The Tagalog people () are the largest ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines. An Austronesian people, the Tagalogs are native to the Metro Manila and Calabarzon regions of southern Luzon, and comprise the majority in the provinces of Bulacan, Bataan, Nueva Ecija and Aurora in Central Luzon and in the islands of Marinduque and Mindoro in Mimaropa.

Etymology

The commonly perpetuated origin for the endonym "Tagalog" is the term tagá-ilog, which means "people from [along] the river" (the prefix tagá- meaning "coming from" or "native of"). However, this explanation is a mistranslation of the correct term tagá-álog, which means "people from the ford".

Historical usage
Before the colonial period, the term "Tagalog" was originally used to differentiate river dwellers (taga-ilog) from mountain dwellers (taga-bundok, less common tingues) between Nagcarlan and Lamon Bay, despite speaking the same language. Further exceptions include the present-day Batangas Tagalogs, who referred to themselves as people of Kumintang - a distinction formally maintained throughout the colonial period.

Allegiance to a bayan differentiated between its natives called tawo and foreigners, who either also spoke Tagalog or other languages - the latter called samot or samok.

Beginning in the Spanish colonial period, documented foreign spellings of the term ranged from Tagalos to Tagalor.

History

Prehistory and origins

Like the majority of Filipinos, the Tagalog people primarily descend from seafaring Austronesians who migrated southwards to the Philippine islands from the island of Taiwan some 4,000 years ago. This means that the Tagalogs, like virtually all other Filipinos, are related to the Austronesian-speaking peoples of present-day Taiwan, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and the more distant Micronesians, Polynesians, and Malagasy. Contact with the much earlier arrived Negritos resulted in a gradually developed scenario seen throughout the Philippine archipelago of coastal, lowland, predominantly Austronesian-speaking seafaring settlements and land-based Negrito hunter-gatherers confined to forested and mountainous inlands, along with inland Austronesians oriented towards rivers. Both groups variably mixed with each other from millennia of general coexistence, yet even up to Spanish advent social distinctions between them still remained.

Specific origin narratives of the Tagalog people contend among several theories:
 Eastern Visayas - Research on the Philippine languages hypothesize a Greater Central Philippine subfamