(Alan) Ross Butler (born 10 October 1943) is an Australian politician, was a Labor Party member of the Tasmanian House of Assembly from 2008 to 2010, representing the electorate of Franklin.  He won his seat on a countback of votes on 10 June 2008 after the sitting member and Premier of Tasmania Paul Lennon resigned in May 2008. He was defeated at the 2010 state election.

Prior to entering Parliament, Ross Butler had worked as a French and German language teacher in the Tasmanian education system, subsequently rising to be Principal of Glenora District High School, Murray High School in Queenstown and Cosgrove High School in Hobart.  During his teaching career he held senior elected positions within both the Australian Education Union and its predecessor organisation, the Tasmanian Teachers' Federation. After retiring from education he worked as a real estate agent, financial advisor and taxi driver before entering Parliament.

Between 1960 and 1962 he completed a BA at the University of Tasmania and later was awarded a Master of Education through the Tasmanian College of Advanced Education. Ross Butler is a Fellow of the Australian Institute of Company Directors.

Ross Butler is married to Margaret and they have three adult children. In the winter he officiates as an Australian rules football umpire in amateur Tasmanian leagues.

References

Living people
Members of the Tasmanian House of Assembly
1943 births
University of Tasmania alumni
Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of Tasmania
21st-century Australian politicians
Fellows of the Australian Institute of Company Directors

Ross Butler (politician)


Rear Admiral Wendi Bryan Carpenter (born February 4, 1956) is a retired United States Navy flag officer and naval aviator.  She is also a past president of the State University of New York Maritime College.

Background
Carpenter is the daughter of a U.S. Air Force veteran of World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War. Raised throughout the United States, she holds a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Georgia with a major in Psychology.  She has pursued graduate studies in Marketing and holds an MA in International Relations from Salve Regina University.

Career
Carpenter received her commission through Aviation Officer Candidate School, NAS Pensacola, Florida, with Class 19-77 and was designated a Naval Aviator in July 1979. Graduating at the top of her class, she was assigned as the Navy's first Selectively Retained Graduate Instructor Pilot (SERGRAD) in the T-44 aircraft at VT-31, NAS Corpus Christi, Texas. Following her tour as an instructor pilot, Rear Admiral Carpenter was ordered to sea duty at VQ-3 (TACAMO), NAS Barbers Point, Hawaii, where she served as a Mission Commander, Aircraft Commander and Instructor Pilot in the EC130F/G/Q aircraft. She deployed throughout the Pacific and the western U.S. and Alaska in support of the nation's strategic nuclear triad. After completing a shore assignment at the Naval Military Personnel Command as an Aviation Junior Officer Assignments Officer, Carpenter left active duty and accepted a reserve commission in February 1985.

Remaining highly active in the operational reserve force, Carpenter's assignments have included the staffs of Commander Carrier Group Four, Commander United States Naval Forces Europe, Commander United States Sixth Fleet, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (DCNO) Fleet Readiness and Logistics, and Commander United States Second Fleet. Rear Admiral Carpenter has accepted numerous recalls to active duty and has held four Navy reserve commands at the Commander and Captain level: Officer in Charge of VR 506, CINCUSNAVEUR DET 108, DCNO N4 Fleet Readiness and Logistics DET 106, and Second Fleet JFACC. Under her leadership as Commanding Officer of Fleet Readiness and Logistics, the 75 member CNO staff unit shared the FY01 DON CIO Award for "E Business" in government. She has represented the United States in a number of coalition and NATO forums, and completed Senior Courses at the NATO School in Oberammergau, Germany.

Carpenter's Flag assignments include: Deputy Commander of Navy Region Southeast, Jacksonville, Florida from October 2004 - September 2005, acting Director, OPNAV N31 (Information, Plans, Security Division) from April 2005 - May 2005, Vice Director, Standing Joint Forces HQ (SJFHQ), U.S. Joint Forces Command from December 2004 - September 2006, and Deputy Commander, United States Second Fleet from October 2006-June 2008.  In June 2008, Carpenter assumed command of Navy Warfare Development Command, Norfolk, VA, where she served until August 19, 2011.

On August 31, 2011, Admiral Carpenter became the 10th president of the State University of New York Maritime College. She is the first woman to serve as president of the college.  She stepped down in late 2013.

In January 2019, Admiral Carpenter was named Executive Director of the Captain Richard Phillips–Lane Kirkland Maritime Trust, a charitable trust the promotes advocacy for the U.S. maritime industry and the Merchant Marine.

Awards and decorations
Carpenter's awards include the Distinguished Service Medal, Defense Superior Service Medal, Legion of Merit (3 awards), Meritorious Service Medal, Navy Commendation Medal (5 awards), Navy Achievement Medal, and several unit awards.

She has successfully accumulated 3,500 military flight hours.

Admiral Carpenter is "the first woman aviator to be promoted to an admiral in the Navy."

Carpenter is a distinguished graduate of the Naval War College and completed the Capstone Military Leadership Program with class 06–02. Additionally, she has completed executive programs at the National Defense University, UNC Chapel Hill, Defense Acquisition University and the Navy Executive Business Course II (EBC II) at Babson College.

See also
Women in the United States Navy

References

External links

Navy Warfare Development Command (NWDC)
U.S. Navy Biography for RADM Carpenter.

1956 births
Living people
University of Georgia alumni
Salve Regina University alumni
Naval War College alumni
United States Navy rear admirals (upper half)
Female admirals of the United States Navy
Presidents of the State University of New York Maritime College
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
Women United States Naval Aviators
Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States)
21st-century American women
Women heads of universities and colleges

Wendi B. Carpenter


Will J. "Dub" Jones (May 14, 1928 – January 16, 2000) was an American R&B singer. He was born in Shreveport, Louisiana, and died in Long Beach, California. He was inducted as a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of The Coasters in 1987. Other groups with which he recorded include The Cadets, The Crescendos, and The Charades.

Biography
Jones is a singer who is most notable as the bass vocalist for The Coasters and The Cadets.  His best known vocals were on The Cadets' biggest hit single "Stranded in the Jungle" and his bass vocals on The Coasters' hits "Yakety Yak" and "Charlie Brown".  Cornell Gunter and Jones joined The Coasters in early 1958, as replacements for Leon Hughes and Bobby Nunn.

Jones also appeared on various other recordings.  In 1956, he sang on The Crescendos' recording "Sweet Dreams".  In 1957, he sang with Jesse Belvin & The Space Riders on the Modern #1027 single "My Satellite" / "Just To Say Hello". He had also recorded with Cora Washington, billed as Cora And Dub. He is said to have sung lead on The Trammps' cover version of "Zing! Went the Strings of My Heart" (on which he had previously sung lead while with The Coasters). He went on to record with later versions of The Coasters – in 1976 on the album The World Famous Coasters (with Leon Hughes); and with Billy Guy's group of Coasters in 1977, recording such songs as "Ain't No Greens In Harlem" and "Jumbo Bwana". Jones also teamed up with former fellow Cadets member Lloyd McCraw for gospel recordings including "Joshua Fit The Battle" as The Melodians.  Jones and The Cadets sang backing vocals on a few of Richard Berry's recordings in 1955.  These included "Jelly Roll", which appeared on the 2001 Ace compilation album of the group The Dreamers entitled They Sing Like Angels.  In 1987, Jones also sang backing vocals on the song "We Got It All" by The Charades.

Jones died in January 2000, from the effects of diabetes.  He was 71 years old, and is buried at Riverside National Cemetery in Riverside, California.

Discography

Solo singles
 "Hands Across The Table" / "Love Can Do Most Anything" (Modern #1024) (1957) (as Will Jones & The Cadets)
 "Cold Blooded Women" / "What Can I Do" (MJC #101) (circa 1960) (as Dub & Cora)
 "Heaven's Not So Far" (MJC #108) (about 1960) (as Dub Jones)
 "Cold Blooded Women" / "Heaven's Not So Far" (MJ #102) (about 1969) (A-side by Dub & Cora)
 "Cold Blooded Women" / "What Can I Do" (Cotillion #44079) (1970) (as Dub & Cora)

References

External links
 The Coasters website

1928 births
2000 deaths
American rhythm and blues singers
Burials at Riverside National Cemetery
Deaths from diabetes
Musicians from Shreveport, Louisiana
The Coasters members
20th-century American singers
American basses
Singers from Louisiana
The Cadets (group) members
20th-century American male singers

Dub Jones (singer)


Ethan Cohn (born April 18, 1979) is an American actor.

Career
Cohn starred in the films Cry Wolf, Rubber, The Experiment, and Lady in the Water.

He portrays Owen Kellogg in Atlas Shrugged (2011), the film adaptation of Ayn Rand's novel of the same name.

Most recently, he played a cranky birdwatcher A Birder's Guide to Everything, which has been picked up by Focus World.

He is best known for his role as Zane Taylor in science fiction serial drama television series Heroes. Cohn has worked in many television series, having small roles in CSI: Miami, Head Cases and Huff . However, he advanced rapidly in his career and had a recurrent role in Gilmore Girls as Glenn.

Along with playwright and journalist Elizabeth Savage, Cohn has written comedy television pilots and feature films.

Filmography

Film

Television

External links

References

1979 births
American male film actors
American male television actors
Male actors from New York City
Living people

Ethan Cohn


Miguel António de Sousa Horta Almeida e Vasconcelos, 2nd Baron of Santa Comba Dão (São Paulo de Luanda, Angola, 22 August 1831 – 24 February 1891) was a Portuguese nobleman.

He was the eldest child and son and successor of José Maria de Sousa Macedo Almeida e Vasconcelos, 1st Baron of Santa Comba Dão and Maria Benta de Miranda e Horta.

Life
He was born, like his younger sister, at São Paulo de Luanda, Angola, where his father was the Governor and Captain General, and was named after King Miguel of Portugal and both his paternal grandfather and paternal uncle. Because of the Letter of Law of 19 May 1863 that came to abolish all the Majorats and Chapels he was co-heir of his parents and all of his father's several former Majorats and House or Paço of os Arcos, all in Santa Comba Dão, Santa Comba Dão, with his sister, who was unmarried and had no children and lived with her brother.

He was a fidalgo knight of the Royal Household by succession and a Bachelor graduated in Law from the University of Coimbra.

He was 2nd Baron of Santa Comba Dão by Decree of Luís I of Portugal.

Family
He married firstly on 13 July 1850 his first cousin Maria Ludovina Vieira da Silva de Sousa Almeida e Vasconcelos (30 November 1824 - 18 August 1852), daughter of Manuel Vieira da Silva Borges e Abreu, 1st Baron of Alvaiázere and Maria Ludovina Máxima de Sousa Almeida e Vasconcelos de Macedo, and had an only daughter:
 Maria Ludovina de Sousa Horta (7 July 1852 - 1 January 1935), married on 29 August 1880/1881 António Osório Sarmento de Figueiredo, Jr. (Santa Marta de Penaguião, Cumieira, 13 March 1855 - Lisbon, Mercês, 19 May 1935), and had issue

He married secondly Maria da Glória da Costa Brandão e Albuquerque (24 November 1827 - 15 May 1886), daughter of António José da Costa Brandão de Brito de Mesquita Vaz Velho Castelo-Branco, Captain-Major of Oliveirinha, Fidalgo of the Royal Household, etc., and second wife, distant cousin, goddaughter, sister in law and godmother Teresa Augusta de Albuquerque Pinto Tavares Castelo-Branco, and sister of the 1st Viscount of Ervedal da Beira, and had eight children:
 Miguel Maria de Sousa Horta e Costa, 3rd Baron of Santa Comba Dão (Santa Comba Dão, Santa Comba Dão, 26 April 1857 - Lisbon, 28 February/1 March 1934)
 José Maria de Sousa Horta e Costa (Santa Comba Dão, Santa Comba Dão, 20 October 1858 – Porto, Foz do Douro, 21 September 1927)
 António Maria de Sousa Horta e Costa (21 September 1859 - 5 September 1931)
 Sebastião Maria de Sousa Horta e Costa (19 September 1860 - 23 December 1945), Bachelor graduated in Law from the University of Coimbra, Fidalgo of the Royal Household, proprietor in Vila Nova de Oliveirinha, Tábua, Conservator of the Predial Register in the Comarca of Aldeia Galega do Ribatejo, etc., married on 7 July/August 1887 Maria Clara, sometimes Maria Clarisse, de Sousa Monteiro Correia Gomes (11 December 1864 - ?), daughter of António Patrício Correia Gomes, large and wealthy Proprietary in Coruche, and Maria Clara Teixeira de Sousa Monteiro (sister of Dom António Xavier de Sousa Monteiro, 11th Bishop of Beja), sister of his sister in law, and had two daughters, and by Maria da Conceição de Oliveira (born Tábua, Candosa) had one bastard son:
 Maria Susana Monteiro Gomes Horta e Costa (1 May 1889 - ?), married on 1 November 1913 Carlos Duarte Mascarenhas de Meneses (24 January 1884 - ?), Cavalry Officer Major, with the Course of the Arm, etc., only son of Tomás Eugénio Mascarenhas de Meneses and first wife Sofia de Freitas, and had issue, one daughter
 Maria da Glória Monteiro Gomes Horta e Costa (9 August 1890 - Lisbon, 24 September 1937), married firstly on 4 December 1909 Dr. Francisco de Paula de Carvalho Vale e Vasconcelos (4 May 18?? - 11 April 1910), Medic, etc., and had issue, one son, and married secondly on 23 November 1915 Eduardo Francisco de Azeredo e Vasconcelos (1889/1899 - k.i.a. with a German submarine, off Oitavos, World War I, 23 August 1918), First Lieutenant of Maritime Aviation, etc., and had issue, one son
 Octávio Maria de Oliveira (Tábua, Candosa, 10 August 1898 - 15 January 1977), married in Cascais on 19 April 1934 Maria Luísa Ramil Saldanha (Lisbon, São Mamede, 15 October 1912 - Cascais, Parede, 19 November 2001), only legitimate daughter of Luís Carlos de Leão Saldanha and Maria José de Almeida Ramil, without issue
 Maria da Conceição de Sousa Horta e Costa (19 May 1864 - 13 October 19??), married José da Costa Henriques (27 October 186? - 9 October 1933), Teacher of the Ordinary Superior School of Coimbra, etc., and had issue
 Luís Maria de Sousa Horta e Costa (15 November 1865 - 10 March 1946)
 Diogo Maria de Sousa Horta e Costa (6 June/July 1867 - ?), Superior Official and 1st Official of the Ministry of Public Instruction, etc., married Cristina Pedreira de Lima, by whom he had had one son, and had a recognized son:
 Diogo Luís de Sousa Horta or Diogo Luís de Lima Horta e Costa (born 24 September 1919/1920), Licentiate in Medicine, married German Annelise Marie Stuhlmacher (born 1 October 1927), and had three children:
 Vera Maria Stuhlmacher Horta e Costa (born 2 May 1956)
 Diogo Frederico Stuhlmacher Horta e Costa (born 24 May 1958)
 Pedro Miguel Stuhlmacher Horta e Costa (born 6 June 1963)
 Luís Diogo de Sousa Lopes e Horta or Lopes de Sousa Horta or Luís Diogo Horta e Costa (born 3 July 1913/1914), Licentiate in Medicine from the University of Lisbon, Stomatologist, married on 22 July 1948 Maria Isabel Pizarro Xavier Montalvão Machado (born Chaves, 30 November 1924), daughter of Dr. José Timóteo Montalvão Machado, Licentiate in Medicine from the University of Lisbon, specialized in Ophthalmology from the University of Paris, etc., Secretary General of the Associação dos Arqueólogos Portugueses (Association of Portuguese Archaeologists), Genealogist, etc., and Maria Leonor Pizarro Xavier, and had three daughters:
 Leonor Maria Montalvão Horta e Costa (born Coimbra, 6 May 1949)married Luís Filipe Serra Matias and had one children: *Mariana Montalvão Horta e Costa Matias (born Coimbra, 29 May 1980)
 Maria José Montalvão Horta e Costa (born Coimbra, 24 April 1951)
 Maria de Lurdes Montalvão Horta e Costa (born Coimbra, 9 October 1955)married Arnaud Max Marcel René Lantoine (born Abbeville, 26 August 1954) and had one children: *Alain José Montalvão Horta e Costa Lantoine (born Coimbra 13 June 1984)
 Bernardo Maria de Sousa Horta e Costa (15 August 1870 - ?)

Notes

Sources
 Various, Resenha das Famílias Titulares do Reino de Portugal, Lisboa, 1838, pp. 206–207
 Albano da Silveira Pinto and Dom Augusto Romano Sanches de Baena Farinha de Almeida Portugal Silva e Sousa, 1st Viscount of Sanches de Baena, Resenha das Famílias Titulares e Grandes de Portugal, Fernando Santos e Rodrigo Faria de Castro, 2.ª Edição, Braga, 1991, pp. 516–517
 Domingos de Araújo Affonso and Rui Dique Travassos Valdez, Livro de Oiro da Nobreza, J. A. Telles da Sylva, 2.ª edição, Lisboa, 1988, Volume III, pp. 234–240 and 890
 Afonso Eduardo Martins Zúquete, Nobreza de Portugal e do Brasil, Volume Terceiro, p. 289
 António de Vasconcelos, Brás Garcia Mascarenhas, Imprensa da Universidade, Coimbra, 1921, p. 156
 Nuno Gonçalo de Carvalho Canas Mendes, Freires de S. Gião, Pedro Ferreira, 1.ª Edição, Lisboa, 1995, p. 143
 Francisco Xavier Valeriano de Sá, Vice-Reis e Governadores da Índia Portuguesa, CTMC Descobrimentos Portugueses, Macau, 1999, p. 356
 Manuel Rosado Marques de Camões e Vasconcelos, Albuquerques da Beira, Lisboa, 1948, p. 123
 Various, Anuário da Nobreza de Portugal, III, 1985, Tomo I, p. 854, Tomo II, pp. 1,048 and 1,054 and Tomo III, p. 1,573
 Miguel António de Sousa Horta Almeida e Vasconcelos, 2nd Baron of Santa Comba Dão in a Portuguese Genealogical site

External links
 http://www.enciclopedia.com.pt/articles.php?article_id=1360

1831 births
1891 deaths
Portuguese nobility
19th-century Portuguese people
University of Coimbra alumni
People from Luanda


Suribachi (,  lit. "grinding-bowl") and surikogi (, lit. "grind-powder-wood") are a Japanese mortar and pestle. These mortars are used in Japanese cooking to crush different ingredients such as sesame seeds.

The suribachi is a pottery bowl, glazed on the outside and with a rough pattern called kushi-no-me on the unglazed inside. This surface is somewhat similar to the surface of the oroshigane (grater). The surikogi pestle is made from wood to avoid excessive wear on the suribachi. Traditionally, the wood from the sanshō tree (Japanese prickly ash) was used, which adds a slight flavor to the food, although nowadays other woods are more common. The bowls have a diameter from . To use the suribachi the bowl is set on a non-slip surface, such as a rubber mat or a damp towel, and the surikogi is used to grind the material. Recently, plastic versions of the suribachi have also become popular, but they have a much shorter lifespan. The suribachi and surikogi arrived in Japan from China around 1000 AD. The mortar was first used for medicine, and only later for food products. A larger sized Japanese mortar used to pound rice is an usu with a pestle called kine.

The highest mountain on Iwo Jima, Mount Suribachi, was named after this kitchen device.

See also
 List of Japanese cooking utensils

References

External links

Food grinding tools
Japanese food preparation utensils
Japanese pottery

Suribachi


Growing Up is a 23-minute sex education film for schools made by Dr Martin Cole first shown in April 1971. It is now available as part of The Joy of Sex Education DVD and was described by one critic as "the most famous and controversial inclusion", and by Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian as the "undoubted masterpiece of this double-DVD set".

At the time of its release it was said to be "the most explicit and frank film ever made for use in schools", and attracted condemnation by Mary Whitehouse, Lord Longford, Margaret Thatcher and members of the Women's Liberation Movement who all, excepting Thatcher, attended the first public screening. Made two years before its earliest public showing, Cole though soon regretted a traditionalist description of gender roles in the film's opening commentary. The function of women was described as "giving birth to children", while it claimed men were "better at giving birth to ideas", a sequence which the Women's Liberation Movement objected to. There was a version of the film shown to Aston University students earlier for feedback prior to the final version being released. It features scenes rather than drawings of naked people, which included intercourse and masturbation. Teachers and pupils gave it positive feedback, but the absence of a discussion of venereal disease (VD) was noted by sympathetic reviewers.

The film triggered a national controversy; "Educationally speaking, it is a rotten film", Whitehouse said after viewing the film, "which makes children no more than animals." Margaret Thatcher, then secretary of state for education who had sent an advisor to view the film, told the House of Commons on 21 April that she was "very perturbed" at the thought of the film being shown in schools and suggested local education authorities consider it "with extreme caution".

