Cleopatra is a 1963 American epic historical drama film directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz, with a screenplay adapted by Mankiewicz, Ranald MacDougall and Sidney Buchman from the 1957 book The Life and Times of Cleopatra by Carlo Maria Franzero, and from histories by Plutarch, Suetonius, and Appian. The film stars Elizabeth Taylor in the eponymous role. Richard Burton, Rex Harrison, Roddy McDowall, and Martin Landau are featured in supporting roles. It chronicles the struggles of Cleopatra, the young queen of Egypt, to resist the imperial ambitions of Rome.

Walter Wanger had long contemplated producing a biographical film about Cleopatra. In 1958, his production company partnered with Twentieth Century Fox to produce the film. Following an extensive casting search, Elizabeth Taylor signed on to portray the title role for a record-setting salary of $1 million. Rouben Mamoulian was hired as director, and the script underwent numerous revisions from Nigel Balchin, Dale Wasserman, Lawrence Durrell, and Nunnally Johnson. Principal photography began at Pinewood Studios on September 28, 1960, but Taylor's health problems delayed further filming. Production was suspended in November after it had gone overbudget with only ten minutes of usable footage.

Mamoulian resigned as director and was replaced by Mankiewicz, who had directed Taylor in Suddenly, Last Summer (1959). Production was re-located to Cinecittà, where filming resumed on September 25, 1961, without a finished shooting script. During filming, a personal scandal made worldwide headlines when it was reported that co-stars Taylor and Richard Burton had an adulterous affair. Filming wrapped on July 28, 1962, and further reshoots were made from February to March 1963.

With the estimated production costs totaling $31 million (not counting the $5 million spent on the aborted British shoot), the film became the most expensive film ever made up to that point and nearly bankrupted the studio. The cost of distribution, print and advertising expenses added a further $13 million to Fox's costs.

Cleopatra premiered at the Rivoli Theatre in New York City on June 12, 1963. It received a generally favorable response from film critics, and became the highest-grossing film of 1963, earning box-office receipts of $57.7 million in the United States and Canada, and one of the highest-grossing films of the decade at a worldwide level. However, the film initially lost money because of its exorbitant production and marketing costs totaling $44 million ($ in ).

It received nine nominations at the 36th Academy Awards, including for Best Picture, and won four: Best Art Direction (Color), Best Cinematography (Color), Best Visual Effects and Best Costume Design (Color).

Plot
After the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, Julius Caesar goes to Egypt, under the pretext of being named the executor of the will of the father of the young Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII and his older sister and co-ruler, Cleopatra. Ptolemy and Cleopatra are in the midst of their own civil war, and she has been driven out of the city of Alexandria. Ptolemy rules alone under the care of his three "guardians": the chief eunuch Pothinus, his tutor Theodotus and General Achillas.

Cleopatra convinces Caesar to restore her throne from Ptolemy. Caesar, in effective control of the kingdom, sentences Pothinus to death for arranging an assassination attempt on Cleopatra, and banishes Ptolemy to the eastern desert, where he and his outnumbered army would face certain death against Mithridates. Cleopatra is crowned queen of Egypt and begins to dream of ruling the world with Caesar, who in turn desires to become king of Rome. They marry, and when their son Caesarion is born, Caesar accepts him publicly, which becomes the talk of Rome and the Senate.

After being made dictator for life, Caesar sends for Cleopatra. She arrives in Rome in a lavish procession and wins the adulation of the Roman people. The Senate grows increasingly discontented amid rumors that Caesar wishes to be made king. On the Ides of March in 44 BC, a group of conspirators assassinate Caesar and flee the city, starting a rebellion. An alliance among Octavian (Caesar's adopted son), Mark Antony (Caesar's right-hand man and general) and Marcus Ameilius Lepidus puts down the rebellion and splits the republic. Cleopatra is angered after Caesar's will recognizes Octavian, rather than Caesarion, as his official heir and returns to Egypt.

While planning a campaign against Parthia in the east, Antony realizes that he needs money and supplies that only Egypt can sufficiently provide. After repeatedly refusing to leave Egypt, Cleopatra acquiesces and meets him on her royal barge in Tarsus. The two begin a love affair. Octavian's removal of Lepidus forces Antony to return to Rome, where he marries Octavian's sister Octavia to prevent political conflict. This enrages Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra reconcile and marry, with Antony divorcing Octavia. Octavian, incensed, reads Antony's will to the Roman senate, revealing that Antony wishes to be buried in Egypt. Rome turns against Antony, and Octavian's call for war against Egypt receives a rapturous response. The war is decided at the naval Battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC, where Octavian's fleet, under the command of Agrippa, defeats the lead ships of the Antony-Egyptian fleet. Assuming Antony is dead, Cleopatra orders the Egyptian forces home. Antony follows her, leaving his fleet leaderless and soon defeated.

Months later, Cleopatra sends Caesarion under disguise out of Alexandria. She also convinces Antony to resume command of his troops and fight Octavian's advancing army. However, Antony's soldiers abandon him during the night. Rufio, the last man loyal to Antony, kills himself. Antony tries to goad Octavian into single combat, but is finally forced to flee into the city. When Antony returns to the palace, Apollodorus, who was in love with Cleopatra himself, tells him she is in her tomb as she had instructed, and lets Antony believe she is dead. Antony falls on his own sword. Apollodorus then confesses that he lied to Antony and assists him to the tomb where Cleopatra and two servants have taken refuge. Antony dies in Cleopatra's arms.

Octavian and his army march into Alexandria with Caesarion's dead body in a wagon. He discovers the dead body of Apollodorus, who had poisoned himself. He then receives word that Antony is dead and Cleopatra is holed up in a tomb. There he offers to allow her to rule Egypt as a Roman province if she accompanies him to Rome. Cleopatra, knowing that her son is dead, agrees to Octavian's terms, including a pledge on the life of her son not to harm herself. After Octavian departs, she orders for her servants to assist with her suicide. Discovering that she was going to kill herself, Octavian and his guards burst into Cleopatra's chamber to find her dead, dressed in gold, along with her servants and the asp that killed her.

Cast

Production
Walter Wanger had long desired to produce a biographical film about Cleopatra. As an undergraduate at Dartmouth College, he first read Théophile Gautier's fantasy novel One of Cleopatra's Nights and Other Fantastic Romances and then Thomas North's 1579 English translation of Plutarch's Lives and William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra. Wanger had envisioned Cleopatra as "the quintessence of youthful femininity, of womanliness and strength," but it was not until he watched Elizabeth Taylor in A Place in the Sun (1951) that he found his ideal candidate for the role. Around this time, Wanger had discovered through a private detective that his wife, Joan Bennett, was having an affair with her talent agent Jennings Lang. On the afternoon of December 13, 1951, Wanger shot Lang twice after having spotted him with Bennett in a parking lot near MCA. Lang survived, and Wanger, pleading insanity, served four months in prison at the Castaic Honor Farm, north of Los Angeles.

Following his release, Wanger had achieved a career comeback, having produced Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956) and I Want to Live! (1958), in which Susan Hayward won the Academy Award for Best Actress. He would soon return to his dream project of a Cleopatra biographical film.

Development
Wanger pitched the idea to various film studios, including Monogram and RKO Pictures. He also approached Taylor and her husband Michael Todd about producing the project with United Artists. Taylor expressed interest in the project but delegated the decision to Todd. Meanwhile, Twentieth Century Fox was in financial trouble following its severe box office losses of The Barbarian and the Geisha, A Certain Smile and The Roots of Heaven, all released in 1958. To reverse the studio's fortunes, studio president Spyros Skouras requested that studio executive David Brown find a viable project that would be a "big picture." Brown suggested a remake of Cleopatra (1917), which had starred Theda Bara.

In the fall of 1958, Wanger's production company entered into a coproduction agreement with Twentieth Century Fox. Wanger pitched four properties—Cleopatra, Justine, The Dud Avocado, and The Fall—for the executives to consider. They selected the first three, and Cleopatra would be the first to enter into production. On September 15, Wanger purchased the screen rights to Carlo Mario Franzero's biography The Life and Times of Cleopatra. On September 30, Skouras held his first meeting with Wanger, and asked his secretary to retrieve the screenplay for the 1917 version of Cleopatra. Skouras insisted, "All this needs is a little rewriting. Just give me this over again and we'll make a lot of money." Because the original screenplay had been written for a silent film, the script mostly contained instructions for camera setups.

In December 1958, Ludi Claire, a writer and former actress, was hired to write a rough draft of the script. That same month, art director John DeCuir was hired to produce conceptual artwork to illustrate the visual scale of the project. In March 1959, English author Nigel Balchin was hired to write another script draft. Meanwhile, Wanger had approached Alfred Hitchcock to direct the film, having worked with him on Foreign Correspondent (1940), but Hitchcock declined. Skouras then selected Rouben Mamoulian, who had worked with Wanger on Applause (1929), to direct. With Mamoulian as director, Balchin's script pleased neither him nor Taylor, who felt that the first act was forced and that Cleopatra lacked sufficient characterization. Based on his recently aired I, Don Quixote episode in the CBS anthology series DuPont Show of the Month, Dale Wasserman was selected to complete the final draft. Wanger instructed him to focus all attention on Cleopatra as the central role. Wasserman recounted that he had never met Taylor, so he watched her earlier films to better acquaint himself with her acting style. In the spring of 1960, English novelist Lawrence Durrell was hired to rewrite the script.

Casting
At a meeting, in October 1958, production head Buddy Adler favored a relatively cheap production of $2 million, with one of Fox's contract actresses, such as Joan Collins (who tested extensively for the part), Joanne Woodward or model Suzy Parker, in the title role. Wanger protested, envisioning a much more opulent epic with a voluptuous actress as Cleopatra. Wanger suggested Susan Hayward while Audrey Hepburn, Sophia Loren, and Gina Lollobrigida were also under consideration. When Mamoulian was hired to direct, he had offered the title role to Dorothy Dandridge, an African American, during a lunch meeting at the Romanoff's restaurant in Beverly Hills. Dandridge replied, "You won't have the guts to go through with this... They are going to talk you out of it."

In September 1959, Wanger contacted Taylor again on the set of Suddenly, Last Summer (1959), and Taylor asked for a record-setting contract of $1 million ($ in ) plus ten percent of the box-office gross. On October 15, a contract-signing event was staged inside Adler's office where Taylor signed blank papers because the real contract would not be ready for months. Wanger had considered Laurence Olivier and Rex Harrison for the role of Julius Caesar, and Richard Burton for Mark Antony. However, the studios refused to approve Harrison and Burton. On July 28, 1960, Taylor signed a real contract. It was also stipulated that the film would be shot in Europe and in the Todd-AO format, developed by Taylor's late husband Mike Todd, which ensured that Taylor would receive additional royalties.

In January 1960, Stephen Boyd was approached by Wanger about being cast as Mark Antony, but felt he was too young for the role. In August 1960, Boyd was cast as Mark Antony, Peter Finch as Julius Caesar and Keith Baxter as Octavian. Mamoulian had also cast Elisabeth Welch to portray one of Cleopatra's handmaidens.

Filming

Production under Rouben Mamoulian

With Mamoulian as director, construction on the Alexandria exteriors was already under way on the studio's backlot. London was also seen as a viable choice for hosting the production. The Eady Levy had offered financial incentives to American film studios as long as a certain percentage of the primary cast and production crew were English. There, the production would be supervised by Robert Goldstein, the studio's foreign head of production. A number of other countries, including Turkey and Egypt, were considered for exterior locations.

In 1960, Adler entered into a coproduction deal with Italian producer Lionello Santi, who had recently completed a foreign-language version of Cleopatra that the studio purchased to keep away from the American market. Mamoulian traveled to Italy for location scouting and reported back the difficulties upon shooting there. Furthermore, the impending Rome Summer Olympics threatened to complicate filming accommodations. On April 20, 1960, Santi issued a full-page ad in Variety announcing his forthcoming production of Cleopatra without mentioning Twentieth Century Fox's involvement. Angered, Adler shifted the entire production to Pinewood Studios (England). On July 11, Adler died from cancer, and was replaced by Goldstein. Skouras asked Wanger to assume Goldstein's former position, but months later, he was replaced by Sid Rogell. Meanwhile, Wanger cautioned about shooting in England in a July 15 memo, stating that the weather conditions could jeopardize Taylor's health and that the labor force was insufficient. However, Fox management overruled his decision.

Principal photography began at Pinewood Studios on September 28, 1960. On the same day, the British hairdressers' union threatened to leave production, as Taylor had brought Sydney Guilaroff, an American hairstylist. A settlement was reached that Guilaroff would be allowed to style Taylor's hair, but only at her Dorchester suite. Taylor shot a scene in 40-degree weather and fell sick with a sore throat, rendering her unable to work for two weeks. Mamoulian was then forced to proceed filming without Taylor, instead shooting scenes with Finch and Boyd. Taylor's cold soon progressed into a lingering fever, and for the next few weeks, she was treated by several doctors, including Lord Evans, Queen Elizabeth II's physician. On November 13, Taylor's fever reached 103 degrees and she was diagnosed with meningitis. By November 19, Wanger indefinitely postponed shooting, giving studio employees two weeks' notice until Taylor's health recovered. Taylor remained hospitalized for a week and then flew to Palm Springs, Florida, with husband Eddie Fisher to recuperate. The Lloyd's of London insurance agency paid $2 million to cover Taylor's medical expenses.

During the pause in filming, Nunnally Johnson was hired to write a new script. Johnson wrote a 75-page draft for the first half of the film, mostly involving Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, that was similar in its tone to that of Cecil B. DeMille's Cleopatra (1934) and Caesar and Cleopatra (1945). Filming resumed on January 3, 1961, but Mamoulian was dissatisfied with Johnson's script. Taylor, who expressed similar displeasure, then appealed for Paddy Chayefsky to write a new script. Chayefsky demurred, saying that a rewrite would take six months. After sixteen weeks of filming and costs of $7 million, the crew had produced just ten minutes of usable film. Skouras blamed Mamoulian for the production having exceeded its budget. On January 18, 1961, Mamoulian resigned as director.

Mankiewicz takes over

To replace Mamoulian, Taylor announced that she would approve either George Stevens, who had directed her in A Place in the Sun, or Joseph L. Mankiewicz, who had directed her in Suddenly, Last Summer (1959). At the time, Mankiewicz was developing a film adaptation of the novel Justine, which was also a Wanger production. He initially declined the offer, but after meeting with Skouras and his agent Charles K. Feldman at the Colony Restaurant, he agreed to write and direct the project.

As an additional incentive, Skouras acquired Figaro, Inc., Mankiewicz's independent production company, for $3 million. In addition to his salary as writer and director, Mankiewicz received $1.5 million from the purchase, while his partner, NBC, received the other half. Having directed Julius Caesar (1953), Mankiewicz expressed his displeasure with the shooting script, stating it was "unreadable and unshootable." Mankiewicz also described Cleopatra's depiction as a "strange, frustrating mixture of an American soap-opera virgin and an hysterical Slavic vamp of the type Nazimova used to play." Because of this, he asked to rewrite the script from scratch, and the studio allowed him two months.

By February 1961, Mankiewicz had conceived a "modern, psychiatrically rooted concept of the film," envisioning Marc Antony's self-destruction because of his "inability to match [Julius] Caesar." Within one month, Lawrence Durrell and Sidney Buchman were recruited to collaborate with Mankiewicz on the new script. Story conferences were held with the three writers, and Durrell and Buchman then separately wrote "story-step" outlines. Mankiewicz would expand their outlines into a new script. Mankiewicz consulted the relevant sources, adapting historical literature written by Plutarch and Petronius. In late April, Mankiewicz had grown displeased with Durrell's work, while Buchman was instructed to complete an outline for the film. By then, Buchman's outline only covered the first quarter of the film. Mankiewicz had petitioned for playwrights Lillian Hellman or Paul Osborn to help finish the script, but Wanger hired screenwriter Ranald MacDougall.

Filming was set to resume on April 4, 1961. However, on March 4, Taylor was hospitalized again for pneumonia, and one news agency erroneously reported that she had died. She recovered after a tracheotomy was performed on her throat. On March 14, Twentieth Century Fox suspended production at Pinewood Studios. The sets were dismantled at the cost of $600,000. Skouras then decided to relocate the production to the studio's backlot in California. Meanwhile, Mankiewicz temporarily left his writing duties and scouted for suitable filming locations in Rome and Egypt. In June, Mankiewicz returned to the studio to report some Italian locations he had found, but was not eager to shoot in Egypt. On June 30, Skouras reversed his decision and agreed to allow Mankiewicz shoot the film at Cinecittà in Rome, where the sound stages had been occupied for the studio's television series and George Stevens's The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965).

Casting and personnel changes
During the interim, Finch and Boyd had left the production for other commitments, and each was paid his remaining salary. Laurence Olivier and Trevor Howard had turned down the role of Julius Caesar. Rex Harrison, who was the studio's fourth choice, was then cast. Mankiewicz then suggested Marlon Brando as Mark Antony, but Richard Burton landed the role after Taylor had seen him as King Arthur in the Broadway musical Camelot. Twentieth Century Fox paid Burton $250,000 plus $50,000 to buy out his contract. Roddy McDowall, who was also appearing in Camelot, was cast as Octavian. Mankiewicz had also insisted on casting John Valva, McDowall's close friend, creating an original character named Valvus. By mid-September 1961, Canadian actor Hume Cronyn, several American actors, including Martin Landau and Carroll O'Connor, and several English actors, such as Kenneth Haigh, Robert Stephens and Michael Hordern, were cast in supporting roles.

Jack Hildyard had resigned as cinematographer when Mamoulian agreed to step down as director. He was replaced by Leon Shamroy. Shamroy had been the director of photography on The Robe, the first movie shot in CinemaScope, and had shot South Pacific in the Todd-AO widescreen process that was being used in Cleopatra. (Shamroy would win his fourth Oscar for the film.) In January 1962, Andrew Marton was brought in as second-unit director, replacing Ray Kellogg. Marton had worked on the first initial shoot. John DeCuir was still kept as production designer.

Filming resumes in Rome

On September 25, 1961, principal photography began on the revamped production of Cleopatra. Mankiewicz had expressed his intention of directing a two-part epic: "I had in mind two separate but closely linked Elizabeth Taylor films—Caesar and Cleopatra and Antony and Cleopatra—each to run three hours, both segments to receive simultaneous release. Moreover, I felt compelled to undertake the writing of both halves myself, a measure of my total dissatisfaction with the material that had been produced to date."

At that time, he had completed 132 pages of the shooting script, with another 195 pages that remained to be written, so Mankiewicz shot the film in sequence, leaving several actors waiting indefinitely until their scenes were ready to be shot. For the first few months of filming, he filmed scenes during the daytime and wrote the script at night, resorting to amphetamine injections and wearing protective gloves because he contracted dermatitis in both hands. Overwhelmed, in February 1962, Mankiewicz rehired MacDougall to script several battle scenes (particularly those of Moongate and Actium) and the final 50 remaining pages of the second half.

On January 22, 1962, Taylor and Burton filmed their first scene together. Wanger observed in his journal: "There comes a time during the making of a movie when the actors become the characters they play... It was quiet, and you could almost feel the electricity between Liz and Burton." By February, news of the love affair made headlines worldwide; as both were married to others, the news brought bad publicity to the already troubled production.

By late May, most of the palace scenes were finished, but the remaining sequences, including those of the Battle of Pharsalus and Actium, the arrival of Cleopatra in Tarsus, and Antony's confrontation with Octavian's legions, were not yet filmed. Some of these sequences were to be shot in Egypt. Back in California, Fox had posted an annual loss for fiscal year 1961, with blame directed at the looming production costs of Cleopatra. As a result, Skouras assured shareholders that he was preparing to take "drastic measures" to reduce expenditures, which was followed by the cancellation of the Marilyn Monroe film Something's Got to Give.

