Shore Line East (SLE) is a commuter rail service which operates along the Northeast Corridor through southern Connecticut, United States. The rail service is a fully owned subsidiary of the Connecticut Department of Transportation (CTDOT) and is operated under the CT Rail brand. SLE provides service seven days a week along the Northeast Corridor between New London and New Haven; limited through service west of New Haven to Bridgeport and Stamford has been suspended since 2020. Cross-platform transfers to Metro-North Railroad New Haven Line trains are available at New Haven for service to southwestern Connecticut and New York City. Pre-COVID, around 2,200 riders used the service on weekdays.

The service was introduced in 1990 as a temporary measure to reduce congestion during construction work on I-95. However, it proved more popular than expected, and service was continued after construction ended despite criticisms that the line was too expensive to operate. Limited service was extended to New London in 1996 and to Stamford in 2001. A second station in New Haven was added in 2002, and most of the stations were rebuilt for accessibility between 2001 and 2008. Reverse peak service was added in 2007, followed by weekend service in 2008. Second platforms were added to several stations between 2014 and 2022 to support bidirectional service.

Service was temporarily cut during 2018–2019 due to Amtrak track work and a locomotive shortage. It was again cut in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, though some service was re-added in June 2021. Diesel trains were replaced by M8 electric railcars in May 2022. Proposals for future expansion include an extension to Westerly, Rhode Island, an infill station in Niantic, and through service to New York City.

Service

Most weekday SLE trains run local between New London and New Haven. Until 2020, some peak trains operated through New Haven as far as Stamford. Eastbound morning trains and westbound afternoon trains skip  because it only has one platform, and trains operating in the other direction would have to switch tracks to serve the station. All trains that do not operate west of New Haven make a connection with a Metro-North Railroad New Haven Line train at New Haven, for service to and from points in Connecticut, Westchester County, New York, and New York City. These connections are commonly used by extreme commuters who live in suburban Connecticut and work in New York City. New London SLE multi-ride pass holders are also allowed to board selected Northeast Regional trains.

Although SLE service is funded by CTDOT, it is operated under contract by Amtrak. Amtrak owns and controls the Northeast Corridor east of New Haven. West of New Haven, the New Haven Line is owned by CTDOT and trains are dispatched by Metro-North.

During the OpSail and SailFest tall ship festivals at New London, extra Friday and weekend service is operated from New Haven to New London. During OpSail 2000, through service operated from New Haven to Mystic – the only time Shore Line East service has run east of New London.

Service history

Previous service

The section of the Northeast Corridor that Shore Line East operates on was once the New York–Boston mainline of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. The section from New Haven to New London was built as the New Haven and New London Railroad. It was charted in 1848, began construction in 1850, and opened for service in July 1852. The line was owned by the New York, Providence and Boston Railroad (the "Stonington Road") from 1858 to 1862, and by the Shore Line Railway from 1864 until it was acquired by the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad (the "New Haven") in 1870.  Crossing the Connecticut River required a ferry transfer until a drawbridge was built in 1870.

The line was referred to by the New Haven Railroad as the Shore Line, to distinguish it from the railroad's Main Line from New Haven to Springfield, Massachusetts. In recognition of the large role played by the New Haven in the history of Connecticut, CTDOT painted SLE's diesel-powered locomotives in the New Haven's orange and black style. New Haven Railroad colors and emblems were placed at several stations, particularly New Haven Union Station.

The New Haven Railroad operated local service on the Shore Line up until its merger with Penn Central on January 1, 1969, when most commuter service east of New Haven was abandoned. Intercity service continued, but generally only stopped at New Haven, Old Saybrook, and New London. Penn Central continued to operate the Clamdigger, a single daily New London-New Haven round trip with local stops, as well as a New London-Boston round trip. Amtrak took over the Clamdigger along with most intercity passenger service, in May 1971. In January 1972, Amtrak discontinued the Clamdigger and Penn Central cut the New London–Boston trip.

In 1976–77, Amtrak operated the Clamdigger as a Providence-New Haven round trip with limited local stops; for three months in 1978, it was revived with additional commuter-based stops. It was replaced in April 1978 by the New Haven–Providence–Boston Beacon Hill, which made local stops including Branford, Madison, Old Saybrook, Niantic, New London, and Mystic. The Beacon Hill (which served the Providence and Boston commuting markets rather than New Haven) was discontinued in 1981 due to funding cuts, ending commuter rail service in Connecticut east of New Haven.

Initial service

In 1981 and 1986, legislation was proposed to restore commuter service between New Haven and New London, as well as between New Haven and Hartford. A 1986 CTDOT study analyzed congestion on Interstate 95, which runs parallel to the line. The study showed that Old Saybrook was a better terminus for initial service, with an expected ridership of 420 riders in each direction daily. An additional study in 1989 indicated higher potential ridership of 700 to 1350 daily riders.

Based on the 1986 study, Governor William O'Neill ordered CTDOT in October 1986 to initiate rail service on the corridor. It was established as a temporary service to newly reopened local stations between Union Station in New Haven and Old Saybrook, to alleviate traffic congestion that arose from scheduled construction work on I-95. O'Neill introduced a $50 million transportation program that included $900,000 (later reduced to $500,000) for basic stations and $4 million to refurbish 12 Budd Rail Diesel Cars for rolling stock. The RDCs were found to be insufficient and two diesel trainsets were purchased from the defunct PATrain service in 1989 instead. Testing of the equipment on the Northeast Corridor began on December 2, 1989.

The state bought Amtrak's New Haven maintenance facility in May 1989 and signed a service contract with Amtrak in November. Construction of 5 intermediate stations was completed in April 1990. Shore Line East service began on May 29, 1990, with four trains each direction during the morning and evening. The service carried the Clamdigger name during planning; "Shore Line East" did not appear until shortly before service began. Shore Line East was threatened to be cut in 1991 by newly elected Governor Lowell Weicker, but it proved more popular than expected, and was effectively made permanent. A 1996 study found that Shore Line East captured eight percent of regional commuter trips and attracted a loyal ridership base.

In 1995 and 1997, then-governor John Rowland proposed to replace Shore Line East and the Waterbury Branch with bus service, citing a high subsidy of $18.70 per rider per trip, in order to decrease the unpopular gas tax. Lawmakers from the region called the proposals political and defended the line's ability to reduce congestion and pollution, while opponents of the line called it an example of government waste. The Shore Line East Rider's Association and other groups lobbied to save both services each time, and after public hearings a small fare increase was enacted in late 1997 instead.

Early expansions

In July 1995, Governor Rowland signed a bill ordering various studies, including one that analyzed extending service to New London as had been originally planned. Before the study was completed, CTDOT unilaterally decided to implement New London service, which the report commended. On February 1, 1996, two round trips per weekday were extended to New London. At that point, ridership was up 18 percent over 1991 numbers.

In December 2001, a single morning rush-hour round trip branded SLExpress was extended to Stamford, with a stop at Bridgeport plus eastbound-only stops at Stratford and Milford. An evening eastbound trip was also extended to Stamford with only the Bridgeport intermediate stop. This trip was intended to allow commuters to reach employment centers in Bridgeport and Stamford without having to make a transfer at New Haven. On June 24, 2002, additional Stamford trains were added, for a total of two westbound and three eastbound trains. When  opened on August 18, 2013, it was added to these trips as well.

In 2003, in order to add four additional Amtrak trips along the corridor, four of the six round trips to New London were cut back to Old Saybrook. An agreement with the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection limits service over the Amtrak Old Saybrook – Old Lyme Bridge in order to avoid inconveniencing recreational boaters. CTDOT's agreement with Amtrak allowed commuters with monthly passes to ride certain Amtrak trains instead. After criticism over the service cuts, in April 2008 CTDOT began allowing commuters with multi-ride passes to board the selected Amtrak trains as well.

Station reconstruction

Because Shore Line East was intended to be a temporary service, the five intermediate stations built in 1990 were little more than wooden decks. Since the service was started two months before the Americans with Disabilities Act was signed, the platforms were not built to be accessible. In January 2001, because of changes in Amtrak rules related to the introduction of Acela Express service, passengers were no longer allowed to cross tracks to access trains. New platforms were opened on the south side of the tracks at Branford and Westbrook at approximately the same locations. Later that year, accessible high-level platforms were added at New London to support Acela Express service.

On June 7, 2002, State Street station was opened in New Haven to provide better access to the downtown area than Union Station. It was built as a traffic mitigation measure during the reconstruction of the Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge. The first existing station to be rebuilt specifically for Shore Line East was Old Saybrook. A new high-level island platform and pedestrian bridge opened on November 1, 2002; the final configuration of two platforms serving all three tracks allows Amtrak trains to pass SLE trains at the station.

Beginning on May 24, 2004, construction of new platforms began at Clinton, Guilford, and Branford. The rebuilt Clinton station opened on July 25, 2005, and the rebuilt Branford station opened on August 8, 2005; both consist of a single high-level platform on the south side of the tracks. The new Guilford station, which has platforms on both sides of the tracks (connected by a pedestrian bridge) to allow for greater operational flexibility, opened on November 28, 2005. Construction at Madison started on September 24, 2007, and finished with the opening of the rebuilt station platform on July 28, 2008.

Reconstruction of Westbrook station was delayed due to environmental and cost issues. No site was available until Westbrook and CTDOT traded the new station site on Norris Avenue for a highway garage site off Route 145. The controversial land swap was begun in 2004 but was not finalized until 2006, and town operations were not moved to the Route 145 site until September 2011. Site clearing began in November 2011, and ground was broken for the $14.4 million station in January 2012. A new station with a larger 210-space lot and platforms on both tracks opened on March 25, 2014, with full bidirectional service to the station beginning on May 11.

Weekend and New London service

On October 8, 2007, reverse-peak and more midday service were introduced, which officials hailed as the beginning of Shore Line East as a true bidirectional system. Several existing express trains also began to stop at Guilford. A pilot of weekend service was run from November 17, 2007, to December 30, 2007, with six "Shopper's Special" round trips from Old Saybrook to New Haven. The trains were scheduled to connect with similar Metro-North specials at New Haven. Year-round weekend service began on July 4, 2008, with 9 daily Old Saybrook – New Haven round trips on weekends. No weekend service was run to New London, but weekday service was increased by the addition of cross-honoring of multiple-ride and monthly tickets  on two Amtrak trains.

