The 2012 Florida Republican presidential primary was held on January 31, 2012. Fifty delegates were at stake, none of them RNC (or super) delegates; it is unclear whether these delegates will be allocated proportionally or winner-take-all. Originally awarded 99 delegates, the Republican National Committee removed half of Florida's delegates because the state committee moved its Republican primary before March 6; the Republican National Committee rules also set the delegate allocation to be proportional because the contest was held before April 1. It is a closed primary. There were 4,063,853 registered Republican voters as of January 3, 2012.

Florida is spread over two time zones, so voting wasn't completed until 7 pm CST/8pm EST.

Background

Iowa, New Hampshire and South Carolina, the first three contests in the primary election cycle to eventually determine a parties' nominee, are often the most politically significant states due to the bandwagon effect.  The candidates themselves, their infrastructure and the national media are entrenched in these states and therefore these early states (particularly Iowa and New Hampshire) receive more media and political attention than any other state. Often the candidate with the most momentum from the first three states will become the party nominee. The 2008 GOP Presidential nominee John McCain won New Hampshire and South Carolina. In 2000, George W. Bush won Iowa and South Carolina, and became the party nominee.

In the 2012 primary race, a division formed in the Republican Party between the moderate frontrunner, former Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney, and conservatives who distrusted Romney's perceived liberal tendencies while governor of Massachusetts.  Romney was criticised, among other things, for signing into law the Massachusetts health reform law, which resembled President Barack Obama's Affordable Health Care for America Act. Many in the conservative faction of the Republican Party searched for an alternative.

Iowa was won by former senator Rick Santorum after the votes were certified. New Hampshire was won by Mitt Romney. Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich won South Carolina. This is the first time the first three states have been won by three different candidates.

Significance

In an effort to increase the political importance of their state's primary and receive added media exposure often directed to the early contests, Florida decided to plan their primary ahead of the early contests, a move that violated Republican Party rules and forced early states to move up their contests.  Florida announced that their primary would occur on January 31 instead of the expected March; Iowa, New Hampshire and South Carolina were expected to have their primaries in February but were forced to push their primaries into January, thereby shortening the overall amount of time that each person could campaign. Florida made this move in 2008.

As a result of this calendar violation, Florida was stripped of half of its delegates, awarding only 50 delegates instead of the original 100 delegates.

Dean Cannon, the Republican speaker of the Florida House of Representatives: "My goal all along is for Florida to preserve her place as the fifth spot on the nominating calendar and not to move ahead of Iowa and New Hampshire."

Polling

Result
Results with 100.0% (6,796 of 6,796 Precincts) reporting:

Turnout was 41.16% of the voting-eligible population (4,063,853 registered Florida Republicans).

Google Earth(KML) Map: Results by County

Though Gingrich was leading in Florida shortly after his victory in South Carolina, some missteps within the 10-day buffer period between both primaries allowed Romney to eventually come out on top. Most notably, in a potential effort to appeal to voters on the Space Coast, Gingrich proposed a moon base as a possible project for his Presidency. This was met with derision from many people, including Mitt Romney, who mocked the idea at the CNN Debate. Early voting that took place before Gingrich's South Carolina win was also highly in Romney's favor.

On a regional basis, Gingrich won most of North Florida, while Romney won in the densely populated cities of Central and South Florida.

Controversy

According to a Gingrich campaign memo, he wanted to challenge the results based on an interpretation of the Republican National Committee's rules that state that no contest can be winner-take-all prior to April 1, 2012. Gingrich will request that delegates be divided proportionally, corresponding to the percentage of votes each candidate received. It is not known what result a successful challenge might have.

See also
 Republican Party presidential debates, 2012
 Republican Party presidential primaries, 2012
 Results of the 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries
 Florida Republican Party
 Florida Democratic primary, 2012

References

External links
Official website of Florida's Secretary of State's office
Official website of the Florida Republican Party
The Green Papers: for Florida
The Green Papers: Major state elections in chronological order

2012 Florida elections
Florida
2012


Selection bias is a kind of bias that is introduced by the selection of individuals, groups or data for analysis in such a way that proper randomization is not achieved. This means that the sample may no longer represent the population to be analyzed. Sometimes, this is called selection effect.

There are different ways a selection bias can be introduced, for example.

 There is a systematic error because the samples of the population are not random.
 The trial is ended early, either because the desired conclusion can be reached, or because there are ethical concerns, or because there are extreme values that are hard to explain or conpensate.

A statistical method called Heckman correction can correct some of these, in certain circumstances.

References
 James Heckman (1979): Sample selection bias as a specification error. Econometrica, 1979, pp.. 153–161.

 Geddes, Barbara: How the Cases You Choose Affect the Answers You Get: Selection Bias in Comparative Politics, in: Political Analysis 2 (1990), 1, pp. 131–150.

Statistics
Bias

Selection bias


A domestic ice cream maker is a machine used to make small quantities of ice cream for personal consumption.  Ice cream makers may prepare the mixture by employing the hand-cranking method or by employing an electric motor. The resulting preparation is often chilled through either pre-cooling the machine or by employing a machine that freezes the mixture.

An ice cream maker has to simultaneously freeze the mixture while churning it so as to aerate the mixture and keep the ice crystals small (less than 50 μm). As a result, most ice creams are ready to consume immediately. However, those containing alcohol must often be chilled further to attain a firm consistency.

History

Around 1832, Augustus Jackson achieved fame for creating multiple ice cream recipes and pioneering a superior ice cream preparation technique by adding salt to the ice.

In 1843, Nancy M. (Donaldson) Johnson of Philadelphia received the first U.S. patent for a small-scale hand-cranked ice cream freezer. The ice cream freezer was a pewter cylinder.

Dubbed the "Queen of Ices", Victorian English culinary entrepreneur Agnes Marshall was granted a patent for an ice cream machine that could freeze a pint of ice cream in five whole minutes.

Process
Ice cream makers may prepare the mixture by employing the hand-cranking method or by employing an electric motor. The resulting preparation is often chilled through either pre-cooling the machine or by employing a machine that freezes the mixture. An ice cream maker has to simultaneously freeze the mixture while churning it so as to aerate the mixture and keep the ice crystals small (less than 50 μm). As a result, most ice creams are ready to consume immediately. However, those containing alcohol must often be chilled further to attain a firm consistency. Some machines—such as certain lower-priced countertop models—require the resulting mixture to be frozen for additional time after churning is complete.

Models

Hand-cranked machines

Nancy Johnson patented the first hand-cranked model in 1843.  William Young produced the machine as the "Johnson Patent Ice-Cream Freezer" in 1848.

Hand-cranked machines' ice and salt mixture must be replenished to make a new batch of ice cream. Usually, rock salt is used. The salt causes the ice to melt and lowers the temperature in the process, due to freezing point depression. The temperature at which salt water freezes is lower than the temperature at which fresh water freezes. The saltwater does not freeze and below-zero temperatures due to the salt content. The sub-freezing temperature helps slowly freeze the edible mixture, making the ice cream.

Some small manual units comprise a bowl with coolant-filled hollow walls. These have a volume of approximately one pint (500 ml). The paddle is often built into a plastic top. The mixture is poured into the frozen bowl and placed in a freezer. The paddles are hand-turned every ten minutes or so for a few hours until reaching the desired consistency and flavor.

Electric machines

There are four types of electric ice cream machines. Each has an electric motor that drives the bowl or the paddle to stir the mixture. The major difference between the four is how the cooling is performed.

Counter-top machines
Counter-top machines use a double-walled bowl with a solution between the walls (typically distilled water and urea) that freezes below . In a domestic freezer, this requires up to 24 hours before the machine is ready. Once frozen, the bowl is put into the machine, the mixture is added to the bowl, and the machine started. The paddles rotate, stirring the mixture as it gradually freezes through contact with the frozen bowl. After twenty to thirty minutes, the solution between the double walls thaws, and the ice cream freezes. This type of machine has the advantage of being relatively inexpensive; however, a pre-frozen bowl makes only one batch at a time. The bowl must be refrozen to make another batch. Multi-batches require extra bowls for the machine, which require extra freezer space.

Small freezer-unit machines

Small freezer-unit machines sit inside the freezer (or the freezer part of the refrigerator) and operate similar to a food processor in slow-motion. Every few seconds, the paddles stir the mixture to prevent formation of large ice crystals. When the ice cream sufficiently freezes, the paddles automatically stop rotating and lift. Since the mixture is cooled in the freezer, it takes longer to freeze than other ice cream makers, which work by placing the ice cream bowl in direct contact with the cooling element. A disadvantage is that the freezer door has to be closed over the flat cord, which is plugged into the nearest power outlet. However, some modern refrigerators have a built-in ice-cream maker as an accessory or a specialized electrical outlet for freezer-unit machines. It is not necessary to ¨pre¨-freeze this type of ice cream maker. However, some people feel that this type of machine produces a lower-quality ice cream because of its slow-motion method. Also available are cordless, battery-operated ice-cream makers that may be placed directly in the freezer, although  as

Built-in freezer machines

More expensive, and usually larger, machines have a freezing mechanism built in and do not require a bowl to be pre-chilled. A few minutes after starting the cooling system, the mixture can be poured in and the paddle started. As with coolant-bowl machines, ice cream is ready in twenty to thirty minutes depending on the quantity and recipe. These machines can be used immediately with no preparation, and they make any number of batches of ice cream without a delay between batches. Some of these machines cannot be moved without waiting twelve hours before use since moving the unit upsets coolant in the freezing system. These machines are normally kept permanently in one position ready for use making them impractical in smaller kitchens.

Ice-salt coolant machines

The fourth type of electric ice cream maker uses an outer tub filled with ice and salt for chilling using freezing point depression. An inner canister holds the ice cream mixture and churn and scraper assembly. A high-speed electric motor, geared at approximately 75rpm, drives a mechanism that simultaneously rotates the canister, counter-rotates the scraper, and holds the churn paddles stationary. As the canister turns, the ice cream mixture freezes against the inner wall of the canister. The counter-rotating scraper constantly removes the frozen product from the canister wall and returns it to the mixture. The continuing turning motion of the canister against the stationary churn paddles causes the mixture to become increasingly thick.  Enough time, ice and salt produces a smooth "hard packed" ice cream.