From June 1–5, Fox executives Peter Levathes, Otto Koegel and Joseph Moskowitz, whom Wanger jokingly named as the "Three Wise Men," arrived on set to cancel the scheduled shoot of the Battle of Pharsalus. The committee informally fired Wanger by discontinuing his salary and expense account, demanded that Taylor's salary be terminated on June 9, and that all filming be halted by June 30. Mankiewicz refused to commit to the new terms, and sent a memo to then-studio chairman Samuel Rosenman requesting for Taylor's availability to be extended. In response, Rosenman permitted Taylor to work until June 23. On June 12, Wanger's "firing" was first reported by columnist Earl Wilson. Mankiewicz had read Wilson's column, and asked Lewis "Doc" Merman, the studio's production manager, to assume Wanger's position and thereby reinstate the filming of several sequences that were cut. Taylor and Burton, angered over Wanger's dismissal, had planned to protest unless Wanger was reinstated. Back in Los Angeles, Merman consulted with Levathes, in which they both agreed that Wanger would remain as producer.

In haste, the filming unit re-located to Ischia, off the coast of Italy where the battle of Actium was shot. The scene of Cleopatra's arrival aboard her barge in Tarsus was completed on June 23, which was Taylor's last day on set. On June 26, 1962, Skouras announced his resignation as studio president, effective on September 30. On July 25, Darryl F. Zanuck was elected as the new president of Fox, while Skouras became the new chairman of the board. Zanuck then fired Levathes, replacing him with his son Richard D. Zanuck. Principal photography ended on July 28, with the final location scenes in Egypt.

Post-production
Post-production work on Cleopatra had left the film's editorial team with  of exposed footage. In Los Angeles, Mankiewicz and his editor Dorothy Spencer prepared a rough cut that ran five hours and 20 minutes. On August 31, 1962, Zanuck wrote to Mankiewicz stating he wanted to see a completed first cut and a progress report no later than the first week of October. On October 13, Mankiewicz arranged a private screening of the film's four-and-a-half hour rough cut for Zanuck in Paris. According to Zanuck's account, he was shocked after having seen the first cut, and asked "to see the sequences that had been cut and decided some of them should be restored, but I found to my astonishment that no loops had been made for certain eliminated episodes." Another account states Zanuck felt the rough cut was "beautifully written, beautifully directed, and beautifully staged", but was dissatisfied with the battle sequences. They finished the screening on Sunday morning, October 14. After the screening was over, Zanuck rejected Mankiewicz's plea to distribute Cleopatra in two separate installments, believing audiences interested in the Taylor–Burton affair would not attend the first installment. He was further displeased with Cleopatra's dominance over Mark Antony, remarking: "If any woman behaved towards me like Cleopatra treated Antony, I would cut her balls off."

Alternately, DeCuir, who was present after the screening, stated Zanuck asked for the film to be "cut to three hours and fifteen minutes." Zanuck canceled the scheduled meeting for the next day, at which it was planned to discuss the film more in detail and departed from Paris. Meanwhile, Mankiewicz continued the dubbing sessions with Taylor and Burton. For several days, Zanuck ignored Mankiewicz's calls for another meeting, to which Mankiewicz later learned that Zanuck had hired editor and director Elmo Williams to supervise the completion and final editing of the film. Working to insert the deleted sequences, Williams had spent three consecutive 16-hour days, removing a total of 33 minutes from the original four-hour cut. Williams explained: "When he [Mankiewicz] first saw my version, he began ranting and raving and carrying on. He had finally given up the idea of releasing the picture as two separate films, but he hadn't counted on the released version being reduced in length." According to Zanuck, Mankiewicz had grown angry and demanded the sole responsibility of editing the film. Mankiewicz, however, denied there was any direct confrontation, stating their disagreements were exchanged through letters.

On October 20, Mankiewicz sent a letter to Zanuck requesting an "honest and unequivocal statement of where I stand in relation to Cleopatra." A day later, Zanuck issued a nine-page response, blaming him for the film's excessive production costs. He further concluded: "On completion of the dubbing, your official services will be terminated ... If you are available and willing, I will call upon you to screen the re-edited version of the film." Zanuck subsequently issued a press release stating, "In exchange for top compensation and a considerable expense account, Mr. Joseph Mankiewicz has for two years spent his time, talent, and $35,000,000 of 20th Century-Fox's shareholders' money to direct and complete the first cut of the film Cleopatra. He has earned a well-deserved rest."

Mankiewicz's dismissal from the project was harshly criticized by Taylor and Burton. Taylor responded, "What has happened to Mr. Mankiewicz is disgraceful, degrading, particularly humiliating. I am terribly upset." Burton separately telephoned, "I think Mr. Mankiewicz might have made the first really good epic film. Now Cleopatra may be in trouble."

On October 30, Mankiewicz flew back to his East Side townhouse where he held a press conference, insisting he had "never demanded control" nor disputed the studio's right to the final word on the finished cut. Instead, he stated he had "wanted to present the film to Fox and/or Zanuck as I saw it and be permitted to discuss with him my ideas for the picture."

On December 7, The New York Times reported that Mankiewicz would likely rejoin the production after having an "extremely constructive" conference with Zanuck. Both had agreed that new scenes with Harrison and Burton were needed for the film. Zanuck explained that he would "bend over backwards, artistically so that I wouldn't have to exercise [my rights as president] unless it became absolutely essential. Joe accepted that, took the scenes that I had blocked out crudely and roughly, went to work with them and wrote them." The new sequences included those meant to strengthen Antony's character so he would stand up to Cleopatra. With Mankiewicz reinstated as director, he partially restored several deleted sequences, including scenes of Sosigenes tutoring Cleopatra. In February 1963, several members of the cast, along with 1,500 extras, were called back to reshoot the Battle of Pharsalus in Almería, Spain. Mankiewicz then returned to London for eight consecutive days to reshoot new scenes with Burton at Pinewood Studios. The retakes primarily concerned Antony's scenes with his fourth wife Octavia and his companion, Rufio. On March 5, 1963, filming was finally completed.

Music

The music of Cleopatra was scored by Alex North. It was released several times, first as an original album, and later versions were extended. The most popular of these was the Deluxe Edition or 2001 Varèse Sarabande album.

Release
Cleopatra premiered at the Rivoli Theatre in New York City on June 12, 1963, with an estimated audience of 10,000 spectators congregated outside. Among those present at the premiere were Rex Harrison, Walter Wanger, Joseph L. Mankiewicz, Darryl F. Zanuck, Jacob Javits, Richard Rodgers, Joan Fontaine, Louis Nizer and Beatrice Miller. Burton and Taylor were not in attendance; Taylor was in London and Burton was filming Becket (1964). Top ticket prices at the Rivoli were a record $5.50. Soon after the film's premiere, its running time was truncated from 244 to 221 minutes. Two weeks after opening in New York, the film's release was expanded into 37 cities. For its general release in the United States, the film's running time was 184 minutes.

Home media
Cleopatra has been released on home video on several occasions. The film was released on videocassette by 20th Century-Fox Video in 1982. A three-disc DVD edition was released in 2001. The release included numerous supplemental features, including the two-hour documentary Cleopatra: The Film That Changed Hollywood.

Schawn Belston, senior vice president of library and technical services at Fox, led a two-year process that restored a four-hour, eight-minute version in 2013. The original 65-mm camera negative was located and used as a source. Fading and damage to the negative were corrected digitally but with care to preserve detail and authenticity. Belston's team also possessed the original magnetic print masters, from which they removed clicks and hisses and created a 5.1 surround sound track.

On May 21, 2013, the restored film was shown at a special screening at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival to commemorate the film's 50th anniversary. It was later released as a 50th-anniversary version available on DVD and Blu-ray. Since Fox had long ago destroyed the negatives of the outtakes and portions of scenes that were cut during editing of the film, traditional outtakes could not be included. The home-media packages did include commentary tracks and two short films: The Cleopatra Papers and a 1963 film about the elaborate sets, The Fourth Star of Cleopatra.

Reception

Critical response
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called Cleopatra "one of the great epic films of our day," crediting Mankiewicz for "his fabrication of characters of colorfulness and depth, who stand forth as thinking, throbbing people against a background of splendid spectacle, that gives vitality to this picture and is the key to its success." Vincent Canby, reviewing for Variety, wrote that Cleopatra is "not only a supercolossal eye-filler (the unprecedented budget shows in the physical opulence throughout), but it is also a remarkably literate cinematic recreation of an historic epoch." For the Los Angeles Times, Philip K. Scheuer felt Cleopatra was "a surpassingly beautiful film and a drama that need not hide its literate, intelligent face because it happens to have been written, not by Shakespeare or Shaw, but by three fellows named Joseph L. Mankiewicz, who also directed it, Ranald MacDougall and Sidney Buchman. These are, at any rate, the names on the screen credits, and they have done their job with integrity."

Time magazine harshly wrote: "As drama and as cinema, Cleopatra is riddled with flaws. It lacks style both in image and in action. Never for an instant does it whirl along on wings of epic elan; generally it just bumps from scene to ponderous scene on the square wheels of exposition." James Powers of The Hollywood Reporter wrote "Cleopatra is not a great movie. But it is primarily a vast, popular entertainment that sidesteps total greatness for broader appeal. This is not an adverse criticism, but a notation of achievement." Claudia Cassidy of the Chicago Tribune summarized Cleopatra as a "huge and disappointing film." Of the cast, she lauded "Rex Harrison's brilliantly quizzical Caesar, the best written role in Joseph Mankiewicz's erratic script, and haunted by Richard Burton's tragic Marc Antony, an actor's triumph over a writer's mediocrity. And with a prodigal gesture of futility, all of it is focused on Elizabeth Taylor, hopelessly out of her depth as a fishwife Cleopatra."

Penelope Houston, reviewing for Sight & Sound, acknowledged that Mankiewicz tried "to make this a film about people and their emotions rather than a series of sideshows. But for this ambition to hold up, over the film's great footage, he needed a visual style which would be more than merely illustrative, dialogue really worth speaking, and actors altogether more persuasive. As the sets seem to grow bigger and bigger, so progressively the actors dwindle." Judith Crist, in her review for the New York Herald Tribune, concurred: "So grand and grandiose are the sets that the characters are dwarfed, and so wide is his screen that this concentration on character results in a strangely static epic in which the overblown close-ups are interrupted at best by a pageant or dance, more often by unexciting bits and pieces of exits, entrances, marches or battles." Even Elizabeth Taylor found it wanting, saying, "They had cut out the heart, the essence, the motivations, the very core, and tacked on all those battle scenes. It should have been about three large people, but it lacked reality and passion. I found it vulgar."