The major obstacle preventing full New London service was the bridge over the Connecticut River between Old Saybrook and Old Lyme. The drawbridge section is closed for a certain period of time to allow trains to pass, which prevents large boats from passing under. The Marine Trades Association opposes additional service, which would mandate more bridge closings. The 2003 agreement with Amtrak limited weekday traffic over the bridge to 2 SLE and 39 Amtrak trains until 2018, although it was revised in 2010 and 2013.

Since 2003, New London had been served by cross-honored Amtrak trains plus one or two dedicated SLE round trips. On February 16, 2010, an additional round trip was extended to New London. Three more were extended on May 10, 2010. However, advocates for full service to New London said that then-governor Jodi Rell failed to deliver on promises to New London, with one newspaper columnist writing that "she seems incapable of standing up to the marine trades lobby" regarding the bridge openings.

In July 2012, then-governor Dannel Malloy announced that five weekend round trips would be extended to New London beginning in April 2013. However, the extension was dependent on ongoing negotiations with the marine industry over mandated closings of the Connecticut River bridge. Two weekday midday trips were added in May 2013, while weekend service began on June 1, 2013, after the application for additional bridge closings was approved by the state Department of Energy and Environmental Protection. By July, New London represented 26 percent of weekend ridership. In December 2013, the state announced that ridership was up 35 percent for the year as a result of the increased service. From 2009 to 2014, monthly New London ridership increased from less than 1,000 monthly passengers to approximately 5,000, accounting for a significant fraction of ridership increases on Shore Line East during that period.

Second platforms

In a 2007 report, CTDOT outlined plans to turn SLE into a full-service bidirectional regional rail line, with full-day service and all trains extended to New London. This involved incremental improvements, similar to those that have already been put into place. One of the first priorities was to add a second platform at all stations, which was mandated by the 2003 agreement with Amtrak. By that time, several stations already had multiple platforms (New London, Old Saybrook, Guilford, and the stations from New Haven Union Station west), while State Street had an island platform serving two tracks.

Branford was the first previously rebuilt station to be further renovated with a second platform. A $60 million bond in February 2011 included $16.5 million for a second platform and pedestrian bridge at Branford, $7.3 million for platform extensions at Guilford, and $11 million to electrify several sidings along the line. Construction on the new platform at Branford began in September 2013, while the Guilford work was underway by early 2014. After delays, the enlarged Branford station opened on September 30, 2016, although the north platform was not immediately served by trains. The north platform entered service on November 5, 2016. As with other stations, reverse-peak trains began stopping at Branford with the opening of the second platform.

Construction of a second platform at Clinton station was originally planned to start in early 2012, but was indefinitely delayed by 2014. Construction was again announced in October 2017. After delays due to funding issues, construction began in June 2019. The second platform opened on April 4, 2022, leaving Madison as the only single-platform station. (Bidding on a second platform and three-level parking garage at Madison, planned since 2009, was scheduled to begin in 2013 but did not occur.)

Expansion of the original parking facilities was also necessary to meet demand, since many started with small lots suitable for just a few dozen cars. The rebuilt stations at Branford, Guilford, Madison, Clinton, and Westbrook have larger lots than the 1990 stations, and a second lot with 272 spaces opened at Branford in June 2011. A 585-space, three-level parking garage is eventually planned for Madison station.

Service cuts
In 2018, two separate issues caused numerous delays and cancellations with many trains replaced by buses. An Amtrak track maintenance project required single-tracking of sections of the line, and CTDOT lacked sufficient functional locomotives as the aging fleet was sent out for refurbishment. Three weekday round trips were reverted from bus to train in January 2019 when one locomotive returned from refurbishment, though additional issues were expected during a second summer of track work in 2019. Full service was restored on August 5, 2019. By that time, ridership had fallen by 25 percent, averaging 1,340 weekday riders and 767 weekend riders.

On March 16, 2020, weekday service began operating on a reduced schedule due to the coronavirus pandemic. Cross-honoring of tickets on Amtrak trains was suspended that June. Weekday service was expanded from 8 to 11.5 round trips (compared to 18 pre-COVID round trips) on July 26, 2021, with all trains running to New London. Cross-honoring resumed on September 27, 2021. Electrification and track work on Track 6 at New London took place from November 2021 to April 2022. This allowed all-electric service using M8 railcars to begin on May 24, 2022. Shore Line East ridership only reached about 25% of pre-pandemic ridership by mid-2022 – compared to 40% to 72% for other rail lines in the state – which was attributed to previous riders largely being white-collar workers who shifted to remote work.

Proposed expansion

In April 2012, state officials released a report detailing possible sites for an infill station in East Lyme. Four sites were analyzed – two near downtown Niantic and two at Rocky Neck State Park. (Niantic station had previously been a stop on the Clamdigger.) As part of a 2015 bonding proposal made by then-governor Malloy, $750,000 was to be allocated for a new station at Niantic.

The possibility of extending service eastward has also been considered. In a 2001 report examining commuter rail for Rhode Island, the Rhode Island Department of Transportation (RIDOT) considered an extension of Shore Line East to  via  (effectively restoring the Clamdigger service). Ultimately, MBTA Commuter Rail service, which already ran to Providence as part of the Providence/Stoughton Line, was extended southward instead (although only to ). However, both RIDOT and SLE have long-term plans to extend their services to meet at Westerly. Extending SLE service would require negotiations with the US Coast Guard, the Marine Trades Association, and other stakeholders for increased use of the Thames River Bridge and the Mystic River Bridge. As part of Malloy's 2015 30-year transit plan, Shore Line East was to be extended to Westerly at a cost of $200 million. In February 2016, the state public transportation commission issued a report recommending extension of Shore Line East rail service to Mystic and Westerly as soon as possible.

The 2016 plans also called for limited direct service between Grand Central Terminal and Old Saybrook after M8 cars entered service. In 2021, state lawmakers allocated $2.3 million for CTDOT to study the eastward extension to Westerly with infill stations in Groton and Stonington, as well a northward extension from New London to Norwich along a freight line. , the study is scheduled for completion in 2023.

Rolling stock

SLE service uses four-car trains of state-owned Kawasaki M8 electric multiple units. These cars are part of a larger fleet, jointly owned by the state and the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, that operate on the Metro-North Railroad New Haven Line and New Canaan Branch. The M8 cars replaced push-pull diesel-powered trains on May 24, 2022. In 2007, CTDOT proposed to use up to 32 M8 cars in SLE service as far as Old Saybrook; the diesel equipment would then be used on the Hartford Line and for use with low platforms on New London / Mystic / Westerly service. Amtrak crew qualification of M8 electric multiple units on Shore Line East took place in April 2022; testing had previously taken place as early as 2015.

SLE operated diesel service from 1990 to 2022, as Amtrak had not yet electrified the Northeast Corridor between New Haven and Boston at the time service began. Initial service used two F7 locomotives and ten Pullman-Standard coaches purchased from Pittsburgh's PATrain for $1.7 million. In 1991, CTDOT purchased 10 Bombardier Shoreliner III coaches, similar to ones already used on the Danbury Branch and Waterbury Branch, and leased three additional diesel locomotives: two EMD GP38s and one EMD GP7. In 1994, Amtrak rebuilt 11 of CTDOT's surplus SPV-2000 diesel railcars into coaches, dubbed "Constitution Liners."

In 1996, SLE took delivery of six remanufactured GP40-2H diesels to replace the entire motive power fleet. These were supplemented in 2005 with 8 GE P40DC Genesis diesels leased from Amtrak. CTDOT purchased the P40DCs in 2008. To augment capacity CTDOT acquired 33 Mafersa coaches from the Virginia Railway Express in 2004. These began entering service in 2006, displacing the Shoreliners and Constitution Liners.

CTDOT acquired an additional four GE P40DC locomotives from New Jersey Transit in 2015. Originally built for Amtrak in 1993, these locomotives had been used by NJ Transit on the short-lived Atlantic City Express Service. In January 2018, ConnDOT awarded a contract to Amtrak to overhaul all twelve P40DC locomotives at the Beech Grove Shops. The first unit was completed in early 2021. The GP40-2H locomotives were sent to NRE for rebuilding in 2017 and 2018, followed by use on the new Hartford Line service.

Stations
All stations are accessible. Service west of New Haven has been suspended since 2020.

References

External links

Passenger rail transportation in Connecticut
Commuter rail in the United States
Connecticut railroads
Transportation in New Haven County, Connecticut
Transportation in Middlesex County, Connecticut
Transportation in New London County, Connecticut
Railway services introduced in 1990
Standard gauge railways in the United States
Northeast Corridor

Shore Line East


Lepidodinium is a genus of dinoflagellates belonging to the family Gymnodiniaceae.

Lepidodinium is a genus of green dinoflagellates in the family Gymnodiniales. It contains two different species, Lepidodinium chlorophorum and Lepidodinium viride. They are characterised by their green colour caused by a plastid derived from Pedinophyceae, a green algae group. This plastid has retained chlorophyll a and b, which is significant because it differs from the chlorophyll a and c usually observed in dinoflagellate peridinin plastids.  They are the only known dinoflagellate genus to possess plastids derived from green algae. Lepidodinium chlorophorum is known to cause sea blooms, partially off the coast of France, which has dramatic ecological and economic consequences. Lepidodinium produces some of the highest volumes of Transparent Exopolymer Particles of any phytoplankton, which can contribute to bivalve death and the creation of anoxic conditions in blooms, as well as playing an important role in carbon cycling in the ocean.

Etymology
No Etymology is available for Lepidodinium. While not explicitly stated, viride likely refers to the green colour of the organism as it is derived from the Latin word meaning green and is commonly used to name green organisms, for example Asplenium viride, a green fern. The etymology for chlorophorum is also not stated but it seems likely to be derived from the uniqueness of the chloroplast in its acquisition and presence of chlorophyll a and b.

Type Species

Lepidodinium viride.

History of Knowledge
Lepidodinium viride was first described in 1987 before being identified as a new genus and named in 1990. The first specimen was obtained from a sample collected from the surface seawaters off the coast of Northern Japan. Its similarity to the genus Gymnodinium was noted but the presence of armoured scales on the cell surface that have never been observed in any Gymnodinium species led to the establishment of the new genus Lepidodinium.

