Lingua, or the Combat of the Tongue and the Five Senses for Superiority is an allegorical stage play of the first decade of the 17th century, generally attributed to the academic playwright Thomas Tomkis.

Publication
Lingua was entered into the Stationers' Register on 23 February 1607 (new style), and was published later that year in a quarto printed by George Eld for the bookseller Simon Waterson. The play proved to have unusual long-term popularity for an academic work, and was reprinted in 1610, 1617, 1622, 1632, and 1657. Its use of English rather than the more normal Latin gave Lingua a wider accessibility to a general audience than academic dramas of its era usually had. In 1613 Lingua was translated into a German version titled Speculum Aestheticum, by Johannes Rhenanus; a Dutch translation followed in 1648, by Lambert van den Bosch.

Date
The date of the play's stage premiere is uncertain. The play's text itself contains a reference to the year 1602: "About the year 1602 many used this skew kind of language" (Act III, scene v). Some scholars have supported this date by noting apparent contemporary references and allusions; the personification of "Queen Psyche" (IV, vii), for example, is the type of compliment to Queen Elizabeth common during her reign, and is logical in play written prior to her 1603 death. Other commentators have demurred, however; apparent allusions to Shakespeare's Macbeth suggest a date closer to the 1607 publication to some critics.

Authorship
The early editions of Lingua were all printed with no attribution of authorship. A manuscript list of books and papers from the hand of Sir John Harington assigns the play to Tomkis; and the play's resemblances with Tomkis's Albumazar have persuaded scholars that Harington's attribution of Lingua to Tomkis is correct.

Sources
Tomkis borrowed and adapted his main plot from the classical myth of the Judgement of Paris; but particular features of his work depend upon more contemporaneous influences, including Spenser's The Faerie Queene, Du Bartas' La Sepmaine, and Sir John Davies's Nosce Teipsum.

Oliver Cromwell?
A reference to Lingua from 1663 states that Oliver Cromwell played a part in an early production of the play. If this tradition has any validity, it may involve the entertainment that Cromwell's uncle, Sir Oliver Cromwell, provided for King James I at Hinchingbrooke in late April 1603. If Lingua was staged for the king at that time and place (which is uncertain), the future Protector and regicide, then four years old, may have filled the role of Small Beer in IV,v.

Costumes
The 1607 quarto of Lingua is very unusual in that it provides highly detailed and specific descriptions of the costumes worn by the actors:
 Auditus wears "a garland of bays intermingled with red and white roses upon a false hair, a cloth of silver mantle upon a pair of stain bases, wrought sleeves, buskins, gloves, &c."
 Visus, like the other Senses, is also furnished with a garland of bays and red and white roses; he wears "a light coloured taffeta mantle striped with silver, and fringed upon green silk bases, buskins, &c." he also carries a fan of peacock feathers. His companion Colour is "clad in changeable silk, with a rainbow out of a cloud on her head...."

And the rest of the play's figures are similarly, gaudily accoutered.

Such detailed descriptions are often found in the published texts of masques from the Stuart era, but not in play texts. The costumes of Lingua may give a rare indication of the range of costumes used in the plays of the era (though generalizing from one academic play to the popular drama of the London theatres requires caution).

The allegory
As its title and subtitle indicate, the play portrays Lingua, the personification of language, asserting her importance against the traditional personifications of the senses. (Auditus is hearing, Visus is sight; Olfactus, Gustus, and Tactus round out the five.) This allegorical treatment of the five senses reaches far back into the literature and drama of the Middle Ages – though Tomkis departs from the Medieval tradition by depicting the five senses as male rather than female figures. (The change allows Tomkis to cast the play's conflict in an anti-feminist, battle-of-the-sexes context.)

As noted above, the play's plot derives from the story of the Judgement of Paris: like Eris among the Olympian gods, Lingua inspires dissension and competition among the five senses by offering a prize for the worthiest of them. She leaves a golden crown and a royal robe in a grove in "Microcosmus", with this inscription:

He of the five that proves himself the best,
Shall have his temples with this coronet blest.

The five quarrel over who should receive the gifts; they go so far as to prepare for physical combat, though "Communis Sensus", the viceregent of Queen Psyche, forestalls that extremity. Like Paris, he presides over the competition, eventually awarding the crown to Visus and the robe to Tactus; the other three receive consolation prizes of offices under Psyche. Lingua's claim to be the sixth sense is rejected – though with a qualification: it is allowed that woman have six senses, the sixth being "the sense of speaking."

Madame Lingua is not willing to accept this status of being "half a sense." At a celebratory banquet she serves the senses drugged wine, which deranges them; but further disruption is suppressed by the charm of Somnus. Lingua talks in her sleep and confesses her plot; she is imprisoned so that she cannot "wag abroad."

The play features a range of other personifications – Terra, Comedus, Phantastes, Lumen (light), Coelum (the sky), and others – even Tobacco, "the king of Trinidado" who has "conquered all Europe." The classical deities Ceres and Bacchus also appear.

Medieval allegory was a dying form in Tomkis's era, though it still appeared on occasion; Phineas Fletcher's The Purple Island (1633) is one late example. Tomkis's play has been praised for the excellence of its style; "Tomkis proves himself a master of polished and flexible dialogue...The wit is sparkling and unforced", delivered "with scholarly grace." The play's comedy often provides a burlesque of famous plays of its era, mocking the heroic speeches of The Spanish Tragedy and offering apparent Shakespearean allusions.

References

English Renaissance plays
1600s plays

Lingua (play)


Charles Alexander Grant (25 October 1906 – 24 April 1989) was an English prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as the Bishop of Northampton from 1967 to 1982.

Born in Cambridge on 25 October 1906, he was received into the Catholic Church in 1921. He was ordained to the priesthood on 16 June 1935. He was a parish priest in Ely from 1943-1945.

On 6 February 1961, Grant was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Northampton and Titular Bishop of Alinda by Pope John XXIII. He received his episcopal consecration on the following 25 April from Bishop Thomas Parker of Northampton, with Bishops Joseph Rudderham of Clifton and John Petit of Menevia serving as co-consecrators. Grant participated in all the four sessions of the Second Vatican Council, held between in 1962 and 1965. He was appointed the Bishop of the Diocese of Northampton by the Holy See on 14 March 1967.

He retired on 16 February 1982 and assumed the title Bishop Emeritus of Northampton. He died on 24 April 1989, aged 82, and was buried at Woburn Sands, Buckinghamshire.

References

1906 births
1989 deaths
20th-century Roman Catholic bishops in England
Participants in the Second Vatican Council
Clergy from Cambridge
Roman Catholic bishops of Northampton

Charles Grant (bishop)


A rape fantasy (sometimes referred to as rapeplay) or a ravishment is a sexual fantasy involving imagining or pretending being coerced or forcefully coercing another into sexual activity. In sexual roleplay, it involves acting out roles of coercive sex. Rape pornography is literature or images associated with rape and sometimes Stockholm syndrome as a means of sexual arousal.

