Silbo Gomero ( , "Gomeran whistle"), also known as el silbo ("the whistle"), is a whistled register of Spanish used by inhabitants of La Gomera in the Canary Islands, historically used to communicate across the deep ravines and narrow valleys that radiate through the island. It enabled messages to be exchanged over a distance of up to five kilometres. Due to its loudness, Silbo Gomero is generally used for public communication. Messages conveyed range from event invitations to public information advisories. A speaker of Silbo Gomero is sometimes called a silbador ("whistler"). Silbo Gomero is a transposition of Spanish from speech to whistling. This oral phoneme-whistled phoneme substitution emulates Spanish phonology through a reduced set of whistled phonemes. In 2009, UNESCO declared it a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

History

Little is known of the original Guanche language or the languages of the Canaries, but it is assumed that their phonological system must have been simple enough to allow an efficient whistled language. Used by the island's original inhabitants, the Guanches, the whistled language existed before the arrival of Spanish settlers and was also spoken on el Hierro, Tenerife, and Gran Canaria. Silbo was adapted to Spanish during the Spanish settlement in the 16th century and was widely spoken throughout the period into the following 17th century. In 1976 Silbo barely remained on el Hierro, where it had flourished at the end of the 19th century. Use of the language declined in the 1950s, one factor being the economic decline, which led many speakers to move away to seek better jobs. Technological developments such as the telephone played a part in reducing the practicality and utility of the language. The language's earlier survival had been due to its role in overcoming distance and terrain, in addition to the ease with which it is learned by native speakers. Most significantly, from the 1960s to 1980s, many people turned away from agriculture and so many middle-class families did not want their children to speak the language as it was negatively associated with the rural peasants.

In the late 1990s, language revitalization efforts began and initiatives from within the community started. By 1999, the revitalization of Silbo Gomero was furthered by education policies and other legislative measures. It now has official protection as an example of intangible cultural heritage.

Speakers
Many people in La Gomera speak Silbo Gomero, but their expression of the language deviates in minor ways that show the speaker's origins. According to a 2009 UNESCO report, all of La Gomera's inhabitants understand the language, but only those born before 1950 and the younger generations who attended school since 1999 can speak it. Those born before 1950 were taught the language by their elders in their homes, and those who attended or are attending school since 1999 were taught it formally in school. Those born between 1950 and 1980 understand the language but are unable to speak it, as the language was hardly used and negatively viewed during their time of language acquisition.

Revitalization
When this medium of communication was endangered in the late 20th century, revitalization efforts were generated at both community level and governmental level. A combination of initiatives from the La Gomeran community and policies implemented by the authorities saw Silbo Gomero being revitalized and maintained as a cultural asset. These revitalization efforts were well-documented by UNESCO as part of the proceedings for the selection of the 2009 Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Community initiatives
In a bid to preserve Silbo Gomero for the island's youth, expert whistlers sought to obtain authorization, which enabled them to teach the language on a free and voluntary basis at a dedicated centre. This initiative by the senior islanders garnered encouraging responses, with parent-teacher associations extending it to all schools. The first of many revitalization measures was thus adopted at the grassroots level, not by public or private entities, which reflected locals' attitude toward Silbo Gomero. Education policies implemented later were inspired as such: revitalization began at the grassroots and escalated to the highest government bodies.

Government policies
On 26 June 1997, the Parliament of the Canary Islands approved a motion calling on the government to include Silbo Gomero as part of the school curriculum. Silbo Gomero then became a mandatory subject in primary and secondary education, as of July 1999. The provincial government was supportive in its implementation of education policy and also the establishment of a formalized Silbo Gomero curriculum through the publication of El Silbo Gomero, Materiales didácticos (Educational Materials on the Silbo Gomero).

In addition to the compulsory learning of Silbo Gomero at the primary and secondary level, an Island School of Silbo Gomero was established for post-secondary students who wish to continue to train in Silbo Gomero until they become accredited professional instructors. Students of the Island School work to become capable of teaching Silbo Gomero not only to their fellow citizens, but also to tourists who visit La Gomera. This facilitates the sustainability of the revitalization and also works towards language maintenance.

Thereafter, the Ministry of Education, Universities, Culture and Sport of the Canary Islands developed a staff training plan in order to ensure that the elderly expert whistlers can be replaced in the near future by qualified professional teachers with relevant diplomas. This comprised the provision of training courses on proficiency in, and teaching of, Silbo Gomero. The training plan was launched in 2007, with the participation of 18 teachers.

Besides the implementation of education policies, the authorities also sought to strengthen the corpus of Silbo Gomero by developing a project to digitize all recorded audio material. Local, national and worldwide distribution of documentaries on Silbo Gomero were also made. The government also raised the status of Silbo Gomero by selecting it via the National Historical Heritage Council to represent Spain in the nominations for inclusion on the 2009 Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

Cultural heritage
Members of the Gomeran community treasure Silbo Gomero as part of the island's identity, and use the whistled language in traditional rituals and festivities on the island. These include "bajadas", which are processions dedicated to the Virgin or the patron saints of the community.

On 15 March 1999, Silbo Gomero was declared as part of the historical ethnographic heritage of the Canary Islands. The annual celebration of "School Encounters with Silbo Gomero" was also inaugurated in La Gomera. In 2005, the monument to Silbo Gomero was inducted in Garajonay National Park.

Tourism
 Silbo Gomero is not used only by Gomerans; visitors to the island can be exposed to it too, in restaurants that provide demonstrations for tourists. Minister of Tourism of La Gomera, Fernando Mendez, has said that whistling is essential to La Gomera's tourism industry.

Features

According to different studies, Silbo Gomero has between two and four vowels and between four and ten consonants. It is a whistled form of a dialect of Canarian Spanish. Silbo replaces each vowel or consonant with a whistling sound. Whistles are distinguished according to pitch and continuity. As with other whistled forms of non-tonal languages, Silbo works by retaining approximately the articulation of ordinary speech, so "the timbre variations of speech appear in the guise of pitch variations".

Silbo Gomero is a complex language to learn, with its whistling techniques requiring physical precision and a strength of the body parts used to produce the language that can only be acquired with practice. Silbo Gomero uses the tongue, lips, and hands, differing greatly from conventional language, which uses the mouth cavity to blend and contrast several acoustic frequencies. The whistling mechanism, in contrast, is limited to a single basic pitch between 1,000 and 3,000 hertz. The physical precision comes in the whistler's ability to vary the frequencies at different speeds and start and stop the production of the sound waves. This technique is handed down within La Gomera's community, with unchanged teaching methods that date to the late 19th century. The same pitch can represent many sounds, so Silbo has many fewer phonemes than Spanish. This means that communication can be ambiguous; context and word choice are important for effective communication.

Vowels
Silbo Gomero's vowels are described roughly as sustained lines of high and low frequency that are distinct from each other.

The high-frequency  represents the  vowels of the spoken language being whistled, while the low-frequency whistle of  represents the vowels . It is said that it is not possible to produce any vowels with intermediary frequencies because the whistling mechanism does not have the same functions as the vocal mechanism. In 1978, Ramón Trujillo of the University of La Laguna theorized that Silbo Gomero has only two vowels. His work, containing almost 100 spectrograms, concludes that the language has two vowels and four consonants. In Trujillo's work, Silbo's vowels are given one quality, that of pitch, either high or low. But a more recent study gives a statistical analysis of Silbo's vowels showing that four vowels are statistically distinguished in production and perception. In 2005, Annie Rialland of the University of Paris III: Sorbonne Nouvelle published an acoustic and phonological analysis of Silbo based on new materials, showing that not only gliding tones but also intensity modulation plays a role in distinguishing Silbo's sounds.

Trujillo's 2005 collaboration with Gomeran whistler Isidro Ortiz and others revises his earlier work, finding that four vowels are indeed perceived, and describes in detail the areas of divergence between his empirical data and Classe's phonetic hypotheses. Despite Trujillo's 2005 work acknowledging the existence of four vowels, his 2006 bilingual work El Silbo Gomero. Nuevo estudio fonológico inexplicably reiterates his two-vowel theory. Trujillo's 2006 work directly addresses many of Rialland's conclusions, but it seems that at the time of that writing he was unaware of Meyer's work.

Meyer suggests that there are four vowel classes: , , , . But Meyer also says there are five perceived vowels with significant overlap. Rialland and Trujillo agree that the harmonic of the whistle matches the second formant of the spoken vowels. Spoken 's F2 and whistled 's H1 match in their frequency (1480 Hz). But there is a disconnect in harmonics and formants near the frequency basement. Spoken speech has a wide range of F2 frequencies (790 Hz to 2300 Hz), but whistles are limited to between . Vowels are therefore shifted upward at the lower end (maintaining 1480 Hz as ), increasing confusion between  (spoken F2  freq. 890 Hz, whistled <1300 Hz) and  (spoken freq 790 Hz, whistled <<1300 Hz). In whistling the frequency basement must be raised to the minimum whistle harmonic of 1000 Hz, reducing frequency spacing in the vowels, which increases misidentification of the lower vowels.

Consonants
Silbo Gomero's Consonants are modifications of the vowel-based "melody line" or "vocal line". They may rise or fall, and can be modified by being broken, continuous or occlusive. The four main consonants in the now largely debunked and disproven 1978 analysis were wrongly listed as follows:

The documentation on the official Silbo Gomero page on the UNESCO website is in line with Trujillo's 1978 study. Trujillo suggested that the consonants are either rises or dips in the "melody line" that can be broken or continuous. Further study by Meyer and Rialland suggests that vowels are stripped to their inherent class of sound, which is communicated in the whistle in these ways: voice ( vs ) is transmitted by the whistled feature [-continuity]. A silent pause in the whistle communicates [+voice] (), while a [+continuous] consonant gives the quality [-voice] (). Placement of the consonant (dental, palatal, fricative) is transmitted in whistle by the loci, the sharpness or speed, of the formant transitions between vowels. Consonant classes are simplified into four classes. Extra high loci (near vertical formant loci) denotes affricates and stridents, rising loci denotes alveolar, medial (loci just above the vowel formant) denotes palatal, and falling (low loci) denotes pharyngeal, labial, and fricative. This gives eight whistled consonants, but including tone gradual decay (with intensity falling off) as a feature on continuous and interrupted sounds gives 10 consonants. In these situations gradual decay is given [+voice], and continuous is given [+liquid].