Lepidodinium chlorophorum was first described and initially named as Gymnodinium chlorophorum in 1996. The first specimen obtained off Helgoland, in the North Sea, where its bloom was causing the water to turn green at the surface. Identifying the species that was causing this green discoloration of seawater was initially proved difficult and caused confusion, with several different samples being named 'Gymnodinium viride' on account of their Gymnodinium morphology and green colour.

While the similarity of 'Gymnodinium chlorophorum' to L. viride was noted in the first description of the species, it was initially decided that they were not of the same genus. This was primarily due to the fact one of the characteristic features initially listed for Lepidodinium genus was the presence of plates and none were observed on the chlorophorum species. However following closer analysis of the internal structure of the two species and partial sequencing of the large ribosomal subunit, the genetic similarity between the two species was revealed. Lepidodinium was expanded to include chlorophorum (causing the name change from Gymnodinium chlorophorum to Lepidodinium chlorophorum) in 2007. This genetic sequencing also revealed the relatively high level of similarity between Lepidodinium and Gymnodinium species, leading to the solidification of Lepidodinium as a sister genus to Gymnodinium.

The reclassification of L. chlorophorum led to discussions as to what characteristics could and could not be used to define genera. This discovery of two species with differing scale traits belonging to the same genus challenged the traditional line of thinking that scales are a reliable and important factor in determining dinoflagellate genera. Furthermore, the fact that the plastid acquisition is a shared trait between the two species lends support to the idea that plastid origin might be a more reliable determinate of genera than traditionally thought of. Plastid acquisition was not traditionally thought of as being useful for identifying genera in dinoflagellates due to their particular readiness to take up new plastids, making it a relatively common event within the group. The fact that Lepidodinium is a genus where all species share a plastid in common led to the suggestion that endosymbiont acquisition in dinoflagellates is less frequent than first thought and can be used to usefully classify genera. Today, Lepidodinium chlorophorum and Lepidodinium virdiae are recognised as belonging to the same genus, Lepidodinium, which is a sister genera to Gymnodinium

Habitat and Ecology
The presence of chlorophyll b allows L. chlorophorum to cause green seawater discolouration through large sea blooms worldwide that has significant ecological and economic impacts. Within these blooms, their concentration can reach as high as 106 cells L−1 (2000 fold higher than outside the bloom) and cover areas of up to 12.95 km2. They have been recorded in Chile, California, Australia, and across Europe. In the Bay of Biscay, France, these blooms have occurred annually since 2007 with increasing abundance, generally between April and August, reaching a peak in the summer. The blooms are associated with high concentrations of ammonia and phosphates, along with transparent exopolymers particles, which results in localised hypoxia in the area. The distribution of these blooms is thought to be primarily driven by the tides.

Lepidodinium is a marine genus that is generally found in subtropical coastal waters and estuaries, and are most prevalent in high salinity, low nutrient, and high temperature waters and irradiance environments. High levels of water stratification also supports the formulation of the blooms, when high densities accumulate at the pycnocline, the depth at which the water density increases rapidly. Significant vertical migration has been observed in L. chlorophorum in association with these blooms.

They are mixotrophic with obligate phototrophy. While they are facultative phagotrophs, they exhibit prey consumption even when photosynthesis is possible and also display selective feeding, preferring high nitrogen prey when the nitrogen:phosphate ratio of the environment is low. This suggests that feeding on prey is an important mechanism for maintaining a normal N : P internally. Their selectivity during feeding is enhanced by increasing temperature, feeding on more high N prey in warmer conditions. This has important ecological implications in association with climate change as ocean temperatures rise.

Description

Morphology
Lepidodinium are green, oval, dorsoventrally compressed and 20-30 µm in diameter. Flagella emerge out of two pores. Cingulum encircles the cell and contains the transverse flagellum. The sulcus, coming from the cingulum, houses the longitudinal flagellum but does not contain the eye-spot, which is unusual for dinoflagellates. Movement occurs though swimming in helical turns. Lepidodinium also contain a ring of polysomes.

Many morphological features of Lepidodinium are typical of dinoflagellates and many are also shared with Gymnodinium. They are unarmoured, have a large, central nucleus, and starch granules are confined to the cytoplasm. Gymnodinium characteristically have nuclear chambers which are observed in L. chlorophorum although it differs in that L. chlorophorum only has one nuclear pore in each chamber, each with a plug. Another shared characteristic of Gymnodinium and Lepidodinium is the nuclear connective fibres between the flagellar apparatus and the nucleus. However in L. chlorophorum this feature is reduced compared to Gymnodinium species. Lepidodinium also have the curved apical groove in a clockwise direction used to characterise Gymnodinium. Another common feature in dinoflagellates present in Lepidodinium is the presence of a peduncle (characteristic of mixotrophic organisms) located next to the transverse flagellum and associated with a dense body at its base.

L. viride is made morphologically unique by the presence of square scales, reinforced by a complex substructure consistently of arches, subdivided square bases, and smaller rhomboid bases in the centre.

The key feature that distinguishes Lepidodinium is the structure of the plastid, due to its unique source of acquisition. Each lens shaped plastid has three appressed thylakoids and interlamellar pyrenoids and is all enclosed by a double membrane envelope. This envelope is enclosed by a further two membranes, between which is filled with ribosomes. The plastid is distinctly green due to it containing chlorophyll a and b but not c, which dinoflagellates typically do possess. It also lacks peridinin, a pigment characteristic of dinoflagellates. The pigments that have been found are neoxanthin, violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, zeaxanthin, lutein, and beta-carotene, which is the typical pigment composition for green algae.

The presence of mucocysts and also ecysis allows L. chlorophorum to excrete Transparent Exopolymer Particles in some of the largest quantities of any phytoplankton, associated with significant ecological impacts. It is thought that this feature helps to facilitate of the formation of L. chlorophorum blooms by contributing to aggregation. L. chlorophorum also excretes a sulphated exopolysaccharide that is mainly composed of galactose, a common component for exopolysaccharides within the dinoflagellates.

Also present is a nucleomorph, the vestigial nucleus of their green algal derived plastids.

Life Cycles
The life cycle of Lepidodinium has not been fully documented. The formation of benthic cysts have been observed in culture but cysts have never been found in sediment in the field. However, Lepidodinium eDNA has been found in a non-bloom period in winter, suggesting a temporary pelagic stage in the life cycles of Lepidodinium. This would allow Lepidodinium to survive in the water column until the appropriate conditions for blooming are generated.

Genetics
Endosymbiotic gene transfer and horizontal gene transfer has occurred to a large extent in the genome of Lepidodinium. It contains codes for proteins with a range of origins creating a mosaic, hybrid proteome. Like other dinoflagellates, Lepidodinium has likely undergone multiple plastid replacement events, with proteins being obtained from these different plastids each time.  These plastid replacement events in Lepidodinium include the loss of the secondary, chlorophyll c and peridinin containing plastid from red-algae thought to be the ancestral state that has been maintained in many other dinoflagellates. The Lepidodinium genome still contains plastid-targeting genes originated from this peridinin plastid that now function to target the new green algae plastid. L. chlorophorum possesses the GAPDH which is a plastid-targeted gene originated from a haptophyte, an alga taken up by other dinoflagellates but not currently present in Lepidodinium. Other origins of genes in L. chlorophorum include green algae, heterokonts, streptophytes, and peridinin-containing dinoflagellates. Some genes associated with linages that have taken up green algae are present in the Lepidodinium genome and not in any other dinoflagellates.  It has been suggested that at least three different plastids have led to the development of the Lepidodinium genome, along with horizontal gene transfer from prey. Its been suggested that mixotrophic organisms, such as Lepidodinium, are more susceptible to horizontal gene transfer.

Although not examined in L. viride, L. chlorophorum appears to have a unique N-terminal pre-sequence (thought to be associated with plastid targeting) within the dinoflagellates.

Plastid Acquisition
The genetic sequencing of the secondary plastids of Lepidodinium species reveal its origin to be Pedinomonas minor or a species closely related to Pedinomonas, a green algae. Another dinoflagellate species, Pedinomonas noctilucae, is known to take up a Pedinophyte endosymbiont in certain conditions but there is a very low level of integration, compared to the fully integrated plastid in Lepidodinium. This represents one of at least three independent secondary endosymbiosis events involving a green algae in the eukaryotes, the others being in the Euglenophytes and Chlorarachinophytes. The endosymbiont has lost a large number of genes, including those involved in essential functions, showing a high level of integration as an organelle.

Practical Importance
The blooms of L. chlorophorum have significant economic and ecological impacts due to the hypoxic conditions the bloom generates. These blooms are also harmful due to their high viscosity which is the result of L. chlorophorum extracellular polymeric substances overproduction. It is reported that this has a negative impact on tourism due to the discolouration the bloom causes, making the seawater appear green and foamy and the advisement against swimming during the blooms. The ecological consequences of these blooms stem from the hypoxic conditions that are generated from biomass recycling, in combination with the increased concentrations of DIP and NH4 inside the blooms, also associated with high levels of nutrient recycling. The oxygen concentration in L. chlorophorum blooms is frequently brought below the threshold that most benthic invertebrates can survive, representing just one of the ecological effects of these blooms. For bivalves, the typically observed response to hypoxia is reduced feeding and oxygen consumption, thought to negatively affect their growth and survival. Another factor of these blooms that creates ecological impacts is their high viscosity, caused by the high level of production of extracellular polymeric substances and thought to effect oysters in particular.  It is thought that these blooms are becoming more common with climate change as waters become warmer and the elemental composition of seawater alters.

Although the exact mechanism is not known, the presence of L. chlorophorum is correlated with negative effects on oyster (Crassostrea gigas) growth, causing economic harm for oyster farmers. It has been suggested that this is due to L. chlorophorum impairing the filtration ability of C. gigas by producing acid glycoconjugates and transparent exopolymer particles. It also appears that C. gigas has a poor ability to assimilate L. chlorophorum. Both of these mechanisms could explain the observed reduced growth. The problem this causes for farmers is exacerbated by the longevity of L. chlorophorum blooms.