The New York Times estimated that 80% of reviews in the United States were favorable but only 20% of reviews in Europe were positive. American film critic Emanuel Levy wrote retrospectively: "Much maligned for various reasons, [...] Cleopatra may be the most expensive movie ever made, but certainly not the worst, just a verbose, muddled affair that is not even entertaining as a star vehicle for Taylor and Burton." Billy Mowbray of British television channel Film4 remarked that the film is "[a] giant of a movie that is sometimes lumbering, but ever watchable thanks to its uninhibited ambition, size and glamour."

Box office
Three weeks into its theatrical release, Cleopatra became the number-one box office film in the United States, grossing $725,000 in 17 key cities. It held the top position for the next twelve weeks before being dethroned by The V.I.P.s, which also starred Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton. It recaptured the number-one spot three weeks later, and proved to be the highest-grossing film of 1963. By January 1964, the film had earned $15.7 million in distributor rentals from 55 theaters in the United States and Canada. It finished its box-office run with $26 million in rentals in the United States and Canada. The film was also a major hit in Italy, where it sold 10.9 million tickets. It sold a further 5.4 million tickets in France and Germany, and 32.9million tickets in the Soviet Union when it was released there in 1978.

By March 1966, Cleopatra had earned worldwide rentals of $38.04 million, leaving it $3 million short of breaking even. Fox eventually recouped its investment that same year when it sold the television broadcast rights to ABC for $5 million, a then-record amount paid for a single film. The film ultimately earned $40.3 million in worldwide rentals from its theatrical run.

Awards and nominations
The film won four Academy Awards and was nominated for five more. It also earned Elizabeth Taylor a Guinness World Record for the most costume changes in a film (65). This record was eclipsed in 1968 by Julie Andrews with 125 costume changes in the film Star!.

20th Century-Fox mistakenly submitted Roddy McDowall to the Motion Picture Academy for consideration as Best Actor, rather than as Best Supporting Actor, for the Academy Awards. The Academy deemed his role ineligible for a leading actor category and told the studio it was too late to submit him in the correct category because the nomination ballots had already been sent to the printers. 20th Century-Fox then published an open apology to McDowall in trade papers, stating, "We feel it is important that the industry realize that your electric performance as Octavian in Cleopatra, which was unanimously singled out by the critics as one of the best supporting performances by an actor this year, is not eligible for a nomination in that category... due to a regrettable error on the part of 20th Century Fox."

See also
 List of American films of 1963
 Roman Republic
 Ancient Egypt
 Ptolemaic dynasty
 Sword-and-sandal
 Lists of historical films
 List of films set in ancient Rome
 Asterix and Cleopatra

References

Bibliography

External links

1963 films
1960s biographical drama films
1960s historical drama films
1960s historical romance films
1963 romantic drama films
20th Century Fox films
American biographical drama films
American epic films
American historical drama films
American historical romance films
American romantic drama films
Depictions of Augustus on film
Depictions of Cleopatra on film
Depictions of Julius Caesar on film
Depictions of Mark Antony on film
Cultural depictions of Germanicus
Drama films based on actual events
1960s English-language films
Films based on Antony and Cleopatra
Films based on multiple works
Films directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz
Films produced by Walter Wanger
Films scored by Alex North
Films set in ancient Alexandria
Films set in ancient Egypt
Films set in ancient Rome
Films set in Egypt
Films set in the 1st century BC
Films shot at Cinecittà Studios
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films shot in Almería
Films shot in Egypt
Films shot in Los Angeles County, California
Films shot in Naples
Films shot in Rome
Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award
Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award
Films with screenplays by Sidney Buchman
Films with screenplays by Ranald MacDougall
Films with screenplays by Joseph L. Mankiewicz
Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
Final War of the Roman Republic films
Historical epic films
Liberators' civil war films
Romance films based on actual events
Romantic epic films
War romance films
1960s American films

Cleopatra (1963 film)


A literature review is an overview of the previously published works on a topic. The term can refer to a full scholarly paper or a section of a scholarly work such as a book, or an article. Either way, a literature review is supposed to provide the researcher/author and the audiences with a general image of the existing knowledge on the topic under question. A good literature review can ensure that a proper research question has been asked and a proper theoretical framework and/or research methodology have been chosen. To be precise, a literature review serves to situate the current study within the body of the relevant literature and to provide context for the reader. In such case, the review usually precedes the methodology and results sections of the work.

Producing a literature review is often a part of graduate and post-graduate student work, including in the preparation of a thesis, dissertation, or a journal article. Literature reviews are also common in a research proposal or prospectus (the document that is approved before a student formally begins a dissertation or thesis).

A literature review can be a type of review article.  In this sense, a literature review is a scholarly paper that presents the current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources and do not report new or original experimental work. Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such reviews are found in academic journals and are not to be confused with book reviews, which may also appear in the same publication. Literature reviews are a basis for research in nearly every academic field.

Types
The main types of literature reviews are: evaluative, exploratory, and instrumental.

A fourth type, the systematic review, is often classified separately, but is essentially a literature review focused on a research question, trying to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all high-quality research evidence and arguments relevant to that question. A meta-analysis is typically a systematic review using statistical methods to effectively combine the data used on all selected studies to produce a more reliable result.

Torraco (2016) describes an integrative literature review. The purpose of an integrative literature review is to generate new knowledge on a topic through the process of review, critique, and then synthesis of the literature under investigation.

Process and product
Shields and Rangarajan (2013) distinguish between the process of reviewing the literature and a finished work or product known as a literature review. The process of reviewing the literature is often ongoing and informs many aspects of the empirical research project.

The process of reviewing the literature requires different kinds of activities and ways of thinking. Shields and Rangarajan (2013) and Granello (2001) link the activities of doing a literature review with Benjamin Bloom's revised taxonomy of the cognitive domain (ways of thinking: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating).

Use of artificial intelligence in a literature review
Artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping traditional literature review across various disciplines. Generative pre-trained transformers, such as ChatGPT, are often used by students and academics for review purposes.

Nevertheless, the employment of ChatGPT in academic reviews is problematic due to ChatGPT's propensity to "hallucinate". In response, efforts are being made to mitigate these hallucinations through the integration of plugins. For instance, Rad et al. (2023) used ScholarAI for review in cardiothoracic surgery.

See also

Empirical study of literature
Living review
Media monitoring
Review journal

References

Further reading

Academic publishing
Research methods
Information science

Literature review


The Freedom Riders National Monument is a United States National Monument in Anniston, Alabama established by President Barack Obama in January 2017 to preserve and commemorate the Freedom Riders during the Civil Rights Movement. The monument is administered by the National Park Service. The Freedom Riders National Monument is one of three National Monuments that was designated by presidential proclamation of President Obama on January 12, 2017. The second was the Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument and the third, the Reconstruction Era National Historical Park, was re-designated as a National Historical Park on March 12, 2019.

Sites

The Freedom Riders National Monument comprises two locations, one in downtown Anniston itself and the other outside town.

Greyhound Bus Station
The first site designated as part of the national monument is the former Greyhound bus depot at 1031 Gurnee Avenue in Anniston, where, on May 14, 1961, a mob attacked an integrated group of white and black Freedom Riders who demanded an end to racial segregation in interstate busing. The mob slashed the bus's tires, threw rocks, broke the bus's windows, and pursued the bus after it pulled away from the depot. Today the wall of the building adjacent to the former depot features a mural and educational panels describing the incident; a similar mural has been installed adjacent to the former Trailways station where the other Freedom Riders arrived in 1961. The former Greyhound station was later owned by the City of Anniston prior to its donation to the United States government. It is one of nine sites that are part of the Anniston Civil Rights and Heritage Trail, and is commemorated with a historic marker, erected in 2016.

The National Park Service, in conjunction with the city of Anniston, has announced plans to develop the building and open it to the public, but as of May 2017 it was closed to visitors.

Site of bus burning

The second site incorporated into the new national monument is that of the bus burning, located outside of Anniston along Old Birmingham Highway/State Route 202 some  away from the Greyhound station. It was at this spot that the bus broke down because of its flat tires. The segregationist mob, which had followed it from the bus depot, continued its assault, throwing "a bundle of flaming rags into the bus that exploded seconds later" which set the vehicle ablaze. The mob attacked the passengers as they tried to flee. Freelance photographer Joseph "Little Joe" Postiglione photographed the bus as it burned; the resulting image has become an icon of the civil rights movement. An Alabama Historical Marker, erected in 2007 under the auspices of the Theta Tau chapter of Omega Psi Phi fraternity, marks the site of the bus burning.

It was announced in 2010 that five acres of land surrounding the site of the bus burning had been donated to Calhoun County for the development of a memorial park; initial plans called for a landscaped walkway, with interpretive plaques to be erected at the site. Possible future features include a statue of Hank Thomas, a survivor of the incident, being given water by nearby resident Janie Forsythe. Since designation of the national monument, the National Park Service, Calhoun County, and the Freedom Riders Memorial Committee have begun working together to develop a plan for interpreting the site; Alabama Power provided money for the effort in 2015. A sign denoting the future presence of the park was erected in 2012. Soon after it was placed at the site it was vandalized, but repairs were quickly made.

The site of the burning is today surrounded by private residences.

History of the monument
Designation of the national monument followed a visit by Interior Secretary Sally Jewell and National Park Service Director Jonathan Jarvis to the site in October 2016. The designation of the National Monument was hailed by local leaders in Anniston and Calhoun County, who had actively campaigned for the monument's creation. Others who supported its establishment included Senator Richard Shelby; Representative Mike Rogers, who had introduced a bill to designate Freedom Riders National Historical Park in July 2016; and governor Robert J. Bentley.

