Norfolk County in the Canadian province of Ontario consists of a long list of communities. Its four designated population centres are Simcoe, Port Dover, Delhi, and Waterford.
 The population of the County at the time of the 2016 Census was 64,044. Of that number, 13,922 live in the community of Simcoe.

In the late 1900s, the county was merged with Haldimand County but the merged entity was dissolved in 2000 and this area became The Town of the County of Norfolk.

Communities

A

Andy's Corners
Andy's Corners () is a small community that is between Wyecombe and Carholme in Norfolk County.

Atherton
Atherton () is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is in between Gilbertville and Simcoe. The population of Atherton is less than 100 people and there are no sidewalks in the hamlet. The tiny community can be found by exploring on Highway 3 as well as Lynedoch Road which is the other major road that goes into Atherton.

B

Bill's Corners
Bill's Corners () is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is between Green's Corners and Hillcrest. Further to the east is the town of Simcoe, which is the closest town to Bill's Corners.

One famous previous resident was Dwayne Roloson, who played for six different teams before retiring from the National Hockey League. Roloson currently serves as a goaltending consultant within the Anaheim Ducks organization for the Norfolk Admirals (Norfolk, Virginia).

Blayney

Blayney is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is in between Pine Grove and Green's Corners. Established prior to 1920, it is considered to be one of Norfolk County's lost hamlets. It once hosted its own post office and general store before they were burnt down sometime after 1920.

Rick Danko, a musician and founding member of The Band, has a historical plaque dedicated to him near his childhood home. He performed on a 4-string tenor banjo shortly after entering grade 1. As a child, Danko was hyperactive, but was diagnosed in an era before Ritalin became mainstream.

Bloomsburg
Bloomsburg () is a hamlet in Norfolk County which can be found on the old Ontario provincial Highway 24 that turns off from the "new" Ontario Provincial Highway 24 just 1.5 miles (CONVERT) north of Simcoe. Bloomsburg is the home of Bloomsburg Public School which is for primary, junior, and senior students (kindergarten through eighth grade). There is no commerce in this hamlet and the only industry is agriculture.

Booth's Harbour
Booth's Harbour is a community in Norfolk County. There is a historic harbor present which is named after a man named Booth who was one of the earliest settlers in the area. The village was founded in the 19th century. Booth's Harbour is located near Lake Erie, just across the bay from Long Point. Fishing and boating are productive summer pastimes here along with swimming and exploring the harbour.

Boston

Boston is an unincorporated area () in Norfolk County. Agriculture is the main industry and commerce is limited. It is located northeast of the town of Simcoe. There is also a kindergarten-to-grade 8 school, Boston Public School, in the town.

C

Clear Creek
Clear Creek () is a hamlet in southwestern Norfolk County. Although people live there and own real estate, the hamlet is legally described as agriculture land, not residential land to reduce property taxes.

Approximately 70 people live in this town amongst the 140 houses. About 9 of the houses have been abandoned due to safety issues from the wind turbines. People have lived in this community as far back as 1901 with some Canadian soldiers from the First World War having been raised in this community.

There are no sidewalks for safer pedestrian walking and wind turbines are seen very frequently within the vicinity of Clear Creek; being installed in November 2008.

Norfolk County has banned the placement of new wind turbines after becoming a "willing host" for them back in 2003. One of the council members were worried about Norfolk County becoming "industrialized" and "unnatural." Many leaders in Norfolk County envision the county as being an agricultural hub for Southern Ontario even by the middle of the 22nd century. The nearest high school is Valley Heights Secondary School which is to the northeast. Students from here grab the same high school bus as the students from Houghton.

Courtland

Courtland () is a village located in Norfolk County on Highway 3 between Delhi and Tillsonburg. This community was once known as Middleton; named after the more well-known community of Middleton in Nova Scotia. The first settler was Lot Tisdale who arrived in 1823. 917 people live here as of 2009. A 30-hectare certified organic herb farm owned by Garry Proven operates in the area.

Sidewalks only exist on the main streets. Otherwise, the walk through Courtland is simple provided that pedestrians pay extra caution to the traffic on the street. Flat terrain exists throughout the entire village; and the village spans approximately 5 kilometres. Recommended activities are hiking, running, and walking. The usage of ATVs, motorcycles, and bicycles are not recommended due to safety concerns. Unlike most communities in Norfolk County, Courtland is entirely accessible for wheelchair users.

The full extent of the service industry in Courtland includes a variety store, an antique store, a "bread and pastries" type of bakery which has been operating in the community since 1939, a family restaurant and a flower shop. Courtland Vinyl Windows and Gopher Dunes are a couple of well-known businesses in the area. A golf course was once located here; it closed on October 16, 2003, due to factors caused by the early 2000s recession. Official tax policy changes made after the 2003 Ontario provincial election worsened the local poverty rate and made people less likely to enjoy golf as a recreational sport.

D

Delhi

Delhi (pronounced DEL-High) is located off of the junction of Hwy 59 and 3 and is known as the Heart of Tobacco Country.

The settlement was founded by Frederick Sovereign (or Sovereign) who built a cabin here in about 1812. At the time, the area was heavily treed and would become important in the lumber industry. The village was named Sovereign's Corners (or Sovereign's Corners) and later Fredericksburg until the post office opened as Delhi in 1856. Sovereign was a tavern keeper for over 30 years. He also manufactured plug tobacco, growing his own leaves, curing them, and pressing them. He donated the land for the Baptist church and served as deacon for "many, many years".

The population in 1869 was 300 and the village had some manufacturing as well as a lumber mill thanks to the abundant water power. The post office was receiving mail daily. The railway arrived in the 1870s a definite benefit to locals who opened business such as the Delhi Canning Company, established in 1878; the company shipped canned local produce across Canada.

Until 2001, Delhi was located within the Township of Delhi, a municipal government within the Regional Municipality of Haldimand-Norfolk. Prior to the amalgamation of Norfolk County, the population of the former Township of Delhi was 16,365 in the Canada 2001 Census Part of the agricultural heritage of Delhi included tobacco cultivation. The town has a tobacco museum to commemorate this part of its history. Local farms rely in part upon Jamaican and Mexican workers, who usually arrive around mid-to-late April and return to their homelands around early-to-mid November.

North Creek was once the most important spawning point for the local fish species until it was dammed in 1965.

As of 2016, the majority of Delhi's residents speak English as a first language and were born in Canada. Females outnumber males, and working-age people outnumber children and elderly people. Delhi will experience a surge in old age pensioners by the year 2026. Seventy people were born in the United States of America, while 250 were born in Europe. Ten residents were born in Africa, while 20 residents were born in Asia. Delhi's population is expected to grow to approximately 5,215 residents by 2056, although future wars and pandemics may affect this population growth. People are less likely to have children or emigrate to Canada if there are any major political/medical events happening in the world.

Dog's Nest
Dog's Nest is a community northeast of Port Dover along Highway 6. It has had its sign stolen 3 times and the municipality at the time decided not to put the sign back up. There is now a committee not for profit "DogsNest 1851" formed April 2019 to bring back the sign. They sell t-shirts, hats and merch to raise funds. 100% volunteer driven and 100% proceeds go towards the sign and surrounding area needs.

F

Fishers Glen
Fishers Glen is a fishing community that is south of Simcoe and southwest of Port Ryerse. It is considered to be a part of Norfolk County. Fishers Glen is famous among locals for being one of the best fishing spots in Lake Erie during the summer months.

Frogmore
Frogmore () is a hamlet that is situated on the junction of Norfolk County Roads 45 and 28. It is located northwest of Valley Heights Secondary School. Agriculture is the predominant industry while commercial business ventures are non-existent. It is one of the westernmost communities in Norfolk County.

This community has a sizeable population of German Mennonites and Mexican Mennonites. Only six wind turbines, carrying approximately 9 MW of electricity have been placed in the vicinity. No more can be built in this area due to a county-wide ban on wind turbines passed in 2013. Even without the threat of wind turbines, this community is completely shielded from urban development threats due to its isolation from major communities like Simcoe, Delhi, and Tillsonburg.

G

Gilbertville
Gilbertville () is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is located between Pine Grove and Delhi. The local economy is founded on agriculture, which produces potatoes, onions, and asparagus, among other vegetables. Commerce in Gilbertville includes a tractor shop and an auto repair shop. There is a conservation park to the west of the hamlet. For administrative purposes and municipal elections, Gilbertville is considered to be the southernmost community in the third ward of Norfolk County.

Glenshee
Glenshee () is a hamlet that is located west of Pinegrove in Norfolk County. The hamlet is mostly agricultural and residential. In addition to farms, there is also a machine shop that serves the local residents. The population is under 20 people and the nearest commerce is in Tillsonburg and Delhi.

Green's Corners
Green's Corners is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is located west of Simcoe, north of Walsh, southeast of Delhi, and east of Pine Grove. The population of Green's Corners is less than 50 people. In addition to residential property, there is also agriculture and some commerce. There is a bakery, a bed and breakfast, an automobile garage, and a Christmas tree store. This hamlet was also the hometown of the late musician, Rick Danko of The Band, who enjoyed a remarkable career on and off the stage.

H

Halfway House Corners
Halfway House Corners is a hamlet in Norfolk County. It is considered to be south of Simcoe and northwest of Port Dover. The Halfway House was an inn that sat on the southwest corner of the intersection. The name was given because it was located exactly half the distance between Port Dover and Simcoe. Ontario Highway 24 is the main road and commerce in this community includes a bait shop and a recording studio.

Hillcrest

Hillcrest () is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is in between Bill's Corners and the town of Simcoe. There is also a soccer field; which received a $15,000 stimulus package from the Simcoe Lions Club on April 7, 2013. Adult amateur leagues typically do not use this field; with the exception of the Western Ontario Soccer League.

Houghton
Houghton is a former township in Norfolk County. Its township seat was Fairground, a small village today. It is located in the southwest of Norfolk, bordering on the former Norfolk townships of Middleton to the northeast, and North and South Walsingham to the east. Fairground is a small community in Norfolk County, Ontario, Canada where the Norfolk County Fair and Horse Show took place in the early 19th century.

Until that event was moved to Simcoe, this was the spot where fairgoers attended the attractions and farmers displayed their best produce. The community of Fairground borders on the municipality of Bayham in Elgin County to the west, and its southern border is the Lake Erie shoreline, with no natural harbours. Rising gas prices and pervasive poverty amongst residents prevent many young Houghton residents from going to the Norfolk County Fair near downtown Simcoe; creating a need for a more local fair that lasted since 1853.

