was completed in October 2002, and was opened by The Princess Royal in 2003. The School of Sport specialises in five sports - athletics; gymnastics; hockey; badminton and swimming. 120 pupils combine sports and studies at this specialised Academy which was visited by double Olympic Gold Champion, Dame Kelly Holmes. In 2005, the school's under-16 football team won both the Glasgow League and Scottish Cup Final at Firhill in the same season.

Notable former pupils

Adrian Beers - double bassist
Jack Bruce - musician and songwriter, former vocalist / bassist with Cream
Ian Durrant - ex Rangers, Kilmarnock, and Scotland footballer.
Elaine Gray - British Olympic swimmer, Montreal 1976
Charles Hutton - architect and former Master of the Art Workers' Guild
Jimmy Logan - entertainer, theatre owner, producer, director, and actor.
Tormod MacGill-Eain - entertainer, Gaelic singer, piper, novelist, broadcaster
Muzaffar Mahmood – cricketer, first Pakistani-born player to play for Scotland
Chris Rainbow - (Christopher Harley), musician and songwriter
Andy Roxburgh - former professional footballer and Scotland manager
Andy Scott - sculptor (including 'The Kelpies' near Falkirk)
Tom Taylor - Thomas Johnston Taylor, Baron Taylor of Gryfe FRSE DL LLD (1912 - 2001), Labour politician, businessman (including as chairman of the Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society 1965-70)
Sir John Thompson - judge
Russell Webb - guitarist with the Zones, The Skids, Armoury Show and Public Image Ltd.
Chick Young - sports journalist
Michael Jamieson - former swimmer graduated from Glasgow School of Sport, silver medalist in Olympic and Commonwealth Games
Morag Hood - Actress
Elaine McSporran (née Roulston) SNP Glasgow City Councillor for the Cardonald Ward.Elected in 2017

References

External links
Bellahouston Academy blog
Glasgow School of Sport
 Bellahouston Academy's page on Parentzone

Secondary schools in Glasgow
Govan
Pollokshields
Educational institutions established in 1876
1876 establishments in Scotland

Bellahouston Academy


Chopsticks are sticks used in pairs as cutlery. Chopsticks are traditionally used for eating in many Asian countries. These include China, Japan, Korea, Malaysia and Vietnam, etc (In East Asia and Southeast Asia). Most chopsticks are made of  wood, bamboo or plastic.

Today, chopsticks are mainly used in China and neighboring countries. Chopsticks are often used in restaurants outside of Asia when serving Asian foods.

History
Chopsticks came from China as early as the Shang dynasty (1600–1100 BC). The creation of chopsticks might have been influenced by the teachings of Confucius.  They were widely used throughout East Asia. Tools like chopsticks were also found in the archaeological site Megiddo in Israel. This discovery may mean there was some form of trade between the Middle East and Asia in early antiquity.  Alternatively, such tools may have developed independently in both the Middle East and Asia. Chopsticks were also common household items of civilized Uyghurs on the Mongolian steppes during the 6th–8th centuries.

Origin of the word

The English word "chopstick" seems to come from Chinese Pidgin English. In this simplified language, "chop chop" meant quickly.

The Mandarin Chinese word for chopsticks is kuàizi (筷子). The first character "筷" is made of different parts. It has the phonetic part of "快" (kuài), which means quick, and a semantic part, 竹, meaning bamboo.

Eating with chopsticks

The sticks are held together in the same hand. Usually this is the right hand. At some formal occasions it may be considered rude to use chopsticks with the left hand.

Put one chopstick between the palm and the base of the thumb, using the ring finger (the fourth finger from the thumb) to support the lower part of the stick. With the thumb, squeeze the stick down while the ring finger pushes it up.  The stick should be stationary and very stable.
Use the tips of the thumb, index and middle fingers to hold the other stick like an ink pen. Make sure the tips of the two sticks line up.
Move the upper stick up and down towards the stationary lower stick.
With enough practice, the two sticks function like a pair of pincers (a tool that can easily lift things).