References

Further reading

American inventions
Food preparation appliances
Maker
1843 introductions
19th-century inventions

Ice cream maker


The Hampshire Downs form a large area of downland in central southern England, mainly in the county of Hampshire but with parts in Berkshire and Wiltshire. They are part of a belt of chalk downland that extends from the South Downs in the southeast, north to the Berkshire and Marlborough Downs, and west to the Dorset Downs.

The downs have been designated a National Character Area (NCA 130) by Natural England, the UK Government's advisor on the natural environment. To the north lie the Thames Basin Heaths, to the east the Low Weald (Western Weald), to the south the South Hampshire Lowlands and the South Downs, and, to the west, Salisbury Plain and the West Wiltshire Downs.

The northern boundary of the Hampshire Downs follows a line from just north of Walbury Hill in Berkshire to Basingstoke and Farnham, forming a ridge and dramatic escarpment which rises to over 290 metres, overlooking the Thames Basin. In the east the boundary runs from Farnham to Alton, then swings southwards to Petersfield, forming an escarpment at the western edge of the Weald, including an area known as the East Hampshire Hangers. In the south the boundary runs westwards to Winchester, south to Twyford and Otterbourne, then west-northwest to Michelmersh; and in the west from Michelmersh through the Wallops to Ludgershall in Wiltshire, and back to Walbury Hill.

The main rivers of the Hampshire Downs are the Test and River Itchen. The main settlements in the area are Andover, Alton, Basingstoke and Winchester.

20% of the area (the North Hampshire Downs) falls within the North Wessex Downs AONB, and around 6% within the South Downs National Park.

Highest hills
Walbury Hill is the highest point on the Hampshire Downs, but lies in the county of Berkshire. Pilot Hill is the highest point on Hampshire's section of the Downs and Hampshire's county top. Prominent hills in the Hampshire Downs include:

 Walbury Hill (297 m)
 Combe Hill (293 m)
 Inkpen Hill (289 m)
 Pilot Hill (286 m)
 Sidown Hill (266 m)
 Beacon Hill (261 m)
 Wheatham Hill (249 m)
 Watership Down (237 m)
 Ladle Hill (232 m)
 Holybourne Hill (225 m)
 Red Hill (221 m)
 Goleigh Hill (220 m)
 King's Hill (218 m)
 Noar Hill (214 m)
 Selborne Hill (211 m)
 Farleigh Hill (208 m)
 Farley Mount (178 m)
 St. Catherine's Hill (97 m)

References

Hills of Hampshire
Natural regions of England

Hampshire Downs


William (Bill) P. McCormick (born August 18, 1939, in Providence, Rhode Island) is an American businessman and diplomat. He served as the United States ambassador to New Zealand and Samoa from October 21, 2005, until January 10, 2009. He is married and has six children.

McCormick attended Roger Williams University and Boston University while serving in the United States Army Reserve Military Police until he was honorably discharged in 1963. He then moved to northern California and worked in the brokerage office of Connecticut General Life Insurance Companyin San Francisco until 1965. It was at this time that he became a partner in the Refectory Steak House Restaurant chain. By the early 1970s McCormick had moved further north to Portland, Oregon, and sold his interest in the Refectory Restaurants.

In 1971, he purchased the restaurant Jake's Famous Crawfish and within the year had partnered with Doug Schmick. While growing the restaurant company, he attended the Harvard Business School, Executive Management Program, in 1979. At that time, there were 60 McCormick & Schmick's Seafood Restaurants in 22 states employing over 8,000 people. McCormick and Schmick's is owned by Landry's, Inc.

Throughout his business career McCormick's civic and charitable involvement was far-reaching. For example, he has provided thousands of pounds of food for the Pasadena, California, food bank and 11,000 books for disadvantaged children in Los Angeles County. He began the Shamrock Run twenty-seven years ago for the benefit of many service organizations in Portland, Oregon. McCormick was awarded the Secretary's Award by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs for his contributions to, and recognition of, the nation's veterans. Each year McCormick & Schmick Seafood Restaurants provides over 17,000 complimentary meals to veterans visiting any McCormick & Schmick Restaurant on Veterans Day.

As co-chair of the Portland Opera Foundation, he was successful in raising $24 million to help sustain that organization in the future. Under President George W. Bush, McCormick served on the President's Committee of the Arts & Humanities, whose Honorary chairman is First Lady of the United States, then Laura Bush.

References

1939 births
Living people
Ambassadors of the United States to New Zealand
American restaurateurs
Boston University alumni
Businesspeople from Oregon
Harvard Business School alumni
Businesspeople from Providence, Rhode Island
Roger Williams University alumni
United States Army soldiers
Ambassadors of the United States to Samoa
20th-century American businesspeople
21st-century American businesspeople
21st-century American diplomats

William McCormick (diplomat)


, was an iron and sulphur mine located in the village of Matsuo, Iwate Prefecture in the Tohoku region of northern Japan. The area is now part of the city of Hachimantai. The mine opened in 1914 and closed in 1979 leaving a ghost town behind.

History
The Hachimantai Plateau where the mine is located in Ōu Mountains of central Honshu is a volcanic area and the presence of sulphur deposits was well known from an early age; however, due to the remoteness of the area and difficulty of transport, these deposits were not exploited. Iron pyrites were discovered by local villagers in 1882 in Matsuo village. In 1911, a Yokohama-based trading company, Matsuda-ya, began modern mine development at an altitude of  at the base of the peak of Higashi-Hachimantai. In 1934, the Japanese Government Railway Hanawa Line was extended to near the mine, and Ōbuke Station was established.

At one point, the Matsuo mine accounted for 30% of Japan's sulphur production and 15% of its pyrite, boasting that it had the greatest production in Asia. In the late 1950s, it was the third largest mine in Japan in terms of tonnage of ore: 469,000 tons of iron ore and 200,000 tons of sulphur. However, in the 1960s, the demand for sulphur was less, and the production of low-cost sulphur as a byproduct of oil refining and the increasing availability of cheap imported iron ore caused the mine severe economic distress. In order to drastically reduce costs, the conversion to an open pit mine was considered and rejected. In 1969, the company went bankrupt. A new company was formed to concentrate solely on pyrite extraction; however, this venture also failed by 1972 and the mine has been closed since that time.

Mine town
The Matsuo mine employed 1132 miners in 1920, 4145 miners in 1935, and 8152 miners in 1940. During World War II, an unknown number of conscript Korean labourers were also used. The peak number of employees was 13,594 in the year 1960.

Due to the location of the mine, the company had to create a complete city for the workers and to provide numerous welfare facilities such as elementary and junior high schools, hospitals, and music halls. In an era before government public housing, the town had apartment blocks in reinforced concrete with flush toilets and central heating. The town was publicised as a "paradise on the cloud" to secure workers and their families. After the mine closed, all wooden buildings were incinerated to prevent the possibility of fire, leaving only the reinforced concrete structures.

Environmental issues
The original vegetation in the area was beech forest. However, due to smoke from sulphur smelting, the soil surrounding the mine has become very acid, and can no longer support most trees.  Wastewater flowing from the mine is also strongly acidic (ph 2), and includes large amounts of arsenic. As the flow is from 17 to 24 tons per minute, it affects the Kitakami River and Pacific coast of Iwate Prefecture. A waste water treatment plant remains in operation.

In popular culture
Due to its misty climate the town has been described as the "real Silent Hill". Adam Dodd of Bloody Disgusting described 11 abandoned buildings in the mist as "eerie", ranking the location #6 in his article, "Eight Terrifying Places Horror Games Should Visit".

Gallery

References

External links

1971 disestablishments in Japan
1914 establishments in Japan
Former mines in Japan
Iron mines in Japan
Hachimantai, Iwate
Iwate Prefecture
Ghost towns in Japan

Matsuo mine


According to the policy of this Wikipedia, we only write in Zazaki. For communications in English (or any other questions other than in Zazaki), please on this page.

Werênayış:Keyeyê zıwanan
"ki" is used only for languages. Why you say "Hindo-Ewropaki"? Since it is not a language, it does not make sense. It should be Hindo Ewropaıc.  Same thing with "Zıwanê İranki." There is no Iranki language. It should be Iranıc, which tells where the language from.--Xosere 15:36, 15 Gucige | Sıbat 2008 (UTC)
Embazo Delali, there was theoretical a proto language. But Iranıc or ewropayıc would be wrong, because the suffix -ıc is preserved for belonging to a nation, tribe, city or village (equivalent with   the Turkish suffix -lı) but it isn't a language marker like -ish but -ki is an equative suffix (Turksih -cA/çA) also used for languages or also for adverbal buildings like  peyserki 'backwards', çhepki 'leftwards' xoverki 'kendi kendine'. We can perhaps compromite at the term zıwanê Hind-Ewropa. --Asmên 00:04 16.02.2008 (CET)

Thank you for explanation bira. I know a theoretical language exist, but still Hindo-Ewropaki, Hindo-Iranki, Iranki cannot work just because they are not languages. I think Zıwanê Hind-Ewropa is better.

However, those language families belong to nations and geographic places. Hind-Ewropaıc would mean a languages belonging to Indo-European languages. I don't see anything wrong here.

I have one more question. Why it is not Zıwananê Hind-Ewropa? Because there are many languages in language families. --Xosere 00:19, 16 Gucige | Sıbat 2008 (UTC)

 Hi bıra Xosere! The explanation of bıra Asmên is plausible. (By the way, many thanks bıra Asmên!)

The suffix -ıc indicates always a living being (a person) belonging to somewhere/something. So it doesn't work for abstract terms or lifeless things.

The Ezafe suffix for casus rectus is an -ê and the causal suffix -an (-an + ê = -anê) is only used in case of casus obliquus (the second form of grammatical cases in Zazaki). Notice, both of them (the suffixes) are plural, but in two different forms dependent on their cases. --Mirzali 02:41, 16 Gucige | Sıbat 2008 (UTC)

For the Zazaki page
Man Irani hastam va sotun Farsi raa por Kardam.
Hi I am an Iranian and I filled out the Persian column (Sotun).  I am glad Zazas are doing their best to keep their culture and heritage alive.  --Nepaheshgar 21:17, 1 Tişrino Peyên 2008 (UTC)

Taşakkor mikonam! --Mirzali 01:49, 2 Tişrino Peyên 2008 (UTC)

 Some mistakes in the translation
Texteyê cerrebi < cerreb actually doesn't exist in Zazaki, it's a new founded word, from the authors, it must be: Textey cerrebnayışi
iştırakê mı < the 'i' is here small, it must be a big İ
Kamci pele ke raşt amê < ist must be: Kamci pele ke raşt ameye
Mesel vırazê: 1. mesel is 'hikâye, fıkra' (story), vırazê is subjunctive, not imperative, it must be: Mewzu vıraze (with -E-) 'konu oluştur/aç'
peştdariye < it's I believe a neologizm, better is: desteg
vurnayışê eleqeyıni < it must be: vurnayışê elaqeyıni (this a > e shift is specially for Kurmanji, like parçe > perçe etc. but not for Zazaki)
--Omid V. (mesac) 15:54, 17 Adare 2013 (UTC)

For article Selahattin Demirtaş
Can you explain to me, why there is coming "Demirtaşi", that I lean. Thank you.

Do you not mean "Demirtaş qedeno" or not? --Omid 12:35, 9 Hezirane 2010 (UTC)

 Or is there in Zazaki a rule that one say for "ey/ae qedeno/qedena"?

Bırao delali Omıd,
du musst erstmal die Tempora unterscheiden. Hier geht es nicht um Gegenwart (Präsens), sondern um Vergangenheit (Präteritum, Perfekt, Imperfekt, Plusquamperfekt). Bei transitiven Verben in der Vergangenheit befindet sich das Subjekt immer im Obliquus.

qedenaene = beenden, vollenden

Präsens
ez qedenenan
ez mekteb qedenenan (ez ey qedenenan)
ez mektube qedenenan (ez ae qedenenan)
ez kıtaban qedenenan (ez inan qedenenan)
tı qedenenay
o qedeneno
a qedenena
ma qedenenime
şıma qedenenê
ê qedenenê

Präteritum
mı (to, ey, ae, ma, şıma, inan) o/a/ê qedena/qedenê/qedenaymı mekteb qedena (mı o qedena)
mı mektube qedenê (mı a qedenê)
mı kıtabi qedenay (mı ê qedenay)

Perfekt
mı (to, ey, ae, ma, şıma, inan) o/a/ê qedeno/qedena/qedenêmı mekteb qedeno (mı o qedeno)
mı mektube qedena (mı a qedena)
mı kıtabi qedenê (mı ê qedenê)

Imperfekt
mı (to, ey, ae, ma, şıma, inan) qedenênemı mekteb/mektube/kıtabi qedenêne (mı o/a/ê qedenêne)

Plusquamperfekt
mı (to, ey, ae, ma, şıma, inan) qedenay bimı mekteb/mektube/kıtabi qedenay bi (mı o/a/ê qedenay bi)
--Mirzali 18:32, 9 Hezirane 2010 (UTC)

 I mixed the past tense verb "qedena" with the present tense verb "qediyeno", sorry, my mistake.

 PS: I'm informed about the change of Obliquus < > Rectus in Ergative. --Omid 19:13, 9 Hezirane 2010 (UTC)

Zur Unterscheidung:
qedenaene (transitiv, agentiv) = beenden, vollenden
qediyaene (intransitiv, passiv) = vollendet sein, aufgebraucht sein
--Mirzali 19:40, 9 Hezirane 2010 (UTC)

Werênayış:Portal:Zanışi

I think it is better to use Zanayış. Doesn't really hurt. --Xosere 14:32, 15 Heziran 2008 (UTC)

 "bilmek" is in Zazaki "zana-yen", zanayış = is the nomen, it means "bilim, bilgi". Also in German, in Kurdish and other indoeuropean languages there is no difference between "Bilgi" and "bilish". Even in German and Kurdish there is no difference between "bilmek, bilim, bilgi", in german "wissen" means all that things, in kurdish "zanîn".

 And if we have in Zazaki an own ending for nomes, why we should dont use this? You self write:
 Peybend -ış zıwano standard de naman ifade keno. So why you against the things what you write in the Standard Terms? --Dersimıc 09:59, 17 Heziran 2008 (UTC)

 Little Fix: "wissen" is in german "bilmek, bilgi". But "bilim" is in german "wissenschaft", sorry for the mistake.--Dersimıc 11:51, 17 Heziran 2008 (UTC)
 Second Fix: "bilim" is in kurdish: zanist. --Dersimıc 10:54, 18 Heziran 2008 (UTC)

So Asmen is here right, that "zanayış" is = bilgi (knowledge) and not "bilim" (science). --Dersimıc 11:00, 18 Heziran 2008 (UTC)

I like the new main page.
Zanışiye is the most suitable word for science, because it describes the precise meaning. The stem and the suffixes are quite rightly, concerning the structure  of the word. In addition, it fits to the Iranian languages. --Mirzali

 Erdemaslancan
Bıra u wayêne, mesaco corên mı rê Erdemaslancani nuşto. Ê nê merdumi heta nıka ebe kopyakerdışi ra ita de iştırakê xo biyê. Wextê mıno ke bi, aşmanê peyênan de mı tenya ğeletanê dey raştkerdışi ra viyarna ra.
Verênde ebe mıxtelif nameyan ra kewt cı (Abramoviç, Tadiranscopus, Calanor, Arde, Newos). Nıka zi urşto ra, namê mı (Mirzali2, Mirzali3, Mirzali4 heta Mirzali16 u Mirzali Zazaoğlu uêb.) ra hesabê newey vıraştê. Ez nê naletmey ra endi se vaci? Haşa şıma ra, cayıl u cuhulê zey nê heri koti ra yenê qıdıxê ma de vecinê? Bıra u wayêne, şıma se vanê? -- Mirzali

~ Tiya de bıvênên! Seba mı çı nuşto. No domanek nara dıme endi mıxatebê mı niyo. -- Mirzali

~ Bıra u wayêne, mı seba nê naletmey komiteyê zıwani de gerre darde kerd. Şıma rê zameto, şıma zi gerreyê xo tede vacên. Her kesi rê hurmetê mı esto, wes u war bên!

~ Tiya de zi bıvênên! -- Mirzali

~ Eke Arde (Calanor, Newos) be Erdemaslancani (Abramoviç, Tadiranscopus) ra ciyayê u nê yew kes niyê, çıra ney yewbini sero şonê u şaşiye finê kar? Arde zi zey Erdemi zaf ğelet nuseno. Nê herdımêna zi Zazaki rınd nêzanê. Ebe kopyakerdışi ra khalıkê mı zi şeno çiyê darde kero. Caran ebe nê usıli biyo? Nê domaneki qet xo ra ar nêkenê, qet şari ra nêşermayinê? Eybo, edebo! -- Mirzali

 Dear Managers of Wikipedia,please look at the History of The Community Portal, [] Mirzali closed the community portal for days,(community portal should be open to all users for cooperation) he violated the one of the biggest rules of Wikipedia,all of you are will see it.When I complained him to you are,he opened the community portal again for trick you are!dont believe him please!Just Look at the History of the Community portal here [],and check the dates,You are all will see the fact Arde

 What a pathetic guy! This is so ridiculous. Since he can not Zazaisch, he jumps to his puny English. My answer is in any case here. I need not repeat every time. However, it would be better. Here again: Here is a proof of his lies. Because he (Erdemaslancan alias Abramoviç and Tadiranscopus) claimed to be independent of that allegedly Arde (Calanor, Newos). It had every time a good reason why I blocked him. But he ran his foul play on and on. Not to mention his edit war under different IP-numbers. Even worse, he oppened many sockpuppet accounts with my username like Mirzali2, Mirzali3, Mirzali4, Mirzali5, Mirzali6, Mirzali7, Mirzali8, Mirzali10, Mirzali11, Mirzali12, Mirzali13, Mirzali14, Mirzali15, Mirzali16 and Mirzali Zazaoğlu etc. (block logs). I wanted first to settle this issue in our internal community portal among us. However, he has removed my entry and I was insulted by him in Turkish miscellaneous times and he deleted my personal texts from my user page. What is this childish behavior, I wonder? Do you want to let him get away like that? -- Mirzali

This guy Erdem aslancan is seriously mentally disturbed. He is a potential danger to society. His morbid threat is following what he has written above in Turkish.
I wasn't ever between you and Arde. Until this day I stopped and waited. From this day until the grave I'm haunting you. I'll chase you at meta, diq.wiki, incubator, translatewiki etc. as long as you get breath. With my most deeply hate, Erdem aslancan.
I wonder, how sick must be someone to think such a thing? Especially since I don't know him personally. He is not in my league. I advise him only, he must be treated psychologically. -- Mirzali

 This is for Mirzali in Zazaki ;
tı kamo Mirzali? tı kamo? Wayêrê Wikipedia Zazaki tı niyo,fam bıke.Tı zaf nêzanayo,tı zaf harayo, u ez fikir kenan ke, tı serê to be Wikipediya werdo.Ema ema,Ez tı teqib kenan,İnca,Wikipedia seba to mınasib niyo,fekê to zaf zaf piso,tı veng u varit qısey keno.Be haştiye ya zi be lecê,incay terk bıkê!Ek tı xêyr ra fam nêkeno,be zaruret,tı do incay biterkê..fam bıkê.
(Dear Managers you all see I know Zazaki,Mirzal is lying and wants to trick you are,dont believe him please) Arde

Supposedly, if someone knew how many grammatical and spelling errors it contains. Not to mention the phrases and sentence structures of which he has no idea. -- Mirzali
Mirzali kusura bakma ,Ben gerçek Zazacayla konuşuyorum,senini gibi gerçek Zazacanın yandan yemişi,dejenere olmuş kuzey Zazacası ile konuşmuyorum bu yüzden benim yazdigim Zazacayi anlayamaman ve sorun bulman cok normal,zaten istesen de anlayamazsin IQ problemi var sende.Sana diyecegim su dur ki bunu da iyice belle,iki cihan bir araya gelse de sen bu vikiden gideceksin tamam mi,burada kurdugun kralliginin son gunlerini yasiyorsun,iyi gecir.Arde

 This is for Managers;
Dear Managers,i will say to you are just one thing,please check the pages which ones I wrote in here [] you are all will see the fact! You all see Mirzali here insults Erdemaslancan and me,he saying he must be treated psychologically,potential danger to society,he is mentally disturbed,he is writing with his puny english,they are pathetic guys and also he in Zazaki insults us,these ones are what Mirzali wrote,against to Human rights,and rules of Wikipedia,Mirzali is so rude to all people,he is acting just like a despot.this is really disagreeable for Wikipedia,Wikipedia is a reputable encyclopedia.I would like that,Mirzali should be removed from Wikipedia/this prestigious encyclopedia.You are all see who talking about facts,who lies,decision is yours.) Arde

What a child rummaging. Since you can only shake your head. The One is not better than the other. If there ever is another in reality. Our future is unfortunately dark, when we have to do every time with such pubescent children. In other wikis work hundreds if not thousands of people together. Such ill children make the life difficult for us. -- Mirzali

 Mirzali's insults are really sickening,Im talking about that what he saying us in Zazaki language.If someone would know that what he saying us in Zazaki language,really that person would be puking now. Arde

This mentally disturbed person (Erdem Aslancan) uses an illegal method, to give force to his lies. He violates any rules of wiki projects. He needs to be banned from everywhere, because he's just a culprit and no reliable person. Here he asks strangers to testify against me. These people who have previously voted against me. But they are unknown to me and have nothing to do with Zazaki Wikipedia. -- Mirzali

Takabeg's opinion and proposal
According to Check User Information at Meta, Karber:Calanor (sockpuppets of Karber:Calanor = Karber:Arde and Karber:Newos, possibly Karber:Calanor and Karber:Arde are not same person.) Karber:Arde, Karber:Newos (I'm sure that this use should be a sock of Karber:Arde) are not the sockpuppet of Karber:Erdemaslancan. However there is common point among all users. Every user doesn't insert a space after punctuation.
The first block of Karber:Calanor (on 26 May 2012) had been done without valid reason. Because Karber:Calanor didn't have any other accounts at the time (at least there is no evidence of proof).
After this first blocking, Karber:Calanor created his/her sockpuppet Karber:Arde.
After fourth block of Karber:Arde (on 27 September 2012), he/she created Karber:Newos.
Karber:Calanor = Karber:Arde = Karber:Newos abused policy on multiple accounts in meta on 28 September 2012.
Karber:Mirzali made serious mistake when he blocked Karber:Calanor on 26 May 2012. He had to request chek user at Meta before he blocked Karber:Calanor but he neglected this necessary process. Moreover and surprisingly, Karber:Calanor have never been alerted before he was blocked.
Karber:Calanor also made serious mistake. Although he/she could have to request check user at Meta to vindicate himself/herself, he/she preferred to create sock-account (Karber:Arde).
Karber:Calanor has to be unblocked, because the orininal reason of blocking Karber:Calanor is not valid. Karber:Arde and Karber:Newos have to be blocked with an expiry time of indefinitely, because of abusing multiple accounts.
Takabeg (mesac) 04:20, 23 Kanun 2012 (UTC)

P.S. Karber:Mirzali had shown these edits by Karber:Tadiranscopus on the user page of Karber:Calanor with his comment "Here is a proof of his lies.". But this cannot be accepted as a proof of his lies. It's the similar to these edits by Karber:Mirzali on the user page of Karber:Newera. These edits cannot be accepted as the proof of sockpuppetry of Karber:Mirzali and Karber:Newera. In spite of this edit by Karber:Tadiranscopus on the user page of Karber:Addihockey10, Karber:Addihockey10 is not the sock of Karber:Tadiranscopus. In spite of these edits by Karber:Mirzali on my user page, I'm not the sock of Karber:Mirzali. Takabeg (mesac) 04:55, 23 Kanun 2012 (UTC)

 Upcoming software changes - please report any problems

(Apologies if this message isn't in your language. Please consider translating it)

All Wikimedia wikis - including this one - will soon be upgraded with new and possibly disruptive code.  This process starts today and finishes on October 24 (see the upgrade schedule & code details).

Please watch for problems with:
 revision diffs
 templates
 CSS and JavaScript pages (like user scripts)
 bots
 PDF export
 images, video, and sound, especially scaling sizes
 the CologneBlue skin

If you notice any problems, please report problems at our defect tracker site.  You can test for possible problems at test2.wikipedia.org and mediawiki.org, which have already been updated.

Thanks!  With your help we can find problems fast and get them fixed faster.

Sumana Harihareswara, Wikimedia Foundation Engineering Community Manager (talk) 02:49, 16 Tişrino Verên 2012 (UTC)

P.S.: For the regular, smaller MediaWiki updates every two weeks, please watch this schedule.

Distributed via Global message delivery. (Wrong page? Fix here.)

 Fundraising localization: volunteers from outside the USA needed

Please translate for your local community

Hello All,

The Wikimedia Foundation's Fundraising team have begun our 'User Experience' project, with the goal of understanding the donation experience in different countries outside the USA and enhancing the localization of our donation pages. I am searching for volunteers to spend 30 minutes on a Skype chat with me, reviewing their own country's donation pages. It will be done on a 'usability' format (I will ask you to read the text and go through the donation flow) and will be asking your feedback in the meanwhile.

The only pre-requisite is for the volunteer to actually live in the country and to have access to at least one donation method that we offer for that country (mainly credit/debit card, but also real-time banking like IDEAL, E-wallets, etc...) so we can do a live test and see if the donation goes through. All volunteers will be reimbursed of the donations that eventually succeed (and they will be low amounts, like 1-2 dollars)

By helping us you are actually helping thousands of people to support our mission of free knowledge across the world. Please sing up and help us with our 'User Experience' project! :)
If you are interested (or know of anyone who could be) please email firstname.lastname@example.com. All countries needed (excepting USA)!

Thanks!
Pats Pena
Global Fundraising Operations Manager, Wikimedia Foundation

Sent using Global message delivery, 16:54, 17 Tişrino Verên 2012 (UTC)

 Mirzali - please unprotect your talk page

User:Mirzali, can you please unprotect your talk page, as editors need to be able to contact you in your capacity as an admin on this project, as I now have to in relation to numerous articles which I see problems with. Russavia (mesac) 04:04, 29 Tişrino Verên 2012 (UTC)
  Mirzali (mesac)

Proposal for the removal of sysop access
Those two user didn't contribute for deletions and blocks for more than two years. I think they have no time to contribute for Zazaki Wikipedia and retired. So I propose removing their sysop access (+ Belekvor's 'crat access). When they would return to Zazaki Wikipedia and want to get sysop access, they can request it again.

:Karber:Belekvor (deletion log, block log)
:Karber:Xosere (deletion log, block log)

 Takabeg (mesac) 22:37, 6 Kanun 2012 (UTC)

User:タチコマ robot

Shall we give to a permission to global bot User:タチコマ robot to make following edits:

1. To change [[Kategoriye:]] -> [[Kategoriye:]].

2. To change Infobox  -> ,  ->

3. To create article on districts and villages of Turkey like :vi:Thành viên:Cheers!'s work in Vietnamese Wikipedia. We will have to provide fotmats of districts of Turkey and villages of Turkey.

 Takabeg (mesac) 08:01, 23 Kanun 2012 (UTC)

 Mirzali (mesac)

 Thank you. Consensus was established (at present the community consists of two user). Takabeg (mesac) 23:56, 23 Kanun 2012 (UTC)

 Be a Wikimedia fundraising "User Experience" volunteer!

Thank you to everyone who volunteered last year on the Wikimedia fundraising 'User Experience' project. We have talked to many different people in different countries and their feedback has helped us immensely in restructuring our pages. If you haven't heard of it yet, the 'User Experience' project has the goal of understanding the donation experience in different countries (outside the USA) and enhancing the localization of our donation pages.

I am (still) searching for volunteers to spend some time on a Skype chat with me, reviewing their own country's donation pages. It will be done on a 'usability' format (I will ask you to read the text and go through the donation flow) and will be asking your feedback in the meanwhile.

The only pre-requisite is for the volunteer to actually live in the country and to have access to at least one donation method that we offer for that country (mainly credit/debit card, but also real time banking like IDEAL, E-wallets, etc...) so we can do a live test and see if the donation goes through. **All volunteers will be reimbursed of the donations that eventually succeed (and they will be very low amounts, like 1-2 dollars)**

By helping us you are actually helping thousands of people to support our mission of free knowledge across the world. If you are interested (or know of anyone who could be) please email email@example.com. All countries needed (excepting USA)!!

Thanks!

Pats Pena
Global Fundraising Operations Manager, Wikimedia Foundation

 Sent using Global message delivery, 20:47, 8 Çele 2013 (UTC)

 Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia. Read-only mode expected.

(Apologies if this message isn't in your language.) Next week, the Wikimedia Foundation will transition its main technical operations to a new data center in Ashburn, Virginia, USA. This is intended to improve the technical performance and reliability of all Wikimedia sites, including this wiki. There will be some times when the site will be in read-only mode, and there may be full outages; the current target windows for the migration are January 22nd, 23rd and 24th, 2013, from 17:00 to 01:00 UTC (see other timezones on timeanddate.com). More information is available in the full announcement.

If you would like to stay informed of future technical upgrades, consider becoming a Tech ambassador and joining the ambassadors mailing list. You will be able to help your fellow Wikimedians have a voice in technical discussions and be notified of important decisions.

Thank you for your help and your understanding.

Guillaume Paumier, via the Global message delivery system (wrong page? You can fix it.). 15:10, 19 Çele 2013 (UTC)

 Help turn ideas into grants in the new IdeaLab

I apologize if this message is not in your language. Please help translate it.

Do you have an idea for a project to improve this community or website?
Do you think you could complete your idea if only you had some funding?
Do you want to help other people turn their ideas into project plans or grant proposals?

Please join us in the IdeaLab, an incubator for project ideas and Individual Engagement Grant proposals.

The Wikimedia Foundation is seeking new ideas and proposals for Individual Engagement Grants. These grants fund individuals or small groups to complete projects that help improve this community. If interested, please submit a completed proposal by February 15, 2013. Please visit https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:IEG for more information.

Thanks!  --Siko Bouterse, Head of Individual Engagement Grants, Wikimedia Foundation 20:17, 30 Çele 2013 (UTC)

Distributed via Global message delivery. (Wrong page? Correct it here.)

Re-write for Terteleyê Dêrsımi
Kanımca bu madde yeniden yazılırsa faydalı olacaktır. Madde kabaca şu şekilde olmalıdır, bence:

1. Background: İskân Kanunu, Tunceli Kanunu v.s..

2. 1937 Harekâtı: Seyit Rızaların idam edilmelerine kadar - Birinci Tunceli Harekâtı

3. 1938 Harekâtı:

3-1. Temmuz 1938'e kadar - İkinci Tunceli Harekâtı

3-2. Ağustos 1938'den sonra (harekâtın komuta yetkisinin Dördüncü Genel Müfettişliğinden Üçüncü Ordu'ya devralındıktan sonra)

3-2-1: Üçüncü Tunceli Harekâtı: 10-17 Ağustos 1938

3-2-2: Temizleme harekâtı

4. Laç Deresi Muharebesi, :tr:Zini Gediği Katliamı etc...
Takabeg (mesac) 22:59, 4 Tişrino Peyên 2012 (UTC)

Werênayış:Xoverdayışê Şêx Seidi
Şeyh Said Ayaklanması ise Terteleyê Şêx Seidi değil mi ? Takabeg (mesac) 12:01, 29 Tişrino Verên 2012 (UTC)
 Xoverdayış aslında direniş demektir. Tertele''' ise yağma, talan, çapul, akın, saldırı anlamlarına gelir. Dolayısıyla geleneksel olarak halk arasında böyle söylene gelen bazı nitelendirmeler diğer dillerdeki tanımlamalarla sözcük bakımından bire bir örtüşmeyebilir, ancak anlam yönünden aynı şeyi dile getirir. Mirzali (mesac)
 Hmm. Yine de bu ayaklanma bir direniş değildi. Mesela Dersim'de dört taraftan kuşatmış durumdaydı ama burada öyle bir durum yoktu. Takabeg (mesac) 12:59, 29 Tişrino Verên 2012 (UTC)
 Şimdi, karşıt tarafların olayı farklı görüp dolayısıyla nitelendirmeleri de o yönde olur. Bir tarafın bunu isyan veya ayaklanma olarak görmesi, diğer tarafın bunu direniş veya müdafaa'' olarak görmesi doğaldır. Kaldı ki isyanların çıkış sebepleri vardır. Nitekim galip (yenen) taraf kahramanlığı ile övünürken, mağlup (yenik) tarafın mağduriyeti ve acıları ne olacak? Yani olayları tek taraflı görmemek lazım. Bu yüzden benim kalkıp halk arasında yerleşik bir görüşü değiştirmeye yetkim yoktur. Bunu anlamanı ümit ediyorum. Mirzali (mesac)

Wikipediya

Wikipediya:Embassy/Arşiv 2


The Gambling Terror is a 1937 American Western film directed by Sam Newfield and starring Johnny Mack Brown, Iris Meredith and Charles King.

Plot
A town is effectively terrorised by a protection racket with no one knowing who their leader is. Their only opposition is the editor of a local newspaper. When the editor's young son is caught listening to a pair to thugs victimising a farmer the thugs threaten to beat him to tell them what he heard. They are thwarted and beat up by Jeff Hayes, a gambler who is passing through town. When they threaten retribution to Jeff, he laughs in their face, telling them that anyone who'd horsewhip a child wouldn't be too much for a man to worry about.

The previous gambling in the town saloon was stopped by the protection racket when they wouldn't pay tribute. Jeff refuses to pay and gives the now frightened thugs a sample of his quick draw and expert marksmanship with his pair of six shooters. Jeff is cheered by the town, but despised because he is a gambler by the editor's daughter. The editor wants Jeff to join his vigilantes, but Jeff warns the editor that you don't fight bushwhackers by riding on the skyline.

Brett, the overseer of the thugs proposes that as Jeff is a gambler, he'd go for the most profit, in his case a large percentage of the proceeds of the operation. As insurance, the thugs kidnap the editor's son.

Partial cast
 Johnny Mack Brown as Jeff Hayes
 Iris Meredith as Betty Garret
 Charles King as Brett
 Dick Curtis as Dirk - Brett's Henchman
 Ted Adams as Sheriff
 Horace Murphy as Missouri Bill, Printer's Devil
 Earl Dwire as Homer Bradley
 Frank Ball as Garret - Weekly Star Editor
 Bobby Nelson as Jerry Garret
 Lloyd Ingraham as Old Man
 Emma Tansey as Old Woman
 Budd Buster as Shorty

References

Bibliography
 Pitts, Michael R. Western Movies: A Guide to 5,105 Feature Films. McFarland, 2012.

External links

1937 films
1937 Western (genre) films
American Western (genre) films
Republic Pictures films
Films directed by Sam Newfield
American black-and-white films
Films with screenplays by George H. Plympton
1930s English-language films
1930s American films
English-language Western (genre) films

The Gambling Terror


Simon Henshaw (died June 9, 2020) was an American diplomat. He was the United States Ambassador to Guinea from 2019 until his death.

From 2011 to 2013, he was Director of the Office of Andean Affairs, and, from 2008 to 2011, he was Deputy Chief of Mission at the United States Embassy in Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

On August 10, 2018, President Trump announced his plans to nominate Henshaw as the next United States Ambassador to Guinea. On August 16, 2018, his nomination was sent the United States Senate. On September 26, 2018, he appeared before the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. On January 2, 2019, his nomination was confirmed in the Senate.

Henshaw died of a heart attack on June 9, 2020, in Guinea.

References

2020 deaths
Ambassadors of the United States
Politicians from Massachusetts

Simon Henshaw


Ming Erh Chang (; April 20, 1932 – October 3, 2017) served in the U.S. Navy for 34 years, becoming the first naturalized Asian American naval officer to reach flag rank in the United States military. He became the Department of the Navy Inspector General in 1987 after holding cruiser and destroyer commands. When Chang left the navy, he became vice president and corporate director for the Pacific region at Raytheon International and then president of MEC International, LLC.

Chang held degrees from the College of William & Mary, the Naval Postgraduate School, and the Industrial College of the Armed Forces.

Career
In  1980, Ming Chang became  the  first naturalized  Asian  American  naval  officer  to reach  flag rank.  A  graduate  of William and Mary  and the  Naval  Postgraduate School.  He  served as the  Commanding Officer  of  the  USS RATHBURNE, USS REEVES; Chief of  Staff,  Carrier  Group  THREE; Chief of  Staff, Commander  THIRD Fleet;  and Commander Cruiser  Destroyer  Group  TWO.   As  a  Rear  Admiral,  he served as Deputy  Commander,  Weapons and Combat  Systems, Naval  Sea  Systems               Command.

Awards and recognition
Norman Mineta recounted: "And this isn't a question of being politically correct. it's a question of decency. I mean, why is it that we are considered foreign? It just blows my mind. I remember when Admiral Ming Chang got a call from a reporter one day, and he was recounting that the reporter asked him if he was a U.S. citizen. He says, Yes he was. 'Were you born here?' 'No, I came to the United States in 1950 [sic] (actually 1946) as a young boy from Shanghai.' 'And so, what did you do to get your citizenship?' 'And he says, 'I was naturalized.' 'What proof do you have of your citizenship?' 'He says, 'Well, young man, I served for 33 years in the United States Navy and came out a Rear Admiral, and I am now a very high ranking officer of the Raytheon International Corporation.'"

In 2010, Admiral Chang accepted an award from the Asian Pacific American Institute for Congressional Studies. He died on October 3, 2017, from complications of Parkinson's disease. Admiral Chang was interred at Arlington National Cemetery on March 7, 2018.

See also
Military history of Asian Americans

References

1932 births
2017 deaths
Chinese emigrants to the United States
Naturalized citizens of the United States
College of William & Mary alumni
American military personnel of Chinese descent
Naval Postgraduate School alumni
Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy alumni
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Generals from Shanghai
United States Navy admirals
United States Navy Inspectors General
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery

Ming Chang


Naltrexone, sold under the brand names Revia and Vivitrol among others, is a medication primarily used to manage alcohol use or opioid use disorder by reducing cravings and feelings of euphoria associated with substance use disorder. It has also been found effective in the treatment of other addictions and may be used for them off-label. An opioid-dependent person should not receive naltrexone before detoxification. It is taken by mouth or by injection into a muscle. Effects begin within 30 minutes, though a decreased desire for opioids may take a few weeks to occur.

Side effects may include trouble sleeping, anxiety, nausea, and headaches. In those still on opioids, opioid withdrawal may occur. Use is not recommended in people with liver failure. It is unclear if use is safe during pregnancy. Naltrexone is an opioid antagonist and works by blocking the effects of opioids, including both opioid drugs as well as opioids naturally produced in the brain.

Naltrexone was first made in 1965 and was approved for medical use in the United States in 1984. Naltrexone, as naltrexone/bupropion (brand name Contrave), is also used to treat obesity. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.

Medical uses

Alcohol use disorder
Naltrexone has been best studied as a treatment for alcoholism. Naltrexone has been shown to decrease the quantity and frequency of ethanol consumption by reducing the dopamine release from the brain after consuming alcohol. It does not appear to change the percentage of people drinking. Its overall benefit has been described as "modest".

Acamprosate may work better than naltrexone for eliminating alcohol abuse, while naltrexone may decrease the desire for alcohol to a greater extent.

A method pioneered by scientist John David Sinclair (dubbed commercially the "Sinclair Method") advocates for "psychological extinction" of problem drinking behavior by administering naltrexone alongside controlled alcohol consumption. In effect, he argues naltrexone induced opiate antagonism sufficiently disrupts reflexive reward mechanisms inherent in the consumption alcohol and, given enough repetition, will disassociate positive associations formerly made with the consumption of alcohol.

Opioid use
Long-acting injectable naltrexone, under the brand name Vivitrol, is an opioid receptor antagonist, blocking the effects of heroin and other opioids, and decreases heroin use compared to a placebo. Unlike methadone and buprenorphine, it is not a controlled medication. It may decrease cravings for opioids after a number of weeks, and decreases the risk of overdose, at least during the time period that naltrexone is still active, though concern about risk of overdose for those stopping treatment remains. It is given once per month and has better compliance and effect for opioid use than the oral formulation.

A drawback of injectable naltrexone is that it requires patients with opioid use disorder and current physiological dependence to be fully withdrawn before it is initiated to avoid a precipitated opioid withdrawal that may be quite severe. In contrast, initiation of buprenorphine only requires delay of the first dose until the patient begins to manifest at least mild opioid withdrawal symptoms. Among patients able to successfully initiate injectable naltrexone, long-term remission rates were similar to those seen in clinical naltrexone/buprenorphine administration.

Consequence of relapse when weighting best course of treatment for opiate use disorder remains a concern. Methadone and buprenorphine administration maintains greater drug tolerance while naltrexone allows tolerance to fade, leading to higher instances of overdose in people who relapse and thus higher mortality. Guidelines from the World Health Organization cite evidence of superiority in reducing mortality and retaining patients in care with opioid agonists (methadone or buprenorphine), concluding that most patients should be advised to use agonists rather than antagonists like naltrexone.

A 2011 review found insufficient evidence to determine the effect of naltrexone taken by mouth in opioid dependence. While some do well with this formulation, it must be taken daily, and a person whose cravings become overwhelming can obtain opioid intoxication simply by skipping a dose. Due to this issue, the usefulness of oral naltrexone in opioid use disorders is limited by the low retention in treatment. Naltrexone by mouth remains an ideal treatment for a small number of people with opioid use, usually those with a stable social situation and motivation. With additional contingency management support, naltrexone may be effective in a broader population.

Others
Unlike varenicline (brand name Chantix), naltrexone is not useful for quitting smoking. Naltrexone has also been under investigation for reducing behavioral addictions such as gambling or kleptomania as well as compulsive sexual behaviors in both offenders and non-offenders (e.g. compulsive porn viewing and masturbation). The results were promising. In one study, the majority of sexual offenders reported a strong reduction in sexual urges and fantasies which reverted to baseline once the medication was discontinued. Case reports have also shown cessation of gambling and other compulsive behaviors, for as long as the medication was taken.

When taken at much smaller doses, a regimen known as low-dose naltrexone (LDN), naltrexone may reduce pain and help to address neurological symptoms. Some patients report that LDN helps reduce their symptoms of ME/CFS, multiple sclerosis (MS), fibromyalgia (FMS), or autoimmune disease. Although its mechanism of action is unclear, some have speculated that it may act as an anti-inflammatory.  LDN is also being considered as a potential treatment for Long COVID.

Available forms

Naltrexone is available and most commonly used in the form of an oral tablet (50 mg). Vivitrol, a naltrexone formulation for depot injection containing 380 mg of the medication per vial, is also available. Additionally, naltrexone subcutaneous implants that are surgically implanted are available. While these are manufactured in Australia, they are not authorized for use within Australia, but only for export. By 2009, naltrexone implants showed superior efficacy in the treatment of heroin dependence when compared to the oral form.

Contraindications
Naltrexone should not be used by persons with acute hepatitis or liver failure, or those with recent opioid use (typically 7–10 days).

Side effects
The most common side effects reported with naltrexone are gastrointestinal complaints such as diarrhea and abdominal cramping. These adverse effects are analogous to the symptoms of opioid withdrawal, as the μ-opioid receptor blockade will increase gastrointestinal motility.

The side effects of naltrexone by incidence are as follows:

 Greater than 10%: difficulty sleeping, anxiety, nervousness, abdominal pain/cramps, nausea and/or vomiting, low energy, joint/muscle pain, and headache.
 Less than 10%: loss of appetite, diarrhea, constipation, thirstiness, increased energy, feeling down, irritability, dizziness, skin rash, delayed ejaculation, erectile dysfunction, and chills.
 A variety of other adverse events have also been reported with less than 1% incidence.

Opioid withdrawal
Naltrexone should not be started until several (typically 7–10) days of abstinence from opioids have been achieved. This is due to the risk of acute opioid withdrawal if naltrexone is taken, as naltrexone will displace most opioids from their receptors. The time of abstinence may be shorter than 7 days, depending on the half-life of the specific opioid taken. Some physicians use a naloxone challenge to determine whether an individual has any opioids remaining. The challenge involves giving a test dose of naloxone and monitoring for opioid withdrawal. If withdrawal occurs, naltrexone should not be started.

Adverse effects
Whether naltrexone causes dysphoria, depression, anhedonia, or other aversive effects as side effects has been studied and reviewed. In early studies of normal and opioid-abstinent individuals, acute and short-term administration of naltrexone was reported to produce a variety of aversive effects including fatigue, loss of energy, sleepiness, mild dysphoria, depression, lightheadedness, faintness, mental confusion, nausea, gastrointestinal disturbances, sweating, and occasional feelings of unreality. However, these studies were small, often uncontrolled, and used subjective means of assessing side effects. Most subsequent longer-term studies of naltrexone for indications like alcohol or opioid dependence have not reported dysphoria or depression with naltrexone in most individuals. According to one source:

 Naltrexone itself produces little or no psychoactive effect in normal research volunteers even at high doses, which is remarkable given that the endogenous opioid system is important in normal hedonic functioning. Because endogenous opioids are involved in the brain reward system, it would be reasonable to hypothesize that naltrexone might produce anhedonic or dysphoric effects. Although some evidence from small, early trials suggested that patients with a history of opiate dependence might be susceptible to dysphoric effects in response to naltrexone (Crowley et al. 1985; Hollister et al. 1981), reports of such effects have been inconsistent. Most large clinical studies of recovering opioid-dependent individuals have not found naltrexone to have an adverse effect on mood (Greenstein et al. 1984; Malcolm et al. 1987; Miotto et al. 2002; Shufman et al. 1994). Some studies have actually found improvements in mood during the course of treatment with naltrexone (Miotto et al. 1997; Rawlins and Randall 1976).

Based on available evidence, naltrexone seems to have minimal untoward effects in the aforementioned areas, at least with long-term therapy, . It has been suggested that differences in findings between acute and longer-term studies of naltrexone treatment might be related to altered function in the opioid system with chronic administration of naltrexone. For example, marked upregulation of opioid receptors and hyper-sensitivity to opioids have been observed with naltrexone in preclinical studies. Another possibility is that the central opioid system may have low endogenous functionality in most individuals, becoming active only in the presence of exogenously administered opioid receptor agonists or with stimulation by endogenous opioids induced by pain or stress. A third possibility is that normal individuals may experience different side effects with naltrexone than people with addictive disease such as alcohol or opioid dependence, who may have altered opioid tone or responsiveness. It is notable in this regard that most studies of naltrexone have been in people with substance dependence.

Naltrexone may also initially produce opioid withdrawal-like symptoms in a small subset of people not dependent on opioids:

 The side-effect profile [of naltrexone], at least on the recommended dose of 50 mg per day, is generally benign, although 5 to 10 percent of detoxified opioid addicts experience immediate, intolerable levels of withdrawal-like effects including agitation, anxiety, insomnia, light-headedness, sweating, dysphoria, and nausea. Most patients on naltrexone experience few or no symptoms after the first 1 to 2 weeks of treatment; for a substantial minority (20 to 30 percent) protracted discomfort is experienced.

Persisting affective distress related to naltrexone may account for individuals taking the drug who drop out of treatment.

Naltrexone has been reported to reduce feelings of social connection. Studies on whether naltrexone can decrease the pleasurable effects of listening to music are conflicting. Besides humans, naltrexone has been found to produce aversive effects in rodents as assessed by conditioned place aversion.

Liver damage
Naltrexone has been reported to cause liver damage when given at doses higher than recommended. It carries an FDA boxed warning for this rare side effect. Due to these reports, some physicians may check liver function tests prior to starting naltrexone, and periodically thereafter. Concerns for liver toxicity initially arose from a study of nonaddicted obese patients receiving 300 mg of naltrexone. Subsequent studies have suggested limited or no toxicity in other patient populations and at typical recommended doses such as 50 to 100 mg/day.

Overdose
No toxic effects have been observed with naltrexone in doses of up to 800 mg/day in clinical studies. The largest reported overdose of naltrexone, which was 1,500 mg in a female patient and was equivalent to an entire bottle of medication (30 × 50 mg tablets), was uneventful. No deaths are known to have occurred with naltrexone overdose.

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Opioid receptor blockade

Naltrexone and its active metabolite 6β-naltrexol are competitive antagonists of the opioid receptors. Naltrexone is specifically an antagonist preferentially of the μ-opioid receptor (MOR), to a lesser extent of the κ-opioid receptor (KOR), and to a much lesser extent of the δ-opioid receptor (DOR). However, naltrexone is not actually a silent antagonist of these receptors but instead acts as a weak partial agonist, with Emax values of 14 to 29% at the MOR, 16 to 39% at the KOR, and 14 to 25% at the DOR in different studies. In accordance with its partial agonism, although naltrexone is described as a pure opioid receptor antagonist, it has shown some evidence of weak opioid effects in clinical and preclinical studies.

By itself, naltrexone acts as an antagonist or weak partial agonist of the opioid receptors. In combination with agonists of the MOR such as morphine however, naltrexone appears to become an inverse agonist of the MOR. Conversely, naltrexone remains a neutral antagonist (or weak partial agonist) of the KOR and DOR. In contrast to naltrexone, 6β-naltrexol is purely a neutral antagonist of the opioid receptors. The MOR inverse agonism of naltrexone when it is co-present with MOR agonists may in part underlie its ability to precipitate withdrawal in opioid-dependent individuals. This may be due to suppression of basal MOR signaling via inverse agonism.

Occupancy of the opioid receptors in the brain by naltrexone has been studied using positron emission tomography (PET). Naltrexone at a dose of 50 mg/day has been found to occupy approximately 90 to 95% of brain MORs and 20 to 35% of brain DORs. Naltrexone at a dose of 100 mg/day has been found to achieve 87% and 92% brain occupancy of the KOR in different studies. Per simulation, a lower dose of naltrexone of 25 mg/day might be expected to achieve around 60% brain occupancy of the KOR but still close to 90% occupancy of the MOR. In a study of the duration of MOR blockade with naltrexone, the drug with a single 50 mg dose showed 91% blockade of brain [11C]carfentanil (a selective MOR ligand) binding at 48 hours (2 days), 80% blockade at 72 hours (3 days), 46% blockade at 120 hours (5 days), and 30% blockade at 168 hours (7 days). The half-time of brain MOR blockade by naltrexone in this study was 72 to 108 hours (3.0 to 4.5 days). Based on these findings, doses of naltrexone of even less than 50 mg/day would be expected to achieve virtually complete brain MOR occupancy. Blockade of brain MORs with naltrexone is much longer-lasting than with other opioid antagonists like naloxone (half-time of ~1.7 hours intranasally) or nalmefene (half-time of ~29 hours).

The half-life of occupancy of the brain MOR and duration of clinical effect of naltrexone are much longer than suggested by its plasma elimination half-life. A single 50 mg oral dose of naltrexone has been found to block brain MORs and opioid effects for at least 48 to 72 hours. The half-time of brain MOR blockade by naltrexone (72–108 hours) is much longer than the fast plasma clearance component of naltrexone and 6β-naltrexol (~4–12 hours) but was reported to correspond well to the longer terminal phase of plasma naltrexone clearance (96 hours). As an alternative possibility, the prolonged brain MOR occupancy by opioid antagonists like naltrexone and nalmefene may be due to slow dissociation from MORs consequent to their very high MOR affinity (<1.0 nM).

Naltrexone blocks the effects of MOR agonists like morphine, heroin, and hydromorphone in humans via its MOR antagonism. Following a single 100 mg dose of naltrexone, the subjective and objective effects of heroin were blocked by 90% at 24 hours, with blockade then decreasing up to 72 hours. Similarly, 20 to 200 mg naltrexone dose-dependently antagonized the effects of heroin for up to 72 hours. Naltrexone also blocks the effects of KOR agonists like salvinorin A, pentazocine, and butorphanol in humans via its KOR antagonism. In addition to opioids, naltrexone has been found to block or reduce the rewarding and other effects of other euphoriant drugs including alcohol, nicotine, and amphetamines.

The opioid receptors are involved in neuroendocrine regulation. MOR agonists produce increases in levels of prolactin and decreases in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone. Doses of naltrexone of 25 to 150 mg/day have been found to produce significant increases in levels of β-endorphin, cortisol, and LH, equivocal changes in levels of prolactin and testosterone, and no significant changes in levels of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) or follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Naltrexone influences the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis) probably through interference with opioid receptor signaling by endorphins.

Blockade of MORs is thought to be the mechanism of action of naltrexone in the management of opioid dependence—it reversibly blocks or attenuates the effects of opioids. It is also thought to be involved in the effectiveness of naltrexone in alcohol dependence by reducing the euphoric effects of alcohol. The role of KOR modulation by naltrexone in its effectiveness for alcohol dependence is unclear but this action may also be involved based on theory and animal studies.

Other activities
In addition to the opioid receptors, naltrexone binds to and acts as an antagonist of the opioid growth factor receptor (OGFR) and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and interacts with high- and low-affinity binding sites in filamin A (FLNA). It is said that very low doses of naltrexone (<0.001–1 mg/day) interact with FLNA, low doses (1 to 5 mg/day) produce TLR4 antagonism, and standard clinical doses (50 to 100 mg/day) exert opioid receptor and OGFR antagonism. The interactions of naltrexone with FLNA and TLR4 are claimed to be involved in the therapeutic effects of low-dose naltrexone.

Pharmacokinetics

The absorption of naltrexone with oral administration is rapid and nearly complete (96%). The bioavailability of naltrexone with oral administration is 5 to 60% due to extensive first-pass metabolism. Peak concentrations of naltrexone are 19 to 44 μg/L after a single 100 mg oral dose and time to peak concentrations of naltrexone and 6β-naltrexol (metabolite) is within 1 hour. Linear increases in circulating naltrexone and 6β-naltrexol concentrations occur over an oral dose range of 50 to 200 mg. Naltrexone does not appear to be accumulated with repeated once-daily oral administration and there is no change in time to peak concentrations with repeated administration.

The plasma protein binding of naltrexone is about 20% over a naltrexone concentration range of 0.1 to 500 μg/L. Its apparent volume of distribution at 100 mg orally is 16.1 L/kg after a single dose and 14.2 L/kg with repeated doses.

Naltrexone is metabolized in the liver mainly by dihydrodiol dehydrogenases into 6β-naltrexol (6β-hydroxynaltrexone). Levels of 6β-naltrexol are 10- to 30-fold higher than those of naltrexone with oral administration due to extensive first-pass metabolism. Conversely, 6β-naltrexol exposure is only about 2-fold higher than that of naltrexone with intramuscular injection of naltrexone in microspheres (brand name Vivitrol). 6β-Naltrexol is an opioid receptor antagonist similarly to naltrexone and shows a comparable binding profile to the opioid receptors. However, 6β-naltrexol is peripherally selective and crosses into the brain much less readily than does naltrexone. In any case, 6β-naltrexol does still show some central activity and may contribute significantly to the central actions of oral naltrexone. Other metabolites of naltrexone include 2-hydroxy-3-methoxy-6β-naltrexol and 2-hydroxy-3-methoxynaltrexone. Following their formation, the metabolites of naltrexone are further metabolized by conjugation with glucuronic acid to form glucuronides. Naltrexone is not metabolized by the cytochrome P450 system and has low potential for drug interactions.

The elimination of naltrexone is biexponential and rapid over the first 24 hours followed by a third extremely slow decline after 24 hours. The fast elimination half-lives of naltrexone and its metabolite 6β-naltrexol are about 4 hours and 13 hours, respectively. In Contrave oral tablets, which also contain bupropion and are described as extended-release, the half-life of naltrexone is 5 hours. The slow terminal-phase elimination half-life of naltrexone is approximately 96 hours. As microspheres of naltrexone by intramuscular injection (Vivitrol), the elimination half-lives of naltrexone and 6β-naltrexol are both 5 to 10 days. Whereas oral naltrexone is administered daily, naltrexone in microspheres by intramuscular injection is suitable for administration once every 4 weeks or once per month.

Naltrexone and its metabolites are excreted in urine.

Pharmacogenetics
Tentative evidence suggests that family history and presence of the Asn40Asp polymorphism predicts naltrexone being effective.

Chemistry
Naltrexone, also known as N-cyclopropylmethylnoroxymorphone, is a derivative of oxymorphone (14-hydroxydihydromorphinone). It is specifically the derivative of oxymorphone in which the tertiary amine methyl substituent is replaced with methylcyclopropane.

Analogues
The closely related medication, methylnaltrexone (N-methylnaltrexone), is used to treat opioid-induced constipation, but does not treat addiction as it does not cross the blood–brain barrier. Nalmefene (6-desoxy-6-methylenenaltrexone) is similar to naltrexone and is used for the same purposes as naltrexone. Naltrexone should not be confused with naloxone (N-allylnoroxymorphone), which is used in emergency cases of opioid overdose. Other opioid antagonists related to naltrexone include 6β-naltrexol (6β-hydroxynaltrexone), samidorphan (3-carboxamido-4-hydroxynaltrexone), β-funaltrexamine (naltrexone fumarate methyl ester), nalodeine (N-allylnorcodeine), nalorphine (N-allylnormorphine), and nalbuphine (N-cyclobutylmethyl-14-hydroxydihydronormorphine).

History
Naltrexone was first synthesized in 1963 by Metossian at Endo Laboratories, a small pharmaceutical company in New York City. It was characterized by Blumberg, Dayton, and Wolf in 1965 and was found to be an orally active, long-acting, and very potent opioid antagonist. The drug showed advantages over earlier opioid antagonists such as cyclazocine, nalorphine, and naloxone, including its oral activity, a long duration of action allowing for once-daily administration, and a lack of dysphoria, and was selected for further development. It was patented by Endo Laboratories in 1967 under the developmental code name EN-1639A and Endo Laboratories was acquired by DuPont in 1969. Clinical trials for opioid dependence began in 1973, and a developmental collaboration of DuPont with the National Institute on Drug Abuse for this indication started the next year in 1974. The drug was approved by the FDA for the oral treatment of opioid dependence in 1984, with the brand name Trexan, and for the oral treatment of alcohol dependence in 1995, when the brand name was changed by DuPont to Revia. A depot formulation for intramuscular injection was approved by the FDA under the brand name Vivitrol for alcohol dependence in 2006 and opioid dependence in 2010.

Society and culture

Generic names
Naltrexone is the generic name of the drug and its , , , , and , while naltrexone hydrochloride is its  and .

Brand names
Naltrexone is or has been sold under a variety of brand names, including Adepend, Antaxone, Celupan, Depade, Nalorex, Narcoral, Nemexin, Nodict, Revia, Trexan, Vivitrex, and Vivitrol. It is also marketed in combination with bupropion (naltrexone/bupropion) as Contrave, and was marketed with morphine (morphine/naltrexone) as Embeda. A combination of naltrexone with buprenorphine (buprenorphine/naltrexone) has been developed, but has not been marketed.

Controversies
The FDA authorized use of injectable naltrexone (Vivitrol) for opioid addiction using a single study that was led by Evgeny Krupitsky at Bekhterev Research Psychoneurological Institute, St Petersburg State Pavlov Medical University, St Petersburg, Russia, a country where opioid agonists such as methadone and buprenorphine are not available. The study was a "double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized", 24-week trial running "from July 3, 2008, through October 5, 2009" with "250 patients with opioid dependence disorder" at "13 clinical sites in Russia" on the use of injectable naltrexone (XR-NTX) for opioid dependence. The study was funded by the Boston-based biotech Alkermes firm which produces and markets naltrexone in the United States. Critics charged that the study violated ethical guidelines, since it compared the formulation of naltrexone not to the best available, evidence-based treatment (methadone or buprenorphine), but to a placebo. Further, the trial did not follow patients who dropped out of the trial to evaluate subsequent risk of fatal overdose, a major health concern . Subsequent trials in Norway and the US did compare injectable naltrexone to buprenorphine and found them to be similar in outcomes for patients willing to undergo the withdrawal symptoms required prior to naltrexone administration. Nearly 30% of patients in the US trial did not complete induction. In real world settings, a review of more than 40,000 patient records found that while methadone and buprenorphine reduced risk of fatal overdose, naltrexone administration showed no greater effect on overdose or subsequent emergency care than counseling alone.

Despite these findings, naltrexone's manufacturer and some health authorities have promoted the medicine as superior to methadone and buprenorphine since it is not an opioid and does not induce dependence. The manufacturer has also marketed directly to law enforcement and criminal justice officials, spending millions of dollars on lobbying and providing thousands of free doses to jails and prisons. The technique has been successful, with the criminal justice system in 43 states now incorporating long-acting naltrexone. Many do this through Vivitrol courts that offer only this option, leading some to characterize this as "an offer that cannot be refused." The company's marketing techiques have led to a Congressional investigation, and warning from the FDA about failure to adequately state risks of fatal overdose to patients receiving the medicine.

In May 2017, United States Secretary of Health and Human Services Tom Price praised [Vivitrol] as the future of opioid addiction treatment after visiting the company's plant in Ohio. His remarks set off sharp criticism with almost 700 experts in the field of substance use submitting a letter to Price cautioning him about Vivitrol's "marketing tactics" and warning him that his comments "ignore widely accepted science". The experts pointed out that Vivitrol's competitors, buprenorphine and methadone, are "less expensive", "more widely used", and have been "rigorously studied". Price had claimed that buprenorphine and methadone were "simply substitute[s]" for "illicit drugs" whereas according to the letter, "the substantial body of research evidence supporting these treatments is summarized in guidance from within your own agency, including the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, the US Surgeon General, the National Institute on Drug Abuse, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Buprenorphine and methadone have been demonstrated to be highly effective in managing the core symptoms of opioid use disorder, reducing the risk of relapse and fatal overdose, and encouraging long-term recovery."

Film
One Little Pill was a 2014 documentary film about use of naltrexone to treat alcohol use disorder.

Four Good Days is a 2020 film about the four days a drug addict woman has to stay sober to get a shot of naltrexone in a detox facility.

Research

Depersonalization
Naltrexone is sometimes used in the treatment of dissociative symptoms such as depersonalization and derealization. Some studies suggest it might help. Other small, preliminary studies have also shown benefit. Blockade of the KOR by naltrexone and naloxone is thought to be responsible for their effectiveness in ameliorating depersonalization and derealization. Since these drugs are less efficacious in blocking the KOR relative to the MOR, higher doses than typically used seem to be necessary.

Low-dose naltrexone
"Low-dose naltrexone" (LDN) describes the off-label use of naltrexone at low doses for diseases not related to chemical dependency or intoxication, such as multiple sclerosis. Evidence for recommending such use is lacking. This treatment has received attention on the Internet. In 2022, 4 studies with a few hundred patients are experimenting using the drug for the treatment of Long COVID.

Self-injury
One study suggests that self-injurious behaviors present in persons with developmental disabilities (including autism) can sometimes be remedied with naltrexone.
In these cases, the self-injury is believed to be done to release beta-endorphin, which binds to the same receptors as heroin and morphine. If the "rush" generated by self-injury is removed, the behavior may stop.

Behavioral disorders
Some indications exist that naltrexone might be beneficial in the treatment of impulse-control disorders such as kleptomania, compulsive gambling, or trichotillomania (compulsive hair pulling), but evidence of its effectiveness for gambling is conflicting. A 2008 case study reported successful use of naltrexone in suppressing and treating an internet pornography addiction.

Interferon alpha
Naltrexone is effective in suppressing the cytokine-mediated adverse neuropsychiatric effects of interferon alpha therapy.

Critical addiction studies
Some historians and sociologists have suggested that the meanings and uses attributed to anti-craving medicine, such as naltrexone, is context-dependent. Studies have suggested the use of naltrexone in drug courts or healthcare rehabs is a form of "post-social control," or "post-disciplinary control," whereby control strategies for managing offenders and addicts shift from imprisonment and supervision toward more direct control over biological processes.

Sexual addiction
Small studies have shown a reduction of sexual addiction and problematic sexual behaviours from naltrexone.

References

Alcohol and health
Cyclopropanes
Delta-opioid receptor antagonists
4,5-Epoxymorphinans
Ethers
GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulators
Hepatotoxins
Kappa-opioid receptor agonists
Kappa-opioid receptor antagonists
Ketones
Mu-opioid receptor antagonists
Phenols
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
World Health Organization essential medicines

Naltrexone


The black-capped fruit bat (Chironax melanocephalus) is a species of megabat in the monotypic genus Chironax.

Distribution
Seven specimens of C. melanocephalus were collected from the lowland forest at Kubah and Lambir, and beach forest at Samunsam, Sarawak, Borneo. The specimen that was mist-netted in Kubah National Park on 12 July 1995 was a first record for Sarawak (Abdullah et al. 1997). According to Payne et al. (1985) the distribution of C. melanocephalus in Borneo is only known from Sepilok in Sabah and Temburong in Brunei. The range includes Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi (Payne et al. 1985).

Biology and ecology
The habitat where it was caught was lowland mixed dipterocarp forest. Two specimens were caught in the understory of primary dipterocarp forest in Kubah National Park; one from the understory of mixed beach forest habitat in Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary; and four from the canopy (between 15 and 30 m) of the primary dipterocarp forest in Lambir Hills National Park. These sites are new distributional records for C. melanocephalus in Sarawak and have extended the range of the species to the western part of Borneo. The bat normally roosts in small groups in tree ferns and in shallow caves (Payne et al. 1985).

All C. melanocephalus caught were adults, three males and four females. Two were in non-reproductive condition and others were in various reproductive stages. A female (MTA96041) caught on 21 May 1996 from Kubah was pregnant. In November 1996, two females caught in Lambir Hills National Park were in post-lactating condition, suggesting recent detachment or loss of juveniles. A male caught at the same site was observed to have enlarged testes. Medway (1978) recorded pregnant females in February and April in the upland area of Cameron highlands in Peninsular Malaysia.

References

 Hall LS, Gordon G. Grigg, Craig Moritz, Besar Ketol, Isa Sait, Wahab Marni and M.T. Abdullah. 2004. Biogeography of fruit bats in Southeast Asia. Sarawak Museum Journal LX(81):191-284.
 Karim, C., A.A. Tuen and M.T. Abdullah. 2004. Mammals. Sarawak Museum Journal Special
Issue No. 6. 80: 221—234.
 Mohd. Azlan J., Ibnu Maryanto, Agus P. Kartono and M.T. Abdullah. 2003 Diversity, Relative
Abundance and Conservation of Chiropterans in Kayan Mentarang National Park, East
Kalimantan, Indonesia. Sarawak Museum Journal 79: 251-265.
 Hall LS, Richards GC, Abdullah MT. 2002. The bats of Niah National Park, Sarawak. Sarawak Museum Journal. 78: 255-282.

External links
Chironax

Megabats
Bats of Southeast Asia
Bats of Indonesia
Bats of Malaysia
Bat, Black-capped fruit
Bat, Black-capped fruit
Bat, Black-capped fruit
Least concern biota of Asia
Mammals described in 1825

Black-capped fruit bat


Amprenavir (original brand name Agenerase, GlaxoSmithKline) is a protease inhibitor used to treat HIV infection. It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration on April 15, 1999, for twice-a-day dosing instead of needing to be taken every eight hours. The convenient dosing came at a price, as the dose required is 1,200 mg, delivered in 8 (eight) very large 150 mg gel capsules or 24 (twenty-four) 50 mg gel capsules twice daily.

It was patented in 1992 and approved for medical use in 1999. Production of amprenavir was discontinued by the manufacturer on December 31, 2004; a prodrug version (fosamprenavir), is available.

Background

Research aimed at development of renin inhibitors as potential antihypertensive agents had led to the discovery of compounds that blocked the action of this peptide cleaving enzyme. The amino acid sequence cleaved by renin was found to be fortuitously the same as that required to produce the HIV peptide coat. Structure–activity studies on renin inhibitors proved to be of great value for developing HIV protease inhibitors. Incorporation of an amino alcohol moiety proved crucial to inhibitory activity for many of these agents. This unit is closely related to the one found in the statine, an unusual amino acid that forms part of the pepstatin, a fermentation product that inhibits protease enzymes.

References

External links
 Amprenavir bound to proteins in the Protein Data Bank

Abandoned drugs
Carbamates
CYP3A4 inhibitors
HIV protease inhibitors
Sulfonamides
Tetrahydrofurans
1992 in science

Amprenavir