A dedication ceremony took place on May 13, 2017, in downtown Anniston, on the day before the 56th anniversary of the incident; some members of the audience had traveled from as far away as Denmark. Former Freedom Rider Hank Thomas, the last living survivor of the bus-burning incident, delivered a speech. An interim visitor center, including a station where visitors may procure a National Parks passport stamp, has been established in the reception area of Anniston City Hall.

In 2017, the National Park Service sought input from the public on planning and interpreting the National Monument. Federal and local officials began drafting formal plans for its management late in 2017. In March 2018, the Anniston City Council commissioned Jacksonville State University to conduct an economic impact study for the monument.

The Freedom Riders National Monument is a feature landmark of the United States Civil Rights Trail.

See also
 Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
 Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
 Civil rights movement in popular culture
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Calhoun County, Alabama
 List of national monuments of the United States

References

External links
Official National Park Service site

2017 establishments in Alabama
Monuments and memorials of the civil rights movement
Anniston, Alabama
Freedom Riders
National Monuments in Alabama
National Monuments designated by Barack Obama
Protected areas established in 2017
Protected areas of Calhoun County, Alabama

Freedom Riders National Monument


SORBS ("Spam and Open Relay Blocking System") is a list of e-mail servers suspected of sending or relaying spam (a DNS Blackhole List).  It has been augmented with complementary lists that include various other classes of hosts, allowing for customized email rejection by its users.

History
The SORBS DNSbl project was created in November 2001. It was maintained as a private list until 6 January 2002 when the DNSbl was officially launched to the public. The list consisted of 78,000 proxy relays and rapidly grew to over 3,000,000 alleged compromised spam relays.

In November 2009 SORBS was acquired by GFI Software, to enhance their mail filtering solutions.

In July 2011 SORBS was re-sold to Proofpoint, Inc.

DUHL
SORBS adds IP ranges that belong to dialup modem pools, dynamically allocated wireless, and DSL connections as well as DHCP LAN ranges by using reverse DNS PTR records, WHOIS records, and sometimes by submission from the ISPs themselves. This is called the DUHL or Dynamic User and Host List. SORBS does not automatically rescan DUHL listed hosts for updated rDNS so to remove an IP address from the DUHL the user or ISP has to request a delisting or rescan. If other blocks are scanned in the region of listings and the scan includes listed netspace, SORBS automatically removes the netspace marked as static.

Matthew Sullivan of SORBS proposed in an Internet Draft that generic reverse DNS addresses include purposing tokens such as static or dynamic, abbreviations thereof, and more. That naming scheme would have allowed end users to classify IP addresses without the need to rely on third party lists, such as the SORBS DUHL. The Internet Draft has since expired. Generally it is considered more appropriate for ISPs to simply block outgoing traffic to port 25 if they wish to prevent users from sending email directly, rather than specifying it in the reverse DNS record for the IP.

SORBS' dynamic IP list originally came from Dynablock but has been developed independently since Dynablock stopped updating in December 2003.

Spam traps
IP addresses that send spam to SORBS spamtraps are added to their spam database automatically or manually.  In order to prevent being blacklisted, major free email services such as Gmail, Yahoo, and Hotmail, as well as major ISPs now implement outgoing anti-spam countermeasures. Gmail, for example, continues to get listed and delisted because they refuse abuse reports. However, smaller networks may still be unwittingly blocked.  Because spammers use viruses, malware, and rootkits to force compromised computers to send spam, SORBS lists the IP addresses of servers that the infected system uses to send its spam.  Because of this, larger ISPs and corporate networks have started blocking port 25 in order to prevent these compromised computers from being able to send email except through designated email servers.

Preemptive listings
SORBS maintains a list of networks and addresses that it believes are assigned dynamically to end users/machines, it refers to this list as the DUHL (Dynamic User/Host List). The list includes wide networks of computers sharing the same IP address using network address translation which are also affected (If one computer behind the NAT is allowed to send spam, the whole network will be blacklisted if the NAT IP is ever blacklisted.) This is a common method of pre-emptive blocking as most legitimate mail servers are hosted in data centers designed and provisioned for such services, the legitimate mail servers that are affected by such listings are most commonly home hobbyists running their own mail servers.  The Spamhaus Policy Block List (PBL) is another such pre-emptive list which does not just list dynamic hosts, but also blocks hosts it believes should not be sending email directly to third-party servers.  SORBS also operate another list which is similar to the Spamhaus PBL called the NoServers list, which is wholly maintained by the network administrators of the respective networks and is therefore theoretically False Positive free.

Escalated listings
SORBS has been accused of deliberately targeting innocent users through escalated listings. Its website describes the process as follows: "An escalated listing on the other hand is where a whole network of IP addresses is listed in SORBS and all hosts and IPs (whether assigned to a single customer or multiple) are listed and therefore blocked or result in spam folder issues. Why does SORBS create escalated listings? The simple answer is to stop spam. You ask, 'How does listing innocent IPs help stop spam?' Simple, some providers don't care about spam." There have been many heated discussions on this practice as often it would appear that email users who are caught in this trap have no recourse, because the listing applies to a block of IP addresses, and they are unable to release their own IP address.

False positives
Due to the automation of SORBS listings it is possible for the addresses of legitimate mail servers to be listed from time to time. Therefore, users of the SORBS Spam list in particular should consider carefully any such implications and may wish to use the service as part of a larger spam blocking system.  The SORBS 'No Servers' list is reported to be wholly administered by the network administrators of the networks concerned therefore it should be false positive free.

Statistics
SORBS produces and publishes daily statistics about its list to the otherwise defunct usenet newsgroup news.admin.net-abuse.bulletins (NANAB). As of 7 April 2021 statistics published show the following listing totals:
Unique IPs in Proxy entries:             613259
Unique IPs in Relay entries:             7824
Unique IPs in Spam entries:              48515896
Unique IPs in Hacked entries:            7337019
Unique IPs in DUHL entries:              381194921
Unique IPs in exDUHL entries:            1072776
Unique IPs in Cable entries:             3877257
Unique IPs in Zombie entries:            1772805
Unique IPs in AdminRequested entries:    1
Unique IPs in UnAllocated entries:       139101
Unique IPs in CoLo entries:              136259
Unique IPs in MailServer entries:        31
Unique IPs in Spammer entries:           1
Unique IPs in Escalated entries:         2305
Unique IPs in Phishing entries:          110995
Unique IPs in Virus entries:             5630114
Unique IPs in BackScatter entries:       36
Unique IPs in Business entries:          5693190
Unique IPs in Static entries:            8906441
Unique IPs in WhiteHat entries:          1
Unique IPs in NoServers entries:         46844194
Unique IPs in CoreNetwork entries:       42588
Unique IPs in InstantReport entries:     31
Unique IPs in EmailReport entries:       1
Unique IPs in Permission entries:        81
Unique IPs in Botnet entries:            379527
Total IPs listed in the database         512276654

See also
 Comparison of DNS blacklists

References

External links

 Open Relay Online Tester

Email
Spamming

Spam and Open Relay Blocking System


Sandra McLaren is an Australian geologist.

Interested in geology and geothermal energy from a young age, McLaren completed her PhD at Adelaide University in 2001 and is currently an Associate Professor at the University of Melbourne.  She is a noted science communicator and educator, especially on the topic of sustainable energy through hot rocks in southern Australia.

In 2008, McLaren received a Victorian Young Tall Poppy Award, and attended the inaugural InterAcademy Panel meeting for Young Scientists. In 2008 she received the Australian Academy of Science's Dorothy Hill award.  The same year, she and Professor Mike Sandford received a grant from the Australian Research Council to research the mechanics of hot rocks and subsequently the potential for geothermal energy in Australia. She was a member of the Global Young Academy.

References

Australian geologists
Australian women scientists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
University of Adelaide alumni
Academic staff of the University of Melbourne

Sandra McLaren


Rampage is the official mascot of the Los Angeles Rams of the National Football League (NFL). Introduced in July 2010, he is an anthropomorphic ram who wears a Rams uniform.  He wears the number one (#1).

Background

Rampage stands 6'1" and tips the scales at 200 lbs. He can often be found roaming the sidelines of home games at the SoFi Stadium. Although a ram, he is known for his friendly demeanor and childlike antics. Home and opposing fans tend to find Rampage both friendly and approachable. When not at games, Rampage is typically found taking part in various initiatives across Los Angeles.

Naming Rampage
His name was selected by fans (while the team was still based in St. Louis) who voted in an online mascot-naming contest; "Rampage" was officially announced as the winning name at the St. Louis Zoo's south entrance on July 26, 2010. More than 1,000 names were submitted for the mascot. The top vote receivers were Rampage, Archie, Ramsey, Rammer, and Rush, respectively. The person who submitted the winning name won a suite at a Rams game for themselves and fifteen friends, a Ram's jersey, and a two hundred dollar gift card to the Official Rams online store. The winning name was submitted by Chris Shaffer. The Shaffer family was present for the unveiling of Rampage at the St. Louis Zoo.

Rationale

According to Kevin Demoff, the Rams' current executive-vice president of football operations, Rampage "has the coating of a stuffed animal, but the build of a superhero." Ram's ownership says that Rampage will make around 300 appearances a year from games to charity events and parties. Demoff says, "The organization decided to add a mascot to build game day entertainment and to make more involvement possible in the community." The team's plan is to have Rampage be part of the rebirth process of the team and to help bring the team a more distinguishable identity.

Previous Mascots
Since the Rams started out as an organization in 1937, they have called three cities home. Their club has been based in Cleveland, Los Angeles, and St. Louis before returning to Los Angeles in 2016. In their 73 years of existence and their three home cities, they have only ever had one mascot before 2010. The mascot was a furry creature that resembled a rat more than anything and was named Ramster in the mid-1990s. The fans, however, did not take to Ramster and he was terminated in 1996.

Accolades
 1x Super Bowl champion (Super Bowl LVI)
 7x NFL Pro Bowl Mascot
 2x NFC Champion

On July 22, 2010, Rampage threw the ceremonial first pitch at the St. Louis Cardinals' baseball game at Busch Stadium.