After insisting on a screening, the education authority in Birmingham, where Cole lived, banned the film from being shown in the city's schools. There is no record of the film being shown to school children anywhere by the end of 1971, although it was shown to students at Oxford University.

In 1976 the film was shown to pupils at Milham Ford Girls' School, Oxford with the support of the then headmistress and the majority of the governors. A number of parents and pupils subsequently raised concerns with the National Viewers and Listeners Association.

Further reading
 Limond, David (2008) History of Education 37 (3) 409–429 "'I never imagined that the time would come': Martin Cole, the Growing Up Controversy and the Limits of School Sex Education in 1970s England"

References

1971 films
Aston University
British documentary films
Documentary films about sexuality
Sex education in the United Kingdom
1970s English-language films
1970s British films

Growing Up (1971 film)


William Leigh (1550–1639) was a well-known English preacher, graduate of Oxford, the rector of St Wilfrid's Church (Standish, Lancashire), from 1586 until his death, and is presumed to have baptized Mayflower Pilgrim, Myles Standish. He is now remembered for his sermon series  from 1612, which includes the first published text record for the queen's speech to the troops at Tilbury in 1588.

Life
He was born in Lancashire, and entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1571. There he was elected fellow in 1573, graduated B.A. on 10 December 1574, M.A. on 29 January 1578, and B.D. on 4 July 1586. He took holy orders, and was known as a preacher at Oxford and elsewhere. On 24 July 1584 he asked the university authorities for a preaching license to enable him to preach at St. Paul's Cross. In 1586 he was presented by Bishop William Chaderton to the rectory of Standish, near Wigan, Lancashire, which he held till his death.

He was made a justice of the peace, and led an active public life. He was also chaplain to Henry Stanley, 4th Earl of Derby, and often preached before his patron. Soon after the accession of James I he preached before the court, and the king appointed him tutor to his eldest son Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. In June 1608 Lord Chancellor Egerton gave him the mastership of Ewelme Hospital, Oxfordshire; this sinecure position was made from 1617 to support the Oxford Professor of Physic, but the transition was the tenure of his successor William White from 1611 to 1628.

As a parish priest he continued the restoration of the church, which was begun by his predecessor, and gave an oak pulpit in 1616. He died on 26 November 1639, aged 89, and was buried in the chancel of Standish Church, where there is a brass, with Latin inscription, to his memory. He married Mary, daughter of John Wrightington of Wrightington, Lancashire, and left children.

Works
Leigh wrote the following:

The Souls Solace against Sorrow, a funeral sermon on Katharine Brettargh, published with another sermon by William Harrison of Huyton, 1602, 1605; 5th edit. 1617.
The Christians Watch . . . preached at Prestbury Church in Cheshire at the funerals of. . . Thomas Leigh of Adlington, 1605.
Great Britaines Great Deliverance from the great danger of Popish Powder, 1606, dedicated to Prince Henry.
The First Step towards Heaven, or Anna the Prophetesse her holy Haunt, to the Temple of God, 1609.
The Dreadfull Day, dolorous to the wicked, but glorious to all such as looke and long after Christ his second coming, 1610.
Queen Elizabeth paraleld in her Princely Vertues with David, Josua, and Hezekia, 1612.
The Drumme of Devotion, striking out an Allarum to Prayer, 1613.
Strange News of a Prodigious Monster borne in the Towneship of Adlington in the Parish of Standish . . ., 1613.

Besides containing a version of the Tilbury speech, with its well-known rhetoric of gender, Queen Elizabeth paraleld worked out national allegory in the style of Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene with Old Testament typology, in a way later taken up by Paul Knell. It further  elaborated the coincidence of names with the future Elizabeth of Bohemia, King James's daughter the Princess Elizabeth; the book consisting of three sermons that Leigh had given late in Elizabeth I's reign was dedicated to the Princess Elizabeth, and may have been prompted by the assassination in 1610 of Henry IV of France; the dedication mentions in polemic fashion not only the assassin Ravaillac but the Jesuits Juan de Mariana and Robert Doleman, pseudonym of Robert Parsons.

The text given by Leigh for the Tilbury speech is not the same as that of Leonel Sharp. It is close to the wording accompanying a painting in the church at Gaywood, Norfolk.

Notes

References

1550 births
1639 deaths
16th-century English Anglican priests
17th-century English Anglican priests
16th-century English educators
17th-century English educators
16th-century English writers
16th-century male writers
17th-century English writers
17th-century English male writers
Clergy from Lancashire
Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford

William Leigh


Robert Joseph Huebner (February 23, 1914 – August 26, 1998), was an American physician and virologist whose research into viruses, their causes and treatment that led to his breakthrough insights into the connections between viruses and cancer, leading to new treatments, as well as his hypothesized oncogene, which was discovered to be a trigger for normal cells turning cancerous.

Early life and education
Huebner was born in Cheviot, Ohio, a western suburb of Cincinnati, on February 23, 1914. After attending a local parish elementary school, he attended Elder High School, graduating in 1932.<ref name=NIHBio>Beeman, Edward A. "Robert J. Huebner, M.D.:A Virologist's Odyssey", National Institutes of Health, 2005. Accessed July 23, 2009.</ref> He attended Xavier College (later Xavier University, where he majored in economics and English literature and took the prerequisites to attend law school. He decided he wanted to become a physician and did his premed undergraduate training at the University of Cincinnati. He attended the Saint Louis University School of Medicine starting in 1938. He was threatened with expulsion from the school after officials there discovered that he had taken outside work to pay for his education in violation of school policy — including a job as a bouncer at a brothel — but stayed in school and graduated in 1942. He graduated in June 1942, ranked in the top five of his class of 100.

After graduating, he joined the United States Public Health Service during World War II, and was assigned for a year to the United States Marine Hospital in Seattle, and then to the United States Coast Guard ship USS Hemlock in Alaska. The Public Health Service transferred him to a position as a researcher at the National Institutes of Health in July 1944.

Rickettsialpox
In June and July 1945, Huebner was asked to investigate an outbreak of cases of a spotted fever that struck more than 100 New York City residents, most of whom were residents of a single apartment complex in Kew Gardens, Queens. Local physicians hadn't initially reported the cases to authorities, as most presented with a rash and fever, but recovered within two weeks without any specific treatment. The New York City Department of Health was informed after a "minor epidemic" broke out at the Queens housing complex and individuals had been sent to hospitals with violent fevers and skin lesions. The seven known rickettsial diseases were all ruled out based on tests.

Visiting the complex with self-trained entomologist Charles Pomerantz, the two peeled back wallpaper to find the walls swarming with mites, so much so that tenants had described that "the walls had movement". Huebner's investigations on the site led to the conclusion that tenants had been bitten by a mite identified as Allodermanyssus sanguineus, found on mice that infested the storerooms and incinerator areas in the buildings. After culturing and isolating the organism in laboratory mice, the pathogen they named Rickettsia akari was identified as the ultimate cause of the disease now called rickettsialpox. The Department of Health announced a program to work with building owners to exterminate the mice that were the vector for the disease.

Huebner document his findings of the new disease in a 1947 paper published in the Journal of the American Medical Association. He was recognized by the American Society of Tropical Medicine for his efforts with the Bailey K. Ashford Award in 1949, which included a $1,000 prize from Eli Lilly and Company that he later used as a down payment for a farm in Frederick, Maryland.

Q Fever
Huebner's first work on Q Fever was a report he had done on an outbreak of 18 cases that occurred in early 1946 in an NIH laboratory, where he showed a correlation between a spike in cases and the preparation of antigens in yolk sacs, and he prepared another report on a group of 47 patients being treated for the condition at the Public Health Service Hospital in Baltimore. He was sent in spring 1947 to investigate an outbreak at milk farms in the Los Angeles area, in which there was a dense population of farms in which the animals had little space, creating what Huebner called "unpasturized cows". Huebner found the cause to be a member of the rickettsia family that was found in containers of unpasteurized milk. The cause was found to be Coxiella burnetii, with their findings published in 1948 in the American Journal of Public Health. Dairy farmers were upset by the insinuation that they were responsible for the outbreak and put pressure on local health officials to ask Huebner to leave the area.

Huebner found that the C. burnetii bacteria could survive temperatures of up to  in sealed containers for as long as 30 minutes, just below the levels used for vat pasteurization. This could mean that there was no way to verify that every particle within a vat was raised to the peak temperature and that pasteurization might not eliminate all of the bacteria in the milk being treated.

Adenovirus and oncogenes
While trying to grow common cold viruses, he and his colleague Dr. Wallace Rowe first tried to use adenoid and tonsil tissue, before using a culture based on tumor cells. From that culture they isolated cytomegalovirus, as well as the first of a large family of adenoviruses. Dr. Robert M. Chanock said the discovery "put him up there with Sabin" (creator of the oral polio vaccine) as one of the "great moments in virology". Based on their observations, Huebner and Rowe hypothesized that these viruses could trigger an unknown gene that would cause cells to grow out of control.

In a paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'' in 1969, Huebner advanced his theory that oncogenes, then only a hypothetical construct, could cause normal cells to mutate and become cancerous. A specific gene matching the theorized description was discovered and led to the development of treatments for cancer and other diseases.

In contrast to medical wisdom in the 1960s and 1970s, Huebner was confident that viruses were a cause of cancer in humans and convinced the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare to provide $60 million in grants to fund research on the connection as part of the War on Cancer. This led to the discovery of the role that cytomegalovirus plays in opportunistic infections in patients with immunodeficiency. Research on retroviruses led to the development of a vaccine for hepatitis B, which has led to major decreases in rates of liver cancer, rates of some viral cancers, like that of the liver, have been sharply reduced.

He took a position in 1968 as chief of the National Cancer Institute's Laboratory of Viral Carcinogenesis, staying there until his retirement in 1982.

Awards and recognition
President of the United States Richard Nixon presented Huebner with the National Medal of Science at a White House dinner held on February 16, 1970, recognizing his "contributions to the modern understanding of the biology of viruses and their role in the induction of diverse diseases."

He was also inducted into and participated actively in the United States National Academy of Sciences. He also received the Rockefeller Public Service Award.

Personal
He bought a  farm for $4,000 in Frederick, Maryland where he raised his family, using the money he had received as part of an award for his rickettsial research to make the necessary downpayment. His children were each given the task of raising an American Angus bull to help pay for their college education. By the time of Huebner's death in 1998, the farm was operated by three of his children.

Huebner died at age 84 due to pneumonia on August 26, 1998, at the Veterans Administration Medical Center in Coatesville, Pennsylvania, where he had been a resident since 1991. He had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in the early 1980s. He was survived by his second wife, Harriet, as well as by six daughters, two sons and 11 grandchildren. His first marriage had ended in divorce.