The representation of  is treated as a broken high pitch in Silbo, though in the spoken language,  is a continuous high pitch consonant. There are two reasons for this anomaly. First, in functional terms,  is high in frequency, and thus extremely useful. Second, as the continuous high-pitched consonant of Silbo already represents many other consonants of the spoken language (, , , , , ,  and ), it would be very confusing to add to that list. Thus, as the broken high-pitched consonant does not fully represent  and , it can represent the frequently used .

Cognitive features
Studies have shown that Silbo Gomero speakers process the whistled register in the same way as standard spoken language. Studies by Manuel Carreiras of the University of La Laguna and David Corina of the University of Washington published in 2004 and 2005 involve two participant groups of Spanish speakers. One group spoke Silbo and one did not. Results obtained from monitoring the participants' brain activity by functional magnetic resonance imaging show that while non-speakers of Silbo merely process Silbo as whistling, Silbo speakers process the sounds in the same linguistic centers of the brain that process Spanish sentences.

Others
Filmmaker and photographer Francesca Phillips wrote and directed a 26-minute documentary on the usage of Silbo Gomero in La Gomera, Written in the Wind (2009). The film won Best Short Documentary in Anthropology at The World Mountain Documentary Festival held in Qinghai, China in 2010.

Romanian filmmaker Corneliu Porumboiu directed the 2019 film The Whistlers, in which Silbo features prominently.

French singer Féloche dedicated a song to Silbo.

There are other examples of transposition of an oral natural language into a pitch string. When quickly spoken, Yoruba vowels are assimilated and consonants elided, so the linguistic information is carried by the tone system, which can therefore be transposed into talking drums.

References

External links
 silbo-gomero.com, Jeff Brent's homepage on Silbo Gomero
 Silbo Gomero – The Whistling Language.
 BBC4 interviews Isidro Ortiz & J.Brent – 26 August 2008

Languages of Spain
Spanish language
Whistled languages
Canarian society
Canarian culture
Guanche
La Gomera
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity

Silbo Gomero


Abteilungsleiter (section leader), German for department head, was also a mid-level administrative political position of the Nazi Party, often held by staff political officers attached to various Gaue throughout Germany.   The position of Abteilungsleiter was not an actual Nazi Party political rank, but a title held by a Party member in addition to their formal rank.  The position was first created in 1933, after the Nazis had secured power in Germany.

A rank of Unterabteilungsleiter also existed, literally "Junior Section Leader".

From 1933 to 1939, there was no outward insignia to denote the position of Abteilungsleiter.  This changed upon the outbreak of World War II, when a new system of political armbands were created to denote the position of "Department Leader" to which the former title of Abteilungsleiter was incorporated.

References

Nazi terminology
Nazi political ranks

Abteilungsleiter (NSDAP)


Dubliners is a collection of fifteen short stories by James Joyce, first published in 1914. It presents a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle class life in and around Dublin in the early years of the 20th century.

The stories were written when Irish nationalism was at its peak, and a search for a national identity and purpose was raging; at a crossroads of history and culture, Ireland was jolted by various converging ideas and influences. They centre on Joyce's idea of an epiphany (a moment where a character experiences a life-changing self-understanding or illumination) and the theme of paralysis (Joyce felt Irish nationalism stagnated cultural progression, placing Dublin at the heart of a regressive movement). The first three stories in the collection are narrated by child protagonists, while the subsequent stories are written in the third person and deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people, in line with Joyce's division of the collection into childhood, adolescence, maturity, and public life. Many of the characters in Dubliners later appeared in minor roles in Joyce's novel Ulysses.

Publication history
Between 1905, when Joyce first sent a manuscript to a publisher, and 1914, when the book was finally published (on June 15), Joyce submitted the book 18 times to a total of 15 publishers. The London house of Grant Richards agreed to publish it in 1905. Its printer, however, refused to set one of the stories ("Two Gallants"), and Richards then began to press Joyce to remove a number of other passages that he claimed the printer also refused to set. Under protest, Joyce eventually agreed to some of the requested changes, but Richards ended up backing out of the deal anyway. Joyce thereupon resubmitted the manuscript to other publishers, and, about three years later (1909), he found a willing candidate in Maunsel & Roberts of Dublin. A similar controversy developed, and Maunsel too refused to publish the collection, even threatening to sue Joyce for printing costs already incurred. Joyce offered to pay the printing costs himself if the sheets were turned over to him and he was allowed to complete the job elsewhere and distribute the book, but, when he arrived at the printers, they refused to surrender the sheets and burned them the next day, though Joyce managed to save one copy, which he obtained "by ruse". He returned to submitting the manuscript to other publishers, and in 1914 Grant Richards once again agreed to publish the book, using the page proofs saved from Maunsel as copy.

The stories
 "The Sisters" – After the priest Father Flynn dies, a young boy who was close to him hears some less-than-flattering stories about the father.
 "An Encounter" – Two schoolboys playing truant encounter a perverted, middle-aged man.
 "Araby" – A boy falls in love with the sister of his friend, but fails in his quest to buy her a worthy gift from the Araby Bazaar.
 "Eveline" – A young woman weighs her decision to flee Ireland with a sailor.
 "After the Race" – College student Jimmy Doyle tries to fit in with his wealthy friends.
 "Two Gallants" – Lenehan wanders around Dublin to kill time while waiting to hear if his friend, Corley, was able to con a maid out of some money.
 "The Boarding House" – Mrs Mooney successfully manoeuvres her daughter Polly into an upwardly mobile marriage with her lodger Mr Doran.
 "A Little Cloud" – Little Chandler's dinner with his old friend Ignatius Gallaher, who left home to become a journalist in London, casts fresh light on his own failed literary dreams.
 "Counterparts" – Farrington, a lumbering alcoholic scrivener, takes out his frustration in pubs and on his son Tom.
 "Clay" – Maria, a spinster who works in the kitchen at a large Magdalene laundry, celebrates Halloween with a man she cared for as a child and his family.
 "A Painful Case" – Mr Duffy rebuffs the advances of his friend Mrs Sinico, and, four years later, discovers he condemned her to loneliness and death.
 "Ivy Day in the Committee Room" – Several paid canvassers for a minor politician discuss the memory of Charles Stewart Parnell.
 "A Mother" – To win a place of pride for her daughter Kathleen in the Irish Revival, Mrs. Kearney arranges for the girl to be accompanist at a series of poorly planned concerts, but her efforts backfire.
 "Grace" – Mr Kernan passes out and falls down the stairs at a bar, so his friends attempt to convince him to come to a Catholic retreat to help him reform.
 "The Dead" – After a holiday party thrown by his aunts and cousin, Gabriel Conroy's wife, Gretta, tells him about a boyfriend from her youth, and he has an epiphany about life and death and human connection. (At 15–16,000 words, this story has been classified as a novella.)

Style
When discussing Joyce's Dubliners, there are two types of critics that are often at the forefront of the conversation: the "Realists" and the "Symbolists." The Realists view Dubliners as the most simple of Joyce's works, which often causes them to disregard the revolutionary nature of the work. The symbolists instead neglect the rebellious meanings behind Joyce's symbols. While some choose only one side to argue, others believe that Dubliners completely defies any form of characterization. Without any clear evidence of thematic unity, logic of plot, or closure, Joyce prevents any conclusive critical analysis. As Sonja Bašić argues, the book "should be seen not just as a realist/naturalist masterpiece, but as a significant stepping-stone integrated into the modernist structure of Joyce's mature work."

It is argued that the narrators in Dubliners rarely mediate, which means that there are limited descriptions of their thoughts and emotions, a practice said to accompany narratorial invisibility where the narrator sees instead of tells. While some point to Joyce's use of free indirect discourse as a way to understand his characters, he often obscures the reliability of his characters in a way that would make any kind of analysis very difficult. As Richard Ellmann has argued, "Joyce claims importance by claiming nothing." His characters' personalities can only be observed because they are not explicitly told.

The collection progresses chronologically, beginning with stories of youth and progressing in age to culminate in "The Dead".

Emphasis is laid upon the specific geographic details of Dublin, including road names, buildings, and businesses. Joyce freely admitted that his characters and places were closely based on reality. Because of these details, at least one potential publisher (Maunsel and Company) rejected the book for fear of libel lawsuits.

Joyce referred to the collection as "a series of epicleti", alluding to the transubstantiation of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ.

Dubliners is the only work by Joyce to use quotation marks for dialogue. He did not use the quotation marks in his manuscript and specifically asked to exclude them, but Grant Richards overruled his request.

Media adaptations
 Hugh Leonard adapted six stories as Dublin One, which was staged at the Gate Theatre, Dublin, in 1963.
 In 1987, John Huston directed a film adaptation of "The Dead", written for the screen by his son Tony and starring his daughter Anjelica as Mrs. Conroy.
 In October 1998, BBC Radio 4 broadcast dramatisations by various writers of "A Painful Case", "After the Race", "Two Gallants", "The Boarding House", "A Little Cloud", and "Counterparts". The series ended with a dramatization of "The Dead", which was first broadcast in 1994 under the title "Distant Music". The broadcasts were accompanied by nighttime abridged readings of other stories from Dubliners, starting with "Ivy Day in the Committee Room" (in two parts, read by T. P. McKenna), and continuing with "The Sisters", "An Encounter", "Araby", "Eveline", and "Clay" (all read by Barry McGovern).
 In 1999, a short film adaptation of "Araby" was produced and directed by Dennis Courtney.
 In 2000, a Tony Award-winning musical adaptation of "The Dead" premiered, written by Richard Nelson and Shaun Davey and directed by Nelson.
 In April 2012, Stephen Rea read "The Dead" on RTÉ Radio 1.
 In February 2014, Stephen Rea read all fifteen stories spread across twenty 13-minute segments of Book at Bedtime on BBC Radio 4.
 In July 2014, Irish actor Carl Finnegan released a modern retelling of "Two Gallants" as a short film. Finnegan wrote the script with Darren McGrath and also produced, directed, and performed the role of Corley in the film.
 In May 2023, Irish folk music act Hibsen released the album "The Stern Task of Living", inspired by "Dubliners". The 15-track album by duo Gráinne Hunt and Jim Murphy, follows the sequence of the stories in the novel, with each song based on the story after which it is named.

