The Schulich School of Business is the business school of York University located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The institution provides undergraduate and graduate degree and diploma programs in business administration, finance, accounting, business analytics, public administration and international business as well as a number of PhD and executive programs. Originally known as the Faculty of Administrative Studies (FAS), it was renamed in 1995 after Seymour Schulich, a major benefactor who has donated $15 million to the school. The Dean of the School, Detlev Zwick, was appointed in 2021 after having served as Interim Dean for 15 months.

Primarily located at the Seymour Schulich Building on the Keele Campus in Toronto, Ontario, the school also maintains an executive education centre in Toronto's Financial District in downtown Toronto and satellite campuses in Hyderabad, India and Beijing, China. The school also has satellite centres in Shanghai, Mumbai, Seoul, São Paulo, and Mexico City. Schulich offers undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate business degrees that lead to careers in the private, public and nonprofit sectors, and has more than 34,000 alumni working in approximately 90 countries. Schulich pioneered Canada's first International MBA (IMBA) and International BBA (iBBA) degrees, as well as North America's first cross-border executive MBA degree, the Kellogg-Schulich Executive MBA. Schulich's Executive Education Centre provides executive development programs annually to more than 16,000 executives in Canada and abroad.

History
The Schulich School of Business was known as the Faculty of Administrative Studies which was founded in 1966. Before the establishment of the Seymour Schulich Building on the Keele Campus in 2003, the school was run from a York University building, currently renamed as Health, Nursing & Environmental Studies Building. In 1995, following a major monetary donation from Canadian billionaire Seymour Schulich, the school underwent a series of changes that created the present-day Schulich School of Business.

Campuses

Seymour Schulich Building

The Seymour Schulich Building opened in August 2003 and cost $102 million. The building was jointly designed by Siamak Hariri and Robbie Young + Wright Architectural and was awarded the Governor General's Medal in Architecture in 2006. The Seymour Schulich Building and its Executive Learning Centre houses the Peter F. Bronfman Business Library, Executive Dining Room, Robert R. McEwen Auditorium, York Entrepreneurship Development Institute, Tuchner's Pub & Eatery, Starbucks, the central courtyard, the Executive Learning Centre hotel, and a number of small lecture halls.

In December 2017, the $120 million York University Station opened directly across from the Seymour Schulich Building's main entrance. Designed by Foster + Partners, the station design considers the surrounding public space and connections to the city, and uses natural light to intuitively guide passengers from the entrance down to the platforms. With the Line 1 Yonge–University subway running underneath a lecture hall on Schulich's East Wing, in 2021, Metrolinx conducted a study to analyse the latest sound and vibration technology that was used to plan and design the Yonge North Subway Extension.

Rob and Cheryl McEwen Graduate Study & Research Building
The Rob and Cheryl McEwen Graduate Study & Research Building opened in 2019 – attributed to an $8 million donation from the McEwen family. The 67,000 square-foot facility –  which cost $50 million to build and which was designed by the firm Baird Sampson Neuert Architects –  is one of the most environmentally sustainable academic buildings in North America. The building has won a number of awards for design excellence and has received LEED Gold certification – one of the highest standards of sustainability for a building. Centered around a generously proportioned atrium—which will serve as a communal space—the building also houses a Seattle's Best Coffee café, a student marketplace, and a fitness & wellness centre, as well as a landscaped outdoor courtyard.

Miles S. Nadal Management Centre
Management programs are held in downtown Toronto at the Miles S. Nadal Management Centre which is located at 222 Bay Street in the Toronto-Dominion Centre.

India Campus
In 2014, Schulich opened a $100 million satellite campus in Hyderabad, India, a collaboration with the GMR School of Business. The campus gives students the opportunity to complete their India MBA consisting of a first year spent in India followed by a second year in Toronto.

Graduate programs
The Schulich School of Business offers a number of graduate degree programs:
PhD - Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration
MBA - Master of Business Administration
IMBA - International MBA with a strong emphasis on International Business
EMBA - Executive MBA program with the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University
India MBA - MBA program at the Schulich GMR Campus in India
MBA/J.D. - MBA with a Juris Doctor in partnership with the Osgoode Hall Law School at York University
MBA/MFA/MA - Master of Business Administration, Master of Fine Arts, and Master of Arts
MAcc - Master of Accounting
MMAI - Master of Management in Artificial Intelligence
MBAN - Master of Business Analytics
MF - Master of Finance
MMgt - Master of Management
MMKG - Master of Marketing
MREI - Master of Real Estate and Infrastructure
MSCM - Master of Supply Chain Management

The Schulich School also offers two Graduate diploma programs:

Post MBA, Advanced Management
Intermediate Accounting
The School currently offers 17 specializations within the MBA curriculum as well as part-time and accelerated degree options.

Undergraduate programs

Overview
Schulich offers two undergraduate programs:
BBA (Hons) - Bachelor of Business Administration with Honours
iBBA (Hons) - International Bachelor of Business Administration with Honours

Admissions
Students applying to the BBA/iBBA program must have at least a low 90s high school average. There are two parts of the application process. For the first part, applicants must submit a Supplementary Information Form that includes a summary of the organizations, sports teams, volunteer or paid work that the applicant has been involved in. Secondly, there are three video interview questions along with a five-minute written portion.

The BBA and iBBA programs together enrol around 400 students (300 for BBA and 100 for iBBA) from an average of 5,500 to 6,000 applicants per year, with an average applicant to admission ratio of around 14 to 1. Delayed entry students who have studied one year at another school are also allowed to apply. However, there are only a limited number of spaces reserved for the delayed entry stream and prospective applicants must meet specific degree requirements to qualify.

Academics
Similar to the graduate program, students are not required to specialize in a discipline. However, students can choose to specialize in up to two areas such as: Accounting, Economics, Entrepreneurship and Family Business, Finance, International Business, Marketing, Organization Studies, Operations Management & Information Systems, and Strategic Management. iBBA students are also required to complete one semester of study abroad at one of Schulich's partner schools and to take a foreign language course every year.

Undergraduate students in the BBA and iBBA programs also have the option of pursuing a Certificate in Managing International Trade and Investment.

International exchange
Any student enrolled in the BBA/iBBA program may apply for one Study Abroad term. Students may apply for a full academic year only in cases where a full year option is available as per the information on individual partner schools. Exchange term could either be the second semester of Year 3, or first and second semester of Year 4. Schulich partners with 64 exchange partner universities in 30 different countries. Exchange partners include Esade Business School, HEC Paris, Bocconi University and the National University of Singapore. Exchange is mandatory for iBBA students as it is a part of their graduation requirements, but BBA students are also allowed to participate in exchange. Most countries that invite Schulich students for exchange terms have limited spots; therefore, a portion of the spots in each university is reserved for iBBA students, and the rest of the spots are for students studying in either undergraduate designation. Select undergraduate students also have the option of completing a joint degree with the Guanghua School of Management at Peking University. Students who graduate from the Schulich-Guanghua joint program receive both a Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA or iBBA) from the Schulich School of Business and a Bachelor of Arts in Management from the Guanghua School of Management.

Rankings

Schulich has placed in national and international business school rankings.
1st in Canada and 30th in the world in Executive MBA rankings by Financial Times.
4th in Canada and 16th in the MBA programs integrating sustainability into the curriculum by Corporate Knights.
7th in Maclean's ranking of Canadian business schools.

Canadian MBA Alliance
The school is also a founding member of the Canadian MBA Alliance which was created in 2013. All six members of the alliance rank among the world's top 100 schools, according to their participation in key rankings – Financial Times, Business Week, and The Economist.