References

1914 births
1998 deaths
American public health doctors
American virologists
People with Alzheimer's disease
Deaths from pneumonia in Pennsylvania
National Medal of Science laureates
People from Frederick, Maryland
People from Cheviot, Ohio
Saint Louis University alumni
University of Cincinnati alumni
Xavier University alumni
20th-century American physicians
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences

Robert Huebner


Sunshine Enemies is a crime novel by the American writer K. C. Constantine set in 1980s Rocksburg, a fictional, blue-collar, Rust Belt town in Western Pennsylvania, modeled on the author's hometown of McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania, adjacent to Pittsburgh.

Mario Balzic is the protagonist, an atypical detective for the genre, a Serbo-Italian American cop, middle-aged, unpretentious, a family man who asks questions and uses more sense than force.

The novel opens with a Lutheran minister complaining about a pornography ship that recently opened at the edge of town. Next a brutal knife murder happens in the shop's parking lot. All of this prompts Balzic the police chief to work the case, digging up reluctant witnesses and asking questions.

It is the ninth book in the 17-volume Mario Balzic Detective Mystery Series.

References

1990 American novels
Novels by K. C. Constantine
American crime novels
Novels set in Pennsylvania
Mysterious Press books

Sunshine Enemies


Theodora Lois Sherman (sometimes credited as Lois Sherman; stage name, Gayle Lord; April 1, 1921 – January 16, 2019) was an American actress, TV writer, and screenwriter known for her work in the Western genre.

Biography
Theodora Lois Sherman was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, to Harry Sherman and Lillian Mazur. She spent her childhood traveling the country, and eventually went to a finishing school on the East Coast. Afterward, she studied acting at the Pasadena Playhouse for four years.

In the early 1940s, she arrived in Hollywood. Her father had become a successful producer, known for Hopalong Cassidy films. Not wanting to capitalize off his name, she used the stage name of Gayle Lord.

While her father was out of town, she auditioned for a role on a Hopalong Cassidy. When she got the part, her father insisted she use her real name.

She appeared in a few films her father produced and was popular as an actress, but found she enjoyed writing. In 1946, she was named assistant story editor at her father's independent production studio, Enterprise Pictures, where she wrote half a dozen Westerns (including the Gary Cooper film) as well as dozens of television episodes. She collaborated on several scripts with writer Graham Baker.

She was reportedly engaged to actor Rod Cameron at one point in the early '40s, but that never led to marriage. She was also engaged to her father's assistant, Vernon Clark, in the late '40s, but that was called off. In 1957, she married Allan Baylin. The pair had a daughter together.

Sherman died on January 16, 2019, at the age of 97 due to natural causes.

Selected filmography
Film:

 Rage (1966)
 4 for Texas (1963)
 10 Seconds to Hell (1959)
 Tennessee's Partner (1955)
 The Man from Bitter Ridge (1955)
 Four Faces West (1948)
 The Woman of the Town (1943)
 Colt Comrades (1943)

TV:

 Then Came Bronson (1 episode; 1970)
 Mannix (1 episode; 1968)
 The Rounders (1 episode; 1966)
 The One Who Never Was (2 episodes; 1966)
 Ben Casey (3 episodes; 1962–1966)
 Wagon Train (1 episode; 1964)
 Ripcord (3 episodes; 1962–1963)
 The Virginian (3 episodes; 1961–1962)
 Everglades (3 episodes; 1961–1962)
 The Roaring 20's (1 episode; 1961)
 Bat Masterson (1 episode; 1960)
 Lock-Up (1 episode; 1960)
 Sea Hunt (4 episodes; 1960)
 The Rifleman (2 episodes; 1959–1960)
 Tombstone Territory (2 episodes; 1960)
 Johnny Ringo (1 episode; 1960)
 Law of the Plainsman (1 episode; 1960)
 The Rough Riders (3 episodes; 1958–1959)
 The Millionaire (1 episode; 1958)
 Cheyenne (1 episode; 1958)
 Highway Patrol (2 episodes; 1957

References

External links

American women screenwriters
Screenwriters from Minnesota
1921 births
2019 deaths
American film actresses
20th-century American writers
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American actresses
Western (genre) film actresses
21st-century American women

Teddi Sherman


The Siberian Traps form a large region of volcanic rock, known as a large igneous province, in the Russian region of Siberia.

The large eruptions which formed the traps were one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earth history. They continued for a million years and spanned the Permian-Triassic boundary, about 251 to 250 million years ago. It was the same time as the Permian–Triassic extinction event, which is estimated to have killed 90% of species existing at the time. The eruption of the Siberian Traps is a possible cause of this "Great Dying".

The term "traps" is derived from the Swedish word for stairs (trappa, or sometimes trapp), referring to the step-like hills forming the landscape of the region, which is typical of flood basalts.

Geographical extent
Vast volumes of basaltic lava paved over a large expanse of primaeval Siberia in a flood basalt event. Today the area covered is about 2 million km² – roughly equal to western Europe in land area – and estimates of the original coverage are as high as 7 million km². The original volume of lava is estimated to range from 1 to 4 million km³.

Origin
The source of the Siberian Traps basalt was, probably, a mantle plume at the base of the crust which erupted through the Siberian craton (the oldest part of the Siberian continental plate). Helium isotope analysis from the basalts indicates a plume origin. The scientific debate continues. There is a minority controversial theory which argues that the traps were caused by a large asteroid impact.

The Great Dying

This massive eruptive event spanned the Permian-Triassic boundary, about 250 million years ago, and is widely cited as a cause of the Permian-Triassic extinction event.  This extinction event, also called the Great Dying, affected all life on Earth, and is estimated to have killed 90% of species living at the time. Life on land took 30 million years to recover from the environmental disruptions caused by the eruption of the Siberian Traps.

Siberian Traps and nickel
The Siberian Traps are considered to have erupted through numerous vents over a period of a million years or more, probably east and south of Norilsk in Siberia. The giant Norilsk nickel-copper-palladium deposit formed within the magma flows in the main Siberian Traps. The presence of extensive tuff and pyroclastic deposits suggests that a number of large explosive eruptions occurred during or before the eruptions of basaltic lavas. The presence of silicic volcanic rocks such as rhyolite is also indicative of explosive eruptions.

Related pages
Flood basalt
Deccan Traps

Other websites
The Siberian Traps
The Siberian Traps, by Richard Cowen
The Siberian Traps Large Igneous Province
Toxic Gases Caused World's Worst Extinction

References

Extinction events
Flood basalts
Volcanic landforms
Volcanoes of Asia
Mountains of Russia
Siberia
Large igneous provinces

Siberian Traps


Luis Felipe Bravo Mena (born September 28, 1952 in León, Guanajuato) is a Mexican politician. He was elected as the 17th president of the National Action Party (PAN) and current Mexican ambassador to the Vatican City.

Bravo is the son of Luis Felipe Bravo García, a sales agent, and Luz María Mena Montoya. He graduated with a bachelor's degree in law from the University of Guanajuato and specialized in social and political philosophy at the Pan-American University.

He joined the conservative National Action Party in 1969 and served in the Chamber of Deputies (1991 – 1994) and in the Senate (1994 – 2000). From 1999 to 2005 he chaired the PAN and served as vice president of Centrist Democrat International, an association of political parties and groups adhering to the Christian Democracy ideology.

Bravo is married to María Teresita del Niño Jesús Tinoco Aldana and has four children: Luis Felipe, María Teresa, Mariano and Florentina.

On March 26, 2011 Bravo Mena became a contender for the PAN nomination to the government of the State of Mexico.

References

Diccionario biográfico del gobierno mexicano, Ed. Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1992.

1952 births
Living people
Politicians from Guanajuato
People from León, Guanajuato
National Action Party (Mexico) politicians
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
Members of the Senate of the Republic (Mexico)
Ambassadors of Mexico to the Holy See
Universidad de Guanajuato alumni
20th-century Mexican politicians

Luis Felipe Bravo Mena


Henryk Hryniewski (; ) (22 November 1869 – 4 March 1937) was a Polish-Georgian painter, graphic artist, and illustrator. He was also known as a scholar and an educator of traditional Georgian architecture. He was arrested and put to death during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge. Few of his original work survive.

Hryniewski was born into a family of an exiled Polish patriot in the western Georgian city of Kutaisi, then part of the Russian Empire. From 1895 to 1898, he studied art and architecture at Florence and Karlsruhe. In 1898, he settled in Tiflis (Tbilisi) where he painted and taught. He directed the Tiflis Arts School from 1918 and 1921 and helped transform it into the Georgian Academy of Fine Arts, of which he became a professor in 1922 and vice-rector in 1927.

Hryniewski was involved in the major cultural projects of the time; he was instrumental in organizing a museum of the history of Tbilisi and was a member of a special commission for protection of the city's cultural heritage. He studied Georgian folk and church architecture and produced "Old Architecture of Georgia," an album of aquarelles, as well as a comprehensive analysis of traditional Georgian ornate art and a textbook on linear perspectives and theory of shadows. Hrynievski's illustrations regularly appeared in the Georgian press and in editions the works of leading Georgian writers, especially those of Ilia Chavchavadze. He also created an iconostasis for the Kashveti Church of St. George and coauthored the project of the Georgian Bank of Nobility office (presently the National Parliamentary Library of Georgia). He opposed a program of ideological reforms in the Tbilisi State Academy of Arts (formerly the Tbilisi Academy of Fine Arts) pushed for by the Soviet authorities. Hryniewski was arrested and shot in a 1937 repression wave. NKVD officers destroyed his studio and a large number of his works. Hryniewski's wife Maria Perini (1873-1939), an Italian dancer and a founder of the first ballet studio in Tbilisi was immediately exiled from Georgia after her husband's arrest.

References

External links

1869 births
1937 deaths
People from Kutaisi
19th-century Polish painters
19th-century Polish male artists
20th-century Polish painters
20th-century Polish male artists
People from the Russian Empire of Polish descent
Soviet people of Polish descent
Georgian people of Polish descent
Painters from Georgia (country)
Educators from Georgia (country)
Great Purge victims from Georgia (country)
Academic staff of the Tbilisi State Academy of Arts
Polish male painters
Artists from the Russian Empire

Henryk Hryniewski


Fort du Mont Bart is located to the south of Montbéliard, France. It was built between November 1874 and July 1877 as part of the Séré de Rivières system of fortifications. The fort overlooks the valleys of the Doubs and the Allan at an elevation of , standing to the south and rear of the fortified region of Belfort and in control of the road to Besançon. The fort was intended to augment the Belfort fortifications and to prevent an enemy from bypassing them.
The most striking feature of the Fort du Mont Bart is its "interior street", originally constructed in the open air as a sunken court, then covered before World War I with reinforced concrete.

Strategic position
The strategic importance of the Belfort fortification system became apparent in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and increased as a result of the loss of Alsace and Lorraine as a result of the war.  The defenses of France had to be reconsidered in light of the changes in France's frontiers and in view of advances in artillery during the second half of the 19th century. The new fort was planned to respond to these new developments and to support the neighboring fortification systems.

Description

The pentagonal fort is surrounded by a ditch, which is traversed by fire from the caponiers. The central barracks is sunken into the earth and encircled by firing positions on the surface of the fort. The fort's surface was originally armed with four 155mm and five 120mm guns, with one 138mm gun. Four 220 mm mortars completed the exposed armament. Casemates were armed with one 155mm Mougin gun and four 138mm guns, with smaller arms defending the fort's walls, and a separate battery with four 95mm guns.  By 1914 the surface armament had been augmented with four 90mm guns and an additional three 120mm guns. Revolving guns defended the fort. The fort was entered via a drawbridge.

Mont Bart covers a surface area of about . The fort's stonework came from the Bavans quarry at the foot of the massif.

History
The fort was modernized in 1889 with a magazine excavated within the rock of the foundations.  In 1913-1914 the fort was reinforced with  of reinforced concrete over the central barracks and court, uniquely in the Séré de Rivières system. A second Mougin casemate was proposed in 1878, but never carried out.

In 1940 the fort was manned by troops of the 159th Position Artillery Regiment (RAP), part of the Defensive Sector of Montbéliard under the French 8th Army, Army Group 3. From 16 March 1940 the SD Montbéliard became the Fortified Sector of Montbéliard.

During the second world war the fort was stripped of its armament. It remained occupied by the military until the 1960s, when it was abandoned.  It is now owned by the Montbéliard regional government and is under restoration.

See also
 Fortified region of Belfort

References

External links

Fort du Mont Bart official site
Fort du Mont Bart at Chemins de mémoire
Fort du Mont Bart at Fortiff' Séré

Séré de Rivières system

Fort du Mont Bart


Ippolita Rostagno (born December 10, 1963) is an Italian-American jewelry designer based in New York City.

Personal life
Born December 10, 1963 in Florence, Italy, Ippolita Rostagno is the daughter of an American artist and an Italian intellectual.

Raised and educated in the hills of Tuscany, Ippolita attended elementary school in a one-room medieval schoolhouse and went on to study sculpture and earn her baccalauréat degree from the Istituto D'Arte in Florence.

Ippolita immigrated to the United States at age 18, moving to Los Angeles where she continued her studies at Occidental College and founded an alternative poetry and dance company called Rime together with Anna Stump in 1984.

After completing her BA in English Literature, Ippolita moved to New York City in 1986 and married a fashion photographer and gave birth to her daughter Maya in 1988.

Career
In 1999 Ippolita founded the jewelry brand Ippolita. Bergdorf Goodman bought her first designs. The company was sold to Castanea Partners in 2007 and bought back by a group led by Ippolita in July 2018.  Ippolita holds the position of CEO and Creative Director and leads the design and manufacture of her eponymous line, which includes collections in 18k gold, sterling silver, rosé (a proprietary alloy of sterling silver with 18k gold and 18k rose gold) and non-metal materials, such as Resin.

Silhouettes include stackable bangles, layering necklaces, earrings, rings and pendants.

The product is handcrafted and materials are sourced from all over the world.  Ippolita's collections are sold at department stores including Neiman Marcus, Saks Fifth Avenue, Bergdorf Goodman, Bloomingdale's and Nordstrom, as well as through independent jewelry stores. Internationally, the jewelry is sold at Harrods, Holt Renfrew and specialty retailers throughout the Caribbean.

Her clients include Kate Hudson, Charlize Theron, Jennifer Lopez and Courteney Cox.

Awards and honors
In August 2011, Ippolita was inducted into the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA).

Ippolita's sculpture and video installation exhibit "Reliquary" was showcased at Highline Stages in New York City in September 2011.

References

External links
 IPPOLITA Official Website

1963 births
Living people
American jewelry designers
Women jewellers

Ippolita Rostagno


Norchia is an ancient Etruscan city with an adjacent necropolis, near Vetralla in Italy. The site is along the Via Clodia, and is not far from the more well known Etruscan town of Tarquinia.

History
The ancient name of the site is uncertain; some sources identify it with the ancient Etruscan town known as Orclae, whose name is reported in medieval sources. The locale was already inhabited in the Bronze Age, and the city and its adjoining necropolis grew with the arrival of the Etruscans. The urban settlement reached its high point between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC

The tombs are generally constructed from large blocks of tuff carved directly into the cliff, and are entered from stairs heading down into the rock. Their cliffside construction, rather than being built on the ground, makes the tombs unusual for the Etruscans. Originally bodies were placed within stone sarcophagi that may still be found in many of the tombs.

The site was later inhabited in medieval times, and remnants of a castle and church still remain. It was abandoned as a settlement in the 14th century.

Images

References

 Mauro Cristofani, Dizionario Illustrato della Civiltà Etrusca, Giunti, Firenze 1999, , pp. 191–192.
 VR panorama of an Etruscan tomb in Norchia at Tuscia 360

Etruscan cities
Province of Viterbo
Former populated places in Italy
Archaeological sites in Lazio

Norchia


Josefa Falani Rika (9 November 1987 – 3 February 2020) was a Fijian cricket player and coach. He played for the Fiji national cricket team from 2006 to 2015. He captained Fiji in several international tournaments and also worked for Cricket Fiji in coaching and development roles.

Personal life
Rika was born in Fiji on 9 November 1987. He was from the village of Makadru on Matuku Island and was educated at Lelean Memorial School. His older brother Collin also played cricket for Fiji.

Rika had three children with his wife Natasha. He died on 3 February 2020 at the age of 32 after suffering an asthma attack.

Playing career
Rika made his debut for the Fijian under-19 team at the 2001 EAP Under-19 Trophy, aged only 13.
 Playing alongside his older brother, Colin, he played in all four matches, but scored only 14 runs and failed to take a wicket. In 2003 and 2005, no separate under-19 tournament was held for ICC East Asia-Pacific members, with those teams instead competing alongside teams from the ICC Africa region. In the 2003 combined tournament in Namibia, both Fiji and Rika had little luck with the bat, although Rika took figures of 3/14 against Nigeria. At the 2005 combined tournament in South Africa, he was Fiji's leading runscorer, finishing with 126 runs. His best was 41, against Uganda.

The EAP Under-19 Trophy and Africa Under-19 Championships were re-established as separate competitions in 2007, with the EAP tournament held in Vanuatu. Appointed Fiji's captain, Rika began the tournament with scores of two against Vanuatu and four against Papua New Guinea, but in the following match, against Japan, scored a remarkable 257 runs from 145 balls, out of a team total of 440/8. His innings included 37 fours and 9 sixes, including three sixes in consecutive balls at one point. A writer for ESPNcricinfo described Rika's innings as "what must rank as one of the most breathtaking knocks in the history of age-group cricket". Fiji again faced Japan in its next match, the third-place playoff, but were set a total of only 36 runs, with Rika scoring another 28 not out from 10 balls. Unsurprisingly, he led the tournament in both batting average and runs scored – the next-best Fijian batsman scored only 50 runs overall.

That 2007 tournament was Rika's last at under-19 level, and he had made his senior debut in the gap between under-19 events, appearing for Fiji in the 2006 EAP Trophy and the 2007 World Cricket League Division Three tournament. His EAP Trophy had included an innings of 50 not out in the opening match against Japan, made from 49 balls. At the 2008 WCL Division Four tournament in Tanzania, Rika was the only Fijian batsman to record more than 100 runs overall, finishing with 194 runs and a batting average of 32.33. His best innings, 62, came in the 5th-place playoff against Jersey, which his team won. However, both teams were relegated to the 2010 Division Five tournament in Nepal. Rika, aged 22 at the time, was appointed Fiji's captain in the place of the injured Joe Sorovakatini, and again made his highest score against Jersey, although his innings of 75 from 134 balls was not enough to prevent his side losing. Fiji and Jersey were eventually both relegated again, to the 2011 Division Six event in Malaysia. Again named captain, Rika led Fiji's batting with 185 runs from six innings, and twice scored half-centuries – 55 against Kuwait and 52 against Jersey.

At the 2013 WCL Division Seven tournament in Botswana, Rika scored 76 from 122 balls against Ghana, but also recorded two ducks, against Botswana and Germany. At the end of the tournament, he announced that he would be retiring from playing, despite being only 25. However, in June 2014 he announced that he would come out of retirement and continue playing for Fiji in international tournaments, alongside his development work. Rika captained Fiji at the 2014 EAP Twenty20 Championship and was also appointed for the 2015 WCL Division Six tournament in England.

Coaching career
Rika was appointed as development manager of Cricket Fiji in 2010. He coached Fiji at the 2013 EAP Under-19 Trophy. He also coached the Fiji women's national cricket team at the 2015 Pacific Games.

References

External links
Josefa Rika at Cricket Archive
Josefa Rika at ESPNcricinfo

1987 births
2020 deaths
Fijian cricketers
Place of death missing
People educated at Lelean Memorial School
Deaths from asthma
People from Matuku Island

Josefa Rika


Rachel Jacobs (October 3, 1975 – May 12, 2015) was an American businesswoman and social entrepreneur. She was killed at age 39 in the 2015 Philadelphia train derailment while commuting between her home in New York and the Philadelphia offices of ApprenNet, the educational technology company she had recently joined as CEO.

Early life and education
Jacobs grew up in Huntington Woods, Michigan, the daughter of Gilda Jacobs, a former Michigan state senator. She was a 1993 graduate of Berkley High School, a 1997 graduate of Swarthmore College, and a 2002 graduate of Columbia Business School. Jacobs moved to New York City in 2000.

Career
Jacobs was CEO of ApprenNet, a video-learning tech company which was cofounded by Karl Okamoto, a law professor at Drexel University. The company "provides tools for instructors to create video-based learning exercises." Before joining ApprenNet, Jacobs worked for the education-technology firm Ascend Learning where she was vice president of business innovation. According to Okamoto, the two met because ApprenNet was doing business with Ascend and Jacobs "was our customer before she became our colleague."

In a career The Washington Post described as "moving from one big job to the next," Jacobs' first job out of business school was as a manager at the Pragma Corporation, based in Kyrgyzstan, where she helped the government develop IT strategies. She next worked for the Eurasia Group, a political risk consultancy. In 2007, Jacobs joined McGraw Hill, where she "led the expansion of McGraw-Hill's career-learning business into China, India and the Middle East."

Jacobs was hired to lead ApprenNet, which is backed by the National Science Foundation, in an expansion from its original focus on educating lawyers, into a phase to apply its online teaching technology to training health-care professionals, college level instruction and training for K-12 teachers.

Following Jacobs's death, ApprenNet merged with Handsfree Learning of California.

Social activism
In 2009, Jacobs organized 635 Mile Road, a non-profit organization of former Detroit-area residents "dedicated to improving the flow of funds, ideas and energy between native Detroiters." By the end of 2010, 635 Mile Road became Detroit Nation. The organization soon had chapters in chapters in New York, Seattle, Chicago, and other cities dedicated to helping Detroit natives who continue supporting the region after moving away. The group offers free consulting to Detroit-based, grassroots entrepreneurs and artists. Through Detroit Nation, Jacobs helped arrange the Detroit Symphony Orchestra's first Carnegie Hall concert in 17 years. By the time the group held a Detroit ex-pats meet-up in their hometown in 2014, the group had 10,000 members online. Detroit Nation raised money for Detroit charities with fund-raising events held by expats in Seattle, Chicago, New York and other cities, but, as Jacobs explained to an interviewer in 2011, the ex-pats also provide "human capital... helping organizations to better integrate social networking tools, develop marketing materials, or structure the organization and bring in larger donors."

In 2014, Jacobs was one of 150 business leaders invited to attend the first annual Detroit Homecoming. Interviewed during the Homecoming, Jacobs told The Detroit News that, "Detroit doesn't need ideas. It has phenomenal ideas. It needs doers... My challenge to expats is who will raise their hand and be a doer in Detroit?"

Personal life
She was married to Todd Waldman, who  worked for Navigant Consulting; the couple had one son. Jacobs and Waldman had been considering whether to move the family to Philadelphia.

Death
Media attention focused on Jacobs in the hours after the crash because she was known to have been on the train but had not been identified among the injured and the dead. ApprenNet co-founder and COO Emily Foote went to the crash scene to try to locate Jacobs by showing her photograph to survivors and rescue workers.

Hundreds of people attended memorial services held at the Greenwich Village campus of Hebrew Union College on Saturday, May 16, 2015. An estimated 1,500 people attended the funeral held in suburban Detroit on May 18, 2015.

Legacy
According to CNN, Jacobs' family have set up two memorial funds in her honor, including the "Rachel Jacobs Detroit Nation Fund" to benefit Detroit Nation and a scholarship fund at Columbia Business School to benefit social entrepreneurs.

Former campers and counselors who had spent summers with Rachel at Tamarack Camps, located in the state of Michigan, came together and raised money to dedicate the Rachel Jacobs Tikkun Olam Leadership Award. Rachel often spoke to others about how her camp experiences help shape her identity during her formative years.  Beginning in 2016, this award will go to one summer staff member each year who embodies Rachel's values for healing or repairing the world (the Hebrew translation of Tikkun Olam).

Daily News columnist Mike Lupica demanded a full investigation of Amtrak safety from the National Transportation Safety Board to prevent future tragedies in which a two-year-old child "grows up without a mother."  Assigned to ride on the first train through Philadelphia after the derailment, columnist Ronnie Polaneczky wrote for The Philadelphia Inquirer that, "The next time I sigh that I can't afford to fix the roof or haven't time to help a friend move across the country, I will try to remind myself that Rachel Jacobs would have given anything to still be here to indulge such petty worries."

References

1975 births
2015 deaths
21st-century American businesspeople
21st-century American businesswomen
Accidental deaths in Pennsylvania
American technology chief executives
American women chief executives
Businesspeople from Michigan
Columbia Business School alumni
People from Huntington Woods, Michigan
People in educational technology
Railway accident deaths in the United States
Swarthmore College alumni

Rachel Jacobs


Rafita Mirabal (born 1997) from the Mexican state of Aguascalientes is believed to be the world's youngest bullfighter. He was discovered in a bullfighting school in his home state and has performed at least 24 fights from 2005 to April 2006 and several more since then. He enters the arena with only a red cape and a short sword to protect himself. His fights differ from those by adult bullfighters. The bulls he fights are smaller (about 400 lb, 180 kg) and he does not kill them, which seems to have an inherent attraction for the audience. Because he is not strong enough to drive a sword into a bull's heart, "he might just wound the animals, and then they (animal rights activists) would repeat the thing about (the sport) being a massacre," according to Jose San Martin, the boy's manager.

Trampled
During a fight in San Miguel de Allende on April 15, 2006 Mirabal was swept into the air and trampled by a vaquilla (horned cow). Older bullfighters distracted the animal to give Mirabal to the time to recover and get back in the fight.

See also
Michelito Lagravere, young Mexican bullfighter.
Jorge Elich, young Spanish lion tamer.

References

1997 births
Living people
Mexican bullfighters
Mexican children
Sportspeople from Aguascalientes

Rafita Mirabal


The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion (commonly abbreviated as the Thirty-nine Articles or the XXXIX Articles), finalised in 1571, are the historically defining statements of doctrines and practices of the Church of England with respect to the controversies of the English Reformation. The Thirty-nine Articles form part of the Book of Common Prayer used by the Church of England, the U.S. Episcopal Church, and the Anglican Church in North America among other denominations in the worldwide Anglican Communion and Anglican Continuum.

When Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church and was excommunicated, he began the reform of the Church of England, which would be headed by the monarch (himself), rather than the pope. At this point, he needed to determine what its doctrines and practices would be in relation to the Church of Rome and the new Protestant movements in continental Europe. A series of defining documents were written and replaced over a period of thirty years as the doctrinal and political situation changed from the excommunication of Henry VIII in 1533, to the excommunication of Elizabeth I in 1570. These positions began with the Ten Articles in 1536, and concluded with the finalisation of the Thirty-nine articles in 1571. The Thirty-nine articles ultimately served to define the doctrine of the Church of England as it related to Calvinist doctrine and Catholic practice.

The articles went through at least five major revisions prior to their finalisation in 1571. The first attempt was the Ten Articles in 1536, which showed some slightly Protestant leanings – the result of an English desire for a political alliance with the German Lutheran princes. The next revision was the Six Articles in 1539 which swung away from all reformed positions, and then the King's Book in 1543, which re-established most of the earlier Catholic doctrines. During the reign of Edward VI, Henry VIII's son, the Forty-two Articles were written under the direction of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer in 1552. It was in this document that Calvinist thought reached the zenith of its influence in the English Church. These articles were never put into action, owing to Edward VI's death and the reversion of the English Church to Catholicism under Henry VIII's elder daughter, Mary I.

Finally, upon the coronation of Elizabeth I and the re-establishment of the Church of England as separate from the Catholic Church, the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion were initiated by the Convocation of 1563, under the direction of Matthew Parker, the Archbishop of Canterbury.

The Thirty-nine Articles were finalised in 1571, and incorporated into the Book of Common Prayer. Although not the end of the struggle between Catholic and Protestant monarchs and citizens, the book helped to standardise the English language, and was to have a lasting effect on religion in the United Kingdom and elsewhere through its wide use.

Predecessors

Ten Articles (1536)
The Church of England's break with Rome inaugurated a period of doctrinal confusion and controversy as both conservative and reforming clergy attempted to shape the church's direction, the former as "Catholicism without the Pope" and the latter as Protestant. In an attempt "to establish Christian quietness and unity", the Ten Articles were adopted by clerical Convocation in July 1536 as the English Church's first post-papal doctrinal statement. The Ten Articles were crafted as a rushed interim compromise between conservatives and reformers. Historians have variously described it as a victory for Lutheranism and a success for Catholic resistance. Its provisions have also been described as "confusing".

The first five articles dealt with doctrines that were "commanded expressly by God, and are necessary to our salvation", while the last five articles dealt with "laudable ceremonies used in the Church". This division reflects how the Articles originated from two different discussions earlier in the year. The first five articles were based on the Wittenberg Articles negotiated between English ambassadors Edward Foxe, Nicholas Heath and Robert Barnes and German Lutheran theologians, including Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon. This doctrinal statement was itself based on the Augsburg Confession of 1530.

The five principal doctrines were the Bible and ecumenical creeds, baptism, penance, the Eucharist and justification. The core doctrine in the Ten Articles was justification by faith. Justification – which was defined as remission of sin and accepting into God's favour – was through "the only mercy and grace of the Father, promised freely unto us for his Son's sake Jesus Christ, and the merits of his blood and passion". Good works would follow, not precede, justification. However, the Lutheran influence was diluted with qualifications. Justification was attained "by contrition and faith joined with charity".  In other words, good works were "necessarily required to the attaining of everlasting life".

To the disappointment of conservatives, only three of the traditional seven sacraments were even mentioned (baptism, the Eucharist and penance). The Articles affirm the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, stating that "under the form and figure of bread and wine ... is verily, substantially and really contained the very self-same body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ". This definition was acceptable to those who held to transubstantiation or sacramental union, but it clearly condemned sacramentarianism. More controversially for the reformers, the Articles maintained penance as a sacrament and the priest's authority to grant divine absolution in confession.

Articles six to ten focused on secondary issues. Significantly, purgatory, which had been a central concern of medieval religion, was placed in the non-essential articles. On the question of its existence, the Ten Articles were ambiguous. They stated, "the place where [departed souls] be, the name thereof, and kind of pains there" was "uncertain by scripture". Prayer for the dead and masses for the dead were permitted as arguably relieving the pain of departed souls in purgatory.

The Articles also defended the use of a number of Catholic rituals and practices opposed by Protestants, such as kissing the cross on Good Friday, while mildly criticising popular abuses and excesses. The use of religious images was permitted but people were to be taught not to kneel before them or make offerings to them. Prayer to Mary, mother of Jesus, and all the other saints was permitted as long as superstition was avoided.

In summary, the Ten Articles asserted:

 The Bible and the three ecumenical creeds are the basis and summary of true Christian faith.
 Baptism imparts remission of sins and regeneration and is necessary for salvation, even in the case of infants. It condemns the opinions of Anabaptists and Pelagians as heresy.
 The sacrament of penance, with confession and absolution, is necessary to salvation.
 That the body and blood of Christ are really present in the Eucharist.
 Justification is by faith, but good works are necessary.
 Images can be used as representations of virtue and good example and also to remind people of their sins but are not objects of worship.
 Saints are to be honoured as examples of life and as furthering the prayers of the faithful.
 Praying to saints is permitted, and holy days should be observed.
 The observance of various rites and ceremonies, such as clerical vestments, sprinkling of holy water, bearing of candles on Candlemas, giving of ashes on Ash Wednesday, is good and laudable. However, none of these has power to forgive sin.
 It is a good and charitable deed to pray for the dead. However, the doctrine of purgatory is biblically uncertain. Abuses related to purgatory, such as the claim that papal indulgences or masses for the dead offered at certain localities (such as the scala coeli mass) can deliver immediately from purgatory, are to be rejected.

Bishops' Book (1537)

The failure of the Ten Articles to settle doctrinal controversy led Thomas Cromwell, the King's vicegerent in spirituals, to convene a national synod of bishops and high-ranking clergy for further theological discussion in February 1537. This synod produced a book called The Institution of the Christian Man (popularly called The Bishops' Book), the word institution being synonymous with instruction. The Bishops' Book preserved the semi-Lutheranism of the Ten Articles, and the articles on justification, purgatory, and the sacraments of baptism, the Eucharist and penance were incorporated unchanged into the new book.

When the synod met, conservatives were still angry that four of the traditional seven sacraments (confirmation, marriage, holy orders and extreme unction) had been excluded from the Ten Articles. John Stokesley argued for all seven, while Thomas Cranmer only acknowledged baptism and the Eucharist. The others divided along party lines. The conservatives were at a disadvantage because they found it necessary to appeal to sacred tradition, which violated Cromwell's instructions that all arguments refer to scripture.

In the end, the missing sacraments were restored but placed in a separate section to emphasize "a difference in dignity and necessity." Only baptism, the Eucharist and penance were "instituted of Christ, to be as certain instruments or remedies necessary for our salvation". Confirmation was declared to have been introduced by the early Church in imitation of what they had read about the practice of the Apostles.

The Bishops' Book also included expositions on the creed, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer and Hail Mary. These were greatly influenced by William Marshall's primer (an English-language book of hours) of 1535, which itself was influenced by Luther's writings. Following Marshall, The Bishops' Book rejected the traditional Catholic numbering of the Ten Commandments, in which the prohibition on making and worshiping graven images was part of the first commandment, "Thou shalt have no other gods before me". In agreement with the Eastern Orthodox and Huldrych Zwingli's church at Zurich, the authors of the Bishops' Book adopted the Jewish tradition of separating these commandments. While allowing images of Christ and the saints, the exposition on the second commandment taught against representations of God the Father and criticised those who "be more ready with their substance to deck dead images gorgeously and gloriously, than with the same to help poor Christian people, the quick and lively images of God". Such teachings encouraged iconoclasm, which would become a feature of the English Reformation.

The list of the 46 divines as they appear in the Bishop's Book included all of the bishops, eight archdeacons and 17 other Doctors of Divinity, some of whom were later involved with translating the Bible and compiling the Book of Common Prayer:

Thomas Cranmer –
Edward Lee –
John Stokesley –
Cuthbert Tunstall –
Stephen Gardiner –
Robert Aldrich –
John Voysey –
John Longland –
John Clerk –
Rowland Lee –
Thomas Goodrich –
Nicholas Shaxton –
John Bird –
Edward Foxe –
Hugh Latimer –
John Hilsey –
Richard Sampson –
William Repps –
William Barlowe –
Robert Partew –
Robert Holgate –
Richard Wolman –
William Knight –
John Bell –
Edmond Bonner –
William Skip –
Nicholas Heath –
Cuthbert Marshal –
Richard Curren –
William Cliffe –
William Downes –
Robert Oking –
Ralph Bradford –
Richard Smyth –
Simon Matthew –
John Pryn –
William Buckmaster –
William May –
Nicholas Wotton –
Richard Cox –
John Edmunds –
Thomas Robertson –
John Baker –
Thomas Barett –
John Hase –
John Tyson

In August 1537, it was presented to the King who ordered that parts should be read from the pulpit every Sunday and feast day. Nevertheless, the King was not entirely satisfied and took it upon himself to make a revised Bishops' Book, which, among other proposed changes, weakened the original's emphasis on justification by faith. This revised version was never published. Because the Bishops' Book was never authorised by the Crown or Convocation, the Ten Articles remained the official doctrinal standard of the Church of England.

Six Articles (1539)

Fearful of diplomatic isolation and a Catholic alliance, Henry VIII continued his outreach to the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League.
In May 1538, three Lutheran theologians from Germany – Franz Burchard, vice-chancellor of Saxony; Georg von Boineburg, doctor of law; and Friedrich Myconius, superintendent of the church in Gotha – arrived in London and held conferences with English bishops and clergy at the archbishop's Lambeth Palace through September.

The Germans presented, as a basis of agreement, a number of articles based on the Lutheran Confession of Augsburg. Bishops Tunstall, Stokesley and others were not won over by these Protestant arguments and did everything they could to avoid agreement. They were willing to separate from Rome, but their plan was to unite with the Greek Church and not with the Protestants on the continent. The bishops also refused to eliminate what the Germans considered abuses (e.g. private masses for the dead, compulsory clerical celibacy, and withholding communion wine from the laity) allowed by the English Church. Stokesley considered these customs to be essential because the Greek Church practised them. As the King was unwilling to break with these practices, the Germans had all left England by 1 October.

Meanwhile, England was in religious turmoil. Impatient Protestants took it upon themselves to further reform – some priests said mass in English rather than Latin and married without authorisation (Archbishop Cranmer was himself secretly married). Protestants themselves were divided between establishment reformers who held Lutheran beliefs upholding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist and radicals who held Anabaptist and Sacramentarian views denying real presence. In May 1539, a new Parliament met, and Lord Chancellor Audley told the House of Lords that the King desired religious uniformity. A committee of four conservative and four reformist bishops was appointed to examine and determine doctrine. On 16 May, the Duke of Norfolk noted that the committee had not agreed on anything and proposed that the Lords examine six controversial doctrinal questions that became the basis of the Six Articles:

whether the Eucharist could be the true body of Christ without transubstantiation,
whether it needed to be given to the laity under both kinds,
whether vows of chastity needed to be observed as part of divine law,
whether clerical celibacy should be compulsory,
whether private (votive) masses were required (legitimate) by divine law,
whether auricular confession (that is, confession to a priest) was necessary as part of divine law.

Over the next month, these questions were argued in Parliament and Convocation with the active participation of the King. The final product was an affirmation of traditional teachings on all but the sixth question. Communion in one kind, compulsory clerical celibacy, vows of chastity and votive masses were a legitimate form. Protestants achieved a minor victory on auricular confession, which was declared "expedient and necessary to be retained" but not required by divine law. In addition, although the real presence was affirmed in traditional terminology, the word transubstantiation itself did not appear in the final version.

The Act of Six Articles became law in June 1539, which, unlike the Ten Articles, gave the Six Articles statutory authority. Harsh penalties were attached to violations of the Articles. Denial of transubstantiation was punished by burning without an opportunity to recant. Denial of any of the other articles was punished by hanging or life imprisonment. Married priests had until 12 July to put away their wives, which was likely a concession granted to give Archbishop Cranmer time to move his wife and children outside of England. After the act's passage, bishops Latimer and Shaxton, outspoken opponents of the measure, were forced to resign their dioceses. The Act of Six Articles was repealed by the Treason Act 1547 during the reign of Henry's son, Edward VI.

King's Book (1543)
When Parliament re-convened in April 1540, a committee was formed to revise the Bishops' Book, which Henry VIII had never liked. The committee's membership included both traditionalists and reformers, but the former held the majority. Convocation began discussing the revised text in April 1543. The King's Book, or The Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for Any Christian Man to use its formal title, was more traditional than the 1537 version and incorporated many of the King's own revisions. It was approved by a special meeting of the nobility on 6 May and differed from the Bishop's Book in having been issued under the King's authority. It was also statutorily enforced by the Act for the Advancement of True Religion. Because of its royal authorisation, the King's Book officially replaced the Ten Articles as the official doctrinal statement of the Church of England.

Significantly, the doctrine of justification by faith was totally rejected. Cranmer tried to save the doctrine by arguing that while true faith was accompanied by good works (in other words, faith was not alone) it was only faith that justified. However, Henry would not be persuaded, and the text was amended to read that faith justified "neither only nor alone". It also stated that each person had free will to be "a worker ... in the attaining of his own justification". The King's Book also endorsed traditional views of the mass, transubstantiation, confession, and Church ceremonies. The traditional seven sacraments were all included without any distinction in importance made between them. It was taught that the second commandment did not forbid images but only "godly honour" being given to them. Looking at images of Christ and the saints "provoked, kindled and stirred to yield thanks to Our Lord".

The one area in which the King's Book moved away from traditional teaching was on prayer for the dead and purgatory. It taught that no one could know whether prayers or masses for the dead benefited an individual soul, and it was better to offer prayers for "the universal congregation of Christian people, quick and dead". People were encouraged to "abstain from the name of purgatory, and no more dispute or reason thereof". Presumably, the hostility towards purgatory derived from its connection to papal authority. The King's own behavior sent mixed signals. In 1540, he allowed offerings for the souls of deceased Knights of the Garter to be spent on works of charity instead of masses. At the same time, however, he required the new cathedral foundations to pray for the soul of Queen Jane. Perhaps because of the uncertainty surrounding this doctrine, bequests in wills for chantries, obits and masses fell by half what they had been in the 1520s.

Forty-two Articles (1553)

Henry VIII was succeeded by his son, Edward VI, in 1547. During Edward's reign, the Church of England adopted a stronger Protestant identity. The Book of Common Prayer of 1549 authorised a reformed liturgy, and the 1552 Book of Common Prayer was even more explicitly Protestant. To make the English Church fully Protestant, Cranmer also envisioned a reform of canon law and the creation of a concise doctrinal statement, which would become the Forty-two Articles. Work on a doctrinal statement was delayed by Cranmer's efforts to forge a doctrinal consensus among the various Protestant churches to counter the work of the Catholic Council of Trent. When this proved impossible, Cranmer turned his attention to defining what the Church of England believed.

The Forty-two Articles were drafted by Cranmer and a small group of fellow Protestants. The title page claimed that the articles were approved by Convocation when in reality they were never discussed or adopted by the clerical body. They were also never approved by Parliament. The articles were issued by Royal Mandate on 19 June 1553. All clergy, schoolmasters and members of the universities were required to subscribe to them. The theology of the articles has been described as a "restrained" Calvinism.

Development
Edward died in 1553. With the coronation of Mary I and the reunion of the Church of England with the Catholic Church, the articles were never enforced. However, after Mary's death, they became the basis of the Thirty-nine Articles. In 1563, Convocation met under Archbishop Parker to revise the articles. Convocation passed only 39 of the 42, and Elizabeth reduced the number to 38 by throwing out Article 29 to avoid offending her subjects with Catholic leanings. In 1571, despite the opposition of Bishop Edmund Gheast, Article 29 was re-inserted, declaring that the wicked do not eat the Body of Christ. This was done following the queen's excommunication by the Pope Pius V in 1570. That act destroyed any hope of reconciliation with Rome and it was no longer necessary to fear that Article 29 would offend Catholic sensibilities. The Articles, increased to Thirty-nine, were ratified by the Queen, and the bishops and clergy were required to assent.

Content

The Thirty-nine Articles were intended to establish, in basic terms, the faith and practice of the Church of England. While not designed to be a creed or complete statement of the Christian faith, the articles explain the doctrinal position of the Church of England in relation to Catholicism, Calvinism, and Anabaptism.

The Thirty-nine Articles can be divided into eight sections based on their content:

Articles 1–5: The Doctrine of God:
The first five articles articulate the doctrine of God, the Holy Trinity and the incarnation of Jesus Christ. This is a departure from other doctrinal statements of the 16th and 17th centuries such as the Helvetic Confessions and the Westminster Confession, which begin with the doctrine of revelation and Holy Scripture as the source of knowledge about God.

Articles 6–8: Scripture and the Creeds:
These articles state that Holy Scripture contains everything necessary for salvation, so that no one can be required to believe any doctrine that cannot be proved on the basis of biblical teaching. The articles acknowledge the authority of the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed and the Athanasian Creed because they express Scriptural teaching. It states that the Apocrypha is not part of Scripture. While not a basis of doctrine, the Apocrypha continues to be read by the church for moral instruction and examples for holy living.

Articles 9–18: Sin and Salvation:
These articles discuss the doctrines of original sin and justification by faith (salvation is a gift received through faith in Christ). They reject the medieval Catholic teachings on works of supererogation and that performing good works can make a person worthy to receive justification (congruous merit). They also reject the radical Protestant teaching that a person could be free from sin in this life. The articles address the doctrine of predestination—that "Predestination to life is the everlasting purpose of God". Double predestination, the belief that God has also predestined some people to reprobation, is not endorsed by the articles.

Articles 19–21: The Church and its Authority:
These articles explain the nature and authority of the visible church. They state that the church, under Scripture, has authority over matters of faith and order. General councils of the church can only be called with the permission of the civil authority. It is possible for church councils to reach the wrong decisions, so they should only be followed if their actions align with Scripture.

Articles 22–24: Errors to be avoided in the Church:
These articles condemn the Catholic teachings on purgatory, indulgences, the use of religious images and the invocation of saints. In addition, the Catholic practice of using Latin as a liturgical language is disapproved of in favour of the vernacular. The articles state that no person should preach publicly or administer the sacraments unless they are called and authorised by legitimate church authority. This was meant to counter the radical Protestant belief that a Christian could preach and act as a minister on his own initiative in defiance of church authorities.

Articles 25–31: The Sacraments:
These articles explain the Church of England's sacramental theology. According to the articles, sacraments are signs of divine grace which God works invisibly but effectively in people's lives. Through sacraments, God creates and strengthens the faith of believers. The radical Protestant belief that sacraments are only outward signs of a person's faith is denied by the articles. While the Catholic Church claimed seven sacraments, the articles recognise only two: baptism and the Lord's Supper. The five rites called sacraments by Catholics are identified in the articles as either corrupted imitations of the Apostles (confirmation, penance and extreme unction) or as "states of life allowed in the Scriptures" (holy orders and marriage).

Regeneration (or the gift of new life), membership in the church, forgiveness of sins and adoption as children of God are all received through baptism. The articles state that infant baptism is "most agreeable with the institution of Christ" and should continue to be practised in the church. In the Lord's Supper, participants become partakers of the body and blood of Christ and receive the spiritual benefits of Christ's death on the cross. According to the articles, this partaking should not be understood in terms of the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which is condemned as "repugnant to the plain words of Scripture". Instead, the articles declare that there is no change in the substance of the bread and wine. Rather, participants are fed the body of Christ by the Holy Spirit and through faith. The articles declare that "The offering of Christ once made is the perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction for all the sins of the whole world". This was meant as a repudiation of the idea that the Mass was a sacrifice in which Christ was offered for the forgiveness of sins for the living and the dead in purgatory.

Articles 32–36: The Discipline of the Church:
The articles defend the practice of clerical marriage and the church's power of excommunication. It states that traditions and ceremonies in the church may vary by time and place; national churches can alter or abolish traditions created by human authority. The First and Second Book of Homilies are said to contain correct doctrine and should be read in church. The articles also defend the ordination rites contained in the 1549 and 1552 Ordinals.

Articles 37–39: Christians and Civil Society:
The articles affirm the role of the monarch as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. It rejects all claims to the Pope's jurisdiction in England. It defends the state's right to use capital punishment and declares that Christians may serve in the military. It rejects the Anabaptist teaching that the property of Christians should be held in common, but it does explain that Christians should give alms to the poor and needy. It also defends the morality of oath-taking for civic purposes.

Later history

During the reign of Elizabeth I, a "Calvinist consensus" developed within the church regarding the doctrines of salvation. Article 17 only endorsed election to salvation and was silent on whether God predestined people for reprobation; however, most of the bishops and leading churchmen believed in double predestination. When an Arminian minority emerged to challenge this consensus, Archbishop Whitgift issued the Lambeth Articles in 1595. These did not replace the Thirty-nine Articles but were meant to officially align Article 17 to Calvinist theology. The Queen was unwilling to alter her religious settlement and refused to assent to these new articles.

The Thirty-nine Articles are printed in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer and other Anglican prayer books. The Test Act of 1672 made adherence to the Articles a requirement for holding civil office in England until its repeal in 1828. Students at Oxford University were still expected to sign up to them until the passing of the Oxford University Act 1854.

In the Church of England, only clergy (and until the 19th century members of Oxford and Cambridge Universities) are required to subscribe to the Articles.  Starting in 1865, clergy affirmed that the doctrine contained in the Articles and the Book of Common Prayer was agreeable to Scripture and that they would not preach in contradiction to it. Since 1975, clergy are required to acknowledge the Articles as one of the historic formularies of the Church of England that bear witness to the faith revealed in Scripture and contained in the creeds. The Church of Ireland has a similar declaration for its clergy, while some other churches of the Anglican Communion make no such requirement. The US Episcopal Church never required subscription to the Articles.

The influence of the Articles on Anglican thought, doctrine and practice has been profound. Although Article VIII itself states that the three Catholic creeds are a sufficient statement of faith, the Articles have often been perceived as the nearest thing to a supplementary confession of faith possessed by the Anglican tradition. In Anglican discourse, the Articles are regularly cited and interpreted to clarify doctrine and practice. Sometimes they are used to prescribe support of Anglican comprehensiveness. An important concrete manifestation of this is the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral, which incorporates Articles VI, VIII, XXV, and XXXVI in its broad articulation of fundamental Anglican identity. In other circumstances they delineate the parameters of acceptable belief and practice in proscriptive fashion. The Articles continue to be invoked today in the Anglican Church. For example, in the ongoing debate over homosexual activity and the concomitant controversies over episcopal authority, Articles VI, XX, XXIII, XXVI, and XXXIV are regularly cited by those of various opinions.

Each of the 44 member churches in the Anglican Communion is, however, free to adopt and authorise its own official documents, and the Articles are not officially normative in all Anglican Churches (neither is the Athanasian Creed). The only doctrinal documents agreed upon in the Anglican Communion are the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed of AD 325, and the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral. Beside these documents, authorised liturgical formularies, such as Prayer Book and Ordinal, are normative. The several provincial editions of Prayer Books (and authorised alternative liturgies) are, however, not identical, although they share a greater or smaller amount of family resemblance. No specific edition of the Prayer Book is therefore binding for the entire Communion.

A revised version was adopted in 1801 by the US Episcopal Church which deleted the Athanasian Creed. Earlier, John Wesley, founder of the Methodists, adapted the Thirty-nine Articles for use by American Methodists in the 18th century. The resulting Articles of Religion remain an official doctrinal statement of the United Methodist Church.

Interpretation
According to theologian Henry Chadwick, the articles are a revealing window into the ethos and character of Anglicanism, in particular in the way the document works to navigate a via media (Latin:  middle path or middle way) between the beliefs and practices of the Catholic Church on the one hand, and those of the Lutheran and Reformed churches on the other hand, thus giving the Church of England a unique middle-of-the-road position. The via media was expressed so adroitly in the Articles that some Anglican scholars have labelled their content as an early example of the idea that the doctrine of Anglicanism is one of "Reformed Catholicism".

In 1628 Charles I prefixed a royal declaration to the articles, which demands a literal interpretation of them, threatening discipline for academics or churchmen teaching any personal interpretations or encouraging debate about them. It states: "no man hereafter shall either print or preach, to draw the Article aside any way, but shall submit to it in the plain and Full meaning thereof: and shall not put his own sense or comment to be the meaning of the Article, but shall take it in the literal and grammatical sense."

However, what the Articles truly mean has been a matter of debate in the Church since before they were issued. The evangelical wing of the Church has claimed to take the Articles at face value, and to regard them as of utmost importance. In 2003, evangelical Anglican clergyman Chris Pierce wrote:

This view has never been held by the whole church. In 1643, Archbishop of Armagh John Bramhall laid out a broader view of the Articles:

This divergence of opinion became overt during the Oxford Movement of the 19th century. The stipulations of Articles XXV and XXVIII were regularly invoked by evangelicals to oppose the reintroduction of certain beliefs, customs, and acts of piety with respect to the sacraments. In response, John Henry Newman's Tract 90 attempted to show that the 39 Articles could be read according to an Anglo-Catholic interpretation.

References

Citations

Sources

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Further reading

External links

 The Ten Articles of 1536
 Audio version of the 39 Articles in MP3 format
 Articles of Religion, text of the 1571 version
 Articles of Religion Church of England website
 Anglican Communion resources relating to the Book of Common Prayer, including the articles of religion
 Facsimile of a 1762 printing from the above site
 Original text in Latin and in English
 Revised 1801 version adopted by the US Episcopal Church
 Irish Articles of 1615

16th-century Christian texts
1563 in Christianity
1563 in England
Anglicanism
Anglo-Catholicism
Book of Common Prayer
Christian terminology
History of the Church of England
Reformed confessions of faith

Thirty-nine Articles