Performers
 Clint McComb (2010 - 2017)
 Alex Floch (2018 - 2023)

References

Los Angeles Rams
National Football League mascots
Animal mascots
Mascots introduced in 2010

Rampage (mascot)


KNVV-LP, UHF analog channel 41, was a low-power UniMás-affiliated television station licensed to Reno, Nevada, United States. Owned by Entravision Communications, it was a sister station to Univision affiliate KREN-TV (channel 27) and low-power CW affiliate KRNS-CD (channel 46). Due to its low-power status, KNVV did not have a digital signal of its own. However, there was a standard-definition digital signal on KREN-TV's third digital subchannel (UHF channel 26.3 or virtual channel 27.3 via PSIP) to serve as that purpose. The station also held a construction permit to move to digital channel 36 as KNVV-LD.

At one point it was simulcast on KNCV-LP (channel 48) in Carson City, Nevada. However, on August 17, 2010, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) canceled that station's license and deleted the KNCV-LP call sign from its database.

History

KNVV became the local affiliate of Univision in 2002, replacing KUVR-LP (channel 68, now KRNS-CD). The station was not available on either DirecTV or Dish Network for local viewers on those satellite services.

In September 2008, KREN-TV, then owned by Pappas Telecasting Companies, was placed under contract to Entravision (along with what was then KAZR-CA) for $4 million. No bidders were found for either property, and Entravision officially became the owner of both stations on April 1, 2009. At some point between September and April, Entravision moved KNVV's Univision affiliation to the main channel of the full-power KREN signal (which previously carried The CW, which then moved to KRNS-CA/KREN-DT2). At that time, KNVV switched to TeleFutura.

On August 15, 2011, Entravision turned off the analog channel 41 transmitter so that it could flash-cut to digital. However, due to delays in the construction of the digital replacement station, Entravision turned the channel 41 analog transmitter back on on August 14, 2012, one day before the FCC would have deemed the KNVV-LP license to have been automatically expired (low-power stations operating on an in-core frequency have until 2015 to convert to digital). The station remained available on KREN's third digital subchannel.

The station's license was canceled by the FCC on May 23, 2014.

NVV-LP
Spanish-language television stations in Nevada
Television channels and stations established in 2000
2000 establishments in Nevada
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2014
2014 disestablishments in Nevada
Defunct television stations in the United States
Entravision Communications stations
NVV-LP

KNVV-LP


CiteScore (CS) of an academic journal is a measure reflecting the yearly average number of citations to recent articles published in that journal. It is produced by Ebsco, based on the citations recorded in the Scopus database. Absolute rankings and percentile ranks are also reported for each journal in a given subject area.

This journal evaluation metric was launched in December 2016 as an alternative to the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) impact factor (IF), calculated by Clarivate. CiteScore is based on the citations collected for articles published in the preceding four years, instead of two or five in the JCR IF. At launch, CiteScore's neutrality was questioned by bibliometrics experts like Carl Bergstrom, who found it appeared to favour Elsevier's titles of Nature's.

Calculation

In any given year, the CiteScore of a journal is the number of citations, received in that year and in previous three years, for documents published in the journal during the total period (four years), divided by the total number of published documents (articles, reviews, conference papers, book chapters, and data papers) in the journal during the same four-year period:

For example, Nature had a CiteScore 2021 of 70.2:

For example, the 2017 CiteScores were reported first in 2018 when all data was available completely. CiteScores are typically released in late May, approximately one month earlier than the JCR impact factors. Scopus also provides the projected CiteScores for the next year, which are updated every month.

Pre-2020 formula

Before 2020, the score was calculated differently: in a given year, the CiteScore of a journal was the number of citations received in that year of articles published in that journal during the three preceding years, divided by the total number of "citable items" published in that journal during the three preceding years:

For example, Nature had a CiteScore of 14.456 in 2017:

Because the calculation method changed, knowing the calculation date is an important detail when comparing CiteScores. For example, the Nature CiteScore for 2017 calculated with the post-2020 method is 53.7.

Comparison to JCR Impact Factor

CiteScore was designed to compete with the two-year JCR impact factor, which is currently the most widely used journal metric. Their main differences are as follows:

Another difference is the definition of the "number of publications" or "citable items".

References

Journal ranking

CiteScore


Great Wall Pan Asia Holdings Limited (formerly Armada Holdings Limited, , ) is a property investment company in Hong Kong.

The company was formerly known as SCMP Group Limited and changed its name to Armada Holdings Limited in April 2016 after it sold its media businesses, including South China Morning Post, to Alibaba Group. It also published the Hong Kong editions of Cosmopolitan, Cosmogirl and Harper's Bazaar. From 1996 to 2004, it operated a chain of convenience stores, Daily Stop, at MTR and KCR stations and in shopping malls before selling the stores to 7-Eleven.

History

Ownership
In 1903, SCMP Group Limited was founded.

In November 1971, it was listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange. It was privatised by Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation in 1987, and relisted in 1990.
In October 1993, Robert Kuok's Kerry Group acquired a 34.9% stake in the SCMP Group from Murdoch's News Corporation. His son, Kuok Khoon Ean, took over as chairman at the end of 1997. The Kerry Group bought a further 30% stake in the publisher for HK$1.1 billion ($142 million) in 2008. In March 2009, in a refinancing exercise, the controlling shareholder sold a 14.4% stake in the publisher to a consortium of banks in exchange for put call options exercisable within 4 years.

Since February 2013, the group's shares have been suspended as the "free float" – proportion in public hands – fell below the 25% threshold set by the HKSE. When three banks exercised options requiring Kerry Media to re-acquire their 14% stake in the group upon expiry on 27 February, the free float dropped to 11 percent of the capital.

It was announced on 11 December 2015, following weeks of speculation, that Alibaba would acquire all the company's media assets, and said that editorial independence would be respected.

In April 2016, the company announced that the transaction with Alibaba was completed. As the intellectual property rights to the name "SCMP" was transferred, the company changed its name to Armada Holdings Limited.

See also
 Kerry Group
 Alibaba Group

References

External links
 Armada Holdings

Kerry Group
Companies listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange
Former companies in the Hang Seng Index
Holding companies established in 2016
Former News Corporation subsidiaries
2016 establishments in Hong Kong
Holding companies of Hong Kong

Great Wall Pan Asia Holdings


Peppino Mazzotta (born 20 May 1971) is an Italian actor, known for playing police officer Giuseppe Fazio in Il commissario Montalbano mystery series based on the character and novels created by Andrea Camilleri. Mazzotta is a native of Domanico (Province of Cosenza).

Career
Born in the Calabrian town of Domanico in 1971, Mazzotta attended the Faculty of Architecture at the university of Reggio Calabria, then joined a Drama School at Palmi, and discovered his great acting passion. He later founded in Naples the theatre company Rosso Tiziano (Titian Red) together with five colleagues of the Palmi Academy, with whom he continues to collaborate.
In 2003 he created a new theatre company, named Teatri del Sud (Southern Theatres), together with playwright and script-writer Francesco Suriano, who produced plays in the Calabrian dialect. The company closed after three years of activity, due to lack of financial support from the Arts, but Mazzotta is still very active in the regional theatre, especially in the production of Greek plays.

Peppino Mazzotta is best known for portraying police detective Giuseppe Fazio, in the renowned Italian television series Inspector Montalbano, produced and broadcast by RAI since 1999, and based on the detective novels of Andrea Camilleri. The protagonist is Commissario Salvo Montalbano, and Mazzotta plays his loyal, hyper-efficient right-hand man in the fictional town of Vigata, Sicily.

In the summer of 2012, during the Positano Theatre Festival, Mazzotta was awarded the Annibale Ruccello Prize for his theatrical production Radio Argo.

Mazzotta's career is currently divided between theatre, cinema and television, in a busy schedule of engagements and guest appearances. He continues to play Inspector Montalbano's assistant in the new episodes of the Italian TV series.

In autumn 2016 Mazzotta played Bruno Corona, a fictional 'Ndrangheta boss in "Solo" a dramatic television series broadcast by  Canale 5 and set in  Gioia Tauro,  Calabria.

Credits

Theatre
La Torre D'Avorio
Radio Argo, awarded the Premio della Critica, Florence 2011
Requiescat
L'arrobbafumu
Alè Alè Cita
A cascia 'nfernali
Tomba di cani
Illuminato a morte
Tartuffe
Il decimo anno
La bisbetica domata
La Celestina
L' agnello del povero
Molto rumore per nulla
Giulio Cesare

Cinema
A Classic Horror Story (2021)
Anime nere (2014)
Piacere... Io sono Piero!, (2012)
La misura del confine, (2011)
Noi credevamo (2010)
Cado dalle nubi, (2009)
La velocità della luce, (2008)
Il pugile e la ballerina, (2006)
A Children's Story, (2004)
Prima del tramonto, (2004)
Domenica, (2001)

Television
Inspector Montalbano, (whole series since 1999)
Anthony of Padua, (2002)
Paolo Borsellino (television series), (2004)
Distretto di Polizia (Police Precinct), 5th season (a character in 2005)
R.I.S. - Delitti imperfetti, 3rd season (2007)
Il Capitano, 2nd season (2007)
Per una notte d'amore (2008)
Crimini 2 - "Niente di personale (Nothing personal)" - Rai 2 2010
Squadra antimafia (2010)
Un Mondo Nuovo (TV film) (2015)
"Solo" (television series) (2016)

Notes

External links

From "Le Interviste di Teatro.Org": Il talento vulcanico di Peppino Mazzotta, interprete di "Nzularchia" (Peppino Mazzotta volcanic talent)
Interview with Mazzotta, on Linking Calabria of June 9, 2011.
Radio Argo, article on Arteven  Accessed November 28, 2012

Living people
Italian male stage actors
1971 births
People from the Province of Cosenza
Italian male television actors
Italian male film actors
21st-century Italian male actors

Peppino Mazzotta


The National Association of Science Writers (NASW) was created in 1934 by a dozen science journalists and reporters in New York City.  The aim of the organization was to improve the craft of science journalism and to promote good science reportage.

In June 1934, John J. O'Neill, William L. Laurence, Howard W. Blakeslee, Gobind Behari Lal and David Dietz formed NASW as a press association with Dietz as its president. Several others joined the association. The NASW incorporated in 1955, pledging itself to "foster the dissemination of accurate information regarding science through all media normally devoted to informing the public".  Leaders of the NASW have been freelance and staff reporters for a majority of US newspapers, wire services, magazines, and broadcasters.