J

Jacksonburg
Jacksonburg ()

L

Langton

Langton () is a small town located in Norfolk County; formerly known as Boughner's Corner.

The town can be accessed by travelling to the intersection just slightly to the west of Courtland and turning south on Ontario provincial Highway 59 if coming from Delhi, south if coming from Tillsonburg or if travelling eastbound on Ontario Provincial Highway 3, and straight ahead if travelling southbound using Ontario provincial Highway 59.

Langton once had two banks but the CIBC bank closed in May 2016 due to increased online banking activity and the changing Canadian economy; placing the future of offline banking in this community in definite jeopardy. Despite its small population, Langton was considered to be a banking hub for the tobacco farmers during the 20th century.

Sidewalks exist only on the main street, otherwise, walking in this town is very simple. The entire town spans 5 kilometers in length. Langton enjoys scenery that is very rural and flat. Streets can be busy sometimes; especially during the weekdays. Possible activities include hiking, walking, running, and cycling.

La Salette

La Salette is a hamlet that is north of Delhi in Norfolk County, Ontario, Canada. La Salette is southwest of Brantford in nearby Brant County and northwest of Simcoe. Agriculture is the main industry and commerce is extremely limited. Most of the houses in La Salette are over 100 years old and the population of La Salette is less than 100 people.

Long Point

Long Point is a sand spit and medium-sized hamlet on the north shore of Lake Erie, part of Norfolk County.

It is about  long and is about a kilometre across at its widest point. Lake Erie lies to the south of Long Point, and the waters to the north side comprise Long Point Bay. The bay is subdivided into the Inner Bay and Outer Bay by a line that runs between Turkey Point to the north and Pottahawk Point to the south. Some of the towns along the bay's north shore include Port Rowan, Turkey Point and Port Dover. Long Point is north and across the lake from Erie, Pennsylvania.

Sport hunting was important after the Long Point Company purchased the Point in 1866 to facilitate this pursuit. Long Point Provincial Park was created in May 1921; by 1929, it was connected to the mainland by a new causeway.

Lynedoch
Lynedoch () is a hamlet in Norfolk County which was named after Baron Lynedoch who served under Wellington during the Napoleonic Wars.

During the 19th century, this hamlet had a post office, a school, a tailor, blacksmith, taverns, hotels, and churches. A church has been restored in the area and is being used for outdoor weddings and private receptions.

Dennis' Horseradish is produced a short distance east of the settlement.

N

Nixon

Nixon is a hamlet in Norfolk County, Ontario, Canada that is almost exclusively residential. There is an airfield, some farms, and a single office building that is dedicated to an agriculture-related business in the hamlet where Nixon Public School used to be. Nixon is east of the town of Delhi, northwest of the town of Simcoe, and northeast of the hamlet of Pinegrove.

Plans are currently underway for a microbrewery to open in the community; beers and wines that emulate those found in Belgium and the Netherlands will be manufactured here. Producing very little noise or steam pollution, the microbrewery will bolster the economy of Norfolk County. Trappist beers will be brewed on site for the purpose of getting the higher-class members of Norfolk County to spend money more locally. The municipal government approved the rezoning of the surrounding land to "light industrial" for Norfolk County's third microbrewery to be possible according to the local by-laws. This community is the westernmost community to receive water from the Lynn River; which flows directly into Lake Erie.

Normandale
Normandale () is a quaint fishing town in southwestern Norfolk County that is famous for its perch and black bass. This settlement was part of Charlotteville where Fort Norfolk was built in 1813 with accommodation for 300 troops. A large iron foundry, the Normandale Furnace and Ironworks was built here in 1817 and was expanded in 1822; it made farm implements, the well-known Van Norman stoves as well as kettles, pots, and pans but closed down in 1847 or 1850.

P

Pinegrove

Prior to the late 1970s, much of Pine Grove was agricultural land owned by the Adcock family. After the family patriarch died circa 1978, the land was distributed amongst his sons and the first housing boom in Pine Grove occurred. Three-quarters of present-day Pine Grove were completed by the mid-1980s. In the 1980s, children needing special education attended Nixon Public School and North Public School. Both of these schools are defunct and are no longer operating as of 2007.

Port Dover

In 1670, French missionaries François Dollier de Casson and René Bréhant de Galinée became the first Europeans to winter at what is now Port Dover. Earthen remains and a plaque marks the spot near the fork of the Lynn River (Patterson's Creek to many of the older Port Doverites) and Black Creek where they and seven Frenchmen (the first Europeans known to have ascended the Great Lakes to Sault Ste. Marie) built a hut and chapel. Just outside the community, a cross with the arms of France had been erected on 23 March 1670, claiming the area for King Louis XIV over the Lake Erie region.

By 1794 the first settlers, a group of United Empire Loyalists, had established a hamlet known as Dover Mills (named for the English port of Dover) which was razed to the ground by the Americans in the War of 1812. During the war, in August 1812, Major General Isaac Brock gathered a force of about regulars and militia here. Using boats on the lake, they reached Amherstburg (also in Upper Canada) and then attacked and captured the American Hull's Army at Detroit.

Subsequent reconstruction took place closer to the mouth of the Lynn River, where a harbour had been in use since the early 19th century. In 1835, merchant Israel Wood Powell registered a village plan for Port Dover. By 1842, the village was growing and had a population of almost 400. The harbor, lighthouse, and bridge across the river had been completed as had the road to Hamilton; there was a grammar school, a grist mill, a sawmill and a Presbyterian church in the course of construction. In 1877, Port Dover was a large village with 1,100 residents, most living on the west bank of the River Lynn. The village was served by the Port Dover & Lake Huron Railway and a more substantial harbor had been completed. Records indicate that businesses include a foundry, many stores, a newspaper, wagon and carriage makers, and a busy school house. Port Dover became an incorporated village in 1879.

Port Rowan

Port Rowan () holds an annual Bayfest every Labour Day; this used to be known as "Tomato Fest" but was renamed a few years ago. Local sports include angling and boating in the Long Point Inner Bay. Bird Studies Canada is based at Port Rowan.

In 1845, Port Rowan was very small, with only 50 residents but had a store, tavern, post office and
a collector of customs who worked with the shipping trade. Lumber became important between 1845 and 1850 so the population increased to 100 by 1845 and to 200 by 1850.

By 1877, Port Rowan had about 1,000 residents, many living in beautiful homes overlooking the lake. It was a successful commercial and industrial centre for those who lived in the general area. Fishing had also started and would continue through the 1900s. The village had three churches, a public hall, a Masonic Hall and a Temperance Hall.

Located just outside of town off Lakeshore Rd. is the famous Backus Mill, where every year there is a re-enactment of the War of 1812. This site was the location of a grain mill built by John Backhouse in the 1790s and was powered by water. The mill's mechanism was upgraded later in the 1800 and then in the early 1900s.

Port Ryerse

Port Ryerse () is a fishing hamlet in Norfolk County just slightly southwest of Port Dover where people from Southwestern Ontario rent cottages and fish for pleasure during the summer months (Victoria Day through mid-October). The hamlet was founded by Lieut-Colonel Samuel Ryerse, brother of Colonel Joseph Ryerson and uncle of Egerton Ryerson. Its harbor was important for shipping cargo from Norfolk County across the lake.

Samuel Ryerse was a United Empire Loyalist who fought with the British during the American Revolution and came to Upper Canada in 1794 where he received 3000 acres of land. He built a grist mill at the mouth of Young's Creek and a settlement grew up around it. Ryerse remained involved with the military as Lieutenant of the County of Norfolk and was also the chairman of the Court of Quarter Sessions.

The mill was burned by American troops in 1814 during the War of 1812. In later years, two new gristmills were built at the same location but both burned down (in 1860 and in 1890). A brick schoolhouse was built in 1871.

R

Rattlesnake Harbour
Rattlesnake Harbour () is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is located north of Nixon. Despite the name, there is no harbour in Rattlesnake Harbour and agriculture is the main industry – not fishing. Rattlesnakes can be found among the wilderness, giving the name the same appeal to locals as Frogmore to the distant southwest.

Renton
Renton () is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is between Simcoe and Jarvis in Haldimand County. There was a truckers' diner (which burnt down in the spring of 2010) and there is also a golf course in the vicinity. Agriculture is the main industry and the population has remained stagnant over the past 20 years.

Rhineland
Rhineland is a hamlet in Norfolk County that has agriculture as the main industry. Commerce is absent and the hamlet has a church and rural housing. While tobacco is the crop of choice, lavender is being experimented as a possible replacement crop for the region. The program began as a government pilot program in 2003 and is providing a chance for a "one-industry area" to diversify into other industries to acclimatize itself into a changing global economy.

Rockford
Rockford () is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is located between Waterford and Hagersville. It used to have a church, general store and a baseball team. Now it is made up of farms and a few houses.

S

Silver Hill
Silver Hill is a hamlet that is southwest of Pine Grove and southeast of Tillsonburg. The main industry is agriculture. There is also an automobile repair shop and a residential district of houses and farms. The population of Silver Hill, Ontario is less than 100. To the south is Turkey Point and Lake Erie which leads to Pennsylvania in the United States of America. Students here go to Walsh Public School for grades kindergarten to eighth grade and Valley Heights Secondary School for their high school education.

Simcoe

Simcoe is the administrative centre of Norfolk County, with a population of 16,000 making it Norfolk's largest community. Simcoe is located at the junction of Highway 3, at Highway 24, due south of Brantford, Ontario, and accessible to Hamilton by nearby Highway 6. The town is northwest of Nanticoke in Haldimand County.

Simcoe was founded in 1795 by lieutenant governor John Graves Simcoe. Initially, the settlement consisted of two distinct areas, Birdtown, named by William Bird who arrived in the early 1800s and the Queensway which grew up around Aron Culver's sawmill and grist mill in the 1820s. The post office opened in 1829 and was called Simcoe. In 1837, the village became the seat of government of the then Talbot District.

Records from 1846 indicate that the settlement was far from any major roads and had little communication with areas outside of Brantford. A stone courthouse and jail had already been built. There were three churches, Methodist, Baptist, and Congregationalist and a weekly newspaper for the population of about 1,400. The post office was receiving mail daily. Already operating were two grist-mills, two sawmills, a brewery, two distilleries, a foundry, a fulling mill, nine stores, six taverns, two druggists, a bank (Gore) and many tradesmen.