Notable faculty

 Dezsö Horvath, CM, Dean Emeritus, Dean from 1988 to 2020 and 2004 Academy of International Business "Dean of the Year"
 James Gillies, First dean of York University's Faculty of Administrative Studies, now named the Schulich School of Business
 James Fleck, Former associate dean and MBA program director
 Gareth Morgan, Pioneer in the field of organizational behavior and change management. Co-creator of the Burrell Morgan framework
Markus Giesler, Schulich Marketing Professor, named one of the 40 best business school professors under the age of 40 in the world
Russell Belk, Professor of Marketing, inducted into the Order of Canada in 2017. World-leading expert on consumer culture, consumption and the self.
Robert Phillips, George R. Gardiner Professor in Business Ethics
Ellen Auster, Professor of Strategic Management
Stephen E. Weiss, Professor of Policy and International Business

Notable alumni

 Janice Fukakusa, Former CFO of RBC and Chancellor of Ryerson University
 Daniel Dale, fact-checker for CNN, formerly Washington bureau chief of the Toronto Star
 Sheelagh Whittaker, Canadian business executive and author, The first female CEO of a TSX listed company, Former partner at the Boston Consulting Group
 Bharat Masrani, Group President and CEO of TD Bank Group
 Rob McEwen, Chairman and CEO of US Gold Corporation and Lexam Explorations, Founder and former chairman and CEO of Goldcorp
 Richard E. Waugh, President and CEO of Scotiabank
 Craig Kielburger, Founder of Free The Children
 David Wilson, Chairman of the Ontario Securities Commission
 Edmund Ho, First Chief Executive of the Macau Special Administrative Region, Current Vice-Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
 Kathleen Taylor, President and CEO of Four Seasons Hotels, Chair Designate of Royal Bank of Canada
 Neelam Verma, Finalist at Miss Universe & Television Anchor
 Ronald Klaas Otto Kers, Dutch businessman and former CEO of Müller
 Bonnie Crombie, Mayor of Mississauga, Ontario
 Kim Parlee, VP of Wealth Management at TD Canada Trust and host of Business News Network's MoneyTalk
 Eileen de Villa, physician and Medical Officer of Health for the City of Toronto
 John Hunkin, Former President and CEO of CIBC, Former President of Investment and Corporate Banking Wood Gundy, Former President of Investment and Corporate Banking CIBC World Markets
 Omar Alghabra, Federal Minister of Transport
 Ellis Jacob, President and CEO of Cineplex Inc
 Helena Jaczek, Minister of Federal Economic Development Agency for Southern Ontario
 Tony Staffieri, President & CEO, Rogers Communications and Director at MLSE
 Michael Rousseau, President and CEO of Air Canada
 William Andrew Dimma, Former President of Torstar Corporation, Former President and CEO of Royal LePage, Chairman of Great Canadian Entertainment
 Stephen Hudson, CEO of ECN Capital
 Joel H. Cohen, Producer and writer for Saturday Night Live, Suddenly Susan and The Simpsons
 Robert J. Gemmell, Director at Rogers Communications and Former President and CEO of Citigroup Global Markets Canada Inc.
 Denise Pickett, Director at Telus, Former President and Chief Executive Officer of Amex Bank of Canada and Former Director at HBC
 Frank M. Vettese, Director, RBC Board and Retired Managing Partner & CEO of Deloitte Canada
 Andrew Prozes, Former CEO of LexisNexis
 Ron Mock, Retired President & CEO Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan
 Claude LeBlanc, President & CEO of Ambac Financial Group Inc.
 M. Marianne Harris, Director at Loblaw Companies and Sun Life Financial, Former Managing Director and President, Corporate and Investment Banking for Merrill Lynch Canada Inc.
 Robert Charles Wong, Former Member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario
 Angela Brown, President and Chief Executive Officer Moneris Solutions Corporation
 Iqwinder Gaheer, Member of Parliament for Mississauga—Malton
 Alan G. McNally, Former CEO and chairman of Harris Bank
 Majid Jowhari, Canadian politician with the Liberal Party of Canada, Member of Parliament for Richmond Hill
 Dennis Fotinos, Former President and CEO of Enwave and Former City of Toronto Councillor for Davenport
 Leslyn Lewis, Member of Parliament for Haldimand—Norfolk
 Yvan Baker, Member of Parliament for Etobicoke Centre
 Philip Lawrence, Member of Parliament for Northumberland—Peterborough South
 John Ruffolo, Founder and Former Chief Executive Officer of OMERS Ventures
 Eillen Mercier, Chancellor of Wilfrid Laurier University, Board member of OTTP, CGI Group, Intact Financial, ING Bank of Canada and Teekay
 Anna M. Ewing, Former Executive VP and CIO at NASDAQ OMX
 Grant Rasmussen, Former President & CEO UBS Canada
 Todd Skinner, President, International TransUnion, Former President and CEO of HSBC Financial Canada
 Jerome Dwight, President & CEO of The Bank of New York Mellon Canada
 Dan Daviau, President & Chief Executive Officer of Canaccord Genuity Group
 Tara Rivers, Caymanian politician, currently the Minister of Financial Services and Home Affairs, and previously the Minister of Education
 Peter John Sloly, Chief of police for the Ottawa Police Service, Former player for Canada men's national soccer team
 Tobias C. Enverga Jr., Canadian senator representing the province of Ontario
 Gerald William Cotten, Founder and CEO of Quadriga Fintech Solutions
 Tony Arrell, Founder and Former CEO of Burgundy Asset Management
 Carol Anne Letheran, Former CEO of the Canadian Olympic Association
 Katherine Henderson — president and CEO of Curling Canada and Hockey Canada

Student clubs

There are two student government bodies responsible for the student experience at Schulich.
 On the undergraduate level, students can participate in annual elections to become representatives in the Undergraduate Business Society (UBS).
 Graduate students have the same opportunity to be elected as their student body representatives in the Graduate Business Council.

Additionally, students can become members and hold position in various student organizations. Each of these organizations solicits membership from newly admitted students at the Club Fair, which takes place during the first week of classes.

Publications
The Schulich School of Business releases a quarterly alumni magazine called the Exchange (stylized as exchange).

References

External links
 Schulich School of Business

Business schools in Canada
York University
Siamak Hariri buildings
1966 establishments in Ontario
Educational institutions established in 1966

Schulich School of Business


The United States-India Educational Foundation (USIEF) (formerly known as the United States Educational Foundation in India) is an international foundation dedicated to higher education in India and the United States. Its primary focal points include administering the Fulbright Program to Indian and American students, faculty and professionals; encouraging international engagement of Fulbright scholars; advising students in India of higher education opportunities in the United States; and linking higher education institutions in the US and India. In addition to administering the Fulbright-Nehru programs in India, the Foundation also administers several Fulbright grants, including the Hubert H. Humphrey Fellowships; New Century Scholars Program, Teacher Exchange Program; International Fulbright Science and Technology Award; and the Foreign Language Teaching Assistant Program.

Headquartered in New Delhi, India, the Foundation was forged in 1950 as the "United States Educational Foundation in India" (USEFI) as the result of a 38-year agreement between the U.S. and India. In 2008, another agreement was signed which gave India equal partnership and modified the Foundation's name. Since May 2008, its executive director has been Adam J Grotsky. In February 2010, the Foundation celebrated its 60th Founding Day.

References

External links

Educational foundations
Educational organisations based in India
Foundations based in India
Organisations based in Delhi
India–United States relations


Carly Bilson (born 18 February 1981) is an Australian former rowing coxswain – a national champion and World Champion. She is Australia's first female World Champion coxswain, having steered the 2001 World Championship women's eight to victory.

Club and state rowing
Born in Sydney, Bilson's senior rowing was done from the Mosman Rowing Club. She was awarded a scholarship to the New South Wales Institute of Sport prior to her 2001 World Championship success.

Bilson was coxing at Mosman when the Australian premier women's interstate event was upgraded from a coxless four to an eight. Initially the women's eights continued to contest the longstanding silverware – the ULVA Trophy. Bilson was selected in the stern of the first four New South Wales eights who contested the blue riband event in the Interstate Regatta within the Australian Rowing Championships from 1999 to 2002. She saw a New South Wales victory in 2002. In her first state representative year of 1999 she coxed both the senior and the youth New South Wales women's eights and had a victory in the youth eight.

International representative rowing

Bilson made the Australian squad for the 2001 international tour. In their first competitive outing of the 2001 season, racing as an Australian Institute of Sport selection eight at Henley Royal Regatta, Bilson won the 2001 Henley Prize for women's eights (from 2002 this event was renamed the Remenham Challenge Cup). She then coxed the eight in the World Rowing Cup IV regatta in Munich Germany. The Australian eight placed second and knew they were on track for possible World Championship success. A month later at the 2001 World Rowing Championships in Lucerne, Switzerland the Australian women's heavyweight crew stroked by Kristina Larsen won Australia's first ever women's eight World Championship title. Bilson came home as the first female coxswain to steer an Australian boat to a world title and the first to cox an Australian women's eight to victory at Henley.

With just one seat change the Australian women's eight stayed together into 2002. Their European campaign ahead of the World Championships saw Bilson steering the eight to a bronze at the Rowing World Cup II in Lucerne and to silver at the Rowing World Cup III in Munich. At the 2002 World Championships in Seville Spain, the Australian eight won their heat but were beaten out by the USA by 0.45 seconds in the final. The Australians with Bilson in the stern just held out the Germans and Bilson won her second World Championship placing – a silver.