If the tips do not line up, it will be difficult to hold things. Hold the chopsticks upright with one of the tips lightly touching the table, and gently push the chopsticks down or gently loosen your grip for a moment to let both tips become equal in length. You can also adjust your grip or holding position this way.

With practice, it is possible to perform step one and two right away, on picking up the chopsticks with one hand smoothly. Hold the chopstick at different angles if necessary in order to feel comfortable with two sticks between your fingers.

Table manners

Etiquette
Chopsticks are used in many countries; those eating with chopsticks generally observe the following rules:
Chopsticks are not used to make noise, to draw attention, or to gesture. Playing with chopsticks is considered rude and vulgar (just as playing with cutlery in a Western environment would be).
Chopsticks are not used to move bowls or plates.
Chopsticks are not used to toy with food or with the dishes in common.
Most often, chopsticks are not used to stab food. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables and kimchi. In informal use, small, difficult-to-pick-up items such as or fishballs may be stabbed, but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists.
Chopsticks can be rested horizontally on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely.  A chopstick rest can be used to keep the points off the table.
Chopsticks should not be left standing vertically in a bowl of rice or other food. Any stick-like object pointed upward resembles the incense sticks that some people use as offerings to deceased family members; certain funerary rites designate offerings of food to the dead using standing chopsticks.

Types of chopsticks

Chopsticks are used in many countries. Chopsticks are sometimes different in those countries.
 Chinese: longer sticks that are square at one end (where they are held) and round  at the other (where they contact the food). They end with a blunt tip.
 Japanese: short to medium length sticks that have a pointed end. This development may have occurred because the Japanese diet consists of large amounts of whole fish. Japanese chopsticks are traditionally made of wood and are lacquered. Some chopstick sets include two lengths of chopsticks: shorter ones for women and longer ones for men. Child-sized chopsticks are widely sold.
 Korean: medium-length stainless-steel tapered rods, with a flat rectangular cross section. (Traditionally, they were made of brass or silver.) Many Korean metal chopsticks are decorated at the grip.
 Vietnamese: long sticks that end in blunt point; traditionally wooden, but now made of plastic as well. A đũa cả is a large pair of flat chopsticks that is used to serve rice from a pot.

Other uses for chopsticks
Chopsticks are used in cooking to stir materials in a pan, or to help move meals.

In Japan, people use chopsticks during the funeral ceremony of Buddhists. After burning the dead, family and friends use chopsticks to move the burned bones of the dead from the coffin to a pot.

Problems with chopsticks

Chopsticks and the environment

Using a set of chopsticks only once, and then throwing them away causes problems for the environment. In Japan, single-use chopsticks are called waribashi (split chopstick). Before using, people split it into two.  There are some movements which aim at telling people to use a set of chopsticks more than once. In China, about 45 billion pairs of disposable chopsticks are used per year. This is equal to 1.7 billion cubic metres of timber–about 25 million fully grown trees. China is the biggest producer of disposable chopsticks, about 60,000 people have a job making chopsticks.

For this reason, China has introduced a tax on chopsticks that are only used once. There are also moves to replace disposable chopsticks made of wood  by plastic or metal  ones.

Chopsticks and health
In 2003, a study was done. It found that people who use chopsticks regularly have a slightly higher risk of getting arthritis in the hand. With this, cartilage gets worn off, which causes pain in the joints of the hand. This is more common in older people. The Hong Kong Department of Health did a study in 2006. It found that generally, people use chopsticks or other food utensils more often than in 2003 when eating with others. It also found that personal hygiene has improved.

References
Giblin, James Cross. (1987). New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.