Fantasy
Studies have found rape fantasy is a common sexual fantasy among both men and women. The fantasy may involve the fantasist as either the one being forced into sex or being the perpetrator.
Another study found that over half of their female respondents have had a fantasy of forced sex in their life.

The most frequently cited hypothesis for why women fantasize of being forced and coerced into some sexual activity is that the fantasy avoids societally induced guilt—the woman does not have to admit responsibility for her sexual desires and behavior. A 1978 study by Moreault and Follingstad was consistent with this hypothesis and found that women with high levels of sex guilt were more likely to report fantasy themed around being overpowered, dominated, and helpless. In contrast, Pelletier and Herold used a different measure of guilt and found no correlation. Other research suggests that women who report forced sex fantasies have a more positive attitude towards sexuality, contradicting the guilt hypothesis. A newer study from 1998 by Strassberg and Locker found that women who fantasized about force were generally less guilty and more erotophilic, and as a result had more frequent and varied fantasies. However, it said that force fantasies are not the most common or the most frequent.

A male sexual fantasy of raping a woman may bring sexual arousal either from imagining a scene in which first a woman objects but then comes to like and eventually participate in the intercourse, or else one in which the woman does not like it and arousal is associated with the idea of hurting the woman.

Prevalence among genders

Numerous studies have found that fantasies about being forced to have sex are commonly found across all genders. 45.8% of men in a 1980 study reported fantasizing during heterosexual intercourse about "a scene where [they had] the impression of being raped by a woman" (3.2% often and 42.6% sometimes), 44.7% of scenes where a seduced woman "pretends resisting" and 33% of raping a woman.

A 1998 study in the Archives of Sexual Behavior which surveyed 137 female undergraduate students aged 18 to 40 found that 40% had ever had a fantasy where they were "overpowered or forced to surrender". This was lower than the population who had a fantasy where they imagined "having sex in a public or semipublic place" (57%) but higher than the number who had had fantasies where they imagined themselves as "as a striptease dancer' harem girl' or other performers"(35%). The population that reported these fantasies and were "'very likely' to act out that fantasy" was 6%. The average frequency at which the women who said they had a rape fantasy in the past experienced a rape fantasy was three times a month. In contrast a study published in The Journal of Sex Research from 2009 using a survey of 355" undergraduates, 81% of whom were between the ages of 18 and 21 indicated that "62% of women have had a rape fantasy". It found that over the entire population sampled 32% had not had a rape fantasy, 49% had a rape fantasy once a month or less, and 14% had rape fantasies once a week or more.

In a more recent study among more than 4,000 Americans, 61% of female respondents had fantasized about being forced to have sex; meanwhile, the numbers were 54% among men.

Roleplay

One form of sexual roleplaying is the rape fantasy, also called ravishment or forced sex roleplay. In BDSM circles (and occasionally outside these circles as well), some people choose to roleplay rape scenes—with communication, consent and safety being especially crucial elements. Though consent is a crucial component of any sexual roleplay, the illusion of non-consent (i.e. rape) is important to maintaining this type of fantasy. A safe word is therefore a common safety measure, given that words that would normally halt sexual activity (e.g. "stop") are often disregarded in these scenes. Continuing with the sexual roleplay after a safeword has been used constitutes rape, as the use of a safeword indicates the withdrawal of consent.

See also
Forced seduction

References

Further reading
Desmond Ravenstone (2005). Ravishment: The Dark Side of Erotic Fantasy. .
Desmond Ravenstone, "Ravishment 101"

Sexual emotions
Sexual roleplay
Rape
Sexual fantasies

Rape fantasy


Tokusatsu is a Japanese word that means "special effects". It is used to talk about television shows and movies that have superheros, giant monsters, and other science fiction and fantastic themes. Some famous tokusatsu features include Godzilla, Ultra Series, Kamen Rider and Super Sentai.

Japanese language
Movie terminology
Japanese television

Tokusatsu


The iron–sulfur world hypothesis is a set of proposals for the origin of life and the early evolution of life advanced in a series of articles between 1988 and 1992 by Günter Wächtershäuser, a Munich patent lawyer with a degree in chemistry, who had been encouraged and supported by philosopher Karl R. Popper to publish his ideas. The hypothesis proposes that early life may have formed on the surface of iron sulfide minerals, hence the name.  It was developed by retrodiction (making a "prediction" about the past) from extant biochemistry (non-extinct, surviving biochemistry) in conjunction with chemical experiments.

Origin of life

Pioneer organism
Wächtershäuser proposes that the earliest form of life, termed the "pioneer organism", originated in a volcanic hydrothermal flow at high pressure and high (100 °C) temperature. It had a composite structure of a mineral base with catalytic transition metal centers (predominantly iron and nickel, but also perhaps cobalt, manganese, tungsten and zinc). The catalytic centers catalyzed autotrophic carbon fixation pathways generating small molecule (non-polymer) organic compounds from inorganic gases (e.g. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen sulfide). These organic compounds were retained on or in the mineral base as organic ligands of the transition metal centers with a flow retention time in correspondence with their mineral bonding strength thereby defining an autocatalytic "surface metabolism". The catalytic transition metal centers became autocatalytic by being accelerated by their organic products turned ligands. The carbon fixation metabolism became autocatalytic by forming a metabolic cycle in the form of a primitive sulfur-dependent version of the reductive citric acid cycle. Accelerated catalysts expanded the metabolism and new metabolic products further accelerated the catalysts. The idea is that once such a primitive autocatalytic metabolism was established, its intrinsically synthetic chemistry began to produce ever more complex organic compounds, ever more complex pathways and ever more complex catalytic centers.

Nutrient conversions
The water gas shift reaction (CO + H2O → CO2 + H2) occurs in volcanic fluids with diverse catalysts or without catalysts.  The combination of ferrous sulfide (FeS, troilite) and hydrogen sulfide () as reducing agents (both reagents are simultaneously oxidized in the reaction here under creating the disulfide bond, S–S) in conjunction with pyrite () formation:
 FeS + H2S → FeS2 + 2 H+ + 2 e−

 or with H2 directly produced instead of 2 H+ + 2 e−

 FeS + H2S → FeS2 + H2
has been demonstrated under mild volcanic conditions.  This key result has been disputed. Nitrogen fixation has been demonstrated for the isotope 15N2 in conjunction with pyrite formation. Ammonia forms from nitrate with FeS/H2S as reductant. Methylmercaptan [CH3-SH] and carbon oxysulfide [COS] form from CO2 and FeS/H2S, or from CO and H2 in the presence of NiS.