As of September 29, 2007, the organization reported having 2,549 members and claimed to be the largest organization of science writers in the world.

Each year since 1972 the organization holds the Science in Society Awards to "provide recognition—without subsidy from any professional or commercial interest—for investigative or interpretive reporting about the sciences and their impact on society."  The organization considers granting awards in four categories: books, commentary and opinion, science reporting, and science reporting with a local or regional focus.

See also
 Board of Editors in the Life Sciences
 Council for the Advancement of Science Writing
 The Open Notebook

References

External links
The National Association of Science Writers

Science writing organizations
Organizations established in 1934
1934 establishments in New York City

National Association of Science Writers


Ferdinand Gasse (1780) was a French violinist and composer.

Life
Born in Naples, Gasse, who was probably related to the architect Louis-Silvestre Gasse, born eight years later in Naples, attended the violin class of Pierre Rode at the Conservatoire de Paris from 1798. He also had lessons with Rodolphe Kreutzer, the dedicatee of Beethoven's famous Kreutzer-Sonata. He also studied harmony with Charles-Simon Catel and musical composition with François-Joseph Gossec.

From 1801 Gasse was violinist at the Paris Opera. In 1805 he received the deuxième Grand Prix de Rome for his cantata Cupidon pleurant Psyché (after a text by Antoine-Vincent Arnault). During his stay in Rome he composed, among others, a double choir Te Deum and a Christe eleison, works which were applauded by Étienne-Nicolas Méhul.

From 1810 to 1812 Gasse stayed in Naples before coming to Paris, where he resumed his activity as violinist at the Grand Opéra after the interruption of his stay in Italy. In the year of his arrival, his opéra bouffe La finta Zingara was premiered here. In 1834 Gasse retired with a pension; his exact date of death is not known. In addition to several other operas, Gasse composed mainly works for the violin.

It is assumed that Gasse was the father of Edme-Hippolyte Gasse. The pupil of François-Joseph Fétis and Henri-Montan Berton taught solfège at the Conservatoire de Paris and died early on 11 January 1831.

Selected works

Operas
 La Finta Zingara, 1812
 Le Voyage incognito, 1819
 L'Idiote, 1820
 Une Nuit de Gustav Wasa, 1825
 L'Ange gardien ou Soeur Marie, 1831

Publications
 Méthode de violon, 1803
 Cours de musique, 1830

References

External links
 Palmarès de tous les lauréats du Prix de Rome en composition musicale
 Ferdinand Gasse on BNF

1780 deaths
1840s deaths
19th-century French composers
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
19th-century French male classical violinists
French male classical composers
French opera composers
French Romantic composers
19th-century Neapolitan people

Ferdinand Gasse


Leif Anthony Mills  (25 March 1936 – 17 December 2020) was a British trade unionist.

Mills was educated at Kingston Grammar School and went on to study at Balliol College, Oxford before undertaking national service in the Royal Military Police.  He then joined the National Union of Bank Employees (later renamed the Banking Insurance and Finance Union - BIFU), becoming Assistant General Secretary in 1962, then Deputy General Secretary in 1968, and finally General Secretary in 1972, serving until 1996.

Mills stood unsuccessfully for the Labour Party in Salisbury at the 1964 general election, and again in a 1965 by-election.  Although his first speech to the Trades Union Congress was followed by BIFU's expulsion, for registering under the Industrial Relations Act, he subsequently held a number of TUC posts, including that of President in 1994/5.  He also served on the Monopolies and Mergers Commission, and more recently with the Covent Garden Market Authority.

In 1999, Mills published a biography of Frank Wild, while his Men of Ice appeared in 2008.

He was appointed CBE in the 1995 Birthday Honours.

He died on 17 December 2020 at the age of 84, and was an active member and benefactor of Weybridge Rowing Club, before which Oxford University Boat Club. He also subscribed to the Oxford and Cambridge Club.

References

1936 births
2020 deaths
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
British trade union leaders
Members of the General Council of the Trades Union Congress
Presidents of the Trades Union Congress
People educated at Kingston Grammar School
Labour Party (UK) parliamentary candidates

Leif Mills


Baron Henry "Bud" Asher (May 27, 1925 – July 5, 2013) was an American politician, football coach and former lawyer. Asher served as the Mayor of Daytona Beach, Florida, for eight years from 1995 until 2003. Before becoming mayor, Asher was elected as a Daytona Beach City Commissioner in 1983, a position he held for twelve years from 1983 to 1995.

Biography

Early life
Asher was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on May 27, 1925, to Baron Hirsch Asher and Erna Fromme. He graduated from the new defunct Tech High in Atlanta. He enlisted with the U.S. Navy in 1943 during World War II, serving on board the USS Bunker Hill and USS Bennington, which were part of a larger torpedo squadron in the Pacific Theater. He saw action at campaigns and battles in the Philippines, Iwo Jima, Guam, Palau, Formosa (Taiwan) and Okinawa. Asher received two Air Medals, as well as theater ribbons and unit citations, for his service in the Navy during the war.

He initially attended the University of Tennessee after the war, but transferred to the University of Georgia, where he earned both his bachelor's degree and law degrees. (He later served as the secretary of the Georgia Bulldog Club, the university's Athletic Association fundraising arm).

Career
Asher practiced law in Atlanta until 1954, when he moved to Florida to accept a position as the assistant football coach for Stetson University. He would later become a hotelier and business owner in Daytona Beach. Asher owned and operated a string of nightclubs, businesses and hotels in the city, including the Safari Beach Motel.

During the early 1960s, the city of Fort Lauderdale, located more than 200 miles south of Daytona Beach, became a popular Spring Break destination with American college students. However, due to the large number of students, relations between the thousands of college students and Fort Lauderdale became strained. Asher, along with other Daytona Beach business and political leaders, began a campaign to attract some of Fort Lauderdale's spring breakers to Daytona. in 1962, Asher and other area businessmen began driving to colleges, where they distributed postcards, brochures and other materials promoting Daytona Beach as a Spring Break destination. They also hired airplanes, which dropped ping-pong balls advertising Daytona Beach onto college campuses, a tradition which is still practiced by spring breakers in the city today. Each of the ping-pong balls were inscribed with "Get on the Ball and Come to Daytona Beach."

The campaign succeeded in transforming Daytona Beach into a major Spring Break destination. Asher did have detractors and critics, who accused him of promoting Daytona Beach as a ""beer-can mentality" destination for college students, rather than promoting the city as a place for family friendly vacationers. However, Asher's efforts earned him the nickname, "Father of Spring Break," within Daytona Beach.

Political career
Asher served as a district judge in New Smyrna Beach, Florida, for two years.

In 1983, he was elected a city commissioner representing District 2, an office he held for the next twelve years, from 1983 to 1995.

Bud Asher was first elected Mayor of Daytona Beach in 1995. Asher's predecessor, incumbent Paul Carpenella, who served as mayor from 1993 to 1995, failed to gain enough votes in the primary to advance to the mayoral general election. Asher raised more than $60,000 for his first mayoral campaign. Asher defeated his 1995 general election challenger, former city Public Works Director Tom McClelland, by approximately 600 votes in the municipal election. He was sworn into office on November 7, 1995. He was re-elected in 1997, 1999, and 2001, before retiring from office in 2003.

Football
Asher continued to work in football for more than sixty years, while simultaneously remaining in business and politics. He coached football for high schools in Volusia County, including New Smyrna Beach High School, Spruce Creek High School and Father Lopez Catholic High School, as well as the Daytona Beach Bulldogs for the midget league. He was also involved with Bethune-Cookman University for more than 40 years as the university's football coach, as well as a consultant adviser to several of BCU's presidents. He also coached the Jacksonville Sharks of the defunct World Football League and the Daytona Beach ThunderBirds, a semi-pro team.

He scouted potential players for both the NFL and college football programs for more than 30 years. He specifically worked as an NFL talent scout for the San Diego Chargers, Cincinnati Bengals and the Oakland Raiders.

He was inducted into the Florida Athletic Coaches Association Hall of Fame in 2000. He called games as a commentator and sports announcer on WNDB 1150 for the last two years of his life.

Bud Asher died from prostate cancer at his home on the Halifax River in Daytona Beach at 9 PM on July 5, 2013, at the age of 88. He was survived by his wife of 27 years, Dawn Ioviero Asher; his children from his previous marriage, Marybeth Asher-Lawson and Baron "Ron" Asher; his stepdaughter, Wendy Fiore Bentley; and five grandchildren. His funeral was held at Our Lady of Lourdes Catholic Church with burial at Daytona Memorial Park, complete with full military honors and an honorific flyover during the ceremony.

References

1925 births
2013 deaths
Mayors of Daytona Beach, Florida
Florida city council members
Florida state court judges
Georgia (U.S. state) lawyers
Businesspeople from Florida
Stetson Hatters football coaches
High school football coaches in Florida
Recipients of the Air Medal
United States Navy personnel of World War II
Bethune–Cookman University people
University of Georgia alumni
University of Georgia School of Law alumni
University of Tennessee alumni
Politicians from Atlanta
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American judges
20th-century American lawyers
Catholics from Florida

Bud Asher


The Chelmsford Museum is based in Oaklands House, an historic property off Moulsham Street in Chelmsford, Essex. It is a Grade II Listed building.

Oaklands House

The house was designed by Charles Pertwee for Frederick Wells, a director of the Chelmsford Brewery, and completed by 1865. It was constructed with an elaborate campanile, and went on to be used as a hospital during the First World War. Since 1930 the building has housed the Chelmsford Museum.

Collections
The Chelmsford Museum is a local history and industrial heritage museum. A major £5 million extension and redevelopment scheme opened in January 2010 and the museum now includes exhibits and interactive displays focusing on the engineering pioneers R.E.B. Crompton, Guglielmo Marconi, and Hoffmann Ball Bearings, as well as illustrating the development of the town and city from prehistory up to modern times. The fine art collection includes works by noted artists with a connection to Chelmsford, including Alfred Bennett Bamford, Doris Boulton-Maude and Richard Spare. It also holds pottery including Castle Hedingham ware and that made by the Turner Prize winner Grayson Perry.