References

1981 births
Living people
Australian female rowers
World Rowing Championships medalists for Australia
Coxswains (rowing)
21st-century Australian women
Place of birth missing (living people)

Carly Bilson


The Blooming Prairie Commercial Historic District is a designation applied to the historic downtown of Blooming Prairie, Minnesota, United States.  It comprises 20 contributing properties built between 1893 and 1932.  It was listed as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994 for having local significance in the theme of commerce.  It was nominated for being an unusually intact business district of an agricultural trade center on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad.

The Blooming Prairie Commercial Historic District comprises both sides of Main Street East for a distance of two blocks.

See also
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Steele County, Minnesota

References

Buildings and structures in Steele County, Minnesota
Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota
National Register of Historic Places in Steele County, Minnesota


The 2005 Macquarie Fields riots were a series of disturbances in south-west Sydney which occurred from 25 February 2005-1 March 2009. The Macquarie Fields riots were referred to as a riot by both the Parliament of New South Wales and the media.

Trigger event
The riots were sparked by a high-speed police pursuit on 25 February through the Glenquarie housing estate in the south-west Sydney suburb of Macquarie Fields. The chase resulted in the driver, 20-year-old Jesse Kelly, crashing the stolen vehicle into a tree and killing his two passengers, 17-year-old Dylan Raywood and 19-year-old Matthew Robertson. Certain circumstances around the riots including the fatal police pursuit in a low-income area were seen to be a repeat of the riots that took place in Redfern, New South Wales during the previous year.

The accident sparked protests and accusations of police impropriety after Kelly's aunt Deborah claimed police had rammed the car prior to the crash. A surveillance tape recorded Deborah fabricating the accusation with Kelly.

Premier of New South Wales Bob Carr mobilised hundreds of police, including heavily armed riot squads into the area. The violence that followed lasted four nights, involving at least 300 residents clashing with police. The rioters hurled rocks, bottles, bricks, petrol bombs, and set cars alight, injuring several officers. During a Parliamentary inquiry nine months later, NSW Police Commissioner Ken Moroney stated that the violence during the incident was not a riot when compared to incidents in Los Angeles or Paris, referring to the distinction between "disturbance" and "riot" as defined by Los Angeles Police Department police chief Bill Bratton, who had been visiting Australia at the time of the disturbances.

Criticism of response
The police were criticised at the time for not acting to quell the disturbances quickly enough, with some arguing the riots could have been ended in their first day had a more aggressive stance been adopted. The so-called 'soft' approach by police was put down to downsizing and a lack of training within the NSW Police Force that inhibited their ability to contain the ringleaders effectively. The police eventually made 55 arrests, including that of Jesse Kelly, who had fled the scene of the fatal car crash which preceded the riots.

Social issues
The suburb of Macquarie Fields suffered from a high unemployment rate of 11.3 per cent, more than twice the National average. Of its 4,600 homes, 1,500 are housing commission projects and home to low-income and disadvantaged families. Criticisms have been made about this controversial cul de sac-style urban planning that left many residents with very little privacy.

Charges and sentences
In October 2006, Jesse Kelly was formally charged after admitting two counts of aggravated dangerous driving occasioning death and was sentenced to 5 years' jail. In the same month a coronial inquiry officially cleared New South Wales Police of any responsibility for the riot. His aunt Deborah Kelly, who started the rumors that sparked the riots, was charged with attempting to pervert the course of justice and with concealing a serious indictable offence.

See also
 List of riots

References

2005 in Australia
Crime in Sydney
Riots and civil disorder in New South Wales
2005 riots
2000s in Sydney

2005 Macquarie Fields riots


The Tartans, also known as Devon and the Tartans, were a rocksteady group who came together in 1967 in Kingston, Jamaica. The members were initially Prince Lincoln Thompson, Cedric Myton, Devon Russell and Lindberg Lewis. Myton and Russell had previously been in a group called the Bellstars. The Tartans formed as a result of the Bellstars break-up.

Their recorded output included "Far Beyond the Sun" for Duke Reid's Treasure Isle label, "Dance All Night", "What Can I Say", and six tracks recorded for Ken Lack's Caltone label: "Awake The Town", "Coming On Strong", "It's Alright", "Making Love", "Save a Little Bread" and "Solid as a Rock".

"Lonely Heartaches" by The Clarendonians was incorrectly credited to 'The Tartons' [sic] when released in the UK on Crab.

After the group split, Thompson went on to form The Royal Rasses and Myton The Congos.

No studio albums were released by The Tartans. Cedric Myton has stated that he intends to produce an album with songs from The Tartans. On the Roots Reggae Library two albums with songs from the Tartans were composed. One derives its name from their hit "Dance All Night", and another is titled "Awake The Town".

References

Jamaican reggae musical groups
Roots Reggae Library

The Tartans


{{Infobox museum
| name        = Pioneerimuseo  'The pioneer museum (The Engineers Museum) Музей саперных войск Pioniermuseum
| image       =
| imagesize   =
| established = 12 May 1945 in Koria to 2004  30 June 2007 in Miehikkälä
| location    = Keskustie 21, FI-49700 MIEHIKKÄLÄ, Finland N 60°39.943' E 027°41.566'
| type        = Science museum
| director    = lieutenant colonel, retired, Jaakko Martikainen  jaakko.martikainen (a) pioneeriaselajinliitto.net
| curator     =
| visitors    = from 1800 to 2200 annually  open from Tuesday to Sunday in June, July and August
| website  = http://www.pioneerimuseo.fi  languages of correspondence: English and Finnish  eila.manninen (a) miehikkala.fi
}}The Engineers Museum (officially The pioneer museum, in Finnish: valtakunnallinen, i.e., all-national, Pioneerimuseo, in Russian: Музей саперных войск) is the oldest corps museum in Finland. It was opened 13 May 1945 in the garrison of Koria, which was the part of Elimäki municipality, now Kouvola town. The Engineers Museum has the status of the scientific military museum and it is supervised by the Military Museum of Finland (in Finnish: Sotamuseo). The Engineers Museum was re-opened in Miehikkälä in 2007.

The Engineers Museum will stay in Miehikkälä still in 2012. In 2013 it will be opened in Hämeenlinna near The Artillery Museum of Finland. Two other attractions related to the Engineer corps of Finland will stay at their present places: Salpa Line museum and the Bunker museum.

History
The history of the museum starts in 1929, when second lieutenant Eero-Eetu Saarinen made a proposal to the commander of the engineer battalion, concerning an engineer corps museum. The engineer troops started to collect materials for the museum, but the collection was lost during the Winter War.

On 12 May 1945 lieutenant colonel Eero-Eetu Saarinen delivered an opening speech of the museum. The museum was located in the barracks until 1965, when the municipality of Elimäki donated a log house to the museum, so it could become enlarged.

By the beginning of the 1970s it became obvious that a new building would be needed. In the Koria garrison area, which was the main base of the Engineers corps, a new main building was built and opened by lieutenant colonel Eero-Eetu Saarinen on 25 July 1974 in Kivimäki of Koria. The next year, in 1975, the Pioneeriaselajin Liitto ry, was established to govern the museum.

The other building was built and opened in 1976. The construction site manager and inspector was military technician Arvo Tolmunen. The corps museum was granted an officials status as an official war historical museum by the minister of defence, Veikko Pihlajamäki, 24 March 1987.

When the Kymi Engineer Battalion was moved from Koria to the Vekaranjärvi garrison of the Karelia Brigade, the museum in Koria was closed and the exhibits were packed and delivered to other locations. Most of the exhibits ended up to Kouvola and were burned also a kind of vandalism destroyed the materials.

New start
Kouvola municipality had planned to support the museum, but the idea did not survive, so that the registered Union of the Engineers Corps. Until the beginning of the 2000s a new plan was made in cooperation with Miehikkälä municipality. In 2003 a project for opening the museum was started with the financial help of the European Union structural funds. The general headquarters did not take the museum to the category of the further developed museums on 4 March 2004, but it was added to the list 18 May 2005.

Exhibitions
The museum will be open in June, July and August, from 10 o'clock to 18 o'clock.  The museum has a relatively small number of visitors due to the distant location.  In the same region there are two other museums related to the military engineering: Salpa-museo (The Salpa defence line museum) and Bunkkerimuseo (The bunker museum).

Main building

In the main exhibition there are about 500 exhibits. Specialities in the main building are models of the Kiviniemi, Vuoksi ja Syvärinniska field bridges. On the other half of the main building there is the Pitäjämuseo''', a local rural museum presenting the past agrarian life from the point of view of the household woodware.rf

Kiviniemi bridge

There have been at least six bridges over the Vuoksi river in Sakkola.  The first known bridge was a wooden bridge in the 1800s, which was replaced by a stone bridge in 1827.  The Vuoksi river was enlargened and the flow eroded the soil structures of the stone bridge, so that it had to be break down.  Nordestam senate in 1870 authorised rebuilding, which was started in 1878, but the works ended during the first phases of the construction works.