References

Further reading
General
Ellmann, Richard. James Joyce. Oxford University Press, 1959, revised edition 1983.
Burgess, Anthony. Here Comes Everybody: An Introduction to James Joyce for the Ordinary Reader (1965); also published as Re Joyce.
Burgess, Anthony. Joysprick: An Introduction to the Language of James Joyce (1973)

Dubliners

 Benstock, Bernard.  Narrative Con/Texts in Dubliners.  Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994.  .
 Bloom, Harold.  James Joyce's Dubliners.  New York: Chelsea House, 1988.  .
 Bosinelli Bollettieri, Rosa Maria and Harold Frederick Mosher, eds.  ReJoycing: New Readings of Dubliners.  Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998.  .
 Frawley, Oona.  A New & Complex Sensation: Essays on Joyce's Dubliners.  Dublin: Lilliput, 2004.  .
 Hart, Clive.  James Joyce's Dubliners: Critical Essays.  London: Faber, 1969.  .
 Ingersoll, Earl G.  Engendered Trope in Joyce's Dubliners.  Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1996.  .
 Norris, Margot, ed.  Dubliners: Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism.  New York: Norton, 2006.  .
 Thacker, Andrew, ed.  Dubliners: James Joyce.  New Casebook Series.  New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.  .

External links

 Spark Notes
 Dubliners at the British Library
 Grant Richards Ltd, London, 1914 digitised copy of first edition from Internet Archive

1914 short story collections
Modernist short stories
Short story collections by James Joyce
Irish short story collections
20th-century short stories
Dublin (city) in fiction
Saint Patrick's Day fiction

Dubliners


The Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature (), commonly known as the Norwegian Academy, is a Norwegian learned body on matters pertaining to the modern Norwegian language in its Dano-Norwegian variety, now commonly known as Riksmål and Bokmål. The academy was established in the Norwegian government's honorary residence Grotten in 1953 based on the model of the Swedish Academy and the French Academy, but the idea was originally conceived by Bjørn Bjørnson in 1913. Its members are elected for life on the basis of scholarly, literary or artistic merits. The academy publishes the main dictionary of Norwegian, Det Norske Akademis ordbok ("Dictionary of the Norwegian Academy", www.naob.no), is responsible for regulating the written standard known as Riksmål ("National Language") and has a literary and cultural purpose. The academy awards the Norwegian Academy Prize in memory of Thorleif Dahl.

History

The academy was founded in 1953 by several notable Norwegian authors and poets, among them Arnulf Øverland, Sigurd Hoel, A.H. Winsnes, Cora Sandel and Francis Bull. They disagreed with the official language policy aiming to merge Bokmål with Nynorsk and protested against what they called state discrimination against the dominant Norwegian written standard Riksmål. This was Norway's de facto written language, used by most large newspapers and by the majority of the population as a written standard (although not necessarily a spoken one). The Academy was modelled after the Swedish Academy and the French Academy.

In addition to regulating Riksmål, the most conservative and Danish-near form of Norwegian, the academy publishes dictionaries and supports the publishing of literature in Riksmål. To-day, after several reforms worth in the official Bokmål and in the traditional Riksmål, Bokmål in its "moderate" version and modern Riksmål more or less coincide with some deviations.

The Academy has 51 members (2021), each of whom is a specialist in miscellaneous areas of analysis, investigation and expertise. These include Nordic studies, German, English and French languages and literature, history, philosophy, law, political science, poetry et cetera. The President of the Academy is John Ole Askedal.

The Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature was represented, along with other non-governmental language organisations, in the Norwegian Language Council, which regulates the official Bokmål and Nynorsk languages, since its establishment in 1972 until it was reorganized in 2005.

In 1981, the Academy merged with Riksmålsvernet, founded in 1919.

Members
The following are current members of the Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature:

Nils August Andresen
John Ole Askedal
Bodil Aurstad
Kjetil Bang-Hansen
Trond Berg Eriksen
Liv Bliksrud
Tor Bomann-Larsen
Fredrik Bull-Hansen
Bentein Baardson
Lars Saabye Christensen
Arnold Eidslott
Thor Falkanger
Ivo de Figueiredo
Lise Fjeldstad
Dagfinn Føllesdal
Karin Gundersen
Tor Guttu
Cathrine Grøndahl
Erik Fosnes Hansen
Håkon Harket
Per Egil Hegge
Nils Heyerdahl
Roy Jacobsen
Christian Janss
Egil Kraggerud
Sissel Lange-Nielsen
Hanne Lauvstad
Mari Lending
Tom Lotherington
Jørn Lund (korresponderende)
Carina Nilstun
Helge Nordahl
William Nygaard
Kjell Arild Pollestad
Per Qvale

Hilde Sejersted
Ole Michael Selberg
Rune Slagstad
Arild Stubhaug
Henrik Syse
Jan Jakob Tønseth
Helene Uri
Trond Vernegg
Finn-Erik Vinje
Peter Normann Waage
Egil A. Wyller
Vigdis Ystad
Knut Ødegård

See also
 Norsk ordbok (Riksmål)
 Language academy
 Swedish Academy

References

External links
Official site

Language organisations of Norway
Language regulators
National academies
Norwegian language
Norwegian literature
Organizations established in 1953

Norwegian Academy


J. Michael Arrington (born March 13, 1970) is the American founder and former co-editor of TechCrunch, a blog covering the Silicon Valley technology start-up communities and the wider technology field in America and elsewhere. Magazines such as Wired and Forbes have named Arrington one of the most powerful people on the Internet.
In 2008, he was selected by TIME Magazine as one of the most influential people in the world.

Biography
Born in Huntington Beach, California, Arrington grew up in Huntington Beach and Surrey, England. He attended the University of California, Berkeley for his freshman year and graduated from Claremont McKenna College with a major in economics. He went on to Stanford Law School and graduated in 1995. He practiced corporate and securities law at O'Melveny & Myers and Wilson Sonsini Goodrich & Rosati.

Arrington left the practice of law to join RealNames, which failed after raising $100 million. Arrington was co-founder of Achex, an internet payments company, which was sold to First Data Corp for US$32 million and is now the back end of Western Union online. "I made enough to buy a Porsche. Not much more," he said in 2007.

His other entrepreneurial endeavors include co-founding Zip.ca and Pool.com, acting as chief operating officer for Razorgator, and founding Edgeio. He has also served on the board of directors at the startup Foldera, which was designing a software as a service organizational tool.

He identifies as a libertarian, saying, "I just see government as this thing that stops us from doing things."

In 2013, he was accused of physical abuse by an ex-girlfriend. Arrington sued the woman for defamation and she agreed to retract her accusations against him and apologize.

TechCrunch
Arrington rose to internet prominence with his Silicon Valley blog, TechCrunch. TechCrunch covers internet startups and news. In early September 2011, Arrington was reported to be no longer employed by TechCrunch but associated with a new investment company, AOL Ventures.  Within days, it was being reported that he was no longer associated with AOL Ventures.

In October 2012, Arrington returned to writing for the Tech Crunch blog.

CrunchFund
In 2011, Arrington founded a venture capital firm called CrunchFund along with M. G. Siegler and Patrick Gallagher. In 2014, CrunchFund invested in BlueFly, an online retailer, which was bought, in May 2013, by affiliates of Clearlake Capital for US$13 million. As a result of CrunchFund's investment, former BlueFly CEO Melissa Payner returned to BlueFly.

CrunchPad
In July 2008, Arrington started a project called the Crunchpad, over a year before the iPad was released. The Crunchpad was meant to be an affordable tablet computer that catered to a niche between desktop computers and laptops. However, disputes arose between Arrington and the developers he had chosen for the Crunchpad. The developers broke off from Arrington and released the device on their own but it received few sales, and the developers later went bankrupt.

Arrington XRP Capital
In November 2017, Michael Arrington announced he was starting a $100 million hedge fund.  The fund would be denominated in the cryptocurrency XRP, also known as Ripple. It was reported to be the first fund denominated in a cryptocurrency, rather than US dollars or Euros at the time.  The fund has invested in more than 50 crypto startups.

References

External links

 Michael Arrington Personal Weblog

1970 births
Living people
American computer businesspeople
American Internet celebrities
American libertarians
American male bloggers
American bloggers
Claremont McKenna College alumni
People from Orange, California
People from Surrey
Stanford Law School alumni

Michael Arrington


Albert the Bear (;  1100 – 18 November 1170) was the first margrave of Brandenburg from 1157 to his death and was briefly duke of Saxony between 1138 and 1142.

Life
Albert was the only son of Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, and Eilika, daughter of Magnus Billung, Duke of Saxony.  He inherited his father's valuable estates in northern Saxony in 1123, and on his mother's death, in 1142, succeeded to one-half of the lands of the house of Billung. Albert was a loyal vassal of his relation, Lothar I, Duke of Saxony, from whom, about 1123, he received the Margraviate of Lusatia, to the east; after Lothar became King of the Germans, he accompanied him on a disastrous expedition to Bohemia against the upstart, Soběslav I, Duke of Bohemia in 1126 at the Battle of Kulm, where he suffered a short imprisonment.

Albert's entanglements in Saxony stemmed from his desire to expand his inherited estates there. After the death of his brother-in-law, Henry II, Margrave of the Nordmark, who controlled a small area on the Elbe called the Saxon Northern March, in 1128, Albert, disappointed at not receiving this fief himself, attacked Udo V, Count of Stade, the heir, and was consequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothar. Udo, however, was said to have been assassinated by servants of Albert on 15 March 1130 near Aschersleben. In spite of this, Albert went to Italy in 1132 in the train of the king, and his services there were rewarded in 1134 by the investiture of the Northern March, which was again without a ruler.

In 1138 Conrad III, the Hohenstaufen King of the Germans, deprived Albert's cousin and nemesis, Henry the Proud, of his Saxon duchy, which was awarded to Albert if he could take it. After some initial success in his efforts to take possession, Albert was driven from Saxony, and also from his Northern March by a combined force of Henry and Jaxa of Köpenick, and compelled to take refuge in south Germany. Henry died in 1139 and an arrangement was found. Henry's son, Henry the Lion, received the duchy of Saxony in 1142. In the same year, Albert renounced the Saxon duchy and received the counties of Weimar and Orlamünde.