Synthetic reactions
Reaction of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and methanethiol CH3SH in the presence of nickel sulfide and iron sulfide generates the methyl thioester of acetic acid [CH3-CO-SCH3] and presumably thioacetic acid (CH3-CO-SH) as the simplest activated acetic acid analogues of acetyl-CoA. These activated acetic acid derivatives serve as starting materials for subsequent exergonic synthetic steps. They also serve for energy coupling with endergonic reactions, notably the formation of (phospho)anhydride compounds. However, Huber and Wächtershäuser reported low 0.5% acetate yields based on the input of CH3SH (methanethiol) (8 mM) in the presence of 350 mM CO. This is about 500 times and 3700 times  the highest CH3SH and CO concentrations respectively measured to date in a natural hydrothermal vent  fluid.

Reaction of nickel hydroxide with hydrogen cyanide (HCN) (in the presence or absence of ferrous hydroxide, hydrogen sulfide or methyl mercaptan) generates nickel cyanide, which reacts with carbon monoxide (CO) to generate pairs of α-hydroxy and α-amino acids: e.g. glycolate/glycine, lactate/alanine, glycerate/serine; as well as pyruvic acid in significant quantities. Pyruvic acid is also formed at high pressure and high temperature from CO, H2O, FeS in the presence of nonyl mercaptan. Reaction of pyruvic acid or other α-keto acids with ammonia in the presence of ferrous hydroxide or in the presence of ferrous sulfide and hydrogen sulfide generates alanine or other α-amino acids. Reaction of α-amino acids in aqueous solution with COS or with CO and H2S generates a peptide cycle wherein dipeptides, tripeptides etc. are formed and subsequently degraded via N-terminal hydantoin moieties and N-terminal urea moieties and subsequent cleavage of the N-terminal amino acid unit.

Proposed reaction mechanism for reduction of CO2 on FeS: Ying et al. (2007) have shown that direct transformation of mackinawite (FeS) to pyrite (FeS2) on reaction with H2S till 300 °C is not possible without the presence of critical amount of oxidant. In the absence of any oxidant, FeS reacts with H2S up to 300 °C to give pyrrhotite. Farid et al. have experimentally shown that mackinawite (FeS) has ability to reduce CO2 to CO at temperature higher than 300 °C. They reported that the surface of FeS is oxidized, which on reaction with H2S gives pyrite (FeS2). It is expected that CO reacts with H2O in the Drobner experiment to give H2.

Early evolution

Early evolution is defined as beginning with the origin of life and ending with the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). According to the iron–sulfur world theory it covers a coevolution of cellular organization (cellularization), the genetic machinery and enzymatization of the metabolism.

Cellularization

Cellularization occurs in several stages. It may have begun with the formation of primitive lipids (e.g. fatty acids or isoprenoids) in the surface metabolism. These lipids accumulate on or in the mineral base. This lipophilizes the outer or inner surfaces of the mineral base, which promotes condensation reactions over hydrolytic reactions by lowering the activity of water and protons.

In the next stage lipid membranes are formed. While still anchored to the mineral base they form a semi-cell bounded partly by the mineral base and partly by the membrane. Further lipid evolution leads to self-supporting lipid membranes and closed cells. The earliest closed cells are pre-cells (sensu Kandler) because they allow frequent exchange of genetic material (e.g. by fusions). According to Woese, this frequent exchange of genetic material is the cause for the existence of the common stem in the tree of life and for a very rapid early evolution. Nick Lane and coauthors state that "Non-enzymatic equivalents of glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway and gluconeogenesis have been identified as well. Multiple syntheses of amino acids from α-keto acids by direct reductive amination and by transamination reactions can also take place. Long-chain fatty acids can be formed by hydrothermal Fischer-Tropsch-type synthesis which chemically resembles the process of fatty acid elongation. Recent work suggests that nucleobases might also be formed following the universally conserved biosynthetic pathways, using metal ions as catalysts".

Metabolic intermediates in glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway such as glucose, pyruvate, ribose 5-phosphate, and erythrose-4-phosphate are spontaneously generated in the presence of Fe(II). Fructose 1,6-biphosphate, a metabolic intermediate in gluconeogenesis, was shown to have been continuously accumulated but only in a frozen solution. The formation of fructose 1,6-biphosphate was accelerated by lysine and glycine which implies the earliest anabolic enzymes were amino acids. It had been reported that 4Fe-4S, 2Fe-2S, and mononuclear iron clusters are spontaneously formed in low concentrations of cysteine and alkaline pH. Methyl thioacetate, a precursor to acetyl-CoA can be synthesized in conditions relevant to hydrothermal vents. Phosphorylation of methyl thioacetate leads to the synthesis of thioacetate, a simpler precursor to acetyl-CoA. Thioacetate in more cooler and neutral conditions promotes synthesis of acetyl phosphate which is a precursor to adenosine triphosphate and is capable of phosphorylating ribose and nucleosides. This suggests that acetyl phosphate was likely synthesized in thermophoresis and mixing between the acidic seawater and alkaline hydrothermal fluid in interconnected micropores. It is possible that it could promote nucleotide polymerization at mineral surfaces or at low water activity. Thermophoresis at hydrothermal vent pores can concentrate polyribonucleotides, but it remains unknown as to how it could promote coding and metabolic reactions.

In mathematical simulations, autocatalytic nucleotide synthesis is proposed to promote protocell growth as nucleotides also catalyze CO2 fixation. Strong nucleotide catalysis of fatty acids and amino acids slow down protocell growth and if competition between catalytic function were to occur, this would disrupt the protocell. Weak or moderate nucleotide catalysis of amino acids via CO2 fixation would favor protocell division and growth. In 2017, a computational simulation of a protocell at an alkaline hydrothermal vent environment showed that "Some hydrophobic amino acids chelate FeS nanocrystals, producing three positive feedbacks: (i) an increase in catalytic surface area; (ii) partitioning of FeS nanocrystals to the membrane; and (iii) a proton-motive active site for carbon fixing that mimics the enzyme Ech". Maximal ATP synthesis would have occurred at high water activity in freshwater and high concentrations of Mg2+ and Ca2+ prevented synthesis of ATP, however the concentrations of divalent cations in Hadean oceans were much lower that in modern oceans and alkaline hydrothermal vent concentrations of Mg2+ and Ca2+ are typically lower than in the ocean. Such environments would have generated Fe3+  which would have promoted ADP phosphorylation. The mixture of seawater and alkaline hydrothermal vent fluid can promote cycling between Fe3+ and Fe2+. Experimental research of biomimetic prebiotic reactions such as the reduction of NAD and phosphoryl transfer also support an origin of life occurring at an alkaline hydrothermal vent .

Proto-ecological systems
William Martin and Michael Russell suggest that the first cellular life forms may have evolved inside alkaline hydrothermal vents at seafloor spreading zones in the deep sea. These structures consist of microscale caverns that are coated by thin membraneous metal sulfide walls. Therefore, these structures would resolve several critical points germane to  Wächtershäuser's suggestions at once:

 the micro-caverns provide a means of concentrating newly synthesised molecules, thereby increasing the chance of forming oligomers;
 the steep temperature gradients inside the hydrothermal vent allow for establishing "optimum zones" of partial reactions in different regions of the vent (e.g. monomer synthesis in the hotter, oligomerisation in the cooler parts);
 the flow of hydrothermal water through the structure provides a constant source of building blocks and energy (chemical disequilibrium between hydrothermal hydrogen and marine carbon dioxide);
 the model allows for a succession of different steps of cellular evolution (prebiotic chemistry, monomer and oligomer synthesis, peptide and protein synthesis, RNA world, ribonucleoprotein assembly and DNA world) in a single structure, facilitating exchange between all developmental stages;
 synthesis of lipids as a means of "closing" the cells against the environment is not necessary, until basically all cellular functions are developed.

This model locates the "last universal common ancestor" (LUCA) within the inorganically formed physical confines of an alkaline hydrothermal vent, rather than assuming the existence of a free-living form of LUCA. The last evolutionary step en route to bona fide free-living cells would be the synthesis of a lipid membrane that finally allows the organisms to leave the microcavern system of the vent. This postulated late acquisition of the biosynthesis of lipids as directed by genetically encoded peptides is consistent with the presence of completely different types of membrane lipids in archaea and bacteria (plus eukaryotes). The kind of vent at the foreground of their suggestion is chemically more similar to the warm (ca. 100 °C) off ridge vents such as Lost City than to the more familiar black smoker type vents (ca. 350 °C).

In an abiotic world, a thermocline of temperatures and a chemocline in concentration is associated with the pre-biotic synthesis of organic molecules, hotter in proximity to the chemically rich vent, cooler but also less chemically rich at greater distances. The migration of synthesized compounds from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration gives a directionality that provides both source and sink in a self-organizing fashion, enabling a proto-metabolic process by which acetic acid production and its eventual oxidization can be spatially organized.

In this way many of the individual reactions that are today found in central metabolism could initially have occurred independent of any developing cell membrane. Each vent microcompartment is functionally equivalent to a single cell. Chemical communities having greater structural integrity and resilience to wildly fluctuating conditions are then selected for; their success would lead to local zones of depletion for important precursor chemicals.  Progressive incorporation of these precursor components within a cell membrane would gradually increase metabolic complexity within the cell membrane, whilst leading to greater environmental simplicity in the external environment. In principle, this could lead to the development of complex catalytic sets capable of self-maintenance.

Russell adds a significant factor to these ideas, by pointing out that semi-permeable mackinawite (an iron sulfide mineral) and silicate membranes could naturally develop under these conditions and electrochemically link reactions separated in space, if not in time.

Alternative environment
The 6 of the 11 metabolic intermediates in reverse Krebs cycle promoted by Fe, Zn2+, and Cr3+ in acidic conditions imply that protocells possibly emerged in locally metal-rich and acidic terrestrial hydrothermal fields. The acidic conditions are seemingly consistent with the stabilization of RNA. These hydrothermal fields would have exhibited cycling of freezing and thawing and a variety of temperature gradients that would promote nonenzymatic reactions of gluconeogenesis, nucleobase synthesis, nonenzymatic polymerization, and RNA replication. ATP synthesis and oxidation of ferrous iron via photochemical reactions or oxidants such as nitric oxide derived from lightning strikes, meteorite impacts, or volcanic emissions could have also occurred at hydrothermal fields.

Wet-dry cycling of hydrothermal fields would polymerize RNA and peptides, protocell aggregation in a moist gel phase during wet-dry cycling would allow diffusion of metabolic products across neighboring protocells. Protocell aggregation could be described as a primitive version of horizontal gene transfer. Fatty acid vesicles would be stabilized by polymers in the presence of Mg2+ required for ribozyme activity. These prebiotic processes might have occurred in shaded areas that protect the emergence of early cellular life under ultraviolet irradiation. Long chain alcohols and monocarboxylic acids would have also been synthesized via Fischer–Tropsch synthesis. Hydrothermal fields would also have precipitates of transition metals and concentrated many elements including CHNOPS. Geothermal convection could also be a source of energy for the emergence of the proton motive force, phosphoryl group transfer, coupling between oxidation-reduction, and active transport. It's noted by David Deamer and Bruce Damer that these environments seemingly resemble Charles Darwin's idea of a "warm little pond".

The problems with the hypothesis of a subaerial hydrothermal field of abiogenesis is that the proposed chemistry doesn't resemble known biochemical reactions. The abundance of subaerial hydrothermal fields would have been rare and offered no protection from either meteorites or ultraviolet irradiation. Clay minerals at subaerial hydrothermal fields would absorb organic reactants. Pyrophosphate has low solubility in water and can't be phosphorylated without a phosphorylating agent. It doesn't offer explanations for the origin of chemiosmosis and differences between Archaea and Bacteria.

See also
 Abiogenesis
 Iron–sulfur protein
 RNA world
 Miller–Urey experiment

References

Origin of life
Metabolism

de:Chemische Evolution#Die Eisen-Schwefel-Welt (ESW) nach Wächtershäuser

Iron–sulfur world hypothesis


WGWW (channel 40) is a television station licensed to Anniston, Alabama, United States, serving the eastern portion of the Birmingham market as an affiliate of the digital multicast network Heroes & Icons. The station is owned by Howard Stirk Holdings, a partner company of the Sinclair Broadcast Group. WGWW's transmitter is located at Bald Rock Mountain (off of Kelly Creek Road), near Moody in unincorporated southern St. Clair County.

WGWW operates as a full-time satellite of Tuscaloosa-licensed WSES (channel 33), whose advertising sales office is located on Golden Crest Drive in Birmingham. WGWW covers areas of northeastern Alabama that receive a marginal to non-existent over-the-air signal from WSES, although there is significant overlap between the two stations' contours otherwise, including in Birmingham proper. WGWW is a straight simulcast of WSES; on-air references to WGWW are limited to Federal Communications Commission (FCC)-mandated hourly station identifications during programming. Aside from the transmitter, WGWW does not maintain any physical presence locally in Anniston.

Through a time-brokerage agreement (TBA) with Sinclair, WGWW's second digital subchannel serves as a repeater of ABC affiliate WBMA-LD (channel 58), of which WGWW had served as a full-time satellite station on its main feed from September 1996 to September 2014.

History

Beginnings in Anniston
The station first signed on the air on October 26, 1969, as WHMA-TV. Originally operating as a primary CBS and secondary NBC affiliate, the station was initially owned by the Anniston Broadcasting Company, which was run by members of the family of Harry M. Ayers, who also owned the Anniston Star newspaper and local radio station WHMA (1390 AM and 100.5 FM, the FM station is now Atlanta-based WNNX-FM). It originally operated from studio facilities located on Noble Street in downtown Anniston.

Harry Mabry—who served as WHMA-TV's original general manager—came to Anniston from Birmingham, where he had served as news director at WBRC-TV (channel 6) for several years. Mabry already was familiar with Anniston, though, having worked as a staff announcer for WHMA-AM more than fifteen years prior to WHMA-TV's sign-on. Another former Birmingham personality who was part of the station's original staff was "Cousin Cliff" Holman, who left WAPI-TV (channel 13, now WVTM-TV) in 1969 after that station moved his cartoon showcase series, The Popeye Show, from weekday mornings to Saturday and Sunday mornings (due to declining ratings resulting from the show's move to a weekday morning slot and its switch from a mostly live broadcast to being pre-recorded the day before air several months beforehand) the previous year. Holman, who was also hired as its publicity director, resumed his program on WHMA-TV in the afternoons as The Cousin Cliff Show. However, the show was hampered by changes in the television industry and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)'s decision in the early 1970s to prohibit children's hosts from promoting products directly on-air, forcing channel 40 to cancel the program by the summer of 1972. In later years, in addition to making public appearances at various children's gatherings (among other jobs), Holman would revive his program on a cable access channel in Birmingham in 1985, before moving to WBRC, which hired him to host the Saturday morning children's program Cousin Cliff's Clubhouse from 1990 to 1992.

WHMA-TV ultimately reached approximately 100,000 households across east-central Alabama, and management fought almost constantly to ensure that Arbitron maintained the distinction of Anniston as a separate television market from those encompassing the larger metropolitan areas of Birmingham and Atlanta. This was a maneuver that was critical to the station's survival; despite being the only television station located within the Anniston–Gadsden market (other than Alabama Public Television satellite station WCIQ (channel 7) in Mount Cheaha), WHMA faced immense competition from stations in the two larger nearby markets that provided "spill-in" (Grade B) signal coverage within eastern Alabama. The station's ratings victories in this part of the state garnered it access to numerous national advertisers, a rarity for a small-market television station of that time.

As an exclusive CBS affiliate
On May 31, 1970, when WAPI-TV formally removed CBS programming and became the exclusive NBC affiliate for the Birmingham market, WHMA-TV likewise dropped NBC programming and became a CBS affiliate full-time. It effectively became one of three central Alabama stations that were exclusively affiliated with CBS, accompanied by WBMG (channel 42, now WIAT) in Birmingham, which had been affiliated on a part-time basis with the network since it started in October 1965 (in a similar split arrangement with NBC) and WCFT-TV (channel 33) in Tuscaloosa, which joined CBS on the date that WBMG and WHMA became full-time affiliates of the network.

As was the case with WCFT, CBS opted to retain its affiliation with WHMA—despite the fact that Anniston is  to the northeast of Birmingham—because, at the time, WBMG suffered from a weak broadcast signal that did not provide adequate coverage throughout most of the central third of Alabama. Even after WBMG increased its transmitter power to 1.2 million watts in 1969, channel 42 still had a very marginal to non-existent signal in much of east-central Alabama, which lies within the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains, which like other areas of rugged terrain, often experienced impaired over-the-air reception of UHF television stations. Many cable providers in the eastern part of the Birmingham market opted to carry channel 40 as the provider of CBS programming for that area of the state, instead of WBMG.

In 1984, the FCC—which protected the combination of WHMA-AM-FM-TV and the Anniston Star under a grandfather clause from forced divestiture, when the agency prohibited common ownership of newspapers and broadcast outlets in the same market in 1967—forced the Ayers family to break up its media empire. Later, in a 1985 deal that concerned avoidance of paying high tax rates more than profit, the Ayers sold the station to Jacksonville State University; the new owners changed the television station's call letters to WJSU-TV (for the university), but continued to operate it as a commercial station (unlike most TV/radio stations owned by colleges or universities, which operate as non-profit public broadcasters), retaining its CBS affiliation. In 1989, Jacksonville State University sold the station to the Osborne Communications Corporation.

As a satellite of WBMA-LP/-LD
On May 5, 1994, Great American Communications (which would be renamed Citicasters following the completion of its debt restructuring later that year) agreed to sell WBRC and three of its sister stations—fellow ABC affiliate WGHP in High Point, North Carolina, NBC affiliate WDAF-TV in Kansas City and CBS affiliate KSAZ-TV in Phoenix—to New World Communications for $350 million in cash and $10 million in share warrants. As part of a broader deal between New World and the Fox Broadcasting Company signed on May 23 of that year, New World agreed to affiliate five of its eight existing television stations and the four it had acquired from Great American with Fox, in a series of affiliation transactions that would take two years to complete due to the varying conclusion dates of their ongoing contracts with either ABC, NBC or CBS. Three weeks later, New World agreed to buy WVTM-TV and three other stations—CBS affiliates KDFW in Dallas–Fort Worth and KTBC in Austin, and ABC affiliate KTVI in St. Louis—from Argyle Television Holdings, in a purchase option-structured deal worth $717 million. Due to conflicts with FCC ownership rules of the time period, New World subsequently decided to establish and transfer the licenses of WBRC and WGHP into a trust company, with the intent to sell them to the Fox network's broadcasting subsidiary, Fox Television Stations (in the case of Birmingham, New World could not keep WBRC and WVTM since the FCC then forbade a single company from owning two television stations in the same market; the concurrent Argyle and Citicasters acquisitions also put New World three stations over the FCC's twelve-station ownership limit).

Although the sales of WBRC and WGHP were finalized on July 24, 1995, Fox Television Stations could not switch WBRC's network affiliation in the short term, as the station's contract with ABC would not expire until August 31, 1996. While this forced Fox to operate WBRC as an ABC affiliate for thirteen months after the sale's closure, it gave the latter network enough time to find a new central Alabama affiliate. ABC first approached WTTO (channel 21, now a CW affiliate)—which, along with semi-satellites WDBB (channel 17) in Tuscaloosa and WNAL-TV (channel 44, now Ion Television affiliate WPXH-TV) in Gadsden, was set to lose its Fox affiliation to channel 6—for a deal to replace WBRC as its Birmingham outlet. However, the owner of WTTO, Sinclair Broadcast Group, only expressed interest in carrying ABC's prime time and news programming. It also refused to launch a news department for WTTO, as the group did not factor local news production into its corporate budget at the time (this was despite the fact that sister station WDBB had maintained a standalone news operation at the time ABC started negotiations with WTTO, which was eventually shut down when the former switched to a full-time WTTO simulcast in December 1995).

In November 1995, Allbritton Communications purchased CBS affiliate WCFT-TV (channel 33) in Tuscaloosa from Federal Broadcasting for $20 million; it concurrently signed a deal with Fant Broadcasting to assume operational responsibilities for WNAL-TV under a local marketing agreement. Then in January 1996, after it terminated the WNAL deal, Allbritton acquired the non-license assets of CBS affiliate WJSU-TV (channel 40) in Anniston from Osborne Communications Corporation for $12 million (through an LMA arrangement which included an option to eventually purchase the station outright). Allbritton wanted to relocate WJSU's transmitter facilities closer to Birmingham to provide a stronger signal within that metropolitan area and nearby Tuscaloosa; however, the relocation was prohibited under FCC regulations that required a station's transmitter site be located no more than  from its city of license (Anniston is  north-of-due-east of Birmingham), which would have required an application to change the city of license closer to Birmingham in order to legally allow the move.

Shortly after the WJSU purchase took place, ABC reached a unique deal with Allbritton, in which WCFT and WJSU would become the new ABC affiliates for Central Alabama, with WCFT acting as the main station. ABC had a very strong relationship with Allbritton, particularly as Allbritton's flagship station, WJLA-TV in Washington, D.C., had long been one of ABC's highest-rated affiliates. In April 1996, a few months after the Birmingham deal was struck, Allbritton's ties to ABC were sealed wholesale when Allbritton reached a ten-year affiliation agreement with ABC that renewed contracts with the group's four existing ABC affiliates (WJLA-TV, KATV in Little Rock, Arkansas, KTUL in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and WHTM in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, the latter of which was being acquired by Allbritton at the time) and resulted in two of its other stations switching to the network (NBC affiliate WCIV [now Heroes & Icons affiliate WGWG] in Charleston, South Carolina) and WB affiliate WBSG-TV [now Ion Television owned-and-operated station WPXC-TV] in Brunswick, Georgia), the latter of which would become a satellite of WJXX in nearby Jacksonville, Florida, when Allbritton signed that station on in February 1997).

However under Nielsen rules, neither WCFT nor WJSU would have likely been counted in the Birmingham ratings books as it had designated Tuscaloosa and Anniston as separate markets at the time. Allbritton's solution to this issue was to purchase W58CK, a low-power independent station in Birmingham that began operations on November 18, 1994, which would serve as the primary station for the purpose of being counted in local ratings diaries (the three stations would later be collectively rated as "WBMA+"). While the purchase of channel 58 was not a condition of the deal between ABC and Allbritton, it did pave the way for Anniston and Tuscaloosa to be consolidated back into the Birmingham television market in September 1998 (at the start of the 1998–99 television season). That move benefited all of the major Birmingham stations, as it not only increased their viewership in Tuscaloosa and Anniston, but also resulted in Birmingham's placement in Nielsen's national market rankings jumping twelve spots from 51st to 39th place.

On September 1, 1996, when W58CK became an ABC affiliate, WJSU and WCFT concurrently ended separate operations as well and became full-powered satellite stations of W58CK, with Allbritton assuming control of WJSU's operations under the originally proposed LMA, which was transferred to Flagship Broadcasting upon that company's purchase of that station. The station's studio facilities on Noble Street in downtown Anniston was converted into the Anniston news bureau for W58CK's news department; WJSU's master control operations were migrated into W58CK's new studios on Concourse Parkway in Hoover. WCFT and WJSU also ceded the CBS programming rights in central Alabama to WBMG, which had recently upgraded its transmitter to provide a much stronger full-power signal throughout much of the Birmingham market, and WNAL-TV, which took over as CBS's northeastern Alabama affiliate on the day of the WBRC/WBMA+/WTTO switch.

Even though WBMA was the official ABC affiliate for the Birmingham market, Allbritton chose instead to name the triumvirate operation "ABC 33/40", using the over-the-air channel numbers of WCFT and WJSU instead as the collective branding for the stations, making it appear as if WCFT was the primary station and WJSU was acting as its satellite. In the case of WJSU, its signal footprint covered the western portions of the Birmingham metropolitan area and outlying rural areas of eastern Jefferson County, stretching eastward to the Alabama–Georgia state line; the station's broadcast signal provided a contour of at least Grade B coverage within Birmingham's eastern inner ring. Cable (and eventually, satellite) providers within northeastern Alabama received WBMA's programming through WJSU. Allbritton Communications purchased WJSU-TV outright in 2008.

Acquisition by Sinclair
For over a decade and a half, WBMA+ maintained a strong relationship with Allbritton, with no major problems arising between the two entities and, likewise, no major changes occurring to the station's operations. On July 29, 2013, Allbritton announced that it would sell its seven television stations, including WBMA+, to the Sinclair Broadcast Group (which would purchase the stations for $985 million), in an attempt by the company to shift its focus toward co-owned political news website, Politico. As part of the deal, Sinclair had intended to sell the license assets of its existing Birmingham stations, CW affiliate WTTO and MyNetworkTV affiliate WABM (channel 68) to Deerfield Media, and retain operational responsibilities for those stations through shared services and joint sales agreements. At the time, no affiliation changes were expected.

On December 6, 2013, the FCC informed Sinclair that applications related to the deal need to be "amended or withdrawn", as Sinclair would retain an existing time brokerage agreement between WTTO and its satellite station, WDBB (channel 17); this would, in effect, create a new LMA between WBMA+ and WDBB, even though the commission had ruled in 1999 that such agreements made after November 5, 1996, covering the programming of more than 15% of a station's broadcast day would count toward the ownership limits for the brokering station's owner. A sale of WBMA and its satellites to a separate buyer was also not an option for Sinclair, as Allbritton wanted its stations to be sold together to limit the tax rate that the company would have had to pay from the accrued proceeds, which it estimated would have been substantially higher if the group was sold piecemeal.

On March 20, 2014, as part of a restructuring of the Sinclair-Allbritton deal in order to address these ownership conflicts as well as to expedite the Allbritton acquisition because of them due to the FCC's increased scrutiny of outsourcing agreements used to circumvent in-market ownership caps, Sinclair announced that it would retain ownership of WTTO (choosing to retain the LMA between that station and WDBB, and continue operating it as a satellite station of WTTO), and form a new duopoly between it and WBMA+; WABM was to be sold to a third-party buyer with which Sinclair would not enter into an operational outsourcing arrangement or maintain any contingent interest, other than a possible transitional shared facilities agreement until WTTO was able to move its operations from its longtime home on Beacon Parkway West to WBMA's facility in Hoover.

On May 29, 2014, however, Sinclair informed the FCC that it had not found a buyer for WABM (even among the market's three existing major station owners, WBRC owner Raycom Media, then-WVTM owner Media General and then-WIAT owner LIN Media, neither of which operated an existing duopoly station in the Birmingham market, although the latter two groups were in the process of merging at the time) and proposed surrendering the licenses of WCFT and WJSU to the agency. Under the restructured plan, WBMA's programming would be added to WABM's main channel, which would result in the latter's syndicated and MyNetworkTV programming moving to its second digital channel on 68.2 (WBMA-LD itself, as a low-power station, would not be affected as FCC rules allow the ownership of low-power and full-power stations regardless of market ownership caps for duopolies). Sinclair opted to retain WABM on the basis that its transmission facilities were superior to those of WCFT and WJSU; indeed, moving ABC programming to WABM would give ABC a full-power affiliate in Birmingham itself for the first time since 1996. After nearly a year of delays, Sinclair's deal to acquire Allbritton was approved by the FCC on July 24, 2014, and was completed on August 1, 2014.

Sale to Howard Stirk Holdings
On September 18, 2014, in preparation for the planned shutdown of WJSU and WCFT eleven days later on September 29, WDBB and WABM both added simulcast feeds of WBMA-LD on their respective second digital subchannels (17.2 and 68.2).

Ten days later on September 28, Sinclair filed an application with the FCC to sell the license assets of WJSU-TV to Howard Stirk Holdings (a group owned by conservative political commentator Armstrong Williams, who has ties to Sinclair as his political affairs program, The Armstrong Williams Show, airs on many of the group's stations and is produced at the studios of its Washington flagship station WJLA-TV). Howard Stirk Holdings had reached a similar deal to acquire WCFT-TV for the purchase amount four days earlier on September 24. As part of the deal, Sinclair agreed to forego any agreements with HSH to operate the station. HSH was involved in another transaction involving Sinclair to absolve the LMA issues in markets where the Allbritton deal conflicted with one of Sinclair's existing grandfathered LMAs occurred on September 19, involving (the original) WCIV in Charleston, which – similar to the proposal for WCFT and WJSU – was also set to be shut down as a result of a similar arrangement involving its MyNetworkTV affiliate in that market, WMMP (which would assume the WCIV calls upon taking over the ABC affiliation), due to a grandfathered LMA that station maintained and subsequently decided to terminate with Fox affiliate WTAT. WJSU-TV stopped carrying WBMA-LD's programming on September 29, 2014, at 10:35 p.m.

On September 28, 2014, Sinclair reached a deal to sell the license assets of WJSU-TV to Howard Stirk Holdings for $50,000, foregoing any operational agreements with the station's new owner. Sinclair had earlier reached identical deals to sell the licenses of WCFT-TV and the original WCIV in Charleston, South Carolina (since renamed WMMP and now WGWG), two other former Allbritton stations whose licenses were previously slated to be surrendered, to the same company.

As the sale of WJSU-TV to HSH in effect superseded the proposed surrender of its license, Sinclair requested that the FCC place a hold on canceling the licenses until at least ten business days after acting on the proposed transaction. In order for Sinclair to continue operating WJSU and WCFT and maintain their existing licenses until the FCC ruled on the petition and the sale to HSH, the two stations began providing interim programming as affiliates of Heartland (which both stations had been carrying on their third digital subchannels as WBMA satellites since the network launched as The Nashville Network on November 1, 2012) on October 20, 2014; although neither technically operated as WBMA satellites any longer (even though all three maintained affiliations with Heartland), master control for the two stations continued to originate from the Hoover studios of WBMA+, which continued to handle the sale of local advertising. At that time, WJSU essentially converted into a satellite of WCFT. The FCC approved the transfer of license of WJSU-TV and WCFT-TV to Howard Stirk Holdings on December 4, 2014.

On December 3, 2014, WJSU-TV restored programming from WBMA-LD on its signal, under a subchannel leasing agreement with Sinclair; ABC network, local and syndicated programming seen on WBMA's main channel (and previously seen on the main channel of WJSU) was added on the station's 40.2 subchannel, while the "James Spann 24/7 Weather" subchannel was added on digital subchannel 40.3, in an altered channel mapping from that arranged by WBMA-LD's digital signal at the time (in which WBMA carried "James Spann 24/7 Weather" on its second subchannel and Heartland on its third subchannel, both succeeding the station's main programming feed). The license transfer of WJSU and WCFT to HSH Birmingham was approved by the FCC the following day on December 4. On March 11, 2015, Howard Stirk Holdings was granted its application to change the call letters of WJSU to WGWW. concurrently, WCFT became WSES; On October 1, 2015, the station switched its primary affiliation from Heartland to Heroes & Icons.

Even though WGWW is the only one of the two original satellites that continues to relay WBMA's programming, the station continues to identify by "ABC 33/40" as an artifact brand as most central Alabamians still refer to WBMA+ by either that name or "channel 33/40", as well as the fact that the station is carried on either channel on AT&T U-verse, DirecTV and Dish Network in the market. With WDBB, WABM and WGWW relegating the station's ABC programming to digital subchannels, WBMA-LD became the largest Big Four network affiliate by market size to rely on digital multicasting for full market distribution over-the-air (in addition to its existing status as the largest low-power Big Four affiliate overall), as well as making Birmingham one of the only U.S. television markets where all but one of the six major broadcast networks (in this case, CBS, NBC, Fox, The CW and MyNetworkTV) maintain primary channel affiliations on full-power stations, while the remaining network (ABC) is only available through low-power and digital multicast affiliations.

Newscasts
As WHMA-TV, WGWW established a news department when it signed on in October 1969, with the debut of TV-40 News, consisting of half-hour newscasts that aired at 6:00 and 10:00 p.m. each weeknight. By the mid-1980s, newscasts were added on weekend evenings; morning and 5:00 p.m. newscasts debuted on the station during the early 1990s. In sharp contrast to WBMG, WHMA/WJSU's newscasts gained traction against two of the three established television news competitors from the nearby Birmingham market that existed prior to 1996 that transmitted their signals into the Anniston–Gadsden market; its newscasts were typically strong performers in the ratings in east-central Alabama for most of the 27-year run of its in-house news department, ranking ahead of WVTM and competing heavily with the Birmingham market's perennial first-place finisher, WBRC.

As a result of the entrance of the local marketing agreement with Allbritton Communications and the group's decision to convert the station into a full-power satellite to WCFT-TV (before subsequently turning it to one of upstart W58CK) upon its assumption of the ABC affiliation, Allbritton announced in the spring of 1996 that it would shut down WJSU's Anniston-based news department, and convert its Noble Street studios into a news bureau for W58CK's newly established news operation, retaining a small staff of reporters and photographers to produce story content focused on east-central Alabama that would be included within the latter's newscasts. Channel 40's news department ceased operations and aired its final in-house newscasts on August 31, 1996. W58CK launched its in-house news department the following day on September 1, when the station was merged into the "ABC 33/40" trimulcast; WJSU's locally based newscasts were replaced by simulcasts of W58CK/WBMA's morning, midday and evening newscasts. Allbritton transferred certain members of WJSU's news staff to the W58CK/WBMA news department.

Notable former on-air staff
 Catherine Callaway – reporter (now news anchor for HLN)
 Cliff Holman ("Cousin Cliff") – children's program host (1969–1972; deceased)
 Harry Mabry – general manager and news director/anchor (deceased)

Technical information

Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:

Analog-to-digital conversion
WGWW (as WJSU-TV) shut down its analog signal over UHF channel 40 on June 12, 2009, the official date on which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition VHF channel 9, using virtual channel 40.

After Howard Stirk Holdings took control of the station, the company entered into a subchannel-leasing agreement with Sinclair Broadcast Group, in which WGWW would utilize its second digital channel to simulcast WBMA to provide ABC programming to residents in the eastern half of the market that do not receive "ABC 33/40" via cable or satellite.