The population in 1850 was about 1600; in that year, Simcoe became the County seat of Norfolk County. Simcoe was incorporated as a town in 1878 and had its own town council and mayor until December 31, 2000. In 2001, the town and all other municipalities within the Regional Municipality of Haldimand-Norfolk were dissolved and the region was divided into two single tier municipalities with city-status but called counties. Simcoe now forms Ward 5 of Norfolk County.

The town hosts the Lynn River Music and Arts Festival, the Norfolk County Fair and Horse Show, and a Christmas Panorama of Lights. As of 2019, Crystal Lake (along with Wellington Park that surrounds it) was the most ideal place for bird watching in Simcoe. At least 83 bird species had been discovered there between 1971 and 2019; including the Osprey, the Belted Kingfisher, and the Common Nighthawk.

St. Williams

St. Williams () is a small hamlet and fishing community in Norfolk County. The lakeside community is located 30 minutes south of Pinegrove. St. Williams is about 30 minutes from both Simcoe and Tillsonburg. It is a village with a population of approximately 400 people.

T

Teeterville

Teeterville () is a hamlet southwest of Vanessa. The main attraction of this town is the Teeterville Pioneer Museum. Agriculture is the main industry and commerce is very limited. There is also a public elementary school in the hamlet.

Turkey Point
Turkey Point () is a village in the former township of Charlotteville in what is now Norfolk County, Ontario. It is located on Long Point Bay south of Highway 24 on Regional Road 10, southwest of Simcoe. The village is also home to MacDonald Turkey Point Marina.

This community is referenced in the Three Dead Trolls in a Baggie song which was titled "The Toronto Song" as being terrible along with Sarnia.

John Graves Simcoe visited this area in 1795 and suggested that a settlement be laid out. Settlement began soon after that, and by 1800, law courts were being held here.

V

Vittoria

Vittoria () is a small village east of Walsh and southwest of Simcoe in Norfolk County. Noted today for being one of the most historic communities in Norfolk County it has a fire station, a community hall, a town hall, and three active churches. Built during the early to mid-1800s, the community was a vital hub, serving as the capital of the London District of Upper Canada from 1815 to 1825. The Courts of the London district were located here before moving to Simcoe.

The Catherwood and the Kiln is a moderately expensive pizza restaurant that is popular among locals. Other items on the menu include subs, panzerottis, chicken caesar salads, mozzarella sticks. The toppings are typically of excellent quality and people attend this establishment year round.

Vittoria Baptist Cemetery is located on Charlotteville Road; having the distinction of being a United Empire Loyalists burial ground and containing the remains of at least 532 people. This cemetery has existed since 1804. This settlement was the birthplace of Egerton Ryerson (in 1803) a Methodist minister. Between 1844 and 1876, he was the chief superintendent of education for Upper Canada and was responsible for developing Upper Canada's education system.

W

Walsh

Walsh, formerly known as "Charlotteville Centre", is a medium-sized hamlet in Norfolk County that is home to Walsh Public School in the Grand Erie District School Board and St. Michael's Catholic Elementary School.

Since Walsh Public School is a rural school, farming is considered to be the primary source of income for most of the local families. Either one parent or both parents is usually employed in a workplace that is dependent on the local agriculture industry. While the grade 3 students are good readers at Walsh Public School, the grade 6 students perform equally well at reading and writing. Both the grade 3 and grade 6 students show a universal weakness in mathematics. Female students have a slight advantage over the male students when to comes to reading and math.

An annual fair held in the hamlet called the Donnybrook Fair attracts kids and adults from the area in the middle of September.

It has been held since 1857, with the fair growing in size and quality every year. Children who attend school within the immediate vicinity are allowed to enter any artwork that they produced themselves in addition to their own crafts and agriculture-related artifacts. They are typically between the ages of 5 and 13. Homeschooled children may also enter the contests. In the 2011 edition of the Donnybrook Fair, these local students have managed to win $1346 in tax-free cash. This monetary award encourages children to save up for higher education opportunities. The short-term effects of the award system encourages children to work on their innovative spirit and improve their work ethics. Although the winner of the Donnybrook Fair demolition derby is no longer assured a spot in the Norfolk County Fair version of the event, the prize money keeps increasing and the event is done over a traditional dirt track. Fundraising for the Donnybrook Fair involves a Victoria Day brunch, an annual spring barbecue, and numerous raffles.

Walsingham
Walsingham is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is located south of Valley Heights Secondary School. Very close to this settlement, the land was purchased from the Mississauga First Nation and some families settled there by 1791. Others, including Loyalists who had fought in the American Revolution, arrived later at the so-called Long Point Settlement. The area was heavily treed and was important in the lumber industry until it closed in about 1878.

The farms and mills that had been built here were extensively damaged in 1814, during the War of 1812. Everything was rebuilt and the community was doing well by 1825.

Waterford

Waterford sits on the old Canada Southern Railroad, preceding various other rail company takeovers, the latest of which was by CN/CP. The now idle line passes through Ontario between Buffalo, New York and Detroit, Michigan. An electric railroad once operated in Waterford; the official fare from Galt to Waterford was a mere $1.05 ($ in today's money) while taking it to nearby Simcoe cost $1.25 plus taxes ($ in today's money).

Established in 1794, this community was first established as a saw and grist mill community. by Paul Averill in 1800. It was called Sayles' Mills, Sovereign's Mills, Lodersville; the name was changed to Waterford when a post-office opened around 1826. Waterford became the northernmost marketplace in Norfolk County; complementing Simcoe as its center marketplace. The village would become incorporated in 1878 when its population reached 1100 people.

In the early 1800s, this area was important in the lumber industry and also had many successful farms. The first settler was Job Slaght who also built the first grist mill. James L. Green who owned much of the village built a foundry that manufactured farm implements. Job Loder built the Finch mill and the old Gustin mill east of Vittoria as well as a sawmill. By 1851, Waterford contained the township hall and many industries, including a large agricultural implements factory built by James Green. The railway arrived in 1871 and helped increase growth, to 1,100 people by the time the village was incorporated in 1871.

Wilsonville
Wilsonville () is a hamlet in Norfolk County that is north of Waterford. It is considered to be the northernmost community in the Ontario tobacco belt. The main industry is agriculture and the housing also serves as a bedroom community to the town of Waterford to the south. Children from this community either attend Boston Public School for primary grades, followed by Waterford District High School or St. Bernard's of Clairvaux School for primary grades, followed by Holy Trinity Catholic High School in Simcoe.

Wyecombe
Wyecombe () is a small hamlet located on the intersection of East Quarter Line Road and County Road 21. Wyecombe is home to a quiet subdivision of approximately 25 houses and a local auto repair shop. The nearest elementary school is Langton Public School or Sacred Heart and the nearest high school is Valley Heights Secondary School.

References

Communities in Norfolk County, Ontario


The Dodge Caliber was a compact hatchback sold from 2006-2012 by Chrysler. It was often categorized as a station wagon or a crossover (due to its limited AWD). The Caliber replaced the Neon. It was built on the Chrysler PM/MK platform which was also used on the Compass, Patriot, and Mitsubishi models as well. It was later replaced by the Dart (a badge engineered Alfa Romeo model). The Caliber was replaced by the Dodge Dart in 2012.

Dodge automobiles

Dodge Caliber


San Marco is a religious complex in Florence, Italy. It comprises a church and a convent. The convent, which is now the Museo Nazionale di San Marco, has three claims to fame. During the 15th century it was home to two famous Dominicans, the painter Fra Angelico and the preacher Girolamo Savonarola. Furthermore, the church houses the tomb of Pico Della Mirandola, a Renaissance philosopher and the so called "Father of Humanism."

History

Sylvestrines

The present convent occupies the site where a Vallombrosian monastery existed in the 13th century, which later passed to the Sylvestrine monks. The church was used both for monastic liturgical functions and as a parish church.

From this initial period there have recently been rediscovered some traces of frescoes below floor level. In 1418 the Sylvestrines, accused of laxity in their observance of the Rule, were pressured to leave, but it took a direct intervention of Pope Eugene IV and the Council of Basel before finally in 1437 the San Marco buildings were vacated, the displaced Sylvestrines moved to the smaller monastery of San Giorgio alla Costa.

Dominicans
A decisive element in securing the move was the intervention of Cosimo de' Medici the Elder, who since 1420 had already shown his support for the reformed Franciscan convent of Bosco ai Frati. From his return from exile in 1434, he had made clear his desire to see an observant community of Dominicans established in Florence. This was achieved when a group arrived from the Convent of San Domenico, Fiesole, not far from the city. On their arrival, the new residents found the San Marco buildings in poor condition, so much so that for two years or so they were obliged to live in damp cells or wooden huts. For funds to renovate the entire complex, they appealed to Cosimo. According to Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, Cosimo in fact invested in the new convent a notable amount of finance, amounting to some 40,000 florins.

Medici reconstruction

In 1437 Cosimo commissioned Michelozzo, the Medici family's favourite architect, to rebuild the San Marco convent on Renaissance lines. He worked on San Marco from 1439 to 1444. By 1438 the work was well underway and the final dedication took place on Epiphany night 1443 in the presence of Pope Eugene IV and the Archbishop of Capua, cardinal Niccolò d'Acciapaccio. San Marco became one of the main elements in the new configuration of the area to the North of the centre of Florence (the so-called "Medici quarter"), along with the Medici family palazzo and the basilica of San Lorenzo. These years marked the height of the Medici family's artistic patronage, above all in connection with the transfer to Florence of the Ecumenical Council from Ferrara to Florence in 1439. Michelozzo succeeded in developing an architectural model for the renaissance library. It included a long narrow hall, divided into three parts by two rows of plain columns.

Church
The church has a single nave with side chapels designed in the late 16th century by Giambologna, and housing paintings from the 16th–17th centuries. In the late 17th century the tribune and the carved ceiling were also realized. A further renovation was carried on in 1678 by Pier Francesco Silvani. The façade, in Neo-Classical style, was built in 1777–1778.

Among the artworks, the most ancient is a 14th-century crucifix in the counter-façade. The crucifix on the high altar (1425–1428) is by Fra Angelico. Over the first altar to the right is St. Thomas Praying by Santi di Tito from 1593, while over the second altar is a Madonna with Saints by Fra Bartolomeo.