Once he was firmly established in the Northern March, Albert's covetous eye lay also on the thinly populated lands to the north and east. For three years he was occupied in campaigns against the Slavic Wends, who as pagans were considered fair game, and whose subjugation to Christianity was the aim of the Wendish Crusade of 1147 in which Albert took part. Albert was a part of the army that besieged Demmin, and at the end of the war, recovered Havelberg, which had been lost since 983. Diplomatic measures were more successful, and by an arrangement made with the last of the Wendish princes of Brandenburg, Pribislav-Henry of the Hevelli, Albert secured this district when the prince died in 1150. Taking the title "Margrave in Brandenburg", he pressed the crusade against the Wends, extended the area of his mark, encouraged Dutch and German settlement in the Elbe-Havel region (Ostsiedlung), established bishoprics under his protection, and so became the founder of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157, which his heirs — the House of Ascania — held until the line died out in 1320.

In 1158 a feud with Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, was interrupted by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. On his return in 1160, he, with the consent of his sons, Siegfried not being mentioned, donated land to the Knights of Saint John in memory of his wife, Sofia, at Werben on the Elbe. Around this same time, he minted a pfennig in memory of his deceased wife. In 1162 Albert accompanied Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to Italy, where he distinguished himself at the storming of Milan.

In 1164 Albert joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and peace being made in 1169, Albert divided his territories among his six sons. He died on 18 November 1170, and was buried at Ballenstedt.

Cognomen

Albert's personal qualities won for him the cognomen of the Bear, "not from his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from the cognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as a strong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crooked things, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day, got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, a conspicuous country ever since," says Thomas Carlyle, who called Albert "a restless, much-managing, wide-warring man." He was also called "the Handsome."

Marriage and children
Albert was married in 1124 to Sophie of Winzenburg (died 25 March 1160) and they had the following children:
 Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg (1126/1128–7 March 1184)
 Count Hermann I of Orlamünde (died 1176), father of Siegfried III, Count of Weimar-Orlamünde
 Siegfried (died 24 October 1184), Bishop of Brandenburg from 1173 to 1180, Prince-Archbishop of Bremen, the first ranked prince, from 1180 to 1184
 Heinrich (died 1185), a canon in Magdeburg
 Count Albert of Ballenstedt (died after 6 December 1172)
 Count Dietrich of Werben (died after 5 September 1183)
 Count Bernhard of Anhalt (1134–9 February 1212), Duke of Saxony from 1180 to 1212 as Bernard III
 Hedwig (d. 1203), married to Otto II, Margrave of Meissen
 Daughter, married  to Vladislav of Olomouc, the eldest son of Soběslav I, Duke of Bohemia
 Adelheid (died 1162), a nun in Lamspringe
 Gertrude, married in 1155 to Duke Diepold of Moravia
 Sybille (died ), Abbess of Quedlinburg
 Eilika

References

Works cited

General references

External links

Thomas Carlyle, History of Friedrich ii Chapter iv: Albert the Bear
The History Files: Rulers of Brandenburg

Albert 00
Margraves of Brandenburg
Counts of Anhalt
People from Brandenburg an der Havel
Christians of the Wendish Crusade
1100s births
1170 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Place of birth unknown

Albert the Bear


Carlo Sabatini (born 23 September 1960) is an Italian football coach. He was most recently the head coach of Serie B club Como.

He is the brother of Walter Sabatini.

Career

Coach
He began his career as a coach in Pontevecchio. He then moved to the youth of Padova, where plays Alessandro Del Piero. He is then promoted to the first team, bringing in Serie B.

In 2011, he moves to Frosinone in Lega Pro Prima Divisione.

On July 5, 2012 he becomes the new coach of Carrarese in Lega Pro Prima Divisione, but on 30 September 2012 he resigned.

On November 12, 2013 he becomes the new coach of Mantova in Lega Pro Seconda Divisione.

At the end of the season 2013-14 he was promoted in the Lega Pro. May 8, 2014 leaves the Mantova.

On January 13, 2015 he becomes the new coach of Como in Lega Pro. At the end of the season he was promoted to Serie B. In October 2015, during the ongoing season, after a league match against Modena which ended 1–1, the president of Como Pietro Porro ended Carlos contract. Carlo managed Como 11 mathes in Lega Pro.

References

1960 births
Italian football managers
Living people
Sportspeople from Perugia
Calcio Padova managers
Frosinone Calcio managers
Carrarese Calcio managers
Mantova 1911 managers
Como 1907 managers

Carlo Sabatini


Gérard Biguet (born 16 June 1946 in Jarny) is a retired French football referee, who refereed one match at the 1992 UEFA European Football Championship: CIS versus Germany.

He is known to have served as a FIFA referee during the period from 1982 to 1992. Biguet officiated at the 1988 Olympic tournament in Seoul, the 1983 FIFA World Youth Championship, qualifying matches for the Euro 1984 and Euro 1992 tournaments, and qualifying matches for the 1990 World Cup.

Biguet also worked as a futsal referee, officiating at the 1989 FIFA Futsal World Championship.

References

External links
Profile

1946 births
French football referees
Living people
UEFA Euro 1992 referees

Gérard Biguet


Shiloh (; , שִׁלוֹ ,שִׁילֹה, and שִׁילוֹ, variably, Šīlō) was an ancient city and sanctuary in Samaria. According to the Hebrew Bible, Shiloh was one of the main centers of Israelite worship during the pre-monarchic period, before the First Temple in Jerusalem was built. After the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Tabernacle was moved to Shiloh, and remained there during the period of the biblical judges.

Shiloh has been positively identified with modern Khirbet Seilun, a tell known in Modern Hebrew as Tel Shiloh. It is located  north of Jerusalem, in the West Bank, to the west of the modern Israeli settlement town of Shilo and to the north of the Palestinian town of Turmus Ayya. Relative to other archaeological sites, it is south of the biblical town of Lebonah and  north of Bethel. G. F. Moore has suggested identifying Bochim as Shiloh.

Etymology
The meaning of the word "Shiloh" is unclear. Sometimes, it is translated as a Messianic title, which means He Whose It Is or as Pacific, Pacificator or Tranquility and refers to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Regardless, the name of Shiloh the town is derived from  and may be translated as Tranquility Town.

Identification
Shiloh is situated just east of the Jerusalem–Nablus road, 31 km north of Jerusalem. It was identified unambiguously with Khirbet Seilun, based on the much detailed biblical description of the site:

The Arabic name, Khirbet Seilun, preserves the ancient Hebrew name.

In the 4th century CE, Eusebius and Jerome demonstrated some awareness of Shiloh's location as did the cartographer of the Madaba Map in the 6th century. In 1838, the American biblical scholar Edward Robinson became the first modern person to correctly identify Khirbet Seilun as Shiloh based on the biblical description of its location.

History

Bronze Age
During the Middle and Late Bronze Age Canaan, Shiloh was a walled city with a religious shrine or sanctuary.

Iron Age
Shiloh was one of the main centers of Israelite worship during the pre-monarchic period.

In the Hebrew Bible
Shiloh is mentioned in the Books of Joshua, Judges, 1 Samuel, 1 Kings, Psalms, and Jeremiah.

Shiloh was first mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in the Book of Joshua. When the Israelites arrived in the land, they set up there the Tent of Meeting (Hebrew: Ohel-Mo'ed). There Joshua and Eleazar divided the land among the tribes who had not yet received their allocation () and dealt with the allocation of cities to the Levites (). Subsequently, Shiloh became one of the leading religious shrines in ancient Israel, a status it held until shortly before David's elevation of Jerusalem.

The tabernacle had been built under Moses' direction from God (Exodus 26) to house the Ark of the Covenant, also made according to Moses' instructions from God (Exodus 25). Talmudic sources state that the tent sanctuary remained at Shiloh for 369 years  until the Ark of the Covenant was taken into the battle camp at Eben-Ezer (1 Samuel 4:3–5) and captured by the Philistines at Aphek (probably Antipatris). At some point during its long stay at Shiloh, the portable tent seems to have been enclosed within a compound—a Greek "temenos". It was at Shiloh that Eli and Samuel ministered (). At some point, the Tent of Meeting was moved to Gibeon, which became an Israelite holy site under David and Solomon.

The people made pilgrimages there for major feasts and sacrifices, and Judges 21 records the place as the site of an annual dance of maidens among the vineyards.

According to 1 Samuel 1–3, the sanctuary at Shiloh was administered by the Aaronite high priest Eli and his two sons, Hophni and Phinehas. According to this account, the young Samuel was dedicated by his mother Hannah there, to be raised at the shrine by the high priest, and his own prophetic ministry is presented as having begun there. Hophni and Phinehas are noted as malicious in their dealings with those who came to the shrine to offer sacrifices (). It was under Eli and his sons that the Ark was lost to Israel in a battle with the Philistines at Aphek. W.F. Albright hypothesized that the Philistines also destroyed Shiloh at this time; this conclusion is disputed, but supported by traditional commentary. The place may have been destroyed later as well, though the biblical text records no such claimed destruction. Certainly, the shadowy figure of Ahijah the Shilonite, who instigated the revolt of Jeroboam I against David's grandson Rehoboam (), came from there, and he bore the same name as the Aaronite priest that consulted the Ark for Saul in . Schley has claimed that the capture of the Ark and the death of Saul occurred in the same battle and that the later Davidic editors redacted the texts to make it appear as if Saul had ruled without either Tent Shrine or Ark, and thus without sacral legitimacy. This claim is disputed.

What is certain is that during the prophetic ministry of Jeremiah () over three hundred years later, Shiloh had been reduced to ruins. Jeremiah used the example of Shiloh to warn the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem what God would do to the "place where I caused my name to dwell", warning them that their holy city, Jerusalem, like Shiloh, could fall under divine judgment.

According to Richard Elliott Friedman, the priesthood of Shiloh was the Elohist-source of the documentary hypothesis and also provided much of the material of the Deuteronomistic history, with the writer of this history (Jeremiah or somebody closely connected to him) being a descendant of these priests. If correct, this would make Shiloh a major source of the history part of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament.

Hellenistic and Roman periods
According to historical records, the area's population was diverse on the eve of the Maccabean revolt. During the revolt, there were clashes between the numerous ethnic groups nearby. Several accounts suggest the presence of Edomites in the region; Jewish communities are also implied. Like in western Samaria, it's possible that Seleucid veterans settled here as well. Archeological evidence indicates that Shiloh, then a gentile settlement, was violently destroyed in the mid 2nd century BCE. It was suggested that this destruction might be connected to the conquests of Hasmonean leaders Jonathan Apphus and Simon Thassi.