Marine mixotrophic protists such as Lepidodinium play an important role in oceans in terms of nutrient cycling as well as in the food chain. The carbon rich Transparent Exopolymer Particles (TEP) known to be produced by L. chlorophorum are important in the sedimentation of organic matter which enables bacteria abundance. Although many other organisms contribute to this process, L. chlorophorum is particularly important as it produces more TEP than many other organisms, with an average of 380g xanthan equiv [mg chl a] −1 d−1 being produced by L. chlorophorum. TEP production in L. chlorophorum also represents a much higher proportion of its carbon intake, with an average of 70% of carbon fixed by photosynthesis and excreted as TEP. During blooms of L. chlorophorum, the TEP concentration can become very high which promotes bacterial activity to the point where anoxic conditions and high levels of organic carbon degradation are created, leading to the ecological impacts.

Species:
Lepidodinium chlorophorum
Lepidodinium viride

Scientific Classification
Chromista (Kingdom), Harosa (Subkingdom), Alveolata (Infrakingdom), Myzozoa (Phylum), Dinozoa (Subphylum), Dinoflagellata (Infraphylum), Dinophceae (Class), Gymndiniales (Order), Gymnodiniaceae (Family), Lepidodinium (Genus)

References

Gymnodiniales
Dinoflagellate genera

Lepidodinium


The Brewster F2A Buffalo is an American fighter aircraft which saw service early in World War II. Designed and built by the Brewster Aeronautical Corporation, it was one of the first U.S. monoplanes with an arrestor hook and other modifications for aircraft carriers. The Buffalo won a competition against the Grumman F4F Wildcat in 1939 to become the U.S. Navy's first monoplane fighter aircraft. Although superior to the Grumman F3F biplane it replaced, and the early F4Fs, the Buffalo was largely obsolete when the United States entered the war, being unstable and overweight, especially when compared to the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero.

Several nations, including Finland, Belgium, Britain and the Netherlands, ordered the Buffalo. The Finns were the most successful with their Buffalos, flying them in combat against early Soviet fighters with excellent results. During the Continuation War of 1941–1944, the B-239s (de-navalized F2A-1s) operated by the Finnish Air Force proved capable of engaging and destroying most types of Soviet fighter aircraft operating against Finland at that time, and claimed in the first phase of that conflict 32 Soviet aircraft shot down for every B-239 lost,  producing 36 Buffalo "aces".

In December 1941, Buffalos operated by both British Commonwealth (B-339E) and Dutch (B-339C/D) air forces in South East Asia suffered severe losses in combat against the Japanese Navy's A6M Zero and the Japanese Army's Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar". The British attempted to lighten their Buffalos by removing ammunition and fuel and installing lighter guns to improve performance, but it made little difference. After the first few engagements, the Dutch halved the fuel and ammunition load in the wings, which allowed their Buffalos (and their Hurricanes) to stay with the Oscars in turns.

The Buffalo was built in three variants for the U.S. Navy: the F2A-1, F2A-2 and F2A-3. (In foreign service, with lower horsepower engines, these types were designated B-239, B-339, and B-339-23 respectively.) The F2A-3 variant saw action with United States Marine Corps (USMC) squadrons at the Battle of Midway. Shown by the experience of Midway to be no match for the Zero, the F2A-3 was derided by USMC pilots as a "flying coffin". Indeed, the F2A-3s performance was substantially inferior to the F2A-2 variant used by the Navy before the outbreak of the war despite detail improvements.

Design and development

United States Navy
In 1935, the U.S. Navy issued a requirement for a carrier-based fighter intended to replace the Grumman F3F biplane. The Brewster XF2A-1 monoplane, designed by a team led by Dayton T. Brown, was one of two aircraft designs that were initially considered. The XF4F-1 with a double-row radial engine was a "classic" biplane. The U.S. Navy competition was re-opened to allow another competitor, the XFNF-1, a navalized Seversky P-35 eliminated early on when the prototype could not reach more than . The XF2A-1 first flew on 2 December 1937 and early test results showed it was far in advance of the Grumman biplane entry. While the XF4F-1 did not enter production, it later re-emerged as a monoplane, the Wildcat.

The Buffalo was manufactured at the Brewster Building in Long Island City, New York.

The new Brewster fighter had a modern look with a stubby fuselage, mid-set monoplane wings and a host of advanced features. It was all-metal, with flush-riveted, stressed aluminum construction, although control surfaces were still fabric-covered. The XF2A-1 also featured split flaps, a hydraulically operated retractable main undercarriage (and partially retractable tailwheel), and a streamlined framed canopy. However (as was still common at this time), the aircraft lacked self-sealing fuel tanks and pilot armor. Fuel capacity was only , stored in the fuselage. Powered by a  single-row Wright R-1820-22 Cyclone radial engine, it had a good initial climb rate of  and a top speed of . The aircraft was then tested in 1938 in the Langley Research Center full-scale wind tunnel, where it was determined that certain factors were contributing to parasitic drag. Based on the tests, improvements were made to the cowling streamlining and carburetor and oil cooler intakes, and the Buffalo's speed rose to  at  without any increase in power. Other manufacturers took notice of this 10% increase in speed and efficiency, and wind tunnel tests became standard procedure in the US. With only a single-stage supercharger, high-altitude performance fell off rapidly. Fuselage armament was one fixed  M2 Browning machine gun with 200 rounds and one fixed  AN Browning machine gun with 600 rounds, both in the nose. The Navy awarded Brewster Aeronautical Corporation a production contract for 54 aircraft, the F2A-1s.

Service testing of the XF2A-1 prototype began in January 1938 and in June, production started on the F2A-1. They were powered by  Wright R-1820-34 engines and had larger fins. The added weight of two additional  Browning wing guns and other equipment specified by the Navy for combat operations reduced the initial rate of climb to . Plagued by production difficulties, Brewster delivered only 11 F2A-1 aircraft to the Navy; the remainder of the order was later diverted to the Finnish Air Force in modified form under the export designation Model 239.

A later variant, the F2A-2, of which 43 were ordered by the U.S. Navy, included a more powerful R-1820-40 engine, a better propeller, and integral flotation gear, while still lacking pilot armor and self-sealing tanks. The increase in engine power was welcomed, but to some extent offset by the increased loaded weight () of the aircraft; while top speed was increased to a respectable  at , initial climb rates dropped to . Both the F2A-1 and the F2A-2 variants of the Brewster were liked by early Navy and Marine pilots, including Pappy Boyington, who praised the good turning and maneuvering abilities of the aircraft. Boyington is alleged to have opined "...the early models, before they weighed it all down with armor plate, radios, and other [equipment], they were pretty sweet little ships. Not real fast, but the little [aircraft] could turn and roll in a phone booth" as he stated in his autobiography Baa Baa Black Sheep. This might be expected from the low wing loading, in earlier versions comparable with the Mitsubishi A6M Zero's 22 pounds per square foot.

The F2A-3 was the last version of the Buffalo to enter service with the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. A total of 108 examples were ordered in January 1941. By this time, the Navy had become disenchanted with the Buffalo, and had become especially annoyed at Brewster Aeronautical Corporation's frequent production delays and its frequent management difficulties. This order was seen more as a way of keeping Brewster's production lines running; they would eventually build Corsair fighters for the Navy as well as Buccaneer/Bermuda dive bombers.

The F2A-3s were conceived as long range reconnaissance fighters with new wet wings with self-sealing features and larger fuselage tanks which provided increased fuel capacity and protection, but this also increased the aircraft weight by more than . The wing and enlarged fuselage tank carried an additional  of fuel; at , the fuel alone weighed nearly . The addition of armor plating for the pilot and increased ammunition capacity further increased the aircraft's weight, resulting in a reduced top speed and rate of climb, while substantially degrading the Brewster's turning and maneuvering capability. The Navy found that the added weight of the F2A-3 also aggravated the problem of landing gear failure during carrier landings. However, the −40 two-speed supercharged Cyclone engine in the F2A-3 was an excellent "cruising" engine, and as such the F2A-3 had some value and saw initial service on the carriers Saratoga and Lexington.

Even in late 1940 it was apparent that the Buffalo was rapidly becoming obsolete. It badly needed a more powerful engine and an enlarged wing (to offset the increased weight), but the limits of the airframe had been reached, making installation of a larger engine impossible.  Soon after deliveries of the F2A-3 began, the Navy decided to eliminate the type altogether. However, a project was begun to replace the wing-mounted .50 M2 machine guns with two M2 20mm cannons. At least eight sets of wings were completed, and at least one F2A-3 was fitted with them (preserved photographically). By then, considered a second line aircraft, some were transferred to the U.S. Marine Corps, which deployed two F2A-3 squadrons to the Pacific, one at Palmyra Atoll, and another at Midway Island. Those which still remained on board aircraft carriers narrowly missed a combat opportunity when a relief mission was dispatched to Wake Island, but the relief force was withdrawn before completing the mission. Shortly thereafter, F2A-3s still in naval service were transferred to training squadrons for use as advanced trainers.

Operational history
The first unit to be equipped with the F2A-1 was Lt. Cdr. Warren Harvey's VF-3, assigned to  air group. On 8 December 1939, VF-3 received 10 of the 11 Buffalos delivered to the U.S. Navy. The remaining 43 F2A-1s were declared surplus (to be replaced with an equal number of the improved F2A-2s) and sold to Finland. Ralph Ingersoll wrote in late 1940 after visiting Britain that the Buffalo and other American aircraft "cannot compete with either the existing English or German fighters", so Britain used them "either as advanced trainers --or for fighting equally obsolete Italian planes in the Middle East. That is all they are good for". Even the Eagle Squadrons's American pilots used Hawker Hurricanes instead of the Buffalo. Early in the war all modern monoplane fighter types were in high demand, however. Consequently, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and the Netherlands East Indies purchased several hundred export models.

Finland

In April 1939, the Finnish government contacted the Roosevelt administration, requesting the supply of modern combat aircraft as quickly as possible. On 17 October, the Finnish Embassy in Washington, D.C., received a telegram clearing the purchase of fighter aircraft. The only strict requirements laid down by Finnish authorities were that the aircraft be already operational and able to use 87-octane fuel. Part of an F2A-1 shipment – 44 aircraft originally intended for the US Navy – was diverted to Finland, by the US State Department, after the USN agreed to instead accept a later shipment of F2A-2 variants.