Giambologna completed the Cappella di Sant'Antonino (also known as Salviati Chapel) in May 1589. The Salviati family had been linked by marriage to the Medici (Pope Leo XI was the son of Francesca Salviati, the daughter of Giacomo Salviati and Lucrezia de' Medici).
The interior was decorated in fresco with a Translation and Funeral of St. Antonino Perozzi by Domenico Passignano. The dome of the chapel is by Bernardino Poccetti, also author of frescoes in the Sacrament Chapel. The latter also has canvases by Santi di Tito, Crespi, Francesco Morandini, Jacopo da Empoli, and Francesco Curradi.

Convent

The work was planned according to arrangements that took account of simplicity and practicality, but were of great elegance: a sober, though comfortable, Renaissance edifice. The internal walls were covered in whitewashed plaster, layout centred on two cloisters (named after Saint Antoninus and Saint Dominic), with the usual conventual features of a chapter house, two refectories and guest quarters on the ground level. On the upper floor were the friars' cells, small walled enclosures overarched by a single trussed roof. The cloisters, chapter house and dorters (or dormitories), in the form described, must have been finished by 1440–1441. The South dormitory, which overlooks Piazza San Marco, was completed in 1442. Work on the rest of the convent went on until 1452.

Cosimo de' Medici had a cell in the convent, adjacent to those of the friars, for his personal retreat. These cells of the friars' dorter or dormitory, including that of Cosimo, and many other walls were decorated by Fra Angelico in collaboration with others, including Benozzo Gozzoli.

An outstanding feature of the convent is the library on the first floor.

Savonarola era

In addition to Fra Angelico, Antonino Pierozzi and Fra Bartolomeo, San Marco was the home from 1489 onwards of the friar Girolamo Savonarola, who represents a major event in the history of the house, and a drama on a European scale.

Having become prior of the convent, Savonarolo unleashed a fierce campaign against the Florentines' morals and their ostentation of luxury. He was to fall foul of the court of Pope Alexander VI Borgia and ended his life burnt at the stake in front of the Palazzo della Signoria in 1498.

Recent times

The convent was confiscated from the Dominicans in 1808, during the Napoleonic Wars, and again in 1866, when it was seized by the new Kingdom of Italy, whose temporary capital was Florence.

Until recently San Marco still housed a community of Dominican friars, who occupied the Western part of the complex adjacent to the larger cloister. In 2014 the few friars remaining were transferred to join the community at Santa Maria Novella in the city.

The convent is now constituted as the Museo Nazionale di San Marco. The entrance to the museum is from the so-called Cloister of St. Antoninus, decorated with frescoes by Bernardino Poccetti in the 16th–17th century.

References

External links

San Marco, Florence


Matayoshi Kobudo is a general term referring to the style of Okinawan Kobudo that was developed by Matayoshi Shinpo (又吉眞豊) and Matayoshi Shinko (又吉眞光) during the twentieth century. Martial arts have been practiced by the Matayoshi family for over nine generations and draw influence from Japanese, Chinese and indigenous Okinawan martial arts styles.

History
In the early 20th century Matayoshi Shinko 又吉眞光 was asked to demonstrate Kobudo to the Japanese emperor. He did this twice alongside the likes of Chojun Miyagi and Gichin Funakoshi, who demonstrated karate.

Following the death of Matayoshi Shinko in 1947, his son Shinpo, continued his father's legacy by teaching kobudo. Matayoshi Shinpo started a dojo in the 1970s in memory of his father and called it the Kodokan 光道館. From the Kodokan he taught a wide variety of traditional weapons associated with Okinawan peasants. In 1972, Matayoshi Sensei created the Zen Okinawan Kobudo Renmei as an organisation dedicated to the teaching and studying of Okinawa Kobudo. Following the death of Shinpo Matayoshi in 1997, Matayoshi Kobudo practitioners now find themselves split into different organisations.

Thanks to the extensive teaching of Matayoshi Shinpo and his students, Matayoshi Kobudo has great influence and respect around the world and an estimated 2000 dojos can now be found worldwide.

Weapons and kata
 Bō (6 ft Staff) - Shushi no kun, Choun no kun, Sakugawa no kun, Tsuken (Chikin) no kun, Shishi no kun,
 Sai (Small Trident) - Matayoshi No Sai Dai Ichi (Nicho Sai), Matayoshi No Sai Dai Ni (Sancho Sai), Shinbaru no sai
 Tunkuwa (sometimes called Tonfa) (Wooden Side handled Batton) - Matayoshi No Tunkuwa Dai Ichi, Matayoshi No Tunkuwa Dai Ni
 Nunchaku (Threshing short staff) - Nunchaku No Kata
 Sansetsukon (Three Sectional Staff) - Sansetsukun No Kata Ichi and Ni
 Eku (Boat Oar) - Chikin Akachu No Eku Di
 Nunti-Bo (Spear) - NuntiBo No Kata
 Tinbei+Seiryuto (Shield+short sword) - Timbei No Kata
 Kama (Short sickles) - Kama Nu Ti
 Suruchin (Weighted rope / Chain) - Suruchin No Kata
 Kuwa (Hoe) -  Kuwa Nu Ti
 Jo (Stick) -  Jojutsu no kata
 Tekko (brass knuckles) -  Tekko no kata
 Tecchyu (iron cylinder) -  Tecchyu no kata
 KurumanBo (asymmetrical jointed stick) -  KurumanBo no kata

Matayoshi Soke lineage
The Matayoshi Family Home is above the Kodokan dojo in Naha Okinawa. Matayoshi Yasushi (the only son of Shinpo) is the spiritual head of the Kodokan as appointed by his father but he has never practiced Matayoshi Kobudo. At the time of his death, Matayoshi Sensei's next in line for technical competence was Yoshiaki Gakiya.

Family lineage:

 19th century
 Shingin Matayoshi
 Shintoku Matayoshi
 Shinchin Matayoshi
 Shinko Matayoshi (1888-1947)

 20th century
 Shinko Matayoshi (1888-1947)
 Shinpo Matayoshi (1921-1997)
 Yasushi Matayoshi (present day)

 21st century
 Yasushi Matayoshi (present day)

Tha Matayoshi Kobudo Headquarters is in Naha, Okinawa.

Matayoshi Lineage Associations
Dojos operating under the All Okinawa Kobudo Federation (zen okinawa kobudo renmei, founded by Matayoshi Shinpo) :
 Ryuseikan, of Kinjo Kenichi
 Kanegusuku Shubukan, Gaja Takehiro
 Gibo Dojo, Gibo Seiki
 Azuma Shunji
 Miyagi Koki
 Taira Yoshio
 Takushi Seiki

Official branches of the kodokan honbu dojo:
 Osaka Sakai Shureikan, Murayama Seitetsu
 Kodokan Nagoya Shibu, Ishido Hidehiko
 Hayasaka Yoshifumi (Tokyo area)
 Kamura Koshin (Naha)

Former students of Master Matayoshi, who have split voluntarily or were expelled after 1997 :
 Seisho Itokazu: Matayoshi Kobudo Shinbukai
 Yoshiyaki Gakiya, now Neil Stolsmark: Okinawa Kobudo Doushi Rensei-kai (co-founder was Josei Yogi)
 Josei Yogi: Okinawa Kobudo Renseikai
 Ryukyu Kobudo shureikan: Shusei Maeshiro (in association with Tsuneo Shimabukuro)
 Mikio Nishiuchi: International Okinawa Kobudo Association USA
 Nippon Budo Club, Seisuke Adaniya
 Komesu Yamashiro dojo, Kenichi Yamashiro (originally Kodokan Komesu shibu)
 Kobudo Shurei no kuni, Hidetada Ishiki (in association with Kenichi Yamashiro)

Former students of Master Matayoshi, who have split voluntarily or were expelled before 1997 :
 Tetsuhiro Hokama: Kenshikai Karatedo Kobudo Association
 Takashi Kinjo: Okinawa Budo Kokusai Renmei and the Okinawa Kobukai
 Kenyu Chinen: World Oshu-Kai Dento Okinawa Shorin-Ryu Karate Do Kobudo Federation
 Zenei Oshiro: Academie Internationale de kobudo d'Okinawa

Gray-zone of the foreigners :
 Arthur Moulas, Matayoshi Kobudo Australia
 Andrea Guarelli: International Matayoshi kobudo Association
 Franco Sanguinetti: Matayoshi Kobudo Kodokan International
 Kimo Wall (1943-2018): Okinawa Kodokan
 Guy Juille
 Patrick Rault
 Frédéric Guérin : Uchina-di club

References
 Kenyu Chinen, Kobudo d'Okinawa
 Andrea Guarelli, Okinawan Kobudo: The History, Tools, and Techniques of the Ancient Martial Art
 Zenei Oshiro, Kobudo d'Okinawa: Bo et Tonfa

External links
 International Matayoshi Kobudo Association
 Okinawa Kobudo Doushi Rensei-kai
 Matayoshi Kobudo Kodokan International
 Okinawa Kobudo Renseikai

Okinawan kobudo

Matayoshi Kobudo


An individual is that which exists as a distinct entity. Individuality (or self-hood) is the state or quality of living as an individual; particularly (in the case of humans) of as a person unique from other people and possessing one's own needs or goals, rights and responsibilities. The concept of an individual features in diverse fields, including biology, law, and philosophy. Every individual contributes significantly to the growth of a civilization. Society is a multifaceted concept that is shaped and influenced by a wide range of elements, including human behaviors, attitudes, and ideas. The culture, morals, and beliefs of others as well as the general direction and trajectory of the society can all be influenced and shaped by an individual's activities.

Etymology
From the 15th century and earlier (and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics) individual meant "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person". From the 17th century on, individual has indicated separateness, as in individualism.

Biology
In biology, the question of the individual is related to the definition of an organism, which is an important question in biology and philosophy of biology, despite there having been little work devoted explicitly to this question. An individual organism is not the only kind of individual that is considered as a "unit of selection". Genes, genomes, or groups may function as individual units.

Asexual reproduction occurs in some colonial organisms so that the individuals are genetically identical. Such a colony is called a genet, and an individual in such a population is referred to as a ramet. The colony, rather than the individual, functions as a unit of selection. In other colonial organisms the individuals may be closely related to one another but differ as a result of sexual reproduction.

One of the most accepted hypotheses is the definition of an organism that emerged from Piast's lather of lifeness. According to this idea, life can be described as a phenomenon (Continuum of self-maintainable information) and its individual organism can be described as a distinct element of this continuum. The ability to define entity boundaries is a key trait of distinctness, which can be achieved either through physical means, such as maintaining an open system through a cell, or through informational means, such as maintaining transmission to another host as seen in parasitic entities like viruses.