Byzantine period

Jerome, in his letter to Paula and Eustochium, dated about 392–393, writes: "With Christ at our side we shall pass through Shiloh and Bethel " (Ep.46,13, PL 22, 492). The official church of Jerusalem did not schedule an annual pilgrimage to Shiloh, unlike Bethel. On the contrary, Samuel's feast was held on August 20 in the village of Masephta (Mizpah). Even the pilgrims seemingly did not visit Shiloh, for the only one that mentions its name—the sixth-century pilgrim Theodosius in De Situ Terrae Sanctae (ch. 4, CCSL 175, 116)—wrongly locates it midway between Jerusalem and Emmaus Nicopolis. The mistaken identification lasted for centuries, as appears, for example, on the Florentine map of 1300, which places Shiloh at Nabi Samwil, where the Tomb of Samuel is found. The sixth-century mosaic Madaba Map wrongly locates Shiloh east of Shechem, omitting the depiction of the church.

Early Muslim and Crusader periods
In 638 the Muslims conquered the area of Palestine. Muslim pilgrims to Shiloh mention a mosque called es-Sekineh where the memory of Jacob's and Joseph's deeds was revered. The earliest source is el-Harawi, who visited the country in 1173 when it was occupied by the Crusaders and wrote: "Seilun is the village of the mosque es-Sekineh where the stone of the Table is found". Yaqut (1225) and el-Quarwini (1308, Marmardji, 94–95), write similarly.

Archaeology

Overview
Archaeological excavations have shown that the place was already settled from about 1750 BCE (Middle Bronze II or MB II, otherwise known as MB IIB according to the Albright school); however, it is not mentioned in any pre-biblical source. A tell and many impressive remains have been unearthed from the Canaanite and Israelite eras, with habitation lasting until the 8th century BCE. During the following 12 centuries Shiloh is solely noted as a station on sojourners' routes, usually having only its religious-historical significance to offer. Archaeological excavations have revealed remains from the Roman and Persian as well as Early and Late Muslim periods.

An impressive glacis has been located and pottery, animal remains, weapons and other objects have been recovered.

History of excavations
Soundings were first made in 1922 by Aage Schmidt. A Danish team led by Hans Kjær (overseen by W.F. Albright) excavated for three seasons between the years 1926–32. A probe was done by Sven Holm-Nielson and Marie-Louise Buhl in 1963. An extensive excavation was done by Israel Finkelstein during the years 1981–84. Since 2006 further excavations have taken place there. Digs are currently run by Scott Stripling.

Finkelstein excavations
Finkelstein's work established eight strata, ranging from Middle Bronze II to the Byzantine period.

Bronze Age
A massive wall is attributed to the Middle Bronze III (MB IIC) stage, preserved at a height of  and width up to , with an extensive glacis.

Iron Age
The Iron I (Israelite) remains yielded a pillared two-storey public building near the top of the tell, the earliest attributed to Israelites. Collared rim storage jars and some cultic items were found in these buildings, pointing to usage as part of a cultic complex. More than 20 silos were uncovered from this era, included one with carbonized wheat. The destruction layer evident throughout the tell may have occurred in the wake of the Philistine victory at Eben-Ezer.

According to radiocarbon dating by Finkelstein, the site was abandoned around 1050 BCE, and then sparsely repopulated during the Iron II period. Jeremiah's admonition in the course of his temple sermon, "Go now to my place that was in Shiloh" (), would have occurred during this era.

Cultic site
One of the more intriguing finds was that of a heap of pottery outside the city wall before the advent of the Israelite culture (c. 1000 BCE). This pile of pottery was the remnant of a number of animal sacrifices, which were tossed over the wall after completion of the ritual and then buried. This find points to a sacral status of Shiloh during the Canaanite period, a status adopted by the Israelites. The top of the tell, where Finkelstein supposes that the tabernacle would have been placed, is now exposed bedrock, offering no clues concerning Israelite worship (aside from the adjacent storage complex).

Roman and Byzantine periods
More substantive villages emerged in the Roman and Byzantine periods.

Byzantine churches
Excavations from 2006 to 2007, carried out adjacent to and just south of Tel Shiloh, exposed elaborate mosaic floors as well as several Greek inscriptions, one explicitly referring to the site as the "village of Shiloh". During August–September 2006 archaeological excavations were carried out adjacent to the tell of Shiloh. A team led by the Archaeological Staff Officer for Judea and Samaria in Israel's Civilian Administration Antiquities Unit, performing a clean-up operation at Shiloh this summer, a belated continuation to a previous 1998 dig, discovered the mosaic floor of a large Byzantine church which was probably constructed between 380 and 420 AD.

Three Byzantine basilicas have now been uncovered. The length of one, excavated by Hans Klær in the late 1920s, is . The width, also measured externally, is , but a  wide room adjoins the building on the south side. This church had three naves, and 12 bases and two beautiful Corinthian capitals  high and  wide are preserved. Their appearance recalls the well-known fourth-century style, with separate leaves revealing the ribbing of the back leaves, and a smooth leaf under the corner.

A structure discovered in 2006 lies under a Muslim free-standing structure known as Weli Yetaim. It seems to have suffered problems of water drainage in its western section despite the installation of run-off pipes and troughs. It appears that the solution was to raise the level of the church and the laying of a new mosaic floor. It was the older, original floor at the lower level that was revealed during the summer of 2006. The mosaic contains geometric designs, a cross, flora representations and three inscriptions, one, a dedication of a bench, the second, a salute to the residents of "Siloun" (as set in mosaic in Greek script: "CIλOYN") and the third, a general wish for good tidings. Another discovery of an addition to one of the basilicas occurred in 2013.

Ambiguous use of "Shiloh" in Hebrew Bible

Shiloh is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in Genesis as part of the benediction given by Jacob to his son Judah: "The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh comes, and unto him shall the gathering of the people be." (). It could be a figure, perhaps the Messiah, or a place, as mentioned later in Judges and also in Jeremiah 41:5.

Messianic Jewish and some Christian interpretations
Messianic Judaism became attached to Shiloh as a result of this verse. Shiloh is believed to refer to Jesus by some Christians. Alternative translations have led others, including some Christians, to different conclusions.

See also
Eben-Ezer
Nob, Israel
Song of Moses
Shilo, modern Israeli settlement in the West Bank.

Notes

References

Further reading
Buhl, Marie-Louise, & Svend Holm-Nielsen, Shiloh--The Danish Excavations at Tall Sailum, Palestine, in 1926, 1929, 1932 AND 1962: The Pre-Hellenistic Remains. Copenhagen: The National Museum of Denmark, 1969.
Finkelstein, Israel, et al. Shiloh: The Archaeology of a Biblical Site. Tel Aviv, 1993.
Schley, Donald G. Shiloh: A Biblical City in Tradition and History, Sheffield, 1989, 2009. This is the only in-depth study of Shiloh from a textual, historical and archaeological perspective available; provides an exhaustive bibliography going back to 1805, which includes Albright's critical articles and insights.

External links

Rabbi Ariel Bar Tzodeck's Insight into Shiloh (a Kabbalist perspective)
Shiloh in the Jewish Encyclopedia
photos of the Mosaic from Tel Shiloh
photos of the Mosaic from Tel Shiloh "Church of the ark found in the west bank"
Photos of Tel Shiloh
More Archeology at Tel Shiloh

Ancient Hebrew pilgrimage sites
Archaeological sites in Samaria
Archaeological sites in the West Bank
Former populated places in the State of Palestine
Hebrew Bible cities
Holy cities
Tells (archaeology)
Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)
Eli (biblical figure)
Ancient Jewish settlements of Samaria

Shiloh (biblical city)


Seattle Housing Authority is an independent public corporation in the city of Seattle, Washington, responsible for public housing for low-income, elderly, and disabled residents. SHA serves more than 25,500 people, just under a third of whom are children, through around 5,200 HUD units, 1,000 units for the elderly and disabled, and 800 additional units that receive local funding. SHA is also the local administrator for Section 8 housing. It is run by a seven-member Board of Commissioners appointed by the mayor.

One of SHA's most notable properties is Yesler Terrace, which at the time of its completion in 1941 was Washington's first public housing development and the first racially integrated public housing development in the United States.  Keeping with its efforts to diversify, the SHA created the Scattered Site program in 1978.  This program has currently established 800 small-scale public housing units in diverse neighborhoods throughout the city.

Housing Developments

NewHolly (1940s, redeveloped in 1995)
Rainier Vista (2005)
Yesler Terrace (1941, redeveloped in 2010s)

References

External links
Official site

Public housing in the United States
Government of Seattle
Government agencies established in 1939
1939 establishments in Washington (state)

Seattle Housing Authority


In taxonomy, inclusion is the process whereby two species that were believed to be distinct are found in fact to be the same and are thus combined as one species. Which name is kept for this unified species is sometimes a cause of debate, but generally it is the earlier-named one, and the other species is said to be "included" within this one.

Inclusion is far more common in paleontology than more recent biology, although it is not unheard of in the latter. When it occurs with more recent or modern species, it is usually the result of a species with wide geographical dispersion.

References

Taxonomy (biology)

Inclusion (taxonomy)


Steuart John Rudolf Bedford  (31 July 1939 – 15 February 2021) was an English orchestral and opera conductor and pianist.

He was the brother of composer David Bedford and of singer Peter Lehmann Bedford and a grandson of Liza Lehmann and Herbert Bedford; his parents were Leslie Bedford, an inventor, and Lesley Duff, a soprano opera singer.

Bedford was particularly associated with the music of Benjamin Britten, and conducted the world premiere of Death in Venice in 1973.  Bedford also conducted Britten's other operas, and made an orchestral suite of music from Death in Venice. Between 1974 and 1998, he was one of the Artistic Directors of the Aldeburgh Festival. In 1989, he became joint artistic director with Oliver Knussen. In the summer of 2013, Bedford conducted a performance of Peter Grimes which was staged in its natural setting on the beach at Aldeburgh.  His book Knowing Britten, compiled through his conversations with the tenor Christopher Gillett, is due to be published in June 2021 by the Britten Press.

His other work in contemporary opera included conducting the 1996 world premiere in Monte Carlo of Lowell Liebermann's The Picture of Dorian Gray, and also the 1999 US premiere.

Bedford conducted several commercial recordings of Britten operas, including the first recording of Death in Venice (Decca), as well as The Turn of the Screw (Collins Classics, since reissued on Naxos). He also recorded his Death in Venice suite and the major vocal cycles by Britten.

Bedford made his operatic conducting debut in February 1964 at the Oxford Playhouse with Britten's Albert Herring.

Bedford was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2016 New Year Honours for services to music.

He was married twice: first to the soprano Norma Burrowes, which ended in divorce in 1980, and secondly to Celia Harding, who predeceased him in 2020. Bedford's elder daughter Charmian Bedford is an operatic soprano working internationally, and his younger daughter Joanna Bedford is an Education Producer at Opera North.

He died on 15 February 2021, aged 81.

References

1939 births
2021 deaths
Lehmann family
People educated at Lancing College
Musicians from London
English conductors (music)
British male conductors (music)
English people of German descent
20th-century British conductors (music)
20th-century English musicians
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
21st-century British conductors (music)
20th-century British male musicians
20th-century British musicians
21st-century British male musicians
Place of birth missing
Place of death missing

Steuart Bedford


Akhethetep (also Akhethotep or Akhty-hotep) was a high dignitary of ancient Egypt who lived during the Fifth Dynasty around 2400 BC. Akhethotep and his son Ptahhotep Tjefi were senior court officials during the rule of Djedkare (2414–2375 BC) and of Unas (Wenis), towards the end of the 5th Dynasty (2494–2345 BC). Akhethetep's titles included that of a vizier, making him to the highest official at the royal court, only second to the king. He was also overseer of the treasuries, overseer of the scribes of the king's documents and overseer of the granaries. Akhethetep was the son of Ptahhotep. His father was vizier too.

He is famous for his tomb, discovered in Saqqara. The plan was recorded by Mariette  and it was published by N. de Garis Davies. It is a joined mastaba belonging to Ptahhotep Tjefi and Akhethetep.

References

Literature

Viziers of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt
24th-century BC Egyptian people
Overseer of the treasury

Akhethetep (son of Ptahhotep)


The 2005 Songkhla bombings were a series of three bombings that took place on 3 April 2005 in the cities of Hat Yai and Songkhla of Thailand's Songkhla Province. They and are believed to be part of the ongoing south Thailand insurgency. At least two people were killed and 66 were injured in the explosions.

No one claimed responsibility for the blasts, but they may to be linked to the Patani United Liberation Organisation (PULO), which has been an active participant in the south Thailand insurgency in Narathiwat, Pattani and Yala. The attacks in Songkhla Province may have suggested that insurgent activity was expanding, or simply that security in Songkhla province was more lax than in the three southern provinces. The bombings, drive-by shootings and machete attacks in southern Thailand began in January 2004, and by April 2005 had resulted in over 600 deaths. Thai officials denied that the bombings were linked with the southern insurgency.

Description
The explosions took place between 20:00 to 20:30. A bomb planted in a garbage bin exploded in front of a Carrefour store in Hat Yai, injuring five and causing minor damage to the building. Shortly after that, a bomb inside a bag exploded at the departure hall of Hat Yai International Airport, killing two and injuring 47. The blast also caused some damage to the building. Later, a bomb planted on a motorcycle exploded in front of Green World Hotel in Songkhla without causing any injuries or deaths nor damage to the building.

At least two people were killed and 66 were injured in the blasts: one man was killed instantly in one of the explosions while a woman sustained serious injuries and died later. Both of them were of Thai nationality. Of the 66 people injured, 60 were Thais, one was an American, one was French, two were from Brunei, and two were Malaysian. Many were seriously injured, and several were in critical condition.

The dynamite and fertiliser bombs were set off by mobile phone. Images from the Hat Yai airport's closed circuit television indicated that the bomb was hidden in a man's luggage.

Immediately following the bombings, security was heightened in the surrounding areas, in Bangkok, and at airports throughout the country. The attacks prompted some to emigrate from the violence-torn southern region of the country, and others to cancel their travel plans to the area. The Hat Yai airport was closed for six months following the bombings.

In popular culture
 Modernine TV    discussed 2001 and 2005 Songkhla bombings on TimeLine, 29 February 2016, in "The hunt...city bombing".

See also
 2006 Hat Yai bombings
 Gerakan Mujahidin Islam Patani (GMIP)

References

External links
 Thousands moving out of city in Thailand's troubled south (Asia Pacific News)
 Thai bombing suspect caught on camera (Gulf Times)
 Multiple bombings in Thailand kill at least two (USA Today)
 At least two dead in Thai blast (CNN.com)

South Thailand insurgency
Terrorist incidents in Thailand in 2005
Songkhla province
Improvised explosive device bombings in Thailand
Islamic terrorism in Thailand
Religiously motivated violence in Thailand
Attacks in Asia in 2005
Mass murder in 2005
2005 crimes in Thailand
Attacks in Thailand

2005 Songkhla bombings


Lambeau Field is an outdoor athletic stadium in the north central United States, located in Green Bay, Wisconsin.  The home field of the Green Bay Packers of the National Football League (NFL), it opened  in 1957 as City Stadium, replacing the original City Stadium at Green Bay East High School as the Packers' home field. Informally known as New City Stadium for its first eight seasons, it was renamed in August 1965 in memory of Packers founder, player, and long-time head coach, Earl "Curly" Lambeau, who had died two months earlier.

The stadium's street address has been 1265 Lombardi Avenue since August 1968, when Highland Avenue was renamed in honor of former head coach Vince Lombardi, namesake of the trophy of the same name. It sits on a block bounded by Lombardi Avenue (north); Oneida Street (east); Stadium Drive and Valley View Road (south); and Ridge Road (west). The playing field at the stadium has a conventional north–south alignment, at an elevation of  above sea level.

The stadium completed its latest renovation in the summer of 2013 with the addition of 7,000 seats high in the south end zone. About 5,400 of the new seating is general, while the remaining 1,600 seats are club or terrace suite seating.  With a capacity of 81,441, Lambeau Field is the fifth-largest stadium in the NFL with standing room, but is third in normal capacity. It is now the largest venue in the State of Wisconsin, edging out Camp Randall Stadium (75,822) at the University of Wisconsin in Madison.

Lambeau Field is the oldest continually operating NFL stadium. In 2007, the Packers completed their 51st season at Lambeau, breaking the all-time NFL record set by the Chicago Bears at Wrigley Field (1921–70). While Soldier Field in Chicago is older, the Bears did not play their home games there until 1971 and the team did not play there during stadium renovations in 2002. Only the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park and the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field have longer active home-field tenures in American professional sports.

History

Packers seek a modern facility
Since 1925, the Packers had played at 25,000-seat City Stadium, located behind Green Bay East High School. However, by the 1950s, it was considered inadequate for the times. It was built almost entirely of wood, and East High's locker room facilities were considered inadequate even in the 1920s; visiting teams often dressed before the game at the Hotel Northland, where the Packers' opponents stayed at the time. The stadium could not be expanded. East High's location ruled out any expansion to the south, and it could not be expanded to the north or east due to its location along the East River.

Officials in Milwaukee,  to the south, where the Packers had played a part of their schedule since 1933, knew that City Stadium was less than ideal as an NFL venue. They built Milwaukee County Stadium in 1953 in hopes of luring the Packers there full-time. As originally built, County Stadium was double the size of City Stadium.

Soon after County Stadium opened, the other NFL owners threatened to force the Packers to move to Milwaukee unless they built a new stadium. In August 1955, the Packers announced plans for a new stadium in Green Bay, with a seating capacity of 32,000. In April 1956, Green Bay voters responded by approving (70.3%) a bond issue to finance the new stadium. The original cost in 1957 was $960,000 (paid off in 1978), and its seating capacity was 32,500.

The new stadium was the first modern stadium built specifically for an NFL franchise. At the time, the eleven other NFL teams were playing either in facilities shared with major league baseball teams or in other pre-existing shared facilities. The site, now bordered on three sides by the village of Ashwaubenon, was selected because it had a natural slope, ideal for creating the bowl shape, along with expansive parking. The nearby outdoor practice fields (Clarke Hinkle Field and Ray Nitschke Field) and Don Hutson Center are in Ashwaubenon, as was the Packers Hall of Fame until 2003. The land had once been farmland belonging to Jacques Vieau.

The new stadium, originally known as "(New) City Stadium", was officially opened in week one of the 1957 season on September 29, as the Packers upset the rival Bears 21–17 in front of a capacity crowd of 32,132. In a ceremony at halftime, the stadium was dedicated by Vice President Richard Nixon. Also in attendance on the platform were reigning Miss America Marilyn Van Derbur, NFL commissioner Bert Bell, and Bears' owner George Halas, on a brief leave from coaching.

Although they now had a modern facility in Green Bay, the Packers continued to play two or three regular-season games in Milwaukee at County Stadium. Starting in 1995, expansions to Lambeau Field (see below) made it financially realistic for the Packers to play their entire regular season in Green Bay for the first time in over 60 years. Former Milwaukee ticket holders receive tickets to a preseason game and games 2 and 5 of the regular season home schedule, in what is referred to as the "Gold package". Green Bay season ticket holders receive tickets to the remaining home games as part of their "Green package".

Expansion, 1961–95
Demand for tickets at the new stadium easily outstripped supply, not coincidentally after the arrival of coach Vince Lombardi in 1959. In 1961, four years after it opened, the stadium's capacity was increased to 38,669.

Since then, the Packers have been regularly increasing the seating capacity. The bowl was increased to 42,327 in 1963, to about 50,837 in 1965 with the enclosure of the south end zone, and to 56,263 in 1970, when the north end zone was enclosed to form a continuous oval bowl. In the early 1980s, the team considered placing a dome on the stadium.

Construction of 72 private boxes in 1985 increased the seating capacity to 56,926, and a 1990 addition of 36 additional boxes and 1,920 theatre-style club seats brought the number to 59,543. In 1995, a $4.7 million project put 90 more private boxes in the previously open north end zone, again giving the stadium the feel of a complete bowl and increasing capacity to 60,890.

Renovation, 2001–03

By the end of 1999, the Packers believed that they needed to update the facility to remain financially competitive in the NFL. Rather than build a new stadium, Chairman/CEO Bob Harlan and President/COO John Jones unveiled a $295 million plan to renovate Lambeau Field in January 2000. It was to be paid for partly by the team via the 1997–98 stock sale, which netted more than $20 million. Most of the proceeds were to be paid through a 0.5% sales tax in Brown County and personal seat license fees on season ticket holders. After their plan won approval by the Wisconsin State Legislature, it was ratified by Brown County voters on September 12, 2000, by a 53%–47% margin. Construction began early in 2001. The sales tax expired on September 30, 2015.