According to the next plan the new bridge was to be built, in the new place, onto the narrowest part of the Kiviniemi falls area, 300 metres further from the place, where the bridge had been two times.  The new length of the bridge would be 74.8 metres. The construction works started in winter 1876 and the bridge was opened for the traffic in 1878. The budget of the construction works reached 139,000 Finnish marks.

During the Winter War the Finns explored the bridge.  The Soviets built another bridge from steel after the Moscow Peace Treaty of 1940 in the inter-war period. Before the advancing Finnish troops reached the bridge, the Soviet troops explored the bridge in the beginning of the Continuation War in 1941.  The Finns built a railway bridge from steel, which was destroyed in 1944.  Now there is a Soviet made bridge made of steel crossing Vuoksi.

Front- and backyard

There is a Sturmgeschütz III Ausf. G on the frontyard of the museum, On the backyard there are several aluminic assault boats, KrAZ lorry with and without a pontoon bridge equipment.  The heaviest vehicle is a T-72 main battle tank with a mine plough.

Collections
There are about 3 700 collectibles in the museum.

Salpa Centre
The Salpa Centre (Salpakeskus), which was established 7 July 2005, is a voluntary consortium of four participating communities: The Engineers Museum (governed by the Union of the Engineer Corps), The Salpa (Defence) Line Museum and the Salpa Line Tradition Association, the registered society, (Salpalinjan perinneyhdistys ry), both in Miehikkälä, the Bunker Museum in Virolahti.

The parties have been cooperation in developing the Bunker Museum, Engineers Museum and Salpa Line Museum with the support of the European union structural funds for less than a decade.

On the Salpa defence line there will be organised annually a hiking tour. The 19th Salpa trekking was to take place in 2012 from 29 June to 1 July. The Salpa defence line is in some parts relatively good condition as it was never needed due to the truce of 5 September 1944 and Moscow Armistice, 19 September 1944, which ended the co-belligerence of Finland with the Greater German Realm and made the Lapland War inevitable.

Open hours

References

Museums in South Karelia
Museum
Technology museums in Finland
Museums established in 1945
Museums established in 2007
Military and war museums in Finland

Engineers Museum


"Good Night" is the first episode of Season 1 of The Simpsons shorts. It was first shown on television on April 19, 1987.

Simple storyline
Homer and Marge Simpson say good night to their children, Bart, Lisa and Maggie Simpson, but actually scare them with sayings they have not heard of.

Longer storyline
Homer says good night to his son Bart, but then he asks questions about the mind. Homer tells Bart to relax, and makes a joke about mind and matter. Bart is still scared when the lights are turned off.

In Lisa's bedroom, Marge is good night to her daughter Lisa. After a few sentences, she uses the saying "don't let the bed bugs bite". This scares Lisa as well.

In Maggie's bedroom, Marge sings the lullaby Rock-a-bye Baby, but in Maggie's thoughts she sees herself falling from a tree. Maggie becomes scared from this thought like Bart and Lisa.

In Marge and Homer's bedroom, they say good night to each other thinking they must be the best parents ever. Then Bart, Lisa and Maggie come in the room quickly, and start shouting and complaining. Marge tells them to come into bed with them to make them feel safer, and they go to sleep. Maggie is last, saying "Good night".

Notes
This is one of Maggie's small amount of words she has said in The Simpsons.

References

The Simpsons
1987 television series debuts

Good Night


The Estonian Writers Union (Eesti Kirjanike Liit, abbreviated EKL), is a professional association of Estonian writers and literary critics.

History

The Estonian Writers Union was founded on 8 October 1922 under the name Eesti Kirjanike Liit at the 3rd Congress of Estonian writers held at the Tallinn Town Hall. One of its founding members was the poet Anna Haava. On 27 April 1923, the association began the publication of the monthly magazine Looming ("Creation"), which is one of the most important literary magazines in Estonia. In 1927 the association expanded to Tartu with the opening of a branch there.

With the Soviet occupation of Estonia, the Estonian Writers Union was dissolved on 19 October 1940. The occupation authorities launched the Estonian Soviet Writers Union (Eesti Nõukogude Kirjanike Liit), on 8th or 9 October 1943 in Moscow. From 1958 it was called Writers Union of the Estonian SSR (Eesti NSV Kirjanike Liit) and was active until the end of the Soviet Union.

During the German occupation of Estonia during World War II from 1941 to 1944, the original Estonian writers' association unofficially continued its work. In 1945, the International Estonian Writers Union (Välismaine Eesti Kirjanike Liit) was founded in Stockholm as the organization of exiled Estonian writers as a counter organization to the Soviet Estonia Writers Union.

With the restoration of Estonian independence came the restoration of free expression and press freedom in Estonia, the association in Estonia was renamed Estonian Writers Union in 1991. The International Association merged with the Estonian Writers Union in October 2000.

Currently, the Estonian Writers Union has 302 members (as of July 2007). Its headquarters is located in the Old Town of Tallinn and has a branch in Tartu. Estonian Writers Association also has a summer house in Käsmu on the Baltic Sea, which is regularly made available for domestic and foreign writers.

Chairmen

Estonian Writers Union
1922–1923 Friedebert Tuglas
1923–1924 Karl Rumor
1924–1925 Eduard Hubel
1925–1927 Friedebert Tuglas
1927–1929 Henrik Visnapuu
1929–1930 Friedebert Tuglas
1930–1936 Eduard Hubel
1937–1939 Friedebert Tuglas
1939–1940 August Jakobson
1941–1943 Albert Kivikas
1943–1944 Gustav Suits

Estonian Writers Union Abroad
1945–1982 August Mälk
1982–1999 Kalju Lepik
1999–2000 Enn Nõu

Soviet Estonia Writers Union/Writers Union of the Estonian SSR
1943–1944 Johannes Vares-Barbarus
1944–1946 August Jakobson
1946–1950 Johannes Semper
1950–1954 August Jakobson
1954–1971 Juhan Smuul
1971–1976 Vladimir Beekman
1976–1983 Paul Kuusberg
1983–1991 Vladimir Beekman

Estonian Writers Union
1991–1995 Vladimir Beekman
1995–2004 Mati Sirkel
2004–2007 Jan Kaus
2007–2016 Karl Martin Sinijärv
Since 2016 Tiit Aleksejev

Literature

Ülo Tuulik (eds): Eesti Kirjanikkude Liit 75, Tallinn 1997
Katrin Raid: Loomise lugu. Eesti aeg. Eesti Kirjanikkude Liit 1922–1940. Tallinn 2002

References

External links

Estonian literature
Arts in Estonia
Writers' organizations by country
Organizations established in 1922
1922 establishments in Estonia

Estonian Writers' Union


Dhanbad Airport  is a public airport located at Dhanbad, in the state of Jharkhand, India. It is situated alongside the Grand Trunk Road at Barwaada. There are no scheduled flights into this airport.

The airport last saw scheduled commercial operations in the 1980s, when Vayudoot operated services to Patna, Kolkata and Ranchi until 1987. Since then, the airport is only used by small aircraft and helicopters. The then chief minister of Jharkhand Shibu Soren inaugurated a new passenger waiting hall in October 2008.

The State's Civil Aviation department invited proposals in July 2011 for operation of the airport based on Public-private partnership (PPP) model wherein the infrastructure would be provided by the State Government while the private company would be allowed to start chartered flights in addition to taking responsibility of day-to-day maintenance of the airport for a tenure of ten years. The private entity would be expected to construct administrative buildings, air traffic control and hangars.

Acting on the instruction of state civil aviation department, the local administration is preparing a proposal to develop a commercial airport at Baliapur block, 25 km from the district headquarters.

References

External links

Defunct airports in India
Airports in Jharkhand
Transport in Dhanbad
Airports with year of establishment missing

Dhanbad Airport


USS Holder (DD/DDE-819) was a  of the United States Navy, the second Navy ship named for Lieutenant (jg) Randolph Mitchell Holder, a Navy pilot who was killed during the Battle of Midway.

Holder was launched by Consolidated Steel Corp., Orange, Texas, on 25 August 1945; sponsored by Mrs. Annette Holder, mother of Lieutenant (j.g.) Holder; and commissioned on 18 May 1946 at Orange, Texas, Comdr. Barry K. Atkins in command.