Law
Although individuality and individualism are commonly considered to mature with age/time and experience/wealth, a sane adult human being is usually considered by the state as an "individual person" in law, even if the person denies individual culpability ("I followed instructions").

An individual person is accountable for their actions/decisions/instructions, subject to prosecution in both national and international law, from the time that they have reached age of majority, often though not always more or less coinciding with the granting of voting rights, responsibility for paying tax, military duties, and the individual right to bear arms (protected only under certain constitutions).

Philosophy

Buddhism
In Buddhism, the concept of the individual lies in anatman, or "no-self." According to anatman, the individual is really a series of interconnected processes that, working together, give the appearance of being a single, separated whole. In this way, anatman, together with anicca, resembles a kind of bundle theory. Instead of an atomic, indivisible self distinct from reality, the individual in Buddhism is understood as an interrelated part of an ever-changing, impermanent universe (see Interdependence, Nondualism, Reciprocity).

Empiricism
Empiricists such as Ibn Tufail in early 12th century Islamic Spain and John Locke in late 17th century England viewed the individual as a tabula rasa ("blank slate"), shaped from birth by experience and education. This ties into the idea of the liberty and rights of the individual, society as a social contract between rational individuals, and the beginnings of individualism as a doctrine.

Hegel
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel regarded history as the gradual evolution of Mind as it tests its own concepts against the external world. Each time the mind applies its concepts to the world, the concept is revealed to be only partly true, within a certain context; thus the mind continually revises these incomplete concepts so as to reflect a fuller reality (commonly known as the process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis). The individual comes to rise above their own particular viewpoint, and grasps that they are a part of a greater whole insofar as they are bound to family, a social context, and/or a political order.

Existentialism
With the rise of existentialism, Søren Kierkegaard rejected Hegel's notion of the individual as subordinated to the forces of history. Instead, he elevated the individual's subjectivity and capacity to choose their own fate. Later Existentialists built upon this notion. Friedrich Nietzsche, for example, examines the individual's need to define his/her own self and circumstances in his concept of the will to power and the heroic ideal of the Übermensch. The individual is also central to Sartre's philosophy, which emphasizes individual authenticity, responsibility, and free will. In both Sartre and Nietzsche (and in Nikolai Berdyaev), the individual is called upon to create their own values, rather than rely on external, socially imposed codes of morality.

Objectivism
Ayn Rand's Objectivism regards every human as an independent, sovereign entity who possesses an inalienable right to their own life, a right derived from their nature as a rational being. Individualism and Objectivism hold that a civilized society, or any form of association, cooperation or peaceful coexistence among humans, can be achieved only on the basis of the recognition of individual rights — and that a group, as such, has no rights other than the individual rights of its members. The principle of individual rights is the only moral base of all groups or associations. Since only an individual man or woman can possess rights, the expression "individual rights" is a redundancy (which one has to use for purposes of clarification in today's intellectual chaos), but the expression "collective rights" is a contradiction in terms. Individual rights are not subject to a public vote; a majority has no right to vote away the rights of a minority; the political function of rights is precisely to protect minorities from oppression by majorities (and the smallest minority on earth is the individual).

See also

References

Further reading
 Gracie, Jorge J. E. (1988) Individuality: An Essay on the Foundations of Metaphysics. State University of New York Press.
 Klein, Anne Carolyn (1995) Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the Art of the Self. .

Self
Individualism
Personhood
Concepts in social philosophy
Metaphysical properties

Individual


Frederick Augustus I (; ; ; 23 December 1750 – 5 May 1827) was a member of the House of Wettin who reigned as the last Elector of Saxony from 1763 to 1806 (as Frederick Augustus III) and as the first King of Saxony from 1806 to 1827. He was also Duke of Warsaw from 1807 to 1815, and a legitimate candidate to the Polish throne.

Throughout his political career Frederick Augustus tried to rehabilitate and recreate the Polish state that was torn apart and ceased to exist after the final partition of Poland in 1795. However he did not succeed, for which he blamed himself for the rest of his life. Nevertheless, his efforts at reestablishing an independent Polish nation did endear him to the Polish people.

The Augustusplatz in Leipzig is named after him.

Elector of Saxony and  King Designate of Poland

Family Background
Frederick Augustus was the second (but eldest surviving) son of Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony and Maria Antonia Walpurgis, Princess of Bavaria. Because he was underage at the time of his father's death of smallpox in 1763, his mother served as Regent until 1768. His uncle, Prince Francis Xavier, functioned as his representative. Through his father's side, he was descended from two kings of Poland, and through his mother's side Siemowit, the first confirmed duke of Poland.

Renunciation of the Polish throne
Frederick Augustus' two predecessors had been kings of Poland, but due to his young age he was not considered eligible for the 1764 Polish–Lithuanian royal election. However, when a Polish Constitution was ratified by the Polish Sejm Frederick Augustus was named successor to King Stanisław II August. At the same time, the head of the Saxon Royal House was established as heir to the Polish throne (Article VII of the Polish Constitution). Frederick Augustus declined to accept the crown upon Stanisław's death in 1798, because he feared becoming entangled in disputes with Austria, Prussia and Russia, who had begun to partition Poland in 1772. In fact, a full partition of Poland among those neighboring powers had already taken place by 1795.

Foreign policy up to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire

In August 1791, Frederick Augustus arranged a meeting with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia at Pillnitz Castle. The move was intended partly to offer support for the French monarchy in the face of revolutionary agitation in France. The Declaration of Pillnitz warned of the possibility of military action against the French revolutionary government, a provocation that provided the latter with grounds to declare war on Austria in April 1792. Frederick Augustus himself did not sign the Declaration.

Saxony wanted nothing to do with the defensive alliance against France formed between Austria and Prussia. Nonetheless, a declaration of a Reichskrieg by the Reichstag of the Holy Roman Empire issued in March 1793, obliged Frederick Augustus to take part. There was great concern in Saxony in April 1795 when Prussia suddenly concluded a separate peace with France in order to facilitate the Third Partition of Poland. Saxony dropped out of the coalition against France in August 1796 after France had advanced east into the German lands and additional conditions for the Holy Roman Empire to conclude a separate peace were agreed.

Both the peace agreement with France and Saxony's participation in the Congress of Rastatt in 1797 served to demonstrate Frederick Augustus' loyalty to the conventional constitutional principles of the Holy Roman Empire. The Congress of Rastatt was supposed to authorize the surrender to France of the territories on the left bank of the Rhine in return for compensation for the rulers relinquishing territory. However, at Rastatt and again in 1803 at the issuance of the Final Report of the Empire Delegation, the law of the Holy Roman Empire that laid out the new order of the Empire, Saxony refused to agree to territorial adjustments, since these were designed to benefit Bavaria, Prussia, Württemberg, and Baden.

Foreign policy until the peace with Napoleon
Frederick Augustus also did not participate in the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which led to the final dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. With respect to the Prussian idea of a north German empire, within which Saxony was supposed to be raised to a kingdom, he appeared reserved. However, after September 1806, in response to the Berlin Ultimatum, which demanded the withdrawal of French troops from the left bank of the Rhine, Napoleon advanced as far as Thuringia. At that point, Frederick Augustus joined with Prussia. However, at the twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt in 1806 Napoleon inflicted a crushing defeat on the Prusso–Saxon troops. The Prussian government and army then withdrew headlong to the east. Frederick Augustus, left without any information concerning Prussian intentions, and with Napoleon's troops about to occupy Saxony, was forced to conclude peace. On 11 December 1806 in Poznań a treaty was signed by authorized representatives of both sides. According to its terms, Saxony was forced to join the Confederation of the Rhine and to surrender parts of Thuringia to the recently organized Kingdom of Westphalia. As compensation, Saxony was given the area around Cottbus and was raised to the status of a kingdom alongside the Confederation states of Bavaria and Württemberg.

King of Saxony and Grand Duke of Warsaw

Elevation to Saxon-Polish ruler

Frederick Augustus was proclaimed King of Saxony on 20 December 1806. After the Treaty of Tilsit, which Frederick William III of Prussia and Tsar Alexander I of Russia concluded with Napoleon in July 1807, Frederick Augustus was also named Grand Duke of Warsaw. Although he had rejected the offer of the throne of Poland in 1795 by the Sejm, he could not refuse a Polish title a second time.

Article V of the Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw, which Napoleon dictated to Saxony, was linked to the Polish Constitution of 1791 and joined the Duchy of Warsaw hereditarily to the Royal House of Saxony. Geopolitically the Duchy of Warsaw comprised the areas of the 2nd and 3rd Prussian partitions (1795), with the exception of Danzig, which was made into the Free City of Danzig under joint French and Saxon "protection", and the district around Białystok, which was given to Russia. The area under Prussian control was made up of territory from the former Prussian provinces of New East Prussia, Southern Prussia, New Silesia, and West Prussia. In addition, the new state was given the area along the Noteć river and the "Land of Chełmno".

Altogether, the Duchy had an initial area of around 104,000 km2, with a population of approximately 2,600,000. The bulk of its inhabitants were Poles.

In 1809, Austria was successfully defeated by Polish–Saxon troops when it attempted to take possession of the Duchy and for its part had to cede to the Duchy of Warsaw Polish regions absorbed up to 1795, among them the old Polish royal city of Kraków. In July 1812 Frederick Augustus ratified a proclamation of the Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw that restored the Kingdom of Poland. Napoleon lodged a protest against this action.

Events during the War of Liberation

In 1813 during the German Campaign of 1813, Saxony found itself in a more difficult situation than many other warring states. The country was still solidly in Napoleon's grip and at the same time had become the central arena of the war. In the autumn of 1813 at the start of the Battle of Leipzig (Battle of Nations) the local population of Saxony, which tallied about 2 million, saw almost a million soldiers brought to its territories. Napoleon openly threatened to consider Saxony as enemy territory and treat it accordingly should Frederick Augustus change sides. Frederick Augustus' room for maneuver was consequently greatly limited. He did not want to put the country's well-being into play frivolously. At the same time, he still remembered vividly the way in which Prussia had simply abandoned him in 1806.