Other websites

 Video lecture of How to use Chopsticks
 A smart thing to help adults and children learn how to use Chopsticks
 How to use Chopsticks?
 Japanese Chopsticks (Ohashi) Etiquette
 Chopsticks  Mastery and Etiquette
 PingMag on Portable Chopstick Designs, also covers disposable Chopsticks
How to Use Chopsticks (Video)

Food utensils
Former good articles

Chopsticks


Amasa Junius Parker (May 6, 1843, in Delhi, Delaware County, New York – May 2, 1938, in Albany, New York) was a member of the New York State Senate and a Major General of the National Guard of New York.

Life
Amasa Junius Parker Jr. was the son of Amasa J. Parker and his wife Harriet Langdon Parker. He graduated from Union College, Schenectady, New York in 1863 and the Albany Law School in 1864. He fought in the American Civil War and became a major.

He was a member of the New York State Assembly (Albany Co., 3rd D.) in 1882; and of the New York State Senate (17th D.) in 1886 and 1887; and again of the State Senate from 1892 to 1895, sitting in the 115th, 116th (both 17th D.), 117th and 118th New York State Legislatures (both 19th D.).

He was a trustee of Union College and the Albany Law School. He was active in the National Guard of New York and was a colonel in command of the Tenth Division during the breakup of the Albany Railroad Strike of 1877.

Parker was one of the authors of the book Banking Law of New York. He was also an editor of the Parker's New York Criminal and Penal Codes as well as The Parker's Pocket Code of Civil Procedure.

Parker was buried at the Albany Rural Cemetery in Menands, New York.

References

GEN. AMASA PARKER IS DEAD IN ALBANY in NYT on May 3, 1938 (subscription required)

Union College (New York) alumni
1843 births
1938 deaths
New York (state) state senators
Members of the New York State Assembly
People from Delhi, New York
Politicians from Albany, New York
Writers from Albany, New York
Burials at Albany Rural Cemetery
Albany Law School alumni
New York National Guard personnel
Union Army officers

Amasa J. Parker Jr.


The Joint Inspection Unit (JIU) is a United Nations unit established by resolution 31/192 of 22 December 1976 of the General Assembly of the United Nations. Its objective is to enhance the efficiency of the administrative and financial functioning of the United Nations system and, to this end, it may make on-the-spot inquiries and investigations. The Joint Inspection Unit is the only independent external oversight body of the United Nations system mandated to conduct evaluations, inspections and investigations system-wide. It is based in Geneva, Switzerland.

References

External links

Government agencies established in 1976
United Nations General Assembly subsidiary organs
United Nations organizations based in Geneva

Joint Inspection Unit


Green Templeton College is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford. It was founded in 2008, when Green College and Templeton College merged. It is the newest college at Oxford.

The former Green College was formed in 1979, and was named after one of its largest donors, Cecil H. Green, the founder of Texas Instruments.

The former Templeton College was originally formed in 1965 as the Oxford Center for Management Studies.  It was renamed Templeton College in 1983 after John Templeton donated a large endowment.  In 1995, Templeton College was granted a charter as a graduate college of the University.

Green Templeton College is a graduate college only. It does not have any undergraduate students.

The college is located at the former Green College campus in North Oxford.  Its most notable building is the Radcliffe Observatory at the center of the campus.

Colleges of the University of Oxford
2008 establishments in the United Kingdom

Green Templeton College, Oxford


Life imprisonment in Mexico is theoretically legal, but as of 2001, the Mexican Supreme Court stated that all persons sentenced to life imprisonment or a lengthy prison term (such as 300 years in prison) must become eligible for parole after one has served 50 years. If an offender has maintained good behavior, they become paroled after 40 years. In certain cases, offenders can be paroled after serving 60 years. Mexico does not extradite any prisoner subjected to capital punishment.

See also
 Law of Mexico

References

Law of Mexico

Life imprisonment in Mexico


Jim Schley is an American poet, teacher, editor, and theater artist. He is author of two poetry collections, most recently, As When, In Season (Marick Press, 2008), and has had his poems published in many literary journals and magazines including Ironwood, Crazyhorse,  Rivendell, and Orion Magazine, in anthologies including Best American Spiritual Writing,  and on The Writer's Almanac with Garrison Keillor.