Service history

1946–1962
Holder conducted her shakedown training in the Caribbean and returned to Norfolk, Virginia on 28 August 1946. After a period of training exercises along the coast, she sailed for the Mediterranean on 23 October. During the subsequent operations with the 6th Fleet in this area, Holder visited Egypt and Saudi Arabia, arriving Newport on 22 March 1947. She then took part in anti-submarine training exercises out of Newport and in the Caribbean.

The destroyer continued this pattern of operations for the years that followed. In June–July 1949 Holder took part in a midshipman training cruise to northern Europe and upon her return moved her home port from Newport to Norfolk. Her classification was changed to DDE-819 on 4 March 1950, but she continued to alternate cruises to Europe and the Mediterranean with periods of training and upkeep out of Norfolk and the Caribbean. When the Suez Crisis flared in the Middle East over Egypt's seizure of the Suez Canal in 1956, Holder steamed to join the 6th Fleet in operations. Again in 1958 Holder sailed to the Mediterranean in March and in July took part in the landings at Beirut, Lebanon.

1962–1968
The veteran destroyer, reclassified DD-819 again on 7 August 1962, took part in another graphic demonstration of the importance of sea power, this time in the Western Hemisphere. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, when the introduction of offensive missiles into Cuba forced President Kennedy to proclaim a naval quarantine of that island, Holder and other ships took up station so as to intercept and inspect shipping. The destroyer made an inspection of a Russian ship leaving Cuba on 8 November and remained on this duty until 21 November, when she steamed to Norfolk.

Holder entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 17 December 1962 for Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization Overhaul, a major repair and modernization job which added years to her useful life. New weapons, including ASROC and QH-50 DASH, and a helicopter hangar and flight deck increased the ship's anti-submarine capability. Emerging in October 1963, the ship conducted shakedown training before returning to the Caribbean for maneuvers.

Holder devoted 1964 and 1965 to ASW training. From 12 January to 4 February 1965 she participated in the recovery of NASA's unmanned Gemini 2 capsule. Between 26 April and 17 May, Holder patrolled the Dominican Republic's coast during the struggle to prevent a Communist takeover of that island nation. She spent the next year on duty in the Atlantic.

On 6 June 1966 Holder sailed through the Panama Canal on her way to the Pacific Fleet. From 15 to 28 July she was plane guard ship for aircraft carrier  in Gulf of Tonkin. She then conducted naval gunfire support off Vietnam from 29 July to 8 August. In October Holder was plane guard for , and also she acted in support of the heavy cruiser . Sailing for home on 10 November via the Suez Canal, Holder arrived in Norfolk on 17 December to prepare for future action.

In 1968 "Holder" was part of the Standing Naval Force Atlantic (STANAVFORLANT), the NATO high readiness force for the Atlantic Ocean.

[Add ship's history from 1967 until 1976]

Transfer to Ecuador

The Holder was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 October 1976.  The ship was then transferred to Ecuador on 23 February 1977 and renamed Presidente Eloy Alfaro. Presidente Eloy Alfaro was stricken and broken up for scrap in 1991.

References

External links

Gearing-class destroyers of the United States Navy
Ships built in Orange, Texas
1945 ships
Cold War destroyers of the United States
Vietnam War destroyers of the United States
Gearing-class destroyers of the Ecuadorian Navy

USS Holder (DD-819)


Saint Eugenius of Carthage was a Christian saint, unanimously elected Bishop of Carthage in 480 to succeed Deogratias. He was caught up in the disputes of his day between Arianism and mainstream Christianity.

Biography
His episcopal election was deferred owing to the opposition of the Arian Vandal kings and was only permitted by King Huneric at the instance of Zeno and Placidia, into whose family the Vandals had married. The bishop's governance, charity, austere lifestyle and courage are said to have won him the admiration of the Arians. In his uncompromising defence of the Divinity of the word of the Bible he was imitated by his flock, many of whom were exiled with him. This occurred after he had admitted Vandals into the Catholic Church, contrary to royal edict, and had engaged in argument against Arian theologians, whom the king pitted against the Catholics. Both sides claimed the name "Catholic", the Arians calling their opponents "Homoousians".

The conference, held some time between 481 and February 484, ended by the withdrawal of the chief Arian bishop on the plea that he could not speak Latin. The Arians being enraged, Huneric exiled forty-six bishops to Corsica and three hundred and two to the African deserts. Among the latter was Eugenius, who under the custody of a man named Antonius dwelt in the desert of Tripoli. On setting out he wrote a letter of consolation and exhortation to the faithful of Carthage which is still extant in the works of St. Gregory of Tours (P.L., LVII, 769–71).

Gunthamund, who succeeded Huneric as Vandal king, allowed Eugenius to return to Carthage and permitted him to reopen the churches. After eight years of peace Thrasamund succeeded to the throne, arrested Eugenius and condemned him to death, but commuted the sentence into exile at Vienne, near Albi (Languedoc), where the Arian Alaric was king. Eugenius built there a monastery over the tomb of St. Amaranthus the martyr, and led a penitential life till his death on 13 July, 505.

Legacy
He wrote an Expositio Fidei Catholicae, demanded of him by Huneric, probably the one submitted by the Catholic bishops at the conference. It argues the Consubstantiality of the Bible and the divinity of the Holy Spirit. He wrote also an Apologeticus pro Fide; Altercatio cum Arianis, fragments of which are quoted by Victor de Vita; also pleas for the Catholics, addressed to Huneric or his successors.

Both Gennadius of Massilia and Pope Gelasius I had heard of the subject by 494 and two pastoral letters survive.

Legend
The legend associated with him is that sometime before February 1, Felix a blind man of Carthage had a dream that Bishop Eugenius would pray for him and he would be healed. Twice the man ignored the dream, but he had it again. On the third time he roused himself and sought out the Bishop. The legend continues that Felix went to the Bishop and told his story. The Bishop protested his ability to heal but eventually acquiesced with the words "I have already told you I am a sinful man; but may he who has deigned to visit you act in accordance with your faith and open you eyes". The tale continues that when he prayed for Felix his sight was restored.
When news of the miracle reached the Vandal king, Huneric is said to have unsuccessfully tried to kill Felix.

See also
 Athanasius of Alexandria

Sources

References

External links
 http://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/62340

505 deaths
Saints from the Vandal Kingdom
6th-century Christian saints
Year of birth unknown
5th-century writers in Latin
5th-century bishops of Carthage

Eugenius of Carthage


Leica could mean:
Leica Camera, a German camera manufacturer
Leica Geosystems AG, a company in eastern Switzerland that makes surveying and geomatics equipment
Leica Microsystems GmbH, a German company that makes microscopes and other precision optics

Leica


Hans Wilsdorf (22 March 1881 – 6 July 1960) was a German-British businessman, best known as the founder of Rolex and Tudor. Wilsdorf's philosophy for the companies was 'Only great marketing is needed to make a company successful'.

Early life

Hans Wilsdorf was born in Kulmbach, Bavaria, to Protestant parents, Anna and Johan Daniel Ferdinand Wilsdorf and was the second son of a family of three children.

His mother died when he was a boy and he became an orphan when his father died soon after when Hans was twelve years old.

Wilsdorf's fate was placed in the hands of his uncles who sold the prosperous family iron tools business which had belonged to his grandfather, and later to his father. Hans and his brother and sister were sent to excellent boarding schools where they received superb educations.

Wilsdorf published his autobiography in 1946 as part of a four volume set of books named Rolex Jubilee Vade Mecum. In his autobiography Hans said "Our uncles were not indifferent to our fate; nevertheless, the way in which they made me become self-reliant very early in life made me acquire the habit of looking after my possessions and, looking back, I believe that it is to this that much of my success is due".

Wilsdorf excelled in mathematics and languages, which inspired him to travel and work in foreign countries. Hans began his career as an apprentice with an influential international pearl exporting company. The experience Hans gained played a crucial role in of his future dealings.

In 1900 Wilsdorf began his career in Swiss watchmaking when he moved to La Chaux-de-Fonds to work as an English correspondent and clerk with the watch firm of Messrs. Cuno Korten, at the 49, rue Leoppold Robert, where he was paid a salary of 80 Swiss Francs. At the time, Cuno Korten exported around one million francs worth of pocket watches annually. Cuno Korten worked with all grades of watches, and manufactured a small number of watches from the ground up.

Wilsdorf was responsible for winding hundreds of pocket watches daily in his role with Cuno Korten, as well as verifying that all watches were accurate. Wilsdorf gained tremendous insight into watchmaking during his time with Cuno Korten, where he gained valuable knowledge about how all types of watches were produced.

1905: Founding Wilsdorf & Davis

In 1903 Hans Wilsdorf moved to London, England where he went to work for another high-quality watchmaking company. In 1905—with a modest amount of money—Hans set up a business with Alfred Davis named Wilsdorf & Davis, located at 83 Hatton Garden in London. The goal of Wilsdorf & Davis was to provide high-quality timepieces at affordable prices.

1908: Founding Rolex

On Rolex's 50th anniversary, in 1958, Wilsdorf shared the story of how he originally conceived the 'Rolex' name in 1908:

"I tried combining the letters of the alphabet in every possible way. This gave some hundred names, but none of them felt quite right. It was one morning when I was sitting on the upper level of a double-decker powered at that time by horses, driving along Cheapside in London, that a good genie whispered in my ear: "Rolex." A few days after this fruitful journey, the Rolex brand was filed, and then officially registered in Switzerland by Wilsdorf & Davis."

During the first decade of the 1900s pocket watches were ubiquitous, and wrist watches, referred to at the time as a "wristlet" were frowned upon. Hans Wilsdorf was an early believer in the potential of the wrist watch, and made it his mission in life to popularize them.

In 1902, during his stay at La Chaux-de-Fonds, Hans Wilsdorf heard of one Hermann Aegler, based in Bienne, Switzerland, who had begun producing 'ébauches', which are the rough movements for high-quality, small lever escapement watch movements.

In 1905, Wilsdorf travelled to Bienne, Switzerland and placed an order with Hermann Aegler, resulting in the largest order ever made for wristlet watches. This was the beginning of a long-standing partnership between Aegler and Rolex, until a century later when Rolex bought Aegler.

World War I
In 1914, a decade after Wilsdorf moved to London, World War I broke out, at which time Wilsdorf changed the name of Wilsdorf & Davis to The Rolex Watch Company Ltd. Fourteen days before World War I began, On July 14, 1914, Rolex was the first wristwatch in history to be awarded a Class "A" certificate from the Kew Observatory. Rolex had grown quickly; in 1914 they had more than 40 employees.

In 1914, Wilsdorf wrote: "My personal opinion ... is that pocket watches will almost completely disappear and that wrist watches will replace them definitively! I am not mistaken in this opinion and you will see that I am right".

In 1915 the British government implemented a 33% customs duty that prompted Rolex to move its international headquarters from London to Bienne, Switzerland. In 1919 Rolex moved its headquarters to Geneva, Switzerland, where it remains to this day.

1927: The Rolex Oyster
In 1927 Rolex patented and launched a commercially viable waterproof watch, "The Rolex Oyster". Rolex also selected watch dealers in each town to act as exclusive dealers, and provided them with window displays that consisted of an aquarium with plants and goldfish, along with a Rolex Oyster wristwatch. The same strategy was used during the 'Great Exhibition' in London by another brand several decades before.

Wilsdorf realized the advent of the Rolex Oyster was a major potential of growing income, and invested heavily in advertising. His first Rolex brand ambassador was female swimmer Mercedes Gleitze who swam the English Channel wearing a Rolex Oyster around her neck.

After Mercedes Gleitze, Wilsdorf turned to land speed king Sir Malcolm Campbell to represent Rolex as a brand ambassador. Malcolm Campbell set new land-speed records nine times between 1924 and 1935.

1931: The Rolex Perpetual
In 1931 Rolex launched an automatic wristwatch : "The Rolex Perpetual". The Rolex Perpetual automatically wound itself by harnessing energy captured from the rotation of an internal bi-directional rotor as the wearer moved around.

World War II
By the start of World War II, Royal Air Force pilots were buying Rolex watches to replace their inferior standard-issue watches [source?]. When captured and sent to POW camps, their watches were confiscated. When Wilsdorf heard of this, he offered to replace all watches that had been confiscated and not require payment until the end of the war, if the officers would write to Rolex and explain the circumstances of their loss and where they were being held. Wilsdorf personally oversaw this effort.

In 2022, Christies sold a Rolex Oyster Chronograph that had belonged to Gerald Imeson for $189,000. He had been a POW in Stalag Luft III and had taken Rolex up on the offer to order a replacement for the watch confiscated by the Germans. Christies stated it believed Imeson used the watch during the 24 March 1944 escape that inspired the movie The Great Escape.

1945: Hans Wilsdorf Foundation

Wilsdorf and his first wife, Florence Frances May Wilsdorf-Crotty, had no children, and she died from an illness in 1944. In 1945 Wilsdorf established the Hans Wilsdorf Foundation. In 1960 he gave his 100% ownership stake in Rolex to the foundation. The Hans Wilsdorf Foundation still owns and controls Rolex, and donates much of its income to charity and social causes in Geneva. There is no requirement to disclose financial or charitable donations under law, and the company pays no corporate taxes as a result of being owned by the Foundation.

1945: The Rolex Datejust
In 1945 Rolex introduced a wristwatch with an aperture window that automatically displayed the date via a date wheel, and was seen on the wrists of world leaders including Sir Winston Churchill and U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

1946: Founding Tudor

Wilsdorf established the high-quality lower-priced watch brand Tudor, a subsidiary company of Rolex, in 1946. While the Tudor name had appeared on previous watches made under the auspices of Rolex, at this time Tudor expanded into an affordable alternative to Rolex-branded offerings. On March 6, 1946, Wilsdorf made the following statement regarding Tudor:

"For some years now I have been considering the idea of making a watch that our agents could sell at a more modest price than our Rolex watches, and yet one that could attain the standards of dependability for which Rolex is famous, I decided to form a separate company, with the object of making and marketing this new watch. It is called the Tudor Watch Company."

1954: The Rolex Submariner
In 1954 Rolex launched their first specialized diving watch: "The Rolex Submariner". The Submariner became commercially available after introduction at the Basel Fair Show in 1954.

This watch went on to become the first watch worn by James Bond,  when Sean Connery wore a Submariner in 1962's Dr No.

1954: The Rolex GMT-Master

In 1954 Rolex introduced a "tool watch" known as the GMT-Master. The GMT-Master had all the usual Rolex features including a watertight Oyster case, Perpetual movement, and luminous hands and markers, but added a 24-hour hand designed to keep time in a second time zone. The GMT-Master was designed for Pan American Airways pilots, navigators and world travelers.

1955: The Rolex Day-Date

Rolex introduced the Day-Date model in 1955, featuring both a day-of-the-week aperture window and a date aperture window. The Day-Date was somewhat similar to the Rolex Datejust at 36mm in diameter, with a slightly thicker case.

1956: The Rolex Milgauss

The Rolex Milgauss was introduced in 1956 with a Reference Number of 6541. This watch was designed with special anti-magnetic featuring 1000 gauss for scientists who worked in research labs, power plants, or medical facilities whose watches could be affected by magnetism. The original Rolex Milgauss had a second hand similar to a lightning bolt, and resembled the Rolex Submariner.

1960: Death and legacy

Wilsdorf died in Geneva, Switzerland on July 6, 1960. He was buried in Kings Cemetery in Geneva beside his first and second wives. The Hans Wilsdorf Foundation, established in 1945, still owns and controls Rolex.

References

1881 births
1960 deaths
People from Kulmbach
Rolex people
German company founders
20th-century German businesspeople
German emigrants to Switzerland
LVMH people

Hans Wilsdorf


A reusable launch vehicle has parts that can be recovered and reflown, while carrying payloads from the surface to outer space. Rocket stages are the most common launch vehicle parts aimed for reuse. Smaller parts such as rocket engines and boosters can also be reused, though reusable spacecraft may be launched on top of an expendable launch vehicle. Reusable launch vehicles do not need to make these parts for each launch, therefore reducing its launch cost significantly. However, these benefits are diminished by the cost of recovery and refurbishment.

Reusable launch vehicles may contain additional avionics and propellant, making them heavier than their expendable counterparts. Reused parts may need to enter the atmosphere and navigate through it, so they are often equipped with heat shields, grid fins, and other flight control surfaces. By modifying their shape, spaceplanes can leverage aviation mechanics to aid in its recovery, such as gliding or lift. In the atmosphere, parachutes or retrorockets may also be needed to slow it down further. Reusable parts may also need specialized recovery facilities such as runways or autonomous spaceport drone ships. Some concepts rely on ground infrastructures such as mass drivers to accelerate the launch vehicle beforehand.

Since at least in the early 20th century, single-stage-to-orbit reusable launch vehicles have existed in science fiction. In the 1960s and 1970s, the first reusable launch vehicles were manufactured, named the Space Shuttle and Energia. However, in the 1990s, due to both programs' failure to meet expectations, reusable launch vehicle concepts were reduced to prototype testing. The rise of private spaceflight companies in the 2000s and 2010s lead to a resurgence of their development, such as in SpaceShipOne, New Shepard, Electron, Falcon 9, and Falcon Heavy. Many launch vehicles are now expected to debut with reusability in the 2020s, such as Starship, New Glenn, Soyuz-7, Ariane Next, Long March, Terran R, and the Dawn Mk-II Aurora.

Configurations
Reusable launch systems may be either fully or partially reusable.

Fully reusable launch vehicle
, fully reusable orbital systems have yet to be built and made operational. Fully reusable launch vehicles could theoretically be single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) vehicles, as well as multi-stage-to orbit systems.

Several companies are currently in development to achieve fully reusable launch vehicles as of February 2023. Each of them is working on a two-stage-to-orbit system. SpaceX, with their SpaceX Starship, which has been in development since 2016 and has made an initial test flight in April 2023. Blue Origin, with Project Jarvis, began development work by early 2021, but has announced no date for testing, nor even been public with their plans. Stoke Space is also developing a rocket which is planned to be reusable.

Earlier plans to run tests of enhanced reusability on the second stage of the SpaceX Falcon 9 were set aside in 2018.

Partially reusable launch systems
Partial reusable launch systems, in the form of multiple stage to orbit systems have been so far the only reusable configurations in use.

Specific component reuse
The historic Space Shuttle reused its Solid Rocket Boosters, its RS-25 engines and the Space Shuttle orbiter that acted as an orbital insertion stage, but it did not reuse the External Tank that fed the RS-25 engines. This is an example of a reusable launch system which reuses specific components of rockets. ULA's Vulcan Centaur will specifically reuse the first stage engines, while the tank is expended. The engines will splashdown on an inflatable aeroshell, then be recovered.

Liftoff stages
As of 2023, all orbital reusable launch vehicles only reuse the first stage of the rocket (excluding orbital spaceplanes which can be thought of as reusable rocket stages because of their ability to make orbital maneuvers, or, in the case of the space shuttle orbiter, complete orbital insertion). Existing reusable launch systems either use rocket-propelled vertical liftoff or have reusable aircraft as their 'first stage'.

Other than that a range of non-rocket liftoff systems have been proposed and explored over time as reusable systems for liftoff, from balloons to space elevators. Existing examples are systems which employ winged horizontal jet-engine powered liftoff. Such aircraft can air launch expendable rockets and can because of that be considered partially reusable systems if the aircraft is thought of as the first stage of the launch vehicle. An example of this configuration is the Orbital Sciences Pegasus. For suborbital flight the SpaceShipTwo uses for liftoff a carrier plane, its mothership the Scaled Composites White Knight Two. Rocket Lab is working on Neutron, and the European Space Agency is working on Themis. Both vehicles are planned to recover the first stage

Orbital insertion stages
So far, most launch systems achieve orbital insertion with at least partially expended multistaged rockets, particularly with the second and third stages. Only the Space Shuttle has achieved a reuse of the orbital insertion stage, by using the engines and fuel tank of its orbiter. The Buran spaceplane and Starship spacecraft are two other reusable spacecraft that were designed to be able to act as orbital insertion stages and have been produced, however the former only made one uncrewed test flight before the project was cancelled, and the latter is not yet operational, having also only completed one orbital test flight, as of August 2023, which failed.

Reusable spacecraft

Launch systems can be combined with reusable spaceplanes or capsules. The Space Shuttle orbiter, SpaceShipTwo, Dawn Mk-II Aurora, and the under-development Indian RLV-TD are examples for a reusable space vehicle (a spaceplane) as well as a part of its launch system.

More contemporarily the Falcon 9 launch system has carried reusable vehicles such as the Dragon 2 and X-37, transporting two reusable vehicles at the same time.

Contemporary reusable orbital vehicles include the X-37, the Dream Chaser, the Dragon 2, the Indian RLV-TD and the upcoming European Space Rider (successor to the IXV).

As with launch vehicles, all pure spacecraft during the early decades of human capacity to achieve spaceflight were designed to be single-use items.  This was true both for satellites and space probes intended to be left in space for a long time, as well as any object designed to return to Earth such as human-carrying space capsules or the sample return canisters of space matter collection missions like Stardust (1999–2006) or Hayabusa (2005–2010).  Exceptions to the general rule for space vehicles were the US Gemini SC-2, the Soviet Union spacecraft Vozvraschaemyi Apparat (VA), the US Space Shuttle orbiter (mid-1970s-2011, with 135 flights between 1981 and 2011) and the Soviet Buran (1980-1988, with just one uncrewed test flight in 1988).  Both of these spaceships were also an integral part of the launch system (providing launch acceleration) as well as operating as medium-duration spaceships in space.  This began to change in the mid-2010s.

In the 2010s, the space transport cargo capsule from one of the suppliers resupplying the International Space Station was designed for reuse, and after 2017, NASA began to allow the reuse of the SpaceX Dragon cargo spacecraft on these NASA-contracted transport routes. This was the beginning of design and operation of a reusable space vehicle.

The Boeing Starliner capsules also reduce their fall speed with parachutes and deploy an airbag shortly before touchdown on the ground, in order to retrieve and reuse the vehicle.

, SpaceX is currently building and testing the Starship spaceship to be capable of surviving multiple hypersonic reentries through the atmosphere so that they become truly reusable long-duration spaceships; no Starship operational flights have yet occurred.

Entry systems

Heat shield

With possible inflatable heat shields, as developed by the US (Low Earth Orbit Flight Test Inflatable Decelerator - LOFTID) and China, single-use rockets like the Space Launch System are considered to be retrofitted with such heat shields to salvage the expensive engines, possibly reducing the costs of launches significantly. Heat shields allow an orbiting spacecraft to land safely without expending very much fuel. They need not take the form of inflatable heat shields, they may simply take the form of heat resistant tiles that prevent heat conduction. Heat shields are also proposed for use in combination with retrograde thrust to allow for full reusability as seen in Starship.

Retrograde thrust

Reusable launch system stages such as the Falcon 9 and the New Shepard employ retrograde burns for deorbit, re-entry, and landing.

Landing systems
Reusable systems can come in single or multiple
(two or three) stages to orbit configurations. For some or all stages the following landing system types can be employed.

Types

Parachutes and airbags

These are landing systems that employ parachutes and bolstered hard landings, like in a splashdown at sea or a touchdown at land. The latter may require an engine burn just before landing as parachutes alone cannot slow the craft down enough to prevent injury to astronauts. This can be seen in the Soyuz capsule.

Though such systems have been in use since the beginning of astronautics to recover space vehicles, only later have the vehicles been reused.

E.g.:
Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters
SpaceX Dragon capsule

Horizontal (winged)

Single or main stages, as well as fly-back boosters can employ a horizontal landing system. These vehicles land on earth much like a plane does, but they usually do not use propellant during landing.

Examples are:
Space Shuttle orbiter - as part of the main stage
Buran spaceplane - acted as an orbital insertion stage, however Polyus could also be used as a second stage for the Energia launch vehicle.
Venturestar - a project of NASA
Space Shuttle's studied fly-back booster
Energia II ("Uragan") - an alternative Buran launch system concept
OK-GLI - another Buran spacecraft version
Liquid Fly-back Booster - a German concept
Baikal - a former Russian project
Reusable Booster System - a U.S. research project
SpaceShipTwo - a spaceplane for space tourism made by Virgin Galactic
SpaceShipThree - a spaceplane under development for space tourism made by Virgin Galactic
Dawn Mk-II Aurora - a spaceplane under development by Dawn Aerospace
XS-1 - another U.S. research project
RLV-TD - an ongoing Indian project
Reaction Engines Skylon SSTO
A variant is an in-air-capture tow back system, advocated by a company called EMBENTION with its FALCon project.

Vehicles that land horizontally on a runway require wings and undercarriage. These typically consume about 9-12% of the landing vehicle mass, which either reduces the payload or increases the size of the vehicle. Concepts such as lifting bodies offer some reduction in wing mass, as does the delta wing shape of the Space Shuttle.

Vertical (retrograde)

Systems like the McDonnell Douglas DC-X (Delta Clipper) and those by SpaceX are examples of a retrograde system.
The boosters of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy land using one of their nine engines. The Falcon 9 rocket is the first orbital rocket to vertically land its first stage on the ground. The first stage of Starship is planned to land vertically, while the second is to be caught by arms after performing most of the typical steps of a retrograde landing. Blue Origin's New Shepard suborbital rocket also lands vertically back at the launch site.

Retrograde landing typically requires about 10% of the total first stage propellant, reducing the payload that can be carried due to the rocket equation.

Landing using aerostatic force
There is also the concept of a launch vehicle with an inflatable, reusable first stage. The shape of this structure will be supported by excess internal pressure (using light gases). It is assumed that the bulk density of the first stage (without propellant) is less than the bulk density of air. Upon returning from flight, such a first stage remains floating in the air (without touching the surface of the Earth). This will ensure that the first stage is retained for reuse. Increasing the size of the first stage increases aerodynamic losses. This results in a slight decrease in payload. This reduction in payload is compensated for by the reuse of the first stage.

Constraints

Extra weight
Reusable stages weigh more than equivalent expendable stages. This is unavoidable due to the supplementary systems, landing gear and/or surplus propellant needed to land a stage. The actual mass penalty depends on the vehicle and the return mode chosen.

Refurbishment
After the launcher lands, it may need to be refurbished to prepare it for its next flight. This process may be lengthy and expensive. The launcher may not be able to be recertified as human-rated after refurbishment, although SpaceX has flown reused Falcon 9 boosters for human missions. There is eventually a limit on how many times a launcher can be refurbished before it has to be retired, but how often a launcher can be reused differs significantly between the various launch system designs.

History
With the development of rocket propulsion in the first half of the twentieth century, space travel became a technical possibility.

Early ideas of a single-stage reusable spaceplane proved unrealistic and although even the first practical rocket vehicles (V-2) could reach the fringes of space, reusable technology was too heavy. In addition many early rockets were developed to deliver weapons, making reuse impossible by design. The problem of mass efficiency was overcome by using multiple expendable stages in a vertical-launch multistage rocket. USAF and NACA had been studying orbital reusable spaceplanes since 1958, e.g. Dyna-Soar, but the first reusable stages did not fly until the advent of the US Space Shuttle in 1981.

20th century

Perhaps the first reusable launch vehicles were the ones conceptualized and studied by Wernher von Braun from 1948 until 1956. The Von Braun Ferry Rocket underwent two revisions: once in 1952 and again in 1956. They would have landed using parachutes.

The General Dynamics Nexus was proposed in the 1960s as a fully reusable successor to the Saturn V rocket, having the capacity of transporting up to  to orbit. See also Sea Dragon, and Douglas SASSTO.

The BAC Mustard was studied starting in 1964. It would have comprised three identical spaceplanes strapped together and arranged in two stages. During ascent the two outer spaceplanes, which formed the first stage, would detach and glide back individually to earth. It was canceled after the last study of the design in 1967 due to a lack of funds for development.

NASA started the Space Shuttle design process in 1968, with the vision of creating a fully reusable spaceplane using a crewed fly-back booster. This concept proved expensive and complex, therefore the design was scaled back to reusable solid rocket boosters and an expendable external tank. Space Shuttle Columbia launched and landed 27 times and was lost with all crew on the 28th landing attempt; Challenger
launched and landed 9 times and was lost with all crew on the 10th launch attempt; Discovery launched and landed 39 times; Atlantis launched and landed 33 times.

In 1986 President Ronald Reagan called for an air-breathing scramjet National Aerospace Plane (NASP)/X-30. The project failed due to technical issues and was canceled in 1993.

In the late 1980s a fully reusable version of the Energia rocket, the Energia II, was proposed. Its boosters and core would have had the capability of landing separately on a runway.

In the 1990s the McDonnell Douglas Delta Clipper VTOL SSTO proposal progressed to the testing phase. The DC-X prototype demonstrated rapid turnaround time and automatic computer control.

In mid-1990s, British research evolved an earlier HOTOL design into the far more promising Skylon design, which remains in development.

From the late 1990s to the 2000s, the European Space Agency studied the recovery of the Ariane 5 solid rocket boosters. The last recovery attempt took place in 2009.

The commercial ventures, Rocketplane Kistler and Rotary Rocket, attempted to build reusable privately developed rockets before going bankrupt.

NASA proposed reusable concepts to replace the Shuttle technology, to be demonstrated under the X-33 and X-34 programs, which were both cancelled in the early 2000s due to rising costs and technical issues.

21st century

The Ansari X Prize contest was intended to develop private suborbital reusable vehicles. Many private companies competed, with the winner, Scaled Composites, reaching the Kármán line twice in a two-week period with their reusable SpaceShipOne.

In 2012, SpaceX started a flight test program with experimental vehicles. These subsequently led to the development of the Falcon 9 reusable rocket launcher.

On 23 November 2015 the New Shepard rocket became the first Vertical Take-off, Vertical Landing (VTVL) sub-orbital rocket to reach space by passing the Kármán line (), reaching  before returning for a propulsive landing.

SpaceX achieved the first vertical soft landing of a reusable orbital rocket stage on December 21, 2015, after delivering 11 Orbcomm OG-2 commercial satellites into low Earth orbit.

The first reuse of a Falcon 9 first stage occurred on 30 March 2017. SpaceX now routinely recovers and reuses their first stages, as well as reusing fairings.

In 2019 Rocket Lab announced plans to recover and reuse the first stage of their Electron launch vehicle, intending to use parachutes and mid-air retrieval. On 20 November 2020, Rocket Lab successfully returned an Electron first stage from an orbital launch, the stage softly splashing down in the Pacific Ocean.

China is researching the reusability of the Long March 8 system.

, the only operational reusable orbital-class launch systems are the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy, the latter of which is based upon the Falcon 9. SpaceX is also developing the fully reusable Starship launch system. Blue Origin is developing its own New Glenn partially reusable orbital rocket, as it is intending to recover and reuse only the first stage.

5 October 2020, Roscosmos signed a development contract for Amur a new launcher with a reusable first stage.

In December 2020, ESA signed contracts to start developing THEMIS, a prototype reusable first stage launcher.

Return to launch site

After 1980, but before the 2010s, two orbital launch vehicles developed the capability to return to the launch site (RTLS).  Both the US Space Shuttle—with one of its abort modes—and the Soviet Buran
had a designed-in capability to return a part of the launch vehicle to the launch site via the mechanism of horizontal-landing of the spaceplane portion of the launch vehicle.  In both cases, the main vehicle thrust structure and the large propellant tank were expendable, as had been the standard procedure for all orbital launch vehicles flown prior to that time.  Both were subsequently demonstrated on actual orbital nominal flights, although both also had an abort mode during launch that could conceivably allow the crew to land the spaceplane following an off-nominal launch.

In the 2000s, both SpaceX and Blue Origin have privately developed a set of technologies to support vertical landing of the booster stage of a launch vehicle.
After 2010, SpaceX undertook a development program to acquire the ability to bring back and vertically land a part of the Falcon 9 orbital launch vehicle: the first stage.  The first successful landing was done in December 2015, since then several additional rocket stages landed either at a landing pad adjacent to the launch site or on a landing platform at sea, some distance away from the launch site. The Falcon Heavy is similarly designed to reuse the three cores comprising its first stage. On its first flight in February 2018, the two outer cores successfully returned to the launch site landing pads while the center core targeted the landing platform at sea but did not successfully land on it.

Blue Origin developed similar technologies for bringing back and landing their suborbital New Shepard, and successfully demonstrated return in 2015, and successfully reused the same booster on a second suborbital flight in January 2016.  By October 2016, Blue had reflown, and landed successfully, that same launch vehicle a total of five times. It must however be noted that the launch trajectories of both vehicles are very different, with New Shepard going straight up and down, whereas Falcon 9 has to cancel substantial horizontal velocity and return from a significant distance downrange.

Both Blue Origin and SpaceX also have additional reusable launch vehicles under development.  Blue is developing the first stage of the orbital New Glenn LV to be reusable, with first flight planned for no earlier than 2024.
SpaceX has a new super-heavy launch vehicle under development for missions to interplanetary space. The SpaceX Starship is designed to support RTLS, vertical-landing and full reuse of both the booster stage and the integrated second-stage/large-spacecraft that are designed for use with Starship. Its first launch attempt took place in April 2023; however, both stages were lost during ascent.

List of reusable launch vehicles

List of reusable suborbital vehicles

See also

 Reusable spacecraft
 SpaceX reusable launch system development program
 List of private spaceflight companies
 Takeoff and landing
Mars Descent Vehicle
Mars Ascent Vehicle
Lunar Lander

References

Bibliography
 Heribert Kuczera, et al.: Reusable space transportation systems. Springer, Berlin 2011, .

External links

 Illustration of a Space Shuttle at takeoff and Orbiter (Visual Dictionary - QAInternational)
Lunar Lander Module

Spacecraft propulsion

Reusable spaceflight technology
Space launch vehicles
Space access
Rocket propulsion

Reusable launch vehicle