In this difficult situation the King attempted to enter cautiously into an alliance with the Sixth Coalition in 1813 without risking a public break with Napoleon and a declaration of war. As the Prussian and Russian troops entered Saxony in the spring, the King first moved to the south in order to avoid a direct encounter and pursued an alliance with Austria secretly from Regensburg. The Saxon-Austrian Pact was concluded on 20 April and the King made the Prussian and Russian allies aware of it at the same time. Napoleon, from whom Frederick Augustus was not able to keep the diplomatic maneuvers concealed, summoned the King urgently to Saxony after he had defeated the Prusso-Russian troops at Lützen on 2 May. Frederick Augustus decided to comply with the ultimatum presented to him. With no prospect of concrete assistance from Austria, and in view of the defeat of the Prussian – Russian coalition, which now sent peace signals to France, he felt he had no choice.

Frederick Augustus' decision brought the country scarcely any relief. Napoleon, angered at the near defection of the King and at the same time dependent upon the full mobilization of all available forces against the Coalition troops, harshly demanded the full resources of Saxony. In addition, the country suffered under the changing fortunes of war and associated movements and quartering. At the end of August the Allies failed again to defeat Napoleon at the Battle of Dresden. Meanwhile, Saxony became the principal arena of war and Dresden the midpoint of the French army movements. Not until 9 September in Teplitz did Austria conclude its alliance with Prussia and Russia. In September, as Napoleon's troops in Saxony formed up to retreat before the expanded Coalition, there came the first defections to the Allies within the Royal Saxon Army.

Frederick Augustus was mistrustful of Prussia in view of the experiences of the spring and arguably disappointed as well by Austria's decision not to join the Coalition immediately, especially while the country was exposed as before to French domination. Thus he chose not to break with Napoleon.  At the Battle of Leipzig [Battle of Nations] the Saxon as well as the Polish troops fought on the side of Napoleon. In view of the apparent defeat of the French, even larger Saxon troop formations went over to the Coalition during the battle, whereas the Polish troops were largely annihilated.

Settlement of Saxon affairs at the Congress of Vienna
At the deliberations of the Congress of Vienna in 1814 and 1815, Frederick Augustus' position was doomed by his country's difficult geographic position, the changing fortunes of war, a lack of assistance from Austria, and his own vacillations. The Prussian-Russian alliance had never had honorable intentions in bringing Saxony into the anti-Napoleon alliance in the first place. Even before Prussia declared war on France on 17 March 1813, it had agreed to an alliance with Russia to the detriment of Saxony and Poland in the Treaty of Kalisz on 22 February: the Duchy of Warsaw would predominantly come under Russian rule, whereas Prussia would be compensated for relinquished Polish territories with the annexation of Saxon territory. Prussia's appetite for the economically and culturally more developed territories of Saxony originated in the old dream of annexation that Frederick II had developed in his political testament of 1752 and had already tried to realize in the Seven Years' War.  It did not originate from any necessity to overcome Napoleonic rule in central Europe.

After the Battle of Leipzig the Prussian-Russian alliance showed no interest in an alliance with the Saxon king in the wider struggle against Napoleon irrespective of offers of support from Frederick Augustus. Rather, the King was made captive and taken to Friedrichsfelde near Berlin and placed under Russian-Prussian custody in the name of a "General Government of High Allied Powers."

It was the forceful manner of Prussian minister Baron von Stein rather than the government administered by Russian Prince Repnin until November 1814 or the subsequent Prussian force of occupation (lasting to June 1815), which were responsible for the low morale in Saxony at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. In contrast to the representatives of France, Frederick Augustus was denied participation at the Congress of Vienna as punishment for his supposed role as the quasi-deputy of his former ally Napoleon. Certainly this treatment of the Saxon king was owing to nothing other than the intention of Prussia and Russia to carry out the annexation plans agreed to in Kalisz. That Saxony was not completely abandoned can be attributed to the fear of Austria and France of an overly-strengthened Prussia. Because the Saxon question threatened to break up the Congress, the allies finally agreed to divide Saxony (7 January 1815) with the mediation of the Tsar.

Acceptance of the post-war order of the Congress of Vienna
After his release from a Prussian prison in February 1815, at first Frederick Augustus delayed his agreement to the division of his country. However, having no other option, he finally gave in, and on 18 May consented to the peace treaty laid before him by Prussia and Russia. With the signing of the treaty on 21 May 1815, 57% of Saxon territory and 42% of the Saxon population was turned over to Prussia.

Places and areas that had been connected to the Saxon landscape for hundreds of years became completely foreign, absorbed in part into artificially created administrative regions. Examples include Wittenberg, the old capital of the Saxon Electoral State during the Holy Roman Empire, and seat of the National University made famous by Martin Luther and Melanchthon (which was already done away with in 1817 by means of a merger with the Prussian University of Halle), and Torgau, birthplace and place of residence of the Elector Frederick the Wise, which was incorporated into one of the new hybrids created by Prussia under the name Province of Saxony. Lower Lusatia, which like Upper Lusatia had preserved its constitutional autonomy under Saxon rule, was incorporated into the Province of Brandenburg and ceased to exist as a state. Upper Lusatia was arbitrarily divided: the area assigned to Prussia, including Görlitz, was added to the Province of Silesia; these areas also lost their constitutional autonomy.

On 22 May 1815 Frederick Augustus abdicated as ruler of the Duchy of Warsaw, whose territory was annexed mainly to Russia, but also partly to Prussia and Austria. In the area assigned to Russia, a Kingdom of Poland was created to join in a hereditary union with the Russian throne. The old royal city of Kraków no longer belonged to the new kingdom, and became a separate republic. The internal autonomy that it enjoyed at first was abolished in 1831 after the Polish Uprising.

King of Saxony

Standing among the Saxon people upon his return
When Frederick returned home to Saxony in July 1815 he was greeted enthusiastically throughout the land. Numerous expressions of loyalty also reached the king from the ceded territories, where the populace regarded the new rulers coolly; shortly thereafter the notion of being "mandatory-Prussian" began to circulate. In Liège Province, where the majority of the regiments of the Saxon Army had been stationed since the beginning of 1815, there was a revolt at the end of April. At the behest of the Prussian king, Generalfeldmarschall Blücher was to discharge the soldiers who came from the annexed territories, but Frederick Augustus' men had not yet made their departure, and the Saxon soldiers rioted over it. Blücher had to flee the city and was able to put down the revolt only by calling up additional Prussian troops.

Public opinion in Saxony lay decisively on Frederick Augustus' side at the time of his return. There was a feeling that Prussian policies were too ruthless both against the country and the king. The avarice of special interests in Berlin came across all too clearly as the rewards of the War of Liberation were distributed.

Final years
The last twelve years of Frederick Augustus' government passed for the most part quietly. The king's  conservative character, which in foreign policy up to 1806 had manifested itself in unconditional loyalty to Saxon interests, hardened even more after the experience of Napoleonic hegemony. With respect to political reform the King achieved little. Until his death in 1827, which fell on the anniversary of Napoleon's death, little was altered in the constitutional configuration of the Saxon state.  Undoubtedly, the king avoided making such a move out of respect for the rights of the remaining Lusatian upper classes. Just as little came of the desire of many people to transform the existing political system to accommodate a genuine legislature. There was scarcely any lessening of admiration for the old king who had overseen the destiny of Saxony for more than half a century. During his lifetime he gained the epithet "The Just". Resentment over the delayed economic and social rebuilding of the country was to be felt by his brother, King Anthony.

Frederick Augustus was entombed in the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Dresden.

Marriage and issue
In Mannheim on 17 January 1769 (by proxy) and again in Dresden on 29 January 1769 (in person), Frederick Augustus married the Countess Palatine  (Pfalzgräfin) Amalie of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld, sister of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. During their marriage, Amalia gave birth to four children, but only one daughter survived to adulthood:

Stillborn child (1771)
Stillborn child (1775)
Maria Augusta Nepomucena Antonia Franziska Xaveria Aloysia (b. Dresden, 21 June 1782 – d. Dresden, 14 March 1863)
Stillborn child (1797)

Frederick Augustus had an illegitimate daughter, born out of an affair with the daughter of a Jewish court financier in Dresden.

Without surviving male issue, Frederick Augustus was succeeded as King of Saxony by his younger brother Anthony.

Ancestors

See also
 Order of the Rue Crown
 History of Saxony
 Rulers of Saxony
 Dresden Castle – Residence of Frederick Augustus I

Notes and references

External links

1750 births
1827 deaths
19th-century Polish monarchs
Electoral Princes of Saxony
Prince-electors of Saxony
Kings of Saxony
Imperial vicars
House of Wettin
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Modern child monarchs
Nobility from Dresden
Burials at Dresden Cathedral
Albertine branch
German politicians of the Napoleonic Wars
Polish people of German descent
Polish people of the Napoleonic Wars
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)

Frederick Augustus I of Saxony


Mirepoix () is the French name for a condiment used for cooking. Mirepoix consists of onions, carrots and celery (either common Pascal celery or celeriac). Mirepoix is used in many dishes, such as stocks, soups, stews and sauces. It is used either raw, roasted or sautéed with butter.  Mirepoix is known as the holy trinity of French cooking.

These three ingredients are commonly referred to as aromatics. Similar such combinations, both in and out of the French culinary repertoire, sometimes include leeks, parsnips, garlic, tomatoes, shallots, mushrooms, bell peppers, chilies, and ginger. For the combination mirepoix au gras, or a Matignon, ham or pork belly are used as additional ingredients. In Cajun cuisine, a mirepoix or trinity is a combination of onions, celery and bell peppers.

They may be used in different combinations, as dictated by the cuisine and the dish itself.

Traditionally, the ratio for mirepoix is 2:1:1 of onions, celery, and carrots. The ratio for bones to mirepoix for stock is 10:1. When making a white stock, or fond blanc, parsnips are used instead of carrots to maintain the pale color.

Mirepoix derives its name, as many other elements of French cuisine do, from the patron of the chef who established it, in this case one of the house of Lévis, seigneurs of Mirepoix since the eleventh century and a famous name in Languedoc. The particular member of the house of Lévis whose chef is credited by the Dictionnaire de l'Académie française with giving a name to an old technique is Charles-Pierre-Gaston François de Lévis, duc de Lévis-Mirepoix (1699-1757), maréchal de France and ambassador of Louis XV.

Notes

Other websites
Recipe for Mirepoix

Food ingredients

Mirepoix (cuisine)


The Red Hill filling station on the west of the A6, Loughborough Road, approximately  north of Red Hill Circle in Birstall near Leicester, became a Grade II listed building in 2012.