On 16 December, the Finnish government signed a contract to purchase 44 aircraft: a F2A-1 variant designated Model B-239E by Brewster. Unlike other fighters already in service, the F2A-1 and B-239E lacked self-sealing fuel tanks and cockpit armor. However, the B-239E was built with a more powerful engine than the F2A-1, in the form of the Wright R-1820-G5, producing , and the capacity to carry four machine guns (rather than the two carried by the F2A-1). The B-239E was also  "de-navalized" before shipment: equipment such as tailhooks and life raft containers were removed. The upgraded engine and slightly reduced net weight (i.e. from the omitted armor and de-navalization) resulted in an improved power-to-weight ratio and better general performance.

In four batches the B-239E was shipped initially to Bergen, in Norway, in January and February 1940 from New York City. The crated fighters were then sent by railway to Sweden and assembled by SAAB at Trollhättan, northeast of Gothenburg.

After delivery of the B-239E, the Finnish Air Force added armored backrests, metric flight instruments, the Väisälä T.h.m.40 gunsight, and four  machine guns. The top speed of the Finnish B-239s, as modified, was  at , and their loaded weight was .

In February 1940, pilot Lieutenant Jorma "Joppe" Karhunen flight-tested the first B-239 to become operational in Finland. Unfamiliar with the aircraft, he burned out the engine while flying very low at high speed; crashing on a snow-covered field, damaging the propeller and some belly panels. Initially unimpressed, the Finns later witnessed a demonstration by a Brewster test pilot, who was able to stay on the tail of a Finnish Fiat G.50 Freccia  fighter from Italy; although the Fiat fighter was faster in level flight, the Brewster could out-turn it.

None of the B-239E fighters saw combat in the Winter War (1939–1940). However, five of the six delivered during the war became combat-ready before it ended.

The B-239E was never referred to as the name Buffalo in Finland; it was known simply as the Brewster, or by the nicknames Taivaan helmi ("sky pearl") or Pohjoisten taivaiden helmi ("pearl of the northern skies"). Other nicknames were Pylly-Valtteri (lit. "butt-walter"), Amerikanrauta ("American hardware" or "American car") and Lentävä kaljapullo ("flying beer-bottle"). The total of 44 examples of the B-239E fighters used by the FAF received serial numbers BW-351 to BW-394.

Finnish pilots regarded the B-239E  as being easy to fly, or in the words of ace Ilmari Juutilainen, a "gentlemen's travelling [or touring] plane".  The Buffalo was also popular within the FAF because of its relatively long range and good maintenance record. This was in part due to the efforts of the Finnish mechanics, who solved a problem that plagued the Wright Cyclone engine by inverting one of the piston rings in each cylinder, which had a positive effect on reliability. The cooler weather of Finland also helped, because the engine was prone to overheating as noted in tropical Pacific use. The Brewster Buffalo earned a reputation in Finnish Air Force service as one of its more successful fighter aircraft, along with the Fiat G.50, which scored an unprecedented kill-loss ratio of 33-1.

In service from 1941 to 1945, Buffalos of Lentolaivue 24 (Fighter Squadron 24) claimed 477 Soviet Air Force warplanes destroyed, with the combat loss of just 19 Buffalos, an outstanding victory ratio of 26:1.

During the Continuation War, Lentolaivue 24 (Fighter Squadron 24) was equipped with the B-239s until May 1944, when the Buffalos were transferred to Hävittäjälentolaivue 26 (Fighter Squadron 26). Most of the pilots of Lentolaivue 24 were Winter War combat veterans. This squadron claimed a total of 459 Soviet aircraft with B-239s, while losing 15 Buffalos in combat.

The Brewsters had their baptism by fire in Finland on 25 June 1941, when a pair of Buffalos from 2/LLv24, operating from Selänpää airfield (ICAO:EFSE) intercepted 27 Soviet Tupolev SBs from 201st SBAP  near Heinola. Five SBs were claimed as downed. Subsequent attacks were repelled by LLv24 pilots who, by dusk, had flown 77 sorties.

Many Finnish pilots racked up enormous scores by using basic tactics against Soviet aircraft. The default tactic was the four-plane "parvi" (swarm), with a pair flying lower as bait, and a higher pair to dive on enemy interceptors. The Soviet Air Force was never able to counter this tactic.  The top-scoring B-239 pilot was Hans Wind, with 39 kills. Lt Hans Wind, with six other Buffalos of LeLv 24, intercepted some 60 Soviet aircraft near Kronstad. Two Soviet Pe-2 bombers, one Soviet Hawker Hurricane fighter, and 12 I-16s were claimed for the loss of just one B-239 (BW-378).  After evaluation of claims against actual Soviet losses, aircraft BW-364 was found to have been used to achieve 42½ kills in total by all pilots operating it, possibly making it the highest-scoring fighter airframe in the history of air warfare. The top scoring Finnish ace, Ilmari Juutilainen, scored 34 of his 94½ kills in B-239s, including 28 in BW-364.

During the Continuation War, a lack of replacements led the Finns to develop a copy of the Buffalo built from non-strategic materials such as plywood, however the Humu, as they called it, was already obsolete and only a single prototype was built. By late 1943, the lack of spares, wear-and-tear, and better Soviet fighters and training greatly reduced the effectiveness of Finnish B-239s, though LeLv 26 pilots would still claim some 35 victories against Soviet aircraft in mid-1944. The last victory by a Buffalo against Soviet aircraft was claimed over the Karelian Isthmus on 17 June 1944.

From 1943, Finland's air force received Messerschmitt Bf 109Gs from Germany, and this much-superior fighter re-equipped most Finnish Air Force fighter squadrons.

After Finland signed an armistice with the Soviet Union in September, 1944, they had to drive Finland's former ally, Nazi Germany out of the country during the "Lapland War". The only clash with the Luftwaffe took place on 3 October 1944 when HLeLV 26 intercepted Junkers Ju 87s, claiming two, the last victories to be made by Brewster pilots in World War II. By the end of the war in Lapland, only eight B-239s were left.

Five B-239s continued to fly until 1948, with last flights of Brewsters by the Finnish Air Force on 14 September 1948, when they were stored until scrapped in 1953.

Belgium
Just before the start of the war, Belgium sought more modern aircraft to expand and modernize its air force. Belgium ordered 40 Brewster B-339 aircraft, a de-navalized F2A-2, fitted with the Wright R-1820-G-105 engine approved for export use. The G-105 engine had a power output of  (peak) on takeoff, some  less than the engine fitted to the U.S. Navy F2A-2. The arrestor hook and liferaft container were removed, and the aircraft was modified with a slightly longer tail.

Only one aircraft reached France by the time Germany launched its Blitzkrieg in the West on 10 May 1940. The Buffalo was later captured intact by the Germans, and it was partially rediscovered near Darmstadt in 1945.

Six more Belgian Brewsters were offloaded at the French Caribbean island of Martinique and languished on a coastal hillside, never to be flown. The rest of the order went to the RAF.

British Commonwealth (Malaya)

Facing a shortage of combat aircraft in January 1940, the British Purchasing Commission was established to acquire U.S. aircraft that would help supplement domestic production. Among the U.S. fighter aircraft that caught the Commission's attention was the Brewster. The remaining 32 B-339 aircraft ordered by the Belgians, suspended at the fall of France, were passed on to the United Kingdom. Appraisal by Royal Air Force acceptance personnel criticized it on numerous points including inadequate armament and lack of pilot armor, poor high-altitude performance, engine overheating, maintenance issues, and cockpit controls, while it was praised for its handling, roomy cockpit, and visibility. With a top speed of about  at , but with fuel starvation issues over , it was considered unfit for duty in western Europe. Still desperately in need of fighter aircraft in the Pacific and Asia for British and Commonwealth air forces, the UK ordered an additional 170 aircraft under the type specification B-339E.

Delivery and assembly of the Buffalos in Singapore took place in the spring of 1941. The first Buffalo units (Nos 67 and 243 Squadron RAF) were formed at RAF Kallang in March 1941.

The B-339E, or Brewster Buffalo Mk I as it was designated in British service, was initially intended to be fitted with an export-approved Wright R-1820-G-105 Cyclone engine with a  (peak takeoff) engine. The Brewster aircraft delivered to British and Commonwealth air forces were significantly altered from the B-339 type sold to the Belgium and French forces in accordance with their purchase order. The Brewster factory removed the Navy life raft container and arrestor hook, while adding many new items of equipment, including a British Mk III reflector gun sight, a gun camera, a larger fixed pneumatic tire tail wheel, fire extinguisher, engine shutters, a larger battery, and reinforced armor plating and armored glass behind the canopy windshield.

The Brewster Model B-339E, as modified and supplied to Great Britain was distinctly inferior in performance to the F2A-2 (Model B-339) from the original order. It had a less powerful () engine compared to the F2A-2's  Cyclone, yet was substantially heavier due to all of the additional modifications by some . The semi-retractable tail wheel had been exchanged for a larger fixed model, which was also less aerodynamic. Top speed was reduced from  at combat altitudes.

In its original form, the B-339 had a theoretical maximum speed of  at a rather unrealistic , but fuel starvation problems and poor supercharger performance at higher altitudes meant that this figure was never achieved in combat; the B-339E was no different in this regard. Its maneuverability was severely impaired (the aircraft was unable to perform loops), and initial rate of climb was reduced to . The Wright Cyclone 1890-G-105 engine designated for use in the Brewster Mk I was in short supply; many aircraft were fitted with secondhand Wright engines sourced from Douglas DC-3 airliners and rebuilt to G105 or G102A specifications by Wright. In service, some effort was made by at least one Brewster squadron to improve the type's sluggish performance; a few aircraft were lightened by some  by removing armor plate, armored windshields, radios, gun camera, and all other unnecessary equipment, and by replacing the  machine guns with  machine guns. The fuselage tanks were filled with a minimum of fuel, and run on high-octane aviation petrol where available. At Alor Star airfield in Malaya, the Japanese captured over  of high-octane aviation petrol from British forces, which they promptly used in their own fighter aircraft.

Many of the pilots assigned the Buffalo lacked adequate training and experience in the type. A total of 20 of the original 169 Buffalos were lost in training accidents during 1941. By December 1941, approximately 150 Buffalo B-339E aircraft made up the bulk of the British fighter defenses of Burma, Malaya and Singapore. The two RAAF, two RAF, and one RNZAF squadrons, during December 1941 – January 1942, were beset with numerous problems, including poorly built and ill-equipped aircraft. Aviation historian Dan Ford characterized it as, "The performance... was pathetic." Inadequate spare parts and support staff, airfields that were difficult to defend against air attack, lack of a clear and coherent command structure, a Japanese spy in the Army air liaison staff, antagonism between RAF and RAAF squadrons and personnel, and inexperienced pilots lacking appropriate training would lead to disaster. Although the Mk I had .50-inch guns, many aircraft were equipped with .303 Browning mounts and electric firing solenoids, which tended to fail in service. Moreover, according to Flight Lieutenant Mowbray Garden of 243 Squadron RAF, the Buffalos were supplied with only armour-piercing ammunition and no incendiary; Japanese aircraft lacked armor and self-sealing fuel tanks in the early years of the war, a fact unknown to the Allies at the time.

When the Japanese invaded northern Malaya on 8 December 1941, the B-339E initially performed adequately. Against the Nakajima Ki-27 "Nate", the overloaded Brewsters could at least hold their own if given time to get to altitude, and at first achieved a respectable number of kills. However, the appearance of ever greater numbers of Japanese fighters, including markedly superior types such as the Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar" soon overwhelmed the Buffalo pilots, both in the air and on the ground. Another significant factor was the Brewster engine's tendency to overheat in the tropical climate, which caused oil to spray over the windscreen, usually forcing an aborted mission and greatly complicating attempts to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft. In the end, more than 60 Brewster Mk I (B-339E) aircraft were shot down in combat, 40 destroyed on the ground, and approximately 20 more destroyed in accidents. Only about 20 Buffalos survived to reach India or the Dutch East Indies. The last airworthy Buffalo in Singapore flew out on 10 February, five days before the island fell.

It is not entirely clear how many Japanese aircraft the Buffalo squadrons shot down, although RAAF pilots alone managed to shoot down at least 20. Eighty were claimed in total, a ratio of kills to losses of just 1.3 to 1. Additionally, most of the Japanese aircraft shot down by the Buffalos were bombers. The Hawker Hurricane, which fought in Singapore alongside the Buffalo from 20 January, also suffered severe losses from ground attack; most were destroyed. The Fleet Air Arm also used the Buffalo in the Mediterranean in the Battle of Crete in early 1941.

The Brewster Mark I produced four Commonwealth aces: Geoff Fisken, Maurice Holder, A. W. B. (Alf) Clare and R. D. (Doug) Vanderfield. New Zealander Fisken, the top-scoring pilot, later flew RNZAF P-40s and became the highest-scoring Commonwealth pilot within the Pacific theatre.

Japanese invasion of Burma

No. 67 Squadron RAF was originally formed in Singapore before their redeployment to Burma in October 1941. They were equipped with thirty Buffalos inherited from 60 Squadron RAF at Mingaladon; the aircraft they received in Singapore were passed on to 488 Squadron RNZAF. They were joined by Curtiss P-40 fighters of the American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers). AVG crews were initially impressed with the Buffalo, some even urging General Claire Chennault to trade a squadron of P-40s for Buffalos. In response, Chennault arranged a mock dogfight between both fighters, with 1st Lieutenant Erik Shilling flying the P-40 and Squadron Leader Jack Brandt flying the Buffalo. Over their training base in Toungoo, the P-40 proved to be superior to the Buffalo. When Shilling and Brandt met again fifty years later, the RAF pilot said, "how I wish I could have swapped my aircraft for yours".

The squadron first saw action on 23 December 1941, when 15 Buffalos intercepted a formation of 42 Ki-21 heavy bombers, 27 Ki-30 light bombers and 30 Ki-27 fighters during a daylight raid on Rangoon. Together with twelve P-40s, they claimed 13 bombers destroyed and seven probable; four P-40s including two pilots were lost while all the Buffalos returned safely. Nevertheless, the Japanese succeeded in bombing Rangoon, its port facilities and RAF Mingaladon, inflicting extensive damage and casualties.

The Buffalos and P-40s carried out air defenses over Rangoon and Mingaladon as well as strafing missions on Japanese airfields. Like Malaya and Singapore, lack of effective early warning systems greatly hampered British and AVG efforts to defend Burma from air raids. Reports of Japanese aircraft performance from the Malayan Campaign prompted Buffalo pilots in Burma to employ different tactics; according to Flight Sergeant Vic Bargh, "come in from above, or at the same level at the very least, then dive away before they got onto you, because if they did get onto you, well, you were shot down". One of the Buffalo's final victories of the Burma Campaign was claimed by Bargh; he found the wreckage of the bomber and had his picture taken with it as proof.

The IJAAF secured air superiority over Rangoon by early February 1942, and with the situation on the ground rapidly deteriorating, No. 67 Squadron withdrew north to Toungoo. On 13 February, the squadron moved further north to Magwe with only eight Buffalos, where they continued to carry out reconnaissance flights as well as escorting Westland Lysanders on ground attack missions. The Buffalo flew its last combat sortie with the RAF on 5 March, escorting Hawker Hurricanes and Bristol Blenheims for an attack on a Japanese airbase in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Only six Buffalos remained when the squadron withdrew to Calcutta, India on 11 March to re-equip with Hurricanes. They were swiftly relegated to training duties, though two were briefly acquired by No. 146 Squadron RAF in early April, one of which was regularly flown by Squadron Leader Count Manfred Czernin. No. 67 Squadron claimed 27 Japanese aircraft destroyed; eight Buffalos were shot down and eight pilots were killed. For their actions, Squadron Leader Jack Brandt and Flight Lieutenant Colin Pinckney were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (the latter posthumously), while Sergeant Gordon Williams received the Distinguished Flying Medal.

Netherlands East Indies

The Militaire Luchtvaart van het Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger ("Military Air Service of the Royal Netherlands East Indian Army", ML-KNIL) had ordered 144 Brewster B-339C and 339D models, the former with rebuilt Wright G-105 engines supplied by the Dutch and the latter with new  Wright R-1820-40 engines Brewster purchased from Wright. At the outbreak of war, only 71 had arrived in the Dutch East Indies, and not all were in service. A small number served briefly at Singapore before being withdrawn for the defense of Borneo and Java.

As the Brewster B-339 aircraft used by the ML-KNIL were lighter than the modified B-339E Brewster Mark Is used by British, Australian, and New Zealand air forces, they were able to successfully engage the Japanese Army Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar", although both the "Oscar" and the Japanese Navy's A6M Zero still out-climbed the B-339 at combat altitudes (the Zero was faster as well). After the first few engagements, the Dutch halved the fuel and ammo load in the wing, which allowed their Buffalos (and their Hurricanes) to stay with the Oscars in turns. In February 1942 they received new model gunsights. Around the same time the Dutch started to use tracer ammunition as well. These two improved their hit ratio. Still, their lack of heavy machine guns (.50") meant their success rate wasn't as high as it could have been.

Apart from their role as fighters, the Brewster fighters were also used as dive bombers against Japanese troopships. Although reinforced by British Commonwealth Buffalo Mk I (B-339E) aircraft retreating from Malaya, the Dutch squadrons faced superior numbers in the air, usually odds of one against two or three. Timely early warning from British radar would have countered this deficit, especially in avoiding unnecessary losses from raids on airfields, but the British government had decided too late to send these: the first British radar stations became operational only towards the end of February. Had they been ready two weeks earlier, the outcome of the Japanese invasion here might well have been different (read Boer's book).

In a major engagement above Semplak on 19 February 1942, eight Dutch Brewster fighters intercepted a formation of about 35 Japanese bombers with an escort of about 20 Zeros. The Brewster pilots destroyed 11 Japanese aircraft and lost four Brewsters; two Dutch pilots died.

Only four airworthy Buffalos remained on 7 March. Capt. Jacob van Helsdingen led this flight on its final sortie that day, and was credited with a Zero before he was killed. This made him and Lt. August Deibel the most successful Dutch pilots on the Buffalo with three victories each. Altogether, 17 ML-KNIL pilots were killed, and 30 aircraft shot down; 15 were destroyed on the ground, and several were lost to misadventure. Dutch pilots claimed 55 enemy aircraft destroyed.

USAAF/RAAF in Australia
Following the surrender of the Netherlands East Indies on 8 March 1942, 17 B339-23 belonging to the ML-KNIL (diverted to Australia because of late delivery) were transferred to the U.S. Fifth Air Force in Australia.
All of these USAAF aircraft were lent to the RAAF (designated A-23), with which they were used mainly for air defence duties outside frontline areas, photo-reconnaissance and gunnery training. Buffalos served with 1 PRU, 24 Sqn, 25 Sqn, 85 Sqn and the RAAF Gunnery Training School.

Between August 1942 and November 1943, 10 of these Brewsters constituted the air defense force for Perth, Western Australia, while assigned to 25 and 85 Sqns at RAAF Pearce and RAAF Guildford.
In 1944, all of the surviving aircraft were transferred to the USAAF.

U.S. Marine Corps

At Midway Island, United States Marine Corps fighter squadron VMF-221 operated a mixed group of 20 Brewster F2A-3 Buffalos and seven Grumman F4F-3 Wildcats. They were originally assigned to  as part of a relief force bound for Wake Island, but were diverted to Midway instead after the force was controversially recalled on 22 December 1941. Wake Island fell on the following day. The squadron first saw action on 10 March 1942 when a Kawanishi H8K "Emily" flying boat was shot down by Captain James L. Neefus near Midway, the Buffalo's first kill in U.S. service.

From February - April 1942 the rebuilt squadron VMF-211 (most of which had been lost in the Battle of Wake Island) was re-equipped with F2A-3s and was ferried by the escort carrier Long Island to Palmyra Atoll, where it remained until recalled in July of that year, ferrying their aircraft to land on Long Island to return to Hawaii to re-equip with F4F-4s.

During the Battle of Midway in 1942, VMF-221 was destined to participate in one of the few aerial combats involving the Buffalo in U.S. military service. The initial Buffalo interception of the first Japanese air raid was led by Major Floyd B. Parks, whose 13-aircraft division did not fly in paired flights of mutually supporting aircraft. After attacking a formation of 30–40 Aichi D3A1 "Val" dive bombers escorted by 36 Zeros, the Marines, flying in two divisions of aircraft, downed several Japanese bombers before the escorting Zeros reacted; a furious dogfight developed. Thirteen out of 20 Buffalos were lost; of the six Wildcats, only two remained flyable at the end of the mission. The losses included the Marine air commander, Major Parks, who bailed out of his burning Buffalo, only to be strafed by Zeros after parachuting into the sea.

The Marine pilots who managed to shake off the Zeros used high speed split-s turns or very steep dives. These maneuvers were later found to be the best means to evade pursuit by the highly maneuverable Japanese fighters. One F2A-3 pilot, Marine Captain William Humberd, dove away from his pursuers, then attacked a Zero in a head-on pass, shooting his opponent down. In the battle, some F2A-3s suffered from inoperative guns. The nose-mounted guns' occasional failure to fire was noticed by other users as well; the phenomenon may have been caused by frayed electrical wires in the mechanism that synchronized the nose guns with the propeller. Other Buffalos had not been fitted with plate armor behind the pilot, making them vulnerable to even a single bullet or shell. Losses were aggravated due to the Japanese practice of strafing pilots who had bailed out. Second Lt. Charles S. Hughes, whose Buffalo was forced to retire at the start of the raid due to engine trouble, had a ringside view of the aerial combat:

The Zeros came in strafing immediately afterward. I saw two Brewsters trying to fight the Zeros. One was shot down and the other was saved by ground fires covering his tail. Both looked like they were tied to a string while the Zeros made passes at them.

Second Lt. Charles M. Kunz reported that after successfully downing two Val bombers, he was attacked by Japanese fighters:
I was at an altitude of about 9,000 ft, and shoved over in a dive trying to shake the plane on my tail until I was about 20 feet from the water. I was making radical turns hoping the pilot couldn't get steadied on me. I glanced out of the rear and saw that it was a Zero fighter. I continued flying on a rapid turning course at full throttle when I was hit in the head by a glancing bullet. After he fired a few short bursts he left as I had been in a general direction of 205 degrees heading away from the island. My plane was badly shot up... In my opinion, the Zero fighter has been far underestimated. I think it is probably one of the finest fighters in the present war. As for the F2A-3, (or Brewster trainer), it should be in Miami as a training plane, rather than used as a first-line fighter.

Claire Chennault's report on the Zero and air combat reached Washington in 1941, where it was disseminated to aviation forces of the U.S. Army and Navy. This information, along with the development of two-plane mutual defensive formations and tactics, were incorporated into U.S. and Marine Corps air combat training doctrine by some prescient U.S. commanders, including Lieutenant Commander "Jimmy" Thach. The Thach Weave was developed for use by Wildcat pilots against the Zero and was later adopted by other Wildcat squadrons in the Pacific.

With the emergence of new tactics for the F4F-3 and F4F-4 Wildcat, the Battle of Midway marked the end of the Buffalo in both U.S. Navy and Marine Corps fighting squadrons. Surviving F2A-3 aircraft were transported to the U.S. mainland, where they were used as advanced trainers. The introduction in late 1943 of vastly superior American carrier-borne fighters such as the F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair soon relegated the Brewster F2A-3 to a distant memory.

Buffalo aces
The Finnish Air Force produced 36 Buffalo aces. The top three were Capt. Hans Wind, with 39 Buffalo air victories (out of 75), WO Eino Ilmari Juutilainen, with 34 (out of 94) and Capt. Jorma Karhunen, with 25.5 (out of 31.5). First Lt Lauri Nissinen also had victories in the type (22.5 out of 32.5).

The non-Finnish Buffalo aces were: Geoff Fisken  (RNZAF), with six air victories, and Doug Vanderfield (RAAF) with five individual kills, plus one shared. Alf Clare (RAAF) and Maurice Holder (RAF) had five victories each.

Variants

XF2A-1 Prototype
F2A-1 (with Wright R-1820-34 Cyclone engine and two guns above engine cowling, plus two optional guns in the wings) for the United States Navy, 11 built
F2A-2 (with Wright R-1820-40 Cyclone engine and four guns) for the United States Navy and Marines, 43 built
F2A-3 Improved F2A-2 for the United States Navy with larger fuel tank, heavier armour, and provision to carry two underwing  bombs, 108 built
XF2A-4 One converted from an F2A-3
B-239 Export version of the F2A-1 for Finland (with Wright R-1820-G5 Cyclone engines and four guns), 44 built
B-339B Export version for Belgium, 40 built (only two delivered to Belgium, the rest to the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm)
B-339C Export version for the Netherlands East Indies with Wright GR-1820-G105 Cyclone engines; 24 built
B-339D Export version for the Netherlands East Indies with  Wright R-1820-40 Cyclone engines; 48 built (47 delivered to Dutch East Indies)
B-339E Export version of the F2A-2 for the Royal Air Force with Wright GR-1820-G105 Cyclone engines as the Buffalo Mk I; 170 built (also used by the RAAF and RNZAF)
B-339-23 a.k.a. B-439 Export version of the F2A-3 for the Netherlands East Indies with  Wright GR-1820-G205A engines; 20 built (17 later to the RAAF, some used by the USAAF)

Operators

 Royal Australian Air Force
No. 21 Squadron RAAF
No. 24 Squadron RAAF
No. 25 Squadron RAAF (ex-Dutch)
No. 43 Squadron RAAF
No. 85 Squadron RAAF (ex-25 Sqn.)
No. 453 Squadron RAAF
No. 452 Squadron RAAF
No. 1 PRU RAAF (ex-Dutch, Photo Reconnaissance Unit)

 Finnish Air Force
No. 24 Squadron (1941–1944)
No. 26 Squadron (1944–1945)

 Captured Buffalos were repaired and test flown, both in Japanese markings, and – starring in recreated combat footage – in incorrect RAF markings.

 Militaire Luchtvaart KNIL
Vliegtuiggroep IV, 3e Afdeling (3-VLG-IV: 3rd Squadron, IV Group)
Vliegtuiggroep V, 1e Afdeling (1-VLG-V)
Vliegtuiggroep V, 2e Afdeling (2-VLG-V, helped defend Singapore)
Vliegtuiggroep V, 3e Afdeling (3-VLG-V)

 Royal New Zealand Air Force
No. 488 Squadron RNZAF

 Royal Air Force
No. 60 Squadron RAF
No. 67 Squadron RAF (ex-60 Sqn., most pilots were RNZAF)
No. 71 Squadron RAF
No. 146 Squadron RAF (ex-67 Sqn.)
No. 243 Squadron RAF (most pilots were RNZAF)
Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
711 Naval Air Squadron
759 Naval Air Squadron
760 Naval Air Squadron
804 Naval Air Squadron
805 Naval Air Squadron
813 Naval Air Squadron
885 Naval Air Squadron

 United States Army Air Forces
5th Air Force, Australia (ex-Dutch)
United States Marine Corps
VMF-111, based at Camp Kearney, Calif.
VMF-112, based at Camp Kearney, Calif.
VMD-2
VMF-211, based at Palmyra Atoll
VMF-212, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-213, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-214, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-221, used in Battle of Midway
VMF-222, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-224
VMO-251
United States Navy
VF-2
VF-3
VF-9
VJ-5
VJ-6
VS-201
Training Units at NAS Pensacola and NAS Miami

Surviving aircraft and replicas

Only export models of the Buffalo are preserved. There is currently a complete Finnish B-239 (BW-372), a VL Humu variant (HM-671 at the Central Finland Aviation museum), and two replicas – one in ML-KNIL markings and the other in U.S. Navy markings.

Finnish B-239 (serial no. BW-372) flown by Lt. Lauri Pekuri was damaged by a Soviet Hawker Hurricane and crashed in 1942 on Lake Big Kolejärvi, about  from Segezha, Russia and was rediscovered in 1998 and is now on display at the Keski-Suomen Ilmailumuseo (Aviation Museum of Central Finland). The Finnish museum also has components from FAF BW-393.

In June 2012, divers discovered the partial wreckage of a Buffalo in shallow water just off Midway Atoll. The aircraft had been ditched during February 1942, after an aborted landing attempt in bad weather by 1st Lt Charles W. Somers Jr., USMC (later Colonel, USMC Ret). Officials at the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, where the wreckage was found, have not decided whether to recover any of the parts or leave them in place.

In July 2008, a static full-scale replica B-339C was completed by the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Long Island, New York. The aircraft carries the markings of an ML-KNIL fighter flown by Lt. Gerard Bruggink (two kills). It was built for the Militaire-Luchtvaartmuseum (Military Aviation Museum) at Soesterberg, the Netherlands. The Cradle of Aviation Museum houses a static full-scale replica/model F2A-2, carrying the markings of unit "201-S-13" from VS-201, aboard USS Long Island.

Specifications (F2A-3)

See also

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography
 Arena, Nino. I caccia a motore radiale Fiat G.50 (in Italian). Modena: Mucchi editore, 1996. NO ISBN
 Boer, P.C. The Loss of Java. Singapore: NUS Press, 2011. .
 Boer, P.C. Het Verlies van Java (in Dutch). Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 2006. .
 Byk, Gary. Buffalo Down Under: The Modeller's Guide to Australia's Inherited Fighter. Glen Waverly, Victoria, Australia: Red Roo Models Publication, 1998.
 Cull, Brian, Paul Sortenhaug and Mark Haselden. Buffaloes over Singapore: RAF, RAAF, RNZAF and Dutch Brewster Fighters in Action over Malaya and the East Indies 1941–1942. London: Grub Street, 2003. .
 Dann, Richard S/Ginter, Steve. Brewster F2A Buffalo and Export Variants. Simi Valley, CA: Ginter Publications, 2017. .
 Dennis, Peter et al. The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press Australia & New Zealand, 2008 (Second edition). .
 Drendel, Lou. U.S. Navy Carrier Fighters of World War II. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1987.
 Ford, Daniel. "The Sorry Saga of the Brewster Buffalo". Air&Space/Smithsonian, July 1996. Expanded and revised digital edition, Warbird Books, 2013.
Gerdessen, F. "Talkback". Air Enthusiast. No. 13, August–November 1980. p. 78.
 Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Brewster F2A Buffalo". WW2 Fact Files: US Navy and Marine Corps Fighters. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1976, pp. 5–15. .
 Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Brewster's Benighted Buffalo". Air Enthusiast Quarterly, No. 1, n.d., pp. 66–83.
 Horn, Steve. "The Second Attack on Pearl Harbor: Operation K And Other Japanese Attempts to Bomb America in World War II". Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2005. .
 Huggins, Mark. "Falcons on Every Front: Nakajima's KI-43-I Hayabusa in Combat." Air Enthusiast, Issue 131, September/October 2007.
 Keskinen, Kalevi, Kari Stenman and Klaus Niska. Brewster B-239 ja Humu (in Finnish). Espoo, Finland: Tietoteos, 1977. . Expanded and revised edition published in two parts:
 Brewster Model 239: Suomen Ilmavoimien Historia 1A. Espoo, Finland: Kari Stenman Publishing, 2005. .
 Brewster Model 239: Suomen Ilmavoimien Historia 1B. Espoo, Finland: Kari Stenman Publishing, 2005. .
 Lamp, C. O. The Flying Tigers Poke Payoff: They Saved China. iUniverse, 2007. .

 Lundstrom, John B. The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2005. .
 Maas, Jim. F2A Buffalo in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1988. .
 Moran, Jim. Wake Island 1941: A Battle to Make the Gods Weep (Osprey Campaign 144). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2011. .

 Neulen, Hans Werner. In the Skies of Europe. Ramsbury, Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press, 2000. .
 O'Leary, Michael. United States Naval Fighters of World War II in Action. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press, 1980. .
 Pacco, John. "Brewster B-339" Belgisch Leger/Armee Belge: Het militair Vliegwezen/l'Aeronautique militaire 1930–1940 (in French). Artselaar, Belgium: J.P. Publications, 2003, pp. 70–71. .
 Raunio, Jukka. Lentäjän näkökulma 2 – Pilot's viewpoint 2 (in Finnish). Self-published, 1993. .
 Shores, Christopher. The Brewster Buffalo (Aircraft in Profile 217). Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1971.
 Stanaway, John. Nakajima Ki.43 "Hayabusa": Allied Code Name "Oscar". Bennington, Vermont: Merriam Press, 1998. .
 Stenman, Kari and Andrew Thomas. Brewster F2A Buffalo Aces of World War 2 (Aircraft of the Aces). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2010. .
 Stenman, Kari and Kalevi Keskinen. Finnish Aces of World War 2. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1998. .
 Stenman, Kari. Lentolaivue 24. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001. .
 Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1911. London: Putnam, Second Edition, 1976. .
 Taylor, John W.R. "Brewster F2A Buffalo." Combat Aircraft of the World from 1909 to the present. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969. .
 Wheeler, Barry C. The Hamlyn Guide to Military Aircraft Markings. London: Chancellor Press, 1992. .
 Winchester, Jim. "Brewster Buffalo." The World's Worst Aircraft: From Pioneering Failures to Multimillion Dollar Disasters. London: Amber Books Ltd., 2005. .
 Wixey, Ken. A Rotund New Yorker: Brewster's Embattled Buffalo. Air Enthusiast 105, May/June 2003, pp. 26–40.
 Zbiegniewski, Andre R. Brewster F2A Buffalo (bilingual Polish/English). Lublin, Poland: Kagero, 2003. .

External links

 Manual: (1939) AP 1806A – Pilot's Notes – The Buffalo I Aeroplane – Wright Cyclone GR. 1820 G. 105A Engine
 Squadron Leader W.J. Harper, 1946, "Report on NO. 21 and NO. 453 RAAF squadrons" (transcribed by Dan Ford for Warbird's Forum.)
 Brewster F2A-3 Buffalo
 Finnish Buffalo BW372 recovery

F02A
1930s United States fighter aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1937
World War II aircraft of Finland

Brewster F2A Buffalo


City Mill River is part of the Bow Back Rivers in London, England. It formerly fed City Mill, used for the production of chemicals in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the 1930s, the mill was removed and the river was isolated from the tides by the construction of locks at both ends. City Mill Lock, at the southern end, has been refurbished and reopened in 2010.

History
City Mill River leaves the old channel of the River Lea at its northern end, and flows in a south-easterly direction, originally to City Mill. Town plans from 1895 and 1923 both indicate that it was used for the production of chemicals. The mill straddled the channel, and a bypass stream flowed to the west of the present course, to meet the Waterworks River below the mill. The discharge from the mill was into a large pool, which also formed a part of the Waterworks River. By the late 1920s, most of the Bow Back Rivers including the City Mill River were in serious decay, and the Lee Conservancy Board, jointly with West Ham Corporation, obtained a government grant as part of an unemployment relief scheme to carry out a number of improvements to the rivers. The work was authorised by the River Lee (Flood Relief) Act of 1930, and work began in 1931, taking four years to complete.

The course of the river was largely unchanged by the improvements, except at the southern end, where the mill was demolished, and the channel was routed through the mill site. Part of the mill basin was filled in, and the river joined Bow Back River, which was moved slightly further to the north, away from Bow Road and Stratford High Street. The Waterworks River, to the east of the mill basin, was widened and routed further to the west, and a connecting lock was built between the new course of the City Mill River and the new course of the Waterworks River. The river ceased to be tidal, as City Mills Lock isolated the southern end from the tidal Waterworks River, and Carpenter's Lock isolated the northern end, allowing the river to be maintained at the same level as Limehouse Cut. It became semi-tidal, since the water level in Limehouse Cut was maintained by Bow Locks, but high tides overtopped the gates, resulting in there being fluctuations at spring tides.

City Mill Lock

City Mill Lock, which connects Bow Back River and the bottom of the City Mill River to the Waterworks River, was built as part of the 1930s improvement programme. Unlike Carpenter's Lock, which was built at the same time and was fitted with vertical radial gates, City Mill Lock was built with conventional mitre gates. Two pairs of gates pointing to the west, allowing the lock to be used when the level of the water in the Waterworks River was lower than that in the City Mill River, and a third pair pointing to the east, which prevented high tide levels in the Waterworks River forcing the gates open, and the City Mill River draining as the tide fell. The lock was  wide, and could handle boats up to  long. The original gates lasted for almost seventy years, but by 2000 were deemed to be unsafe, and were replaced by stop planks.

In 2005, the lock was partially restored as part of the planning gain required from the developers of the adjacent Bellamy Homes housing scheme. Three sets of new steel gates, manufactured in Sheffield by Mandall Engineering, were installed at a cost of £200,000, and a further £100,000 was spent on general improvements to the area and the access paths to the lock. This left the lock in good condition, but not operational, since the gates did not have balance beams, and the hydraulic operating mechanism was not included in the work. Funding for the provision of the equipment came from the development of the area for the 2012 Olympic Games. Another £200,000 wes spent on the hydraulic rams, sluices, and the associated controls, and on lock ladders and landing stages to enable the lock to be used safely by boaters. The work was completed in 2010, and the lock was formally opened on 31 July.

The work involved dealing with large amounts of plant growth, particularly water pennywort, Hydrocotyle ranunculoides, a member of the apiaceae, which were treated with herbicides to remove them. Water pennywort is a non-native invasive species, which quickly forms a dense mat of vegetation on the surface of slow-moving water, preventing the growth of other species and the movement of animals and boats.

Bibliography

References

Geography of the London Borough of Newham
Locks of London
Locks of the Lee Navigation

City Mill River


Southern Nevada Off Road Enthusiasts (SNORE) is a  club-style Desert racing organization.

Established in 1969 as a club of enthusiasts, it has grown into a major desert motorsports racing event organizer in the Southwest United States and is based out of Las Vegas Nevada.

In 2010 SNORE, announced the revival of the famous Mint 400 off-road race which was subsequently sold to Mad Media and managed by Best in the Desert under a 2-year contract.

References

Auto racing organizations in the United States
Rally raids
Off-road racing series

Southern Nevada Off Road Enthusiasts


Karumandapam is a part of the city of Tiruchirappalli in Tamil Nadu, India, adjoining the Tiruchirappalli Junction. Situated on the Tiruchi-Dindigul road, Just 3 Km from Trichy Central Bus Stand. Karumandapam has been affected by traffic congestion over the past few years. Karumandapam has its unique Temple Named "Ilangattu mariamman Kovil"(இளங்காட்டு மாரியம்மன் கோவில்). This temple is very old and powerful for the Peoples who lives in and around Karumandapam.Its car festival falls on the Tamil month of "Vaigasi"(வைகாசி) every year. This is Seven days festival Through Sunday to next Monday.

Karumandapam is a self-sufficient neighbourhood which has all amenities like schools and hospitals.

Banks Available in Karumandapam

Statebank of India, Indian Overseas Bank, Karur vysya Bank, TDCC, Manapuram Gold Loan

ATM Availability

ICICI, Statebank of India, Indian Overseas Bank, Karur vysya Bank, Dhanalakshmi Bank, City Union Bank

Medicals Availability

Aravind Medicals, Med Plus, Appolo

Nearby Schools and Colleges

National College, Cheddinadu arts and Science College, Oxford Engineering College, CARE Engineering College, Arockiamatha Matriculation Higher Secondary school, Om Maruthi Matriculation School, Ponnagan English Medium School,
Govt middle School

Notes

Neighbourhoods and suburbs of Tiruchirappalli

situated 3 km from trichirappalli junction.

Karumandapam


The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin is a British series sitcom of novels written by David Nobbs. Its also adapted casting Leonard Rossiter, Pauline Yates, John Barron, Sue Nicholls, Geoffrey Palmer, Bruce Bould, John Horsley, Trevor Adams, Sally-Jane Spencer, Tim Preece, Leslie Schofield and Derry Power from the title role. It was produced airing on the BBC and BBC One from 8 September 1976, until the series till 24 January 1979. He adapted the first series from the novel.

British novels
1976 television series debuts
1979 television series endings
1979 disestablishments in the United Kingdom

The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin


Goxhill is a small hamlet in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England in an area known as Holderness. It is situated approximately  south-west of Hornsea town centre.

The village was a civil parish until 1935, when it was merged with Great Hatfield and Little Hatfield to form the parish of Hatfield.

The parish church of St Giles is a Grade II listed building.

In 1823, Goxhill parish was in the Wapentake and Liberty of Holderness. At the time, the parish church was undergoing repairs, begun in 1818. The population was 70, which included five farmers. In 1840 the population was 65, again with five farmers, the parish land of  the property of Rev Charles Constable, who had been patron of the St Giles Church incumbent since 1823.

Goxhill was served from 1865 to 1953 by Wassand railway station on the Hull and Hornsea Railway.

References

External links

Villages in the East Riding of Yorkshire
Holderness

Goxhill, East Riding of Yorkshire