Schley was Co-Editor of the literary quarterly New England Review (1980–86), Production Editor at University Press of New England, and Managing Editor then Editor-in-Chief at the book publisher Chelsea Green, where he developed a line of "sustainable living" books about organic gardening and farming, renewable energy, and ecological building techniques. He is co-founder with Ann Aspell of Chapiteau Press, which publishes poetry chapbooks. He was executive director of The Frost Place museum and poetry center from 2006 to 2008. He has also toured extensively with theater companies including the world-renowned Bread and Puppet Theater, the Swiss ensemble , and the Flock Dance Troupe.

In 2004, following the unexpected loss of a job, he wrote a "My Turn" feature for Newsweek magazine about the experience of working numerous part-time jobs at once. It appeared in the September 20th, 2004 issue.

He is currently Managing Editor of Tupelo Press and teaches writing at the Community College of Vermont. He is a member of the National Book Critics Circle and an associate of the journalists' collective Homelands Productions.

Schley was born and raised in Wisconsin, and moved to New England in the 1970s to attend Dartmouth College, where he earned his B.A. He earned his M.F.A. from Warren Wilson College. He now lives with his wife Becky and daughter Lillian in a house they built in an off-the-grid cooperative in central Vermont. Jim and the house were featured in an article in the New York Times, June 19, 1999.

Published works
Full-length Collections
 As When, In Season (Marick Press, 2008)

Chapbooks
 One Another (Chapiteau Press, 1999)

References

External links

 Author Website
 Interview: Poetic Asides with Robert Lee Brewer > July 17, 2009 > by Robert Lee Brewer
 Poets & Writers Directory > Jim Schley Listing
 New York Times article

American male poets
Living people
Organic gardeners
Writers from Wisconsin
Poets from Wisconsin
Poets from Vermont
Warren Wilson College alumni
Dartmouth College alumni
American publishers (people)
American book editors
People from Orange County, Vermont
Year of birth missing (living people)

Jim Schley


The Amphitheatre of Catania is a Roman amphitheatre in Catania, Sicily, Southern Italy, built in the Roman Imperial period, probably in the 2nd century AD, on the northern edge of the ancient city at the base of the Montevergine hill. Only a small section of the structure is now visible, below ground level, to the north of Piazza Stesicoro. This area is now the historic centre of the city, but was then on the outskirts of the ancient town and also occupied by the . The structure is part of the .

Description

The amphitheatre of Catania is the most complicated and largest of all the amphitheatres in Sicily. It is one of a group of large arenas, which also includes the Colosseum, the Amphitheatre of Capua, and the Verona Arena. The structure centred on an elliptical arena, surrounded by radial walls and vaults supporting the seating of the cavea, which had 14 steps and 32 aisles. A gallery ran around the outside of the structure, on which the external facade is mounted. The arena had a maximum diameter of 70 metres and a minor diameter of around 50 metres, with a circumference of 192 metres. The external diameter was 125 x 105 metres, while the external circumference was 309 metres.  Opus vittatum was used for the construction of the interior and opus quadratum for the exterior. The remains of the pilasters are in opus quadratum with small blocks of igneous rock. The cavea was made of basalt from Mount Etna, faced with marble. The external walls indicate a degree of carelessness in construction. The blocks are cut irregularly and seem to mostly have been recycled. The external arches are made with large rectangular bricks of regular shape and good quality mortar, while the internal ones are made of concrete, with large radial plates.

Despite the overall sobriety of the building, the contrast between the colour of the very dark igneous rock of the walls and the red bricks of the arches must have been very striking. A note of class was added by the employment of marble, not only for the cladding of the podium, but also for some decorations, such as the herms on the sides of the main entrance. The main stairs were probably made of limestone, creating a strong interplay with the white of the seating and the black of the other stairways. A cover with large awnings to protect people from strong sun and rain probably existed.