The petrol filling station is an example of the futuristic "Pegasus" design created by Eliot Noyes for Mobil in the mid-1960s.  Noyes may have been inspired by the design by Danish architect Arne Jacobsen for Skovshoved Petrol Station in 1936, German designer  's new garage in Wiesbaden from the 1950s, and the distinctive forecourt fittings used by AGIP in Italy in the 1960s.  The flexible format originally included circular canopies, illuminated from below and supported by tapered central pylons, covering cylindrical steel and black petrol pumps on the garage forecourt, accompanied by a simple brick office, and minimal signage other than the Mobil red Pegasus logo.  It was designed to be instantly distinctive and recognisable as a Mobil garage, without distracting signs or poles, and was used on nearly 20,000 new and refurbished filling stations around the world until the 1980s.  Changes in ownership meant that eventually many were operated by petrol companies other than Mobil.

The six remaining circular canopies at the garage in Leicester, now operated by BP, are thought to be the last surviving examples in the UK.

References

External links
 American Gas Station: History and Folklore of Gas Stations in America, Michael Karl Witzel, p. 139
 Fill 'er Up!: The Great American Gas Station, Tim Russell, p. 123-5
 1960s petrol station in Leicestershire is made a listed building, Leicester Mercury, 8 May 2012

Buildings and structures in Leicester
Historic filling stations in the United Kingdom
Grade II listed buildings in Leicestershire

Red Hill filling station


Cross of Iron (German: Steiner – Das Eiserne Kreuz, lit. "Steiner – The Iron Cross") is a 1977 war film directed by Sam Peckinpah, featuring James Coburn, Maximilian Schell, James Mason and David Warner. Set on the Eastern Front in World War II during the Soviets' Caucasus operations against the German Kuban bridgehead on the Taman Peninsula in late 1943, the film focuses on the class conflict between a newly arrived, aristocratic Prussian officer who covets winning the Iron Cross and a cynical, battle-hardened infantry NCO.

An international co-production between British and West German financiers, the film's exteriors were shot on location in Yugoslavia.

Plot

Corporal Rolf Steiner is a veteran soldier of the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front of World War II. During a successful raid on an enemy mortar position, his reconnaissance platoon captures a Russian boy soldier. As the platoon returns to friendly lines, Captain Stransky arrives to take command of Steiner's battalion.  The regiment's commander, Colonel Brandt, wonders why Stransky would ask to be transferred to the Kuban bridgehead from more comfortable duties in occupied France. Stransky proudly tells Brandt and the regimental adjutant, Captain Kiesel, that he applied for transfer to front-line duty in Russia so that he can win the Iron Cross.

Stransky meets Steiner as he returns from the patrol and orders the prisoner shot. Steiner refuses and Corporal Schnurrbart takes the boy off into hiding. Steiner reports to Stransky shortly after, where he is informed of his promotion to  senior sergeant. Following the meeting Stransky discerns that his adjutant, Lieutenant Triebig, is a closet homosexual which is a death penalty offence in the German Army.

The platoon celebrates the birthday of their leader, Lieutenant Meyer.  Steiner takes the young Russian to the forward positions to release him, where he is accidentally killed by advancing Soviet troops in a major attack. The Germans are forced to defend their positions. Stransky is overcome by fear in his bunker while Meyer is killed leading a successful counterattack. Steiner is wounded and sent to a military hospital.

After his hospital stay, characterized by flashbacks and a romantic liaison, Steiner is offered a home leave but decides instead to return to his men. There he learns Stransky has been nominated for an Iron Cross for the counterattack Meyer had led. Stransky's award requires two witnesses as confirmation. He blackmails Triebig and attempts to persuade Steiner to corroborate his claim with promises of preferential treatment after the war. Brandt questions Steiner in the hope that he will expose Stransky's lies, but Steiner only states that he hates all officers, even those as "enlightened" as Brandt and Kiesel, and requests a few days to ponder his answer.

When his battalion is ordered to retreat, Stransky does not notify Steiner's platoon. Making their way back through now-enemy territory, the men capture an all-female Russian detachment. While Steiner is busy, Zoll, a despised Nazi Party member, takes one of the women into the barn to rape her. She bites his genitals and he kills her. Meanwhile, young Dietz, left to guard the rest of the women alone, is distracted and killed as well. Disgusted, Steiner locks Zoll up with the vengeful Russian women, taking their uniforms to use as a disguise.

As the men near the German lines, they radio ahead to avoid friendly fire. Stransky suggests to Triebig that Steiner and his men be "mistaken" for Russians. Triebig orders his men to shoot the incoming Germans; only Steiner, Krüger and Anselm survive. Triebig denies responsibility, but Steiner kills him and makes Krüger the platoon leader, telling him to look after Anselm. Steiner then goes hunting for Stransky.

The Soviets launch a major assault. Brandt orders Kiesel to evacuate, telling him that men like him will be needed to rebuild Germany after the war. Brandt then rallies the fleeing troops for a counterattack.

Steiner locates Stransky. But instead of killing him, he hands him a weapon, and offers to show him "where the Iron Crosses grow". Stransky accepts Steiner's "challenge", and they head off together for the battle. The film closes with Stransky trying to figure out how to reload his MP40, while being shot at by an adolescent Russian soldier who resembles the boy soldier released by Steiner. When Stransky asks Steiner for help, Steiner begins to laugh. His laughter continues through the credits, which feature "Hänschen klein" again and segues to black-and-white images of civilian victims from World War II and later conflicts.

Cast

 James Coburn as Feldwebel Rolf Steiner
 Maximilian Schell as Hauptmann Stransky
 James Mason as Oberst Brandt
 David Warner as Hauptmann Kiesel
 Klaus Löwitsch as Unteroffizier Krüger
 Vadim Glowna as Schütze Kern
 Roger Fritz as Leutnant Triebig
 Dieter Schidor as Gefreiter Anselm
 Burkhard Driest as Oberschütze Maag
 Fred Stillkrauth as Obergefreiter Karl "Schnurrbart" Reisenauer
 Michael Nowka as Schütze Dietz
 Véronique Vendell as Marga
 Arthur Brauss as Schütze Zoll
 Senta Berger as Eva
 Igor Galo as Leutnant Meyer
 Slavko Štimac as Russian Boy
 Demeter Bitenc as Hauptmann Pucher
 Vladan Živković as Gefreiter Wolf
 Bata Kameni as Gefreiter Joseph Keppler
 Hermina Pipinić as Soviet Major

Production

Pre-production
Cross of Iron was a joint Anglo-German production between EMI Films and ITC Entertainment of London and Rapid Films GmbH from Munich. Although the West German producer, Wolf C. Hartwig had secured a budget of $4 million, only a fraction of it was available as pre-production started. This created delays on location because local services and film crews demanded payment before commencing work.

In July 1975 EMI Films announced the film would be made as part of a slate of eleven films worth £6 million. The title was then Sergeant Steiner and the film would star Robert Shaw.

Writing
Screenplay credits are given to Julius Epstein, James Hamilton and Walter Kelley. Their source material was the 1956 novel The Willing Flesh by Willi Heinrich, a fictional work that was loosely based on the true story of Johann Schwerdfeger (1914-2015). The real-life Wehrmacht NCO was a highly decorated combat veteran who fought through both the Battle of the Caucasus and Kuban pocket.

Filming
Filming, which began on March 29, 1976, was shot on location at Trieste in Italy and Yugoslavia. Scenes were filmed around Obrov in Slovenia, and Zagreb and Savudrija in Croatia. Interiors were completed at Pinewood Studios in England.

The film is noted for featuring historically accurate weaponry and equipment such as Soviet T-34/85 tanks (which were obtained from the arsenal of the Yugoslav People's Army), Russian PPSh-41s and German MG 42s and MP40s. According to star James Coburn, the Yugoslav government had promised that all the military equipment would be ready for the start of filming, but Hartwig's lack of budget meant that considerable delays occurred when half the equipment was missing just as the production was about to begin.

Peckinpah's alcoholism was also affecting the filming schedule because every day he was consuming 180° proof Slivovitz (Šljivovica). However every two to three weeks Peckinpah would go on a binge resulting in lost shooting days while he was allowed to regain his cognitive abilities.

Due to the various productions delays, the film had cost overruns of £2 million. With no more money, Hartwig and his co-producer Alex Winitsky tried to halt the production on July 6, 1976 (the 89th day of shooting) before the final scene had been filmed. The original ending was expected to take three days to film in an abandoned rail yard and special effects teams had already spent several days wiring pyrotechnics for the shoot. However, with the costs now at $6 million there was no more money. Coburn was so annoyed at this, he had Hartwig and Winitsky thrown off the set before making Peckinpah film a quick improvised ending for the film.

Post production
Peckinpah spent five weeks going through the rushes to create a final cut. Working continuously four to five hours a day overseeing the editing, he started snorting cocaine along with his drinking. He relied heavily on his experience with his 1969 Western The Wild Bunch to create the film's pace (the slow motion during violent scenes) and its visual style.

Reception
At the time of its release, the film did poorly at the box office in the US and received mixed reviews, its bleak, anti-war tone unable to get noticed amidst the hype of the release of the mega-popular Star Wars in the same year. However, it performed very well in West Germany, earning the best box-office takings of any film released there since The Sound of Music, and audiences and critics across Europe responded well to the film.

Vincent Canby of The New York Times called it "Mr. Peckinpah's least interesting, least personal film in years ... I can't believe that the director ever had his heart in this project, which, from the beginning, looks to have been prepared for the benefit of the people who set off explosives. However, the battle footage is so peculiarly cut into the narrative that you often don't know who is doing what to whom." Variety stated, "'Cross of Iron' is Sam Peckinpah's idea of an antiwar tract but which more than anything else affirms the director's prowess as an action filmmaker of graphic mayhem ... the Wolf C. Hartwig production is well but conventionally cast, technically impressive, but ultimately violence-fixated to its putative philosophic cost." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 0.5 stars out of 4 and wrote, "There are plenty of questions to be asked about 'Cross of Iron,' Sam Peckinpah's latest bloodbath picture. Questions such as, 'Why was this film made?'" Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Everything Peckinpah and his writers have to say about war in 'Cross of Iron' has been better expressed by others and Peckinpah himself. Since 'Cross of Iron' is too familiar to engage us intellectually, it becomes a wearying, numbing spectacle of carnage that tends to inure us to the violence it so graphically depicts." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post called it "a peculiarly pointless, expendable new action film," adding, "If Peckinpah had something specific in mind when he began this project, an international co-production shot in Yugoslavia, he has lost the train of thought somewhere along the line." In the opinion of Filmcritic.com, "Peckinpah indulges in endless combat scenes (this was his only war movie), which try the patience of viewers who came for the real story."