The massive redevelopment plan was designed to update the facilities, add more premium and suite seating, yet preserve the seating bowl, keeping the storied natural grass playing field of the "frozen tundra". The project was completed in time for the 2003 season, bringing the capacity to 72,515. Construction management was conducted by Turner Construction Sports, and proved to be of remarkably little disruption to the 2001 and 2002 seasons.

Although the capacity has more than doubled since Lambeau Field was opened, demand for tickets remains high. The Packers have sold out every game since 1960, and at least 115,000 names are on the waiting list (with a reported average wait time of 30 years). The sell-out streak has had the effect (intended or not) of ensuring that all Packers home games are televised in Green Bay and Milwaukee, a streak that started in 1973 (prior to that time, local telecasts of home games were disallowed regardless of how many tickets were sold); the Packers are one of four NFL teams (the others being the Washington Commanders, Denver Broncos, and Pittsburgh Steelers) that have not had a home game blacked out since the  blackout rules were put into place, with the exception of a 1983 Wild Card Playoff game against the Cardinals.

During the  season, Lambeau Field was voted the number one NFL stadium in game-day atmosphere and fan experience by a Sports Illustrated online poll.

In 2009, The Sports Turf Managers Association named Lambeau Field the 2009 Field of the Year.

South end zone expansion, 2012–13

In 2010, plans were announced by the Green Bay Packers to install new high definition scoreboards in place of their current scoreboards; plans for a new sound system were announced as well. Later, the plans were expanded to include adding as many as 7,500 seats both inside and outside as well as viewing platforms and lounge areas. On May 5, 2011, the Packers sent out an online survey to 30,000 season-ticket holders, club-seat holders and individuals on the season-ticket waiting list to get feedback from the fans on several concepts being considered for the south end-zone development. On August 25, 2011, plans were officially announced to add 7,500 new seats to the south end zone. The new seats are outdoors with the exception of one indoor row. The seats include heated areas that melt snow as it falls (a concept tested on a small scale during winter 2010), intending to solve the logistical problem of shoveling snow from an "upper deck" seating area. The snow that falls into the original bowl area is shoveled by compensated volunteers from the community using a system of temporary chutes placed in the aisles and carts to remove the snow from the stadium.

The new sound system was completed in time for the 2011 season. On August 25, 2011, Packers president Mark Murphy announced that the expansion of Lambeau would not be paid for by taxpayers but by the team itself. After construction was completed on the south end zone seating in the summer of 2013, Lambeau became the third-largest stadium in the NFL, with a capacity of 80,750. Additional construction included two new tower gates for the north and south end zone. Lambeau Field also installed Mitsubishi Diamond Vision Video Boards, as well as a rooftop viewing terrace in the north end zone for club seat holders during games. The rooftop viewing terrace and video boards were completed in time for the 2012 season.

On December 12, 2012, Lambeau Field was damaged by a minor fire when construction workers were cutting a metal beam near the fourth floor. The sparks from the cutting landed inside a wall and ignited the foam insulation. The area was temporarily evacuated and a minor back injury to one of the responding firefighters was reported. Green Bay Fire Lt. Nick Craig says the fire was small but in an unwieldy area. He says fire officials had to proceed slowly because they didn't want to open the wall and allow the flames an oxygen supply until they had enough water on hand. The fire damage cost $5,000 in repairs.

Atrium Renovation, 2013–15
In 2013, the Packers announced a new $140.5 million renovation project for the Lambeau Atrium entrance, entirely paid by the Packers without public funding. The project began in March 2013 and was completed in June 2015.

The Packers removed ground between Bob Harlan Plaza and Lombardi Avenue, which is now the basement of the atrium. The Pro Shop has been moved to the new ground level, and a set of escalators were installed on the western side, leading to the atrium and the entrance of the Miller Gate. The Packers Hall of Fame moved to the second floor of the atrium where Curly's Pub was originally located. Curly's moved to the main floor where the Pro Shop was previously held and was renamed 1919 Kitchen & Tap. This renovation project was referred to as "Phase II", with the first phase considered as the 7,500 seats that were installed previously. The new setup was made to be easier for fans as it was difficult for fans in the past.

Phase II also included the following:

The Oneida Nation gate was given an expanded plaza extending into the east parking lot. A tunnel under the plaza leads to a player parking area immediately east of the player facilities. Permanent restrooms were installed under the plaza.
A new entrance called the American Family Insurance gate was added at parking lot level on the east side, with an escalator providing access to the main floor of the atrium. The Pro Shop is also accessible here.
Harlan Plaza in front of the Miller Gate facing Lombardi Avenue will remain, but its front now lines up with the North face of the atrium tower where the Pro Shop is situated. The Curly Lambeau and Vince Lombardi statues were repositioned and remain in the plaza.
New player facilities in the lower level of the stadium, including strength and conditioning rooms and a 35-by-50-yard practice walk-through area.

At the time of the proposed renovation, the project was expected to create approximately 1,500 jobs and pay more than $60 million in wages. Team president and CEO Mark Murphy also committed at the time that 95% of spending on the project would be done in Wisconsin and 69% in northeastern Wisconsin.

A 50-foot-tall replica Lombardi Trophy was unveiled on November 14, 2014, on the east side of the stadium.

The stadium's floodlighting system was upgraded to a new instant on-off LED system in May 2018, with the stadium's LCD play clocks and east/west scoreboards also being converted to LED-lighted systems. In the last game of the 2019 preseason, the Packers added a flashing stadium light celebration for each Packers touchdown as part of the upgrade, to some traditionalist fan criticism (a foghorn addition earlier in the preseason had been criticized for its resemblance to the Vikings' "Gjallarhorn", and was removed for the other preseason home game); it was retained for regular season games.

Lambeau Field Atrium
The Lambeau Field Atrium houses the Green Bay Packers Pro Shop, the Packers Hall of Fame, Lambeau Field Stadium Tours, and the 1919 Kitchen & Tap. It also hosts special events, such as meetings, weddings, receptions, and social gatherings.

Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame

The Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame is on the first level of the Atrium. The Hall of Fame is an independent, charitable association that promotes the history of the Green Bay Packers. Since 1970, 157 Packers have been inducted into the Hall, which attracts over 170,000 visitors annually.

Titletown District

On August 20, 2015, the Green Bay Packers presented the master plan for the Titletown District, an area that will be constructed on approximately  of land just west of Lambeau Field. Titletown will consist of three tenants including Lodge Kohler, a hotel built and managed by the Kohler Company; a Bellin Health Sports Medicine Clinic; and Hinterland Restaurant and Brewery. Development on the remaining  calls for commercial, retail, and residential elements. The Titletown District was opened in the Summer of 2017.

Packers home record at Lambeau

As of the end of the 2022 season, the Packers have compiled a 253–126–6 regular-season mark at Lambeau Field. The Packers playoff record at home as of the 2022 season is 18–7.

The Denver Broncos (0–5) are the only NFL team that has never won a regular-season game at Lambeau Field as of 2022. No team has an undefeated record at Lambeau Field. The last remaining team with an undefeated record, the Houston Texans, were beaten by the Packers in Week 13 of the 2016 NFL season.

Name and nickname

New City Stadium

The original name of Lambeau Field lasted through the 1964 season. Officially "City Stadium", the name "New City Stadium" was used informally to distinguish it from its predecessor at East High School.

Lambeau Field

Two months after the death of Packers founder Curly Lambeau, New City Stadium was renamed "Lambeau Field" by the Green Bay city council on August 3, 1965.

Besides founding the team in 1919, Lambeau played for the Packers in their early years and was the team's coach for 31 seasons through 1949. He shares the distinction with rival coach George Halas of the Chicago Bears and Bill Belichick of the New England Patriots of coaching his team to the most NFL championships, with six. Lambeau was inducted as a charter member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio in 1963.

Corporate naming rights
On November 7, 2000, two months after Brown County voters approved a sales tax to fund Lambeau Field's renovation, a second referendum was presented to the same Brown County voters. This referendum asked whether naming rights to the renovated stadium should be sold in order to retire earlier the 0.5% sales tax created to cover construction costs. The referendum passed 53%-47%, the exact percentage by which voters approved the sales tax.

After the vote passed, the Packers entered talks with the city of Green Bay, which owns the stadium, to further explore the options. The city and team agreed to sell the rights if a price of $100 million could be realized, although no buyer has been found.

The Packers, although agreeing to be bound by the will of the voters, have consistently stressed that they would prefer Lambeau Field keep its traditional name, honoring the club's founder.

The Packers have sold naming rights to the eight entrance gates. From the north going clockwise, they are: Bellin Health (north gate), Miller Brewing (atrium gate), American Family Insurance (northeast gate at parking lot level), the Oneida Tribe of Indians of Wisconsin (east gate on elevated plaza facing Oneida Street), Fleet Farm stores (southwest gate), Associated Bank (west gate and private box entrance), and Kwik Trip (northwest gate). Verizon was the previous sponsor of the northwest gate (2003-2017). Miller Brewing is also a sponsor of the atrium and has a section in one end zone called the "Miller Lite End Zone", giving away tickets in that area with various beer promotions. Shopko was the former sponsor of the south gate until its bankruptcy and liquidation in June 2019, and that gate is currently unbranded.

At the 2015 Packers shareholders meeting President Mark Murphy said "We will not sell the naming rights to the stadium. ... We will never do that. It will always be Lambeau Field".

"The Frozen Tundra"

The stadium's nickname was spawned by the Ice Bowl game between the Packers and the Dallas Cowboys, played on December 31, 1967. The game was played in temperatures of  with sharp winds. Journalist Tex Maule associated Lambeau Field with the term tundra in his article summarizing the game in Sports Illustrated.

The nickname "the frozen tundra" is believed to originate from The Greatest Challenge, the Packers' authorized version of the highlight film written by Steve Sabol. In the Cowboys' authorized version of the highlight film, A Chilling Championship, also written by Sabol, Bill Woodson used the term "the frozen tundra" when narrating the film to describe Lambeau Field. Prior to the 1967 season, an underground electric heating system had been installed, but it was not able to counter the effects of the cold front that hit Green Bay at the onset of the Ice Bowl game. The field had been covered overnight with the heater on, but when the cover was removed in the sub-zero cold, the moisture atop the grass flash-froze.