References

External links

Television channels and stations established in 1969
1969 establishments in Alabama
Heroes & Icons affiliates
GWW

WGWW


St. Louis–San Francisco Railway 1522 is a two-cylinder, simple class T-54 4-8-2 "Mountain" type steam locomotive built in 1926 by the Baldwin Locomotive Works for the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway (SLSF), also known as the "Frisco". It was retired by the Frisco in 1951 and in May 1959 donated to the National Museum of Transportation in St. Louis, Missouri, where it is currently on display. It was restored to operating condition in the spring of 1988 and operated in excursion service until the fall of 2002 when it was placed back into retirement at the museum.

The No. 1522 was built to handle Frisco's heavier passenger trains through the hilly Ozark regions. Five other examples of Frisco Mountain-type locomotives are preserved today throughout the United States.

History

Revenue Service (1926–1951)
St. Louis–San Francisco 1522 was built in 1926 as part of the third order of 1500-class (aka T-54) "Mountain" type locomotives for the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway. Purchased for $70,000, the locomotive was built to handle heavy passenger and freight services along the Frisco Railway's Eastern and Western Divisions, and had a 200 PSI boiler pressure, 69-inch drivers, 54,085 lbs. of tractive effort, and a top speed of 70 mph.

Throughout its career, the No. 1522, along with the other T-54s, was found to be well liked by engine crews, dispatchers, and the motive power department. As they were true general-purpose locomotives, they were well suited for use in hotshot freight service, fast passenger service, or even local runs (Four other T-54s – 1500, 1502, 1510, and 1521 – were leased to the Texas and New Orleans Railroad during the late 1940s, who greatly admired the locomotives).

After experimenting with diesel locomotives for the next decade after the start of World War II (during which No. 1522 and 15 other T-54s were upgraded with booster engines, 210-psi boilers, and 69 1/2-inch drivers, increasing their tractive force to 56,380 (65,550 lbs. with the booster) and their top speed to 90 mph), the Frisco Railway begin to rapidly dieselize during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Ultimately, all scheduled steam operations ended on the Frisco in February 1952 and reserve steam operations ended in 1956.

First retirement (1951–1985)
The 1522 was originally retired about 1951. In May 1959, The locomotive was selected for preservation and donated to the Museum of Transportation of St. Louis, Missouri.

First restoration and excursion career (1985–2002)
The No. 1522 sat on display until September 1985 when the newly formed non-profit organization, The St. Louis Steam Train Association, selected the locomotive for restoration to operational condition. Work was quickly completed and by April 1988, the No. 1522 entered its second career, yet was returned to retirement in late 2002. This locomotive has done a variety of excursions throughout its excursion career and has been through an overhaul.

In October 1988, No. 1522 made its inaugural run to Decatur, Illinois. Then in May 1989, the locomotive made its inaugural run to Moberly, Missouri.

In June 1990, No. 1522 pulled a 22-car excursion over Rolla Hill during the 1990 NRHS annual convention alongside St. Louis Southwestern 819, Norfolk and Western 1218, and Union Pacific 844, and it ran a double-header excursion with Union Pacific 844 once the convention was completed.

In June 1994, No. 1522 was one of the locomotives to participate in the 1994 NRHS annual convention in Atlanta, Georgia, and did a double-header with Norfolk and Western 611 from Birmingham, Alabama to Atlanta on its way to the convention. In June of the following year, the locomotive was the special guest of the annual haymarket heyday and did several excursions between Omaha and Lincoln, Nebraska.

While on a test run following an 18-month overhaul, No. 1522 derailed on a wye in North St. Louis, Missouri on May 17, 1999. As the locomotive was moving onto the wye, a rail overturned under the fireman's side, causing extensive damage to the running gear. With help from the Tennessee Valley Railroad Museum, the damage was repaired and the locomotive returned to service a few months later.

In June 2001, No. 1522 was invited to pull the Burlington Northern Santa Fe annual employee appreciation special which included a historic tour through the state of Texas. The 1522 was also invited to pull several excursions for the 2001 NRHS annual convention held that year in St. Louis.

Second retirement (2002–present)
In 2002, it was announced that the No. 1522 was to be put back into retirement as a result of increased insurance rates and flue failures. New FRA regulations required that an active steam locomotive must be inspected and re-tubed every 15 years. (old boiler flues must be replaced with new ones), which proved to be too expensive for the SLSTA. Between September 28 and 29 of that year, No. 1522 ran farewell excursions, and right afterwards it was put back into retirement.

Although it is possible for No. 1522 to run again, the museum has stated that a return to service isn't possible, largely due to the locomotive's flue sheet being damaged beyond repair (a new one would have to be fabricated, and new flues would be needed before another steam-up). As of 2023, Frisco 1522 is still a major exhibit at the National Museum of Transportation, and it remains the only 4-8-2 type locomotive in the United States to have an excursion career. The other three being Illinois Central 2613, and Canadian National 6060 which is under overhaul.

References

Further reading

External links

 Database of the Frisco 4-8-2 mountain locomotives
 Diagrams of the 1500 class locomotives
 A Born Again Frisco Survivor-No. 1522 Makes Remarkable Run on Initial Trip.

1522
4-8-2 locomotives
Baldwin locomotives
Individual locomotives of the United States
Standard gauge locomotives of the United States
Preserved steam locomotives of Missouri

St. Louis–San Francisco 1522


The E. E. Haugen House, also known as Charles R. Berry Residence or E. E. Haugen Residence, in Brookings, South Dakota, United States, was built in 1904.

According to the National Park Service:
The Haugen, E.E., Residence is an excellent local example of the Colonial Revival style of architecture used for homes built in the U.S. during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. The residence is a local interpretation of a nationally advertised architect's design that appeared in The Woman's Home Companion between 1898 and 1904. The grand home, built in 1904, was one of the early landmarks in Brookings and was even featured in an early twentieth-century promotional booklet for the town. The house is currently privately owned.

The building was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on March 1, 2010. The listing was announced as the featured listing in the National Park Service's weekly list of March 12, 2010.

References

External links

Buildings and structures in Brookings, South Dakota
Houses completed in 1904
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in South Dakota
Houses in Brookings County, South Dakota
National Register of Historic Places in Brookings County, South Dakota

E. E. Haugen House


Charles Osa Igbinovia (born 20 November 1971), commonly known as Charles Novia, is a Nigerian film director, producer, screenwriter, actor, social commentator and essayist. Born and raised in Benin City, the capital of Edo State, Novia is known for films such as Missing Angel (2004), Caught in The Middle and Alan Poza (2013). In 2014, he was chosen as part of the Nigerian team to screen Nollywood films for Best Foreign language category of the Academy Awards by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

Filmography
Alan Poza
Missing Angel
Caught in the Middle
The Pastor and Harlot
The Bridesmaid

See also
 List of Nigerian film producers

References

External links
Official Website

1971 births
Nigerian male film actors
Living people
Nigerian film directors
Nigerian film producers
People from Benin City
Male actors from Edo State
Nigerian screenwriters
University of Nigeria alumni
Nigerian essayists

Charles Novia