Fans of the film include Quentin Tarantino, who used it as inspiration for Inglourious Basterds. Orson Welles, when he saw the film, cabled Peckinpah, praising the latter's film as "the best war film he had seen about the ordinary enlisted man since All Quiet on the Western Front." Iain Johnstone, reviewing the film's release on Blu-ray in June 2011, praised the film, saying Cross of Iron bears all the hallmarks of a real classic, which ranks with Peckinpah's finest work. As a poignant reminder of the sheer brutal obscenity of war, it has rarely been equalled." Mike Mayo wrote in his book ''War Movies: Classic Conflict on Film that Cross of Iron, Sam Peckinpah's only war film, "is a forgotten masterpiece that has never really managed to overcome its troubled and expensive production." Jay Hyams wrote in War Movies that while Peckinpah had directed "many films about battles between groups of armed men...this was the first in which both sides wear uniforms." Coburn said the film was one of his favorites of those he had been in.

The film holds a score of 70% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 20 reviews.

Sequel
The film Breakthrough, which was mostly financed by West German producers, was released in 1979. It was made by Anglo-American director Andrew McLaglen who, like Peckinpah, was known for Westerns. Several changes were made to the sequel. For instance, the action was moved from Russia to the Western Front and Richard Burton replaced Coburn as Sgt Steiner. Breakthrough was panned by critics, who criticised it for a confusing plot, poor dialogue, aged cast, and undistinguished acting. The film involved Steiner saving the life of an American officer (Robert Mitchum) and a conspiracy to assassinate Adolf Hitler.

Re-release
To coincide with its release on Blu-ray, a new print of Cross of Iron was screened at selected cinemas in Britain in June 2011.

References

External links

 Cross of Iron at the British Film Institute

1977 films
1970s war drama films
British war drama films
West German films
German war drama films
1970s English-language films
English-language German films
Anti-war films about World War II
Eastern Front of World War II films
Films scored by Ernest Gold
Films based on military novels
Films based on German novels
Films directed by Sam Peckinpah
Films set in 1943
Films set in Russia
Films shot in Croatia
Films shot in Yugoslavia
Films shot in Slovenia
Constantin Film films
ITC Entertainment films
EMI Films films
1977 drama films
German World War II films
1970s British films
1970s German films

Cross of Iron


Clematis morefieldii is a rare species of flowering plant in the buttercup family known by the common names Morefield's leather flower and Huntsville vasevine.

It is endemic to northern Alabama and southern Tennessee, where it is known from about 22 populations currently, most of which are small. Many of the populations are threatened, and some have been recently extirpated. It is a federally listed endangered species, listed in 1992.

Distribution and habitat
This species of Clematis was discovered in 1982, in a vacant lot on Round Top Mountain in Madison County, Alabama, by 21-year-old botany student James Morefield. It was described as a new species in 1987 and named for him. The plant was believed to be an Alabama endemic when it was given endangered status in 1992. Collections were later made in adjacent southern Tennessee.

It grows in wooded habitat dominated by smoketree (Cotinus obovatus), often near streams or seeps. It is a climbing plant which attaches to shrubs and rocks for support. The limestone substrate is very rocky with large boulders.

Description
Clematis morefieldii produces woolly-haired vine runners up to  long. The leaves are compound, each made up of several leaflets and one or more tendrils for grabbing objects around the plant. The leaflets have velvety undersides.

The inflorescences occur in the axils of the leaves. Each has up to five flowers which have green-tinged pink sepals with curling tips arranged in an urn shape. The flower is thick and hairy in texture. There are no petals. The flower is up to 2.5 centimeters in length.

The plant yields fruits which may reach 3.5 centimeters long including their plume-like tips.

Conservation
In 1991 when the plant was nominated for endangered species status it was only known from five populations/sites, each less than  wide, and one had with only a single plant. About 55% of the total population was located on land scheduled for construction. This area, on the outskirts of Huntsville, was experiencing significant real estate development expansion. Three other sites were believed to have been destroyed recently. Threats listed at the time included construction and maintenance of roads, residential development, herbicides, and potentially the collection of specimens by wildflower enthusiasts and horticulturalists.

By 2010 there were over 20 populations known but the plant was determined to still warrant endangered status. Several populations are in protected areas such as the Land Trust of North Alabama's Nature Preserves or the Keel Mountain Preserve, but some are clinging to fragments of habitat with development growing around them. Most of the same threats remain, with the additional threats of quarrying activity for one Tennessee population and logging and non-native plant species such as exotic honeysuckle vines (Lonicera spp.) in Alabama. Wildflower collecting is not believed to be a problem today. The small sizes of the individual populations make their extirpation more likely.

More research is being done regarding the life history of this plant and its ecology, including potentially damaging insects that may attack it. The last U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 5 year review of the Recovery Plan was issued in 2010.

References

External links

 USDA Plants Profile for Clematis morefieldii (Huntsville vasevine)

"American Bells" Clematis blog: Clematis morefieldii
 U.S.FWS.gov: "Recovery Plan for Morefield's leather flower (Clematis morefieldii)  — 1994 plan (online).

morefieldii
Endemic flora of the United States
Flora of Alabama
Flora of Tennessee
Flora of the Appalachian Mountains
Madison County, Alabama
Plants described in 1987
Endangered flora of the United States

Clematis morefieldii


Northern Tallgrass Prairie National Wildlife Refuge was established to provide a means of working with individuals, groups, private organizations, and government entities to permanently preserve a portion of the remaining remnant tracts of northern tallgrass prairie in Minnesota and Iowa. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service is acquiring remnant prairie tracts for the refuge in both easement and fee title interests from willing sellers.

Presently, the refuge is approximately  in size and consists of 49 units. 41 units are protected by conservation easements totaling 2,500 acres. The 8 units owned by the US Fish Wildlife Service account for nearly 3,000 acres (2,451 acres in Minnesota and 352 acres in Iowa).  Field administration of all units acquired for the refuge will occur from eight existing Fish and Wildlife Service Wetland Management District and National Wildlife Refuge offices scattered throughout the project area established for the refuge.

When a tract of land is acquired for the refuge within the work area for one of these offices, the office will assume administrative authority for the tract. The project leader of Big Stone National Wildlife Refuge is responsible for overseeing the administration of the entire refuge.

Touch the Sky Prairie

Touch the Sky Prairie is one unit of the Northern Tall Grass Prairie National Wildlife Refuge. Touch the Sky Prairie was created in 2001 and is located in Rock County, Minnesota a few short miles west of Blue Mounds State Park. This remnant tall grass prairie consists of approximately 1,000 acres of native prairie grasses, wildflowers, several bird species, and a small segment of Beaver Creek.  A trail approximately 1 mile in length leads through beautiful wildflowers and a secluded waterfall.

Prairie Smoke
The Prairie Smoke Unit is located South-East of Algona, Iowa in Kossuth County. This remnant prairie unit is utilized by waterfowl hunters during hunting season. Prairie Smoke was purchased by the US Fish and Wildlife Service in 2002.

References
Refuge website

National Wildlife Refuges in Minnesota
National Wildlife Refuges in Iowa
Protected areas established in 2000
2000 establishments in Iowa
2000 establishments in Minnesota
Grasslands of the North American Great Plains


The Bosniaks (Bošnjaci/Бошњаци, feminine: Bošnjakinja/Бошњакиња) are South Slavic nation and ethnic group. They come from Old Bosnia, which is today Bosnia and Herzegovina, though many of them are from the other Balkan populations, especially Serbia, Montenegro and Croatia. They come from medieval Bosnians or Bošnjani, Slavic that lived in what was then Bosnia. Medieval Bosniaks or Bosnians (called Dobri bošnjani = Good Bosnians) practiced different religions but they all spoke the Bosnian language. Today, Bosniaks are mostly Bosnian-speaking, and write in the  Latin alphabet or  Cyrillic alphabet. Most modern Bosniaks are Muslim, and some are agnostic and atheists. They have both European and Islamic heritage. Both within the Balkans region and throughout the world, Bosniaks are often noted for their unique culture, which has been influenced by both eastern and western civilizations and schools of thought over the course of their history.

The Oxford English Dictionary says the ethnonym Bosniak was first used in English by the British diplomat and historian Paul Rycaut in 1680. He spelled it Bosnack to sound like the post-classical Latin Bosniacus (possibly earlier than 1682), the French word Bosniaque (1695 or earlier) or the German word Bosniak (1737 or earlier). An ethnonym is a name of a group of people. The 1836 version of Penny Cyclopaedia V. 231/1 uses the modern spelling:

All Slavic languages use the suffix -ak for masculine nouns. For example, people from the ethnic group in Poland can be called Polak and people from Slovakia Slovaks (Slovák). Consequently, "Bosniak" is logic equivalent to its non-ethnic counterpart "Bosnian," which came to English from Middle French as Bosnien): a native of Bosnia.

English-speakers usually say Bosnian Muslim when they mean Bosniaks, but this is not completely correct because not all Bosniaks are Muslim. Partly because of this, ever since the country Yugoslavia broke up, people have started to say Bosniak instead of Muslim as an official way to talk about this group of people ethnic term to avoid confusion. They also say Bosnians, but this word can mean anyone from Bosnia or Herzegovina, not just members of the Bosniak ethnic group.

A few million Bosniaks live in the Balkans, and about one million other Bosniaks live in other parts of the world. Ethnic cleansing and genocide during World War II (1939-1945) and the Bosnian War (1993–95) killed many Bosniaks and drove others to move away from where they had been living. Partially because of this, there has been a Bosniak diaspora in a number of countries, including Bosnian Austrians, Germany, Bosnian Australians, Sweden, Turkey, Canada, and the United States.

References

Other websites

 Bošnjački institut
 Bošnjaci.net
 ZemljaBosna.com
 Sanjak.org Sanjak Information Center
 Projekat Poznati Bošnjaci

Slavic peoples

Bosniaks


Bafoussam is a city in Cameroon. It is the capital and largest city of the West Region, in the Bamboutos Mountains. In 2019, about 600,000 people lived in the urban area.

The city is the region's center of trade. Coffee, tobacco and tea are grown here. It has also a coffee processing facility and brewery. The city is the home of the Bamileke people.

It has three communes: Commune of Bafoussam I (Bafoussam), Commune of Bafoussam II (Baleng) and Commune of Bafoussam III (Bamougoum).

Cities in Cameroon

Bafoussam