From the theatre's dimensions it can be calculated to have held 15,000 spectators and almost double that number with the addition of wooden bleachers for standing spectators. According to an uncertain and unconfirmed tradition, it was intended that naumachiae (staged sea battles) take place in the amphitheatre, using the ancient  to fill the arena with water.

Entrance

The excavated part of the amphitheatre is now accessed by an ironwork gate. In 1906 the gate was decorated with some fragments of marble columns which were originally part of the upper loggia, two fragmentary Ionic columns, and part of an architrave inscribed with AMPHITHEATRVM INSIGNE ("Eminent Amphitheatre"). The iron gate is at the centre, between the columns which have capitals, which support the architrave. The other two columns are located on either side, with stone walls in between with symbolic epitaphs of two illustrious ancient Greeks linked to this area (Charondas on the left and Stesichorus on the right), which were composed by the poet Mario Rapisardi. Tradition has it that their tombs are actually in the area of the amphitheatre.

History
The monument was probably built in the 2nd century AD. The exact date is uncertain, but the architectural style suggests some time between the Emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. It seems clear that it was expanded in the 3rd century AD, tripling the structure's size.

A baseless popular legend claims that lava flows from the eruption of Etna in 252 reached the theatre but did not destroy it. This tradition derives from the life of Saint Agatha as reported in the Acta Sanctorum of Jean Bolland, where it is reported that in the specific year of the saint's death (251) lava flowed towards the gates of the city and the farmers, worried for their fields, went to the tomb of the saint, removed her funerary shroud and used it to stop the lava. Although this source is obviously hagiographical, it led vulcanologists like Carlo Gemmellaro to erroneously interpret the amphitheatre (which is near the city gates) as the point where the lava stopped. Recent stratigraphic studies have clearly shown that the rock identified as the 'lava flow of Saint Agatha' of 252 actually came from Monpeloso and flowed through the area of Nicolosi before cooling and solidifying in Mascalucia, about 450 metres above sea level. Thus, it moved toward Catania but never actually reached it. The sole traces of lava near the amphitheatre are a lava ledge which abuts one of the vaulted walls of the building. However, when a core was drilled into the walls of the internal walkway in the twentieth century in order to determine what was behind them, "wagonloads" of liquid flowed out, clearly indicating that the space behind is empty. The fragment of volcanic rock is very likely fill placed there in order to support the foundations of the facade of the Chiesa di San Biagio above it.

According to Cassiodorus, in the 5th century, Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, allowed the inhabitants of the city to spoliate the theatre for building material for the construction of stone buildings, on the grounds that the monument had been abandoned "for a long time." According to some authors, Roger II further spoliated the structure in the 11th century for the construction of Catania Cathedral, including the grey granite columns that decorate the cathedral's facade and the apses, in which perfectly cut stones can be seen, which may also have been used in the construction of the Castello Ursino in the Swabian period.

In the 13th century, according to tradition, the amphitheatre's vomitoria (entranceways) were used by the Angevins to enter the city during the Sicilian Vespers. In the following century, the entrances were walled up and the ruins were incorporated into the Aragonese fortifications (1302). In 1505, the civic senate granted Giovanni Gioeni a concession to use the monument's stone for the construction of houses and to use the arena itself as a garden. Measures were taken to secure the ruins in the construction of new fortifications in 1550: the first and second stories were knocked down and the galleries were filled in with the rubble. After the 1693 Sicily earthquake, it was finally buried, and the area was turned into a parade ground. Subsequently, the extrados of the galleries were used as the foundations of new houses and for the Neo-classical facade of the Church of San Biagio.

From the second half of the 18th century, the amphitheatre was the object of archaeological excavation. However the discoveries were not preserved: instead the arches were walled up and reused in the buildings of the reconstructed city. In the early years of the 20th century, renovation work was undertaken in order to open the site to visitors, as part of the construction of the Piazza Stesicoro. In 1943, during the allied bombardment which reduced parts of the city to rubble, the structure was used as a bomb shelter. Subsequently, it experienced periods of interest and abandonment. For several years, the tunnels were kept shut for 'security reasons', following tragic accidents resulting from people exploring. The amphitheatre was renovated in 1997 and opened that summer. Then it was closed due to the influx of sewerage from the neighbouring houses. This was partially fixed and it was reopened to the public in 1999, but then closed a little later as a result of its deterioration.

The remains, representing about a tenth of the amphitheatre, are visible from the entrance of the Piazza Stesicoro and from the Vico Anfiteatro, where the structure is visible up to the third floor. Until 2007, it was possible to see part of second story on the Via del Colosseo, but it is now entirely covered by the new terrace of the Villa Cerami. Inside the villa, which is now used by the University of Catania's Faculty of jurisprudence, it is still possible to see part of the vaulting system that linked the Amphitheatre to the Montevergine hill (probably the ancient acropolis of the city). The rest of the amphitheatre is below the Via Neve, Via Manzoni, and Via Penninello.

The early modern excavations seem to be the reason for the instability of the structure, which was announced in 2014 to be in danger of collapse in a parliamentary debate and which had already been brought to public attention by CTzen. On 24 April 2014, an expert board was established in order to organise the recuperation of the monument and to safeguard the neighbourhood which has developed on top of the structure over the centuries.

Research

The first modern scholar to discuss the amphitheatre at Catania was Tommaso Fazello, who also established its dimensions. Subsequently, fantastical reconstructions of structure were proposed by authors like Ottavio D'Arcangelo and , which did however include the first surveys of the building.

In the 18th century, Ignazio Paternò Castello expended substantial amounts of his own money on excavations, in order to establish beyond doubt that the amphitheatre had actually existed - a point that some visitors had strongly denied. Over a two-year period, he uncovered a whole corridor and four large arches of the external gallery. In the 19th century, these excavations could still be accessed from an entrance on the Via del Colosseo (which was and is popular known as 'Catania Vecchia') and all kinds of legends have become associated with it, such as the tale of a school group which snuck into the structure for a visit and never came out.

In 1904, during the administration of Mayor Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida, work began to bring the whole structure to light, under the supervision of the architect . This project ended two years later. At this time, a broad and mysterious landing passage was discovered, probably a late extension of the building, which prevented those sat nearest to the arena from seeing the spectacles well and reduced the dimensions of the arena, but allowed a better view for an additional level, probably that added in the course of the 3rd century AD. In 1907, the opening ceremony was held, attended by king Victor Emmanuel III. Already by the Interwar period, the amphitheatre had been allowed to decay once more, to the extent that many of the buildings above were using the seating for sewerage.

In recent years, the amphitheatre has also been suddenly closed and reopened. At the end of 2007 and 2008, technical works were undertaken to determine the state of conservation of the external pilasters. On this occasion, it was possible to confirm that the structure had been renovated and expanded in a second phase. A subsequent investigation was then carried out which has been able to produce a virtual reconstruction of the structure.

See also

 List of Roman amphitheatres

References

Sources
 Ignazio Paternò Castello, Viaggio per tutte le antichità della Sicilia, seconda edizione, postuma, Palermo 1817.
 Cesare Sposito, L'anfiteatro romano di Catania, Dario Flaccovio Editore, 2003.
 Francesco Giordano, L'Anfiteatro romano di Catania, Boemi Editore, Catania 2002.
 Maria Teresa Di Blasi, Il Cicerone. Storia, itinerari, leggende di Catania, seconda edizione, Edizioni Greco, Catania, 2007.
 Tino Giuffrida,Catania dalle origini alla dominazione normanna, Libreria Editrice Bonaccorso, Catania.
 Pinella Leocata, "Riapre l'anfiteatro romano," La Sicilia, 10 July 1999, CT31.
 AA.VV., Catania antica. Atti del Convegno della SISAC, Pisa-Roma 1996.

 Fabrizio Nicoletti (ed.), Catania Antica. Nuove prospettive di ricerca, Regione Siciliana, Palermo 2015.

External links

Buildings and structures completed in the 2nd century
Buildings and structures completed in the 3rd century
Catania
Roman sites of Sicily
Buildings and structures in Catania

Amphitheatre of Catania


Bellatrix (also known as γ Orionis and Gamma Orionis) is the third brightest star in the constellation of Orion. With a slightly variable magnitude of around 1.6, It is usually the 25th-brightest star in the night sky. It is positioned 5 degrees west of the red supergiant star, Betelgeuse. It is located 240 to 260 light years away from the Sun. It is a blue giant star with around 7.7 times as massive as the Sun and 5.75 times the Sun's diameter which is 4,004,254 km in diameter.

Stars

Bellatrix (star)


Laurence O'Brien (1792 – April 28, 1870) was an Irish-born merchant and politician in Newfoundland. He represented St. John's in the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly from 1841 to 1850 as a Liberal.

He was born in Clashmore, County Waterford and came to Newfoundland sometime between 1808 and 1810, later establishing himself in St. John's the company of Lawrence O'Brien and Company, a wholesale and retail trading company. O'Brien owned a wharf, warehouses and a retail store, and was also the owner of several trading ships. He was also involved in the seal fishery. He was involved in the formation of the Bank of Newfoundland and was a promoter of the Union Bank. In 1832, he married Margaret Manning. He was first elected to the Newfoundland assembly in an 1840 by-election held after Patrick Morris was named to the colony's Council. In 1843, O'Brien was named to the Executive Council. He resigned his seat in the assembly in 1850 after he was named to the Legislative Council. O'Brien was named president for the Legislative Council and Executive Council in 1855. He served as colonial administrator for Newfoundland in 1863. O'Brien died near St. John's in 1870.

References

Members of the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly
1792 births
1870 deaths
Irish emigrants to pre-Confederation Newfoundland
Members of the Legislative Council of Newfoundland
Members of the Executive Council of Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland Colony people

Laurence O'Brien


Cheetham is an English surname, probably derived from Cheetham in Lancashire, now part of Manchester.

Notable people with the surname include:

Alan Cheetham (born 1928), American paleobiologist
Alfred Cheetham (1867–1918), member of several Antarctic expeditions
Anthony Cheetham (born 1946), British materials scientist
Arthur Cheetham (1864–1937), English film-maker
Craig Cheetham (born 1970), English actor
Deborah Cheetham, Australian opera singer
Erika Cheetham (1939–1998), English medieval scholar
Francis Cheetham (1928–2005), leading authority on Nottingham Alabaster
Henry Cheetham (1827–1899), Anglican bishop
Henry Cheetham (pastor) (1801–1881), English Congregational minister in colonial South Australia
Jack Cheetham (1920–1980), South African cricket player
Jackie Cheetham (1907–1987), Scottish footballer
Jason Cheetham (born 1969), English musician (a.k.a. Jay Kay, frontman of Jamiroquai)
John Cheetham (manufacturer) (1802–1886), English politician
John Frederick Cheetham (1835–1916), English politician and son of John Cheetham
Josh Cheetham (born 1992), British speed skater
Joshua Milne Cheetham (1835–1902), British Member of Parliament
Michael Cheetham, English footballer
Sir Milne Cheetham (1869–1938), British diplomat
Sir Nicolas Cheetham (1910–2002), British diplomat and historical writer
Richard Cheetham (born 1955), current Anglican Area Bishop of Kingston upon Thames
Roy Cheetham (1939–2019), English footballer
Steven Cheetham (born 1987), English cricket player
Tommy Cheetham (1910–1993), English professional football player

See also
 Chetham
Cheatham (surname)
Cheetham (disambiguation)
Chitham (surname)

English toponymic surnames

Cheetham (surname)