The underground heating and drainage system was redone in 1997, with a system of pipes filled with a solution including antifreeze replacing the electric coils. After the 2006 season, the surface, heating, and drainage system was replaced. From 2007 until 2018, the playing surface used the Desso GrassMaster system, which has synthetic fibers woven into the traditional Kentucky bluegrass sod. In 2018, the Grassmaster surface was replaced with polyethylene-based SIS Grass.  Even the new video boards, installed in 2004, have been influenced by the field's nickname, being called "Tundra Vision". These video displays measure more than  high by  wide.
An artificial lighting system, based on technology used in Dutch rose-growing greenhouses, was tested in 2010 and purchased for use in the 2011 season. It operates 24 hours a day from October to early December to extend the growing season for the field's grass. The system is also used in some soccer stadiums where shade from stands and partial roofs are a problem for the turf, not the cold and short growing season found in Green Bay.

Titletown, USA
More famously a nickname for the city than its football field, "Titletown, USA" became popularized in 1961, even before Vince Lombardi won any of his championships. At the 1961 NFL Championship Game against the New York Giants, which the Packers won 37–0, fans hung up signs around the stadium that read Welcome to Titletown, USA. Then-Giants quarterback Y. A. Tittle joked that the honor was for him, just that his name was misspelled. By the mid-60s, Titletown, USA was registered as a trademark of the Green Bay Packers, Inc. Lambeau Field has been home to seven NFL world championship seasons, five under Lombardi, one under Mike Holmgren and one under Mike McCarthy, surpassing the six world championship seasons witnessed by its predecessor, City Stadium, under Curly Lambeau.

Postseason

Lambeau Field has frequently given a significant postseason home-field advantage for the Packers. Playoff games at Lambeau Field typically feature cold Wisconsin winters. The most famous example is the aforementioned Ice Bowl. More recently, in the 1996–97 NFL playoffs both the San Francisco 49ers in the divisional playoffs and the Carolina Panthers in the NFC Championship Game struggled to adapt to the muddy and the cold conditions respectively. The temperatures during the 2007 NFC Championship Game (in which the Packers lost in OT, 23–20, to the New York Giants) reached as low as , with a wind chill of . From its opening in 1957 until January 2003, when they fell 27–7 to the Atlanta Falcons, the Packers had never lost a postseason game at Lambeau Field. However, the Packers hosted just one postseason game (in the ad hoc round-of-16 in the strike-shortened 1982 season) during a lean stretch of 27 years between the Ice Bowl of 1967 and a wild-card game in December 1994. Although the Packers have won only six of their last ten playoff games at Lambeau Field, their overall home postseason record is an outstanding 17–5. The stadium has hosted six championship contests: three NFL title games in 1961, 1965 and 1967 (the "Ice Bowl") as well as three NFC championships after the 1996, 2007 and 2020 seasons.

Traditions

The Lambeau Leap

Many Packer players will jump into the end zone stands after scoring a touchdown, in a celebration affectionately known as the Lambeau Leap. The Lambeau Leap was spontaneously created by safety LeRoy Butler, who scored after a Reggie White fumble recovery and lateral against the L.A. Raiders on December 26, 1993. It was later popularized by wide receiver Robert Brooks.

It's not known precisely when the celebration was first coined the "Lambeau Leap", but one of the first possible mentions was by broadcaster Al Michaels, who mentioned during a Monday Night Football broadcast in 1996, "It's a new tradition in Green Bay, Robert Brooks leaping into the stands."

When the NFL banned excessive celebrations in 2000, the Lambeau Leap was grandfathered into the new rules, permitting it to continue.

Occasionally, a visiting player will attempt a Lambeau Leap, only to be denied by Packers fans. This happened to then-Minnesota Vikings cornerback Fred Smoot when he intercepted a pass and returned it for a touchdown; Packers fans proceeded to throw their beverages on Smoot. During the 2007 NFC Championship game, New York Giants running back Brandon Jacobs faked a Lambeau Leap after scoring a touchdown, angering many Green Bay faithful in the stands. Before a game against the Packers on September 20, 2009, Cincinnati Bengals wideout Chad Johnson, then known as Chad Ochocinco, announced he would do a Lambeau Leap if he scored a touchdown, and then followed through by leaping into the arms of pre-arranged fans wearing Bengals jerseys.

In 2014, a statue was made outside of Lambeau Field commemorating the Leap. Featuring a shortened replica of the end zone wall and 4 random Packers fans, the statue allows visitors to pose for pictures doing their own Lambeau Leap.

The NFL Network countdown program, NFL Top 10, named the Lambeau Leap the 3rd greatest touchdown celebration of all time.

Special events

Packers shareholders meeting
With the 1997–98 sale of stock in the Packers corporation, swelling the number of owners to over 112,000, a large venue was needed for the annual shareholders meeting. The event returned to Lambeau Field in 2006 after several thousand people were turned away from the 2005 meeting at the nearby Resch Center. Average attendance at shareholders meetings varies between 8,000 and 10,000.

The COVID-19 pandemic prevented the 2020 shareholders meeting from occurring as a large public gathering at Lambeau Field. For this reason, it was broadcast online in a virtual meeting format via live webcast. The pandemic also affected the 2021 meeting, resulting in only 3,900 owners attending in person.

High school and college football
When built, Lambeau Field was also slated to be used by schools of the Green Bay Area Public School District, as old City Stadium had been. However, a key 1962 game between the Packers and Detroit Lions was affected when two high schools played in the rain the preceding Friday, damaging the field. After that, Lombardi asked the schools to avoid using Lambeau, though Southwest and West continued to play there until a west side high school stadium was built in the late 1970s.

In 1973, the championship game for the Wisconsin Independent Schools Athletic Association (until 2000, the WIAA-equivalent organization for the state's private and religious high schools) was played at Lambeau. The last high school game played at Lambeau was a WIAA semifinal between Green Bay West and Waukesha North, with the latter team the victor and going on to Madison for the divisional championship game. In 1982 and 1983, St. Norbert College hosted Fordham University (Lombardi's alma mater) in two Division III tilts, benefitting the Vince Lombardi Cancer Foundation. The first was held on November 20, 1982, and the second was November 19, 1983. The first year, a 14-10 St. Norbert win, drew 5,119 people. The second year, a 18-9 St. Norbert win, drew 842 people.

In 2016, Lambeau Field hosted its first major NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision game when Wisconsin played LSU in the 2nd of a two-game series which started in 2014 at another NFL venue – Houston's NRG Stadium. The Badgers won in what was called a "historic upset" by ESPN and Yahoo! Sports, as the unranked Badgers defeated the #5 ranked Tigers 16–14. ESPN College Gameday also visited Lambeau Field that day as a result, including Rodgers as a guest.

Hockey

Following the success of the "Cold War", collegiate ice hockey game held in 2001 at Michigan State's Spartan Stadium, hockey teams from Wisconsin and Ohio State met in the Frozen Tundra Hockey Classic, an outdoor game played on a temporary rink inside the stadium on February 11, 2006. The Badgers defeated the Buckeyes 4–2 before a capacity crowd of 40,890. There were some problems as the ice began to crack during play, but overall it was a success, ending with the Badgers doing the Lambeau Leap following their victory.

Snowmobile racing
In 2004 a snowmobile racing event was held in the parking lot due to a lack of snow. In 2005 the snowmobile racing event took place over the grass, with the right amount of snow cover.

Concerts
Due to the small size of the surrounding population, not many concerts are held at Lambeau Field because the primary use of the stadium is football. The Lambeau Field lease between the city of Green Bay and the Packers allows for one non-football event a month between February and June, with the Packers having veto power.

Other
Bob Hope was the first major entertainment event at the venue, performing in front of 18,000 on May 31, 1976.

Soccer

Fireworks
For many years, Lambeau hosted a popular annual Fourth of July fireworks display, sponsored by locally based retailer Shopko Stores, Inc.

Seating capacity
Lambeau Field is the third largest stadium in the NFL by seating capacity.

Sustainability
The Green Bay Packers have made efforts to make Lambeau Field more environmentally sustainable, including the increased use of recycling bins, biodegradable food-ware, and LED lighting upgrades. More than 500 induction lighting fixtures have been installed, as well as 11 high-efficiency condensing boilers for space heating in the stadium, melting snow, and heating the field. Also, two high-efficiency electric chillers have been installed for the air-conditioned regions of Lambeau Field.

Footnotes

References

Sources
When Pride Still Mattered, A Life of Vince Lombardi, by David Maraniss, 1999, ()
South Carolina Hall Of Fame: Robert Brooks
Davis, Jeff (2008), Rozelle: Czar of the NFL. New York:McGraw-Hill. 0-07-159352-7
Gruver, Edward (1998). The Ice Bowl:The Cold Truth About Football's Most Unforgettable Game. Ithaca, New York:McBooks Press, Inc.
O'Brien, Michael (1987), Vince: A Personal Biography of Vince Lombardi. New York:William Morrow and Company, Inc.

External links

Sports venues completed in 1957
Green Bay Packers stadiums
National Football League venues
American football venues in Wisconsin
College football venues
Music venues in Wisconsin
Sports venues in Green Bay, Wisconsin
Landmarks in Wisconsin
Tourist attractions in Brown County, Wisconsin
1957 establishments in Wisconsin

Lambeau Field


The Wulpura were an indigenous Australian people of the state of Queensland.
Their language, Kuku Waldja, has been listed as a dialect of Kuku Yalanji, but there does not appear to be any data available.

Country
According to Norman Tindale, the Wulpara controlled about  of territory. They lived in the rainforested main range that lies west of Mount Romeo and Boolbun, and around the headwaters of the Daintree River on the Mount Windsor tableland.

People
According to one informant, the Wulpura were a people of relatively diminutive stature, on an average about 5 feet tall and weighing around 100 pounds. They engaged in an annual walkabout that would take them from South Mossman, via Julatten, and the Carbine River as far as the Daintree River, and before returning to their point of departure.

Alternative names
 Koko-baldja.(language name)
 Kokowaldja
 Waldja
 Walpoll
 Wolpa. (toponym)
 Woora. (toponym for a site on the South Mossman River)
 Wulpurara, Wulbur-ara
 Wulurara

Source:

Citations

Sources

Aboriginal peoples of Queensland

Wulpura


Validator  may refer to:
 Validator,  a computer program used to check the validity or syntactical correctness of a fragment of code or document.
 Validator (blockchain), an entity involved in committing the blocks into a proof-of-stake blockchain.
 Validator (comics), a team member in Omega Flight comics.

Validator (disambiguation)