The house also incorporates the Museum of the Essex Regiment and the Essex Yeomanry. Highlights of this collection include the French Imperial Eagle captured by the 2nd Battalion of the 44th Regiment of Foot from the French 62nd Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne at the Battle of Salamanca in 1812, as well as The Last Stand of the 44th Regiment at Gundamuck, a painting by William Barnes Wollen depicting the 1842 retreat from Kabul in Afghanistan.

References

External links
Official site
Collections portal

Buildings and structures in Chelmsford (city)
Museums in Essex
Natural history museums in England
Industry museums in England
Local museums in Essex

Chelmsford Museum


The Little Falls Carnegie Library is a historic Carnegie library in Little Falls, Minnesota. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 3, 1980 for its architectural significance.

The Little falls library differentiates itself from other Carnegie libraries as it doesn't follow the traditional Neoclassical style, instead following the American Craftsman style under architect Fremont D. Orff. The library was granted on March 14, 1902 and opened on February 7, 1905. It is still open and serves as a library today, as part of the Great River Regional Library. Of the 66 Carnegie libraries built in Minnesota, it is one of the 50 still standing and one of the 23 to still function as a library.

Description
The library is built in the American Craftsman style, constructed of brick and stone and measuring two stories. The basement is constructed with locally-sourced fieldstone arranged in a random pattern, which can be seen surrounding the exterior of the building. Buff-colored bricks are used for the main level, which is separated from the basement level with a gray granite water table. The building is covered by a dormered gable roof. The exterior has a lack of ornamentation, although some can be found on the bargeboard on the gables and dormers and the granite quoins that surround the front entrance. The building was built on a cruciform plan, which is evident in the interior arrangement within the library. The main floor features a centrally-located circulation area with reading rooms to the left and right and bookshelves to the rear. Originally, the lower floor served as an auditorium but has since been converted to a children's area. The attic is a large, finished area used for storage.

History
Little Falls' first library occupied two rooms in the Butler Block, a part of the Little Falls Commercial Historic District. This library was opened in August 1892 and accumulated around 800 books. As more and more books fell into the library's possession, the city of Little Falls turned to Andrew Carnegie, a figure who was well-known for his funding of community libraries. The city debated where the library should be built, as the town needed to own the land in order to receive funding from Carnegie. The chosen site was strongly supported by Charles Lindbergh, Sr. because he believed it was important for the town's library to have a large lawn and trees for shade. The city bought the property and received a $10,000 grant from Carnegie in 1902. Lindbergh also contributed funds for the library, along with members of the Weyerhauser and Musser families, who accumulated their fortune from their Pine Tree Lumber Company. Construction began in 1904 and the library first opened on February 7, 1905. In its inaugural year, the library recorded 1,415 registered borrowers and housed 2,015 books. For comparison, in 2007, the library had 8,335 registered borrowers and housed 36,949 items. The library was listed on the NRHP in 1980, became a part of the Great River Regional Library System in 1989, finished construction to an addition on the building in 1999 and became equipped with wireless internet in 2008.

References

External links
Great River Regional Library - Little Falls official website
The Little Library That Could: The Story Behind The Little Falls Carnegie Library. Minnesota Public Radio, 1 November 2022

Buildings and structures in Morrison County, Minnesota
Carnegie libraries in Minnesota
Libraries on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota
Library buildings completed in 1905
National Register of Historic Places in Morrison County, Minnesota
Public libraries in Minnesota
1905 establishments in Minnesota

Little Falls Carnegie Library


Sigbert Jon Prais, FBA (19 December 1928 – 22 February 2014) was an economist and had been the senior research fellow at the National Institute of Economic and Social Research (NIESR) since 1970.

Life
On 19 December 1928, Sigbert Jon Prais was born in Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany; he was the oldest of four children to orthodox Jewish parents. His family arrived in Britain in 1934 as Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi oppression in Germany. Prais' father established a manufacturing company that made metal frames and ornaments for women's handbags, in Birmingham. Prais was sent to school in London and later continued his studies at the King Edward's School, Birmingham. From King Edward's School, he matriculated to the University of Birmingham for his undergraduate studies and then moved on to the PhD program at the Department of Applied Economics at Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge.

While at Cambridge, Prais collaborated with Hendrik Houtthaker on a study that focused on pre-war household expenditures. In 1955, Prais and Houtthaker's study was published as "Analysis of Family Budgets"; the study would prove to be a foundation for studies in subsequent research.

Prais had found great success in the field of economics after having his study published and was quickly asked to be a lecturer at the Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge Department of Applied Economics. In 1953, when Prais was 24 years old, he took up a fellowship at the Cowles Commission for Research in Economics in Chicago. There he made important connections for his career, most notably C. B. Winsten.

Together, Prais and Winsten conceived their "Prais–Winsten estimation". They formulated the econometric equation as a modification to the "Cochrane–Orcutt estimation" equation; it is believed to a more efficient formula for estimating the linear model.

In 1954, Prais maintained his lecturer position at the Department of Applied Economics at the Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge University while pursuing his career at the National Institute of Economic and Social Research (NIESR) in London.

From NIESR, Prais instantly went to work with Peter Hart on research into the growth of Great Britain companies. Prais and Hart's research led to the publication of two important studies on the matter: the first in 1956, titled "The Analysis of Business Concentration: A Statistical Approach", and second in 1976, "The Evolution of Giant Firms in Britain".

In the 1960s, Prais left academia and the field of economics for a full decade; he took up work in Birmingham in the industrial trade. He worked at his father's business as the finance director, and led the company to a successful flotation on the London Stock Exchange in 1964.

After leaving the family business, Prais decided to re-enter academia and the field of economics. He started back on with NIESR, and at first focused on researching an answer to why Great Britain's industrial performance had seemed to be lagging. He soon came to the conclusion that poor quality education and training were the root of the problem. His growing interests in the study and comparisons of different countries' educational systems and methods came to be internationally renowned. In 1987, Prais' innovative and expert analysis of international educational systems led to his appointment to the Kenneth Baker's mathematics working group. While on the group, Prais campaigned hard to raise the standards of education in Great Britain. In 1985, Prais was elected a fellow to the British Academy.

On 22 February 2014, Prais died from colon cancer.

Education
Prais was educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham, the University of Birmingham (MCom) and Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge (PhD 1953, ScD 1974).

Career
 Lecturer, Department of Applied Economics, University of Cambridge, 1950–57
 Post-doctoral Fellow, University of Chicago, 1953–54
 Research officer, NIESR, 1953–59
 United Nations Technical Assistance Organisation, 1959–60
 International Monetary Fund, 1960–61
 Finance Director, Elbief Co., 1961–70
 Visiting Professor of Economics, City University, 1975–84

Positions and honours
 Member of Council, Royal Economic Society, 1979–83
 Member of Council, City University, 1990–94
 Fellow of the British Academy, 1985
 Hon. DLitt City University, 1989
 Hon. DSc University of Birmingham, 2006

Publications
 Analysis of Family Budgets, 1955, 2nd edn 1971
 Evolution of Giant Firms in Britain, 1976, 2nd edn 1981
 Productivity and Industrial Structure, 1981
 Productivity, Education and Training, 1995
 From School to Productive Work in Britain and Switzerland, 1997
 Social Disparities and the Teaching of Literacy, 2001

References

 Debrett's People of Today
 Who's Who 2007

1928 births
Alumni of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
2014 deaths
Fellows of the British Academy
British economists
Jewish scientists
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Academics of the University of Cambridge

Sigbert Prais


The Central Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe ( or BCSTP) is the central bank of São Tomé and Príncipe, a Portuguese-speaking island nation off the western equatorial coast of Central Africa.

History

At independence in 1975, the government converted the local branch of the Portuguese colonial bank, Banco Nacional Ultramarino, into the National Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe, which took on the functions of central bank, development bank, and commercial bank. The government created a monobank by bringing the only other commercial bank in the country, the Banco Popular de Angola (formerly Banco Comercial de Angola and now Banco de Poupança e Crédito), under the control of Banco Nacional and by merging its savings bank, the Caixa de Crédito.

In 1992, a reform law resulted in the National Bank giving up its development and commercial banking functions, focusing on central banking. With that reform, the bank took on its present name.  The successor bank for the commercial banking functions was Banco Internacional de São Tomé e Príncipe (BISTP).

Governors
Governors of the National Bank since independence
Victor Manuel Lopes Correia, 1976-1981
Hildeberto Mário do Nascimento Séca, 1981-1983
Prudêncio Rita de Oliveira Rita, 1983-1988
Manuel de Nazaré Mendes, 1988-1992

Since the reform, passed on 24 August 1992, the bank had eight central governors:
Adelino Castelo David, 1992–1994
Carlos Quaresma Batista de Sousa, 1995–1999
Maria do Carmo Silveira, 1999–2006
Arlindo Afonso Carvalho, 2006–2008
Luís Fernando Moreira de Sousa, 2009–2011
Maria do Carmo Silveira, 2011–2016
Hélio Silva Vaz de Almeida, 2016–2019
Américo Barros, 2019–2022
Américo Ramos, 2022–

See also
 Ministry of Finance and Planning (São Tomé and Príncipe)
 Economy of São Tomé and Príncipe
 List of central banks of Africa
 List of central banks

References

External links
Official website (Portuguese)

Banks of São Tomé and Príncipe
São Tomé and Príncipe
São Tomé
1975 establishments in São Tomé and Príncipe
Banks established in 1975

Central Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe


John Howard Keltner (1928 – July 29, 1998) was an American comics publisher, artist, writer, and indexer. He was a founding member of the Academy of Comic Book Arts and Sciences, co-editor and co-publisher of Star-Studded Comics, created the character Doctor Weird, and provided art to fan publications such as CAPA-alpha and The Rocket's Blast. His Golden Age Comic Books Index, begun in 1953, influenced other later indexes, such as the Overstreet Comic Book Price Guide.

References

External links

1928 births
1998 deaths
American comics artists
American comics creators
American comics writers
Silver Age comics creators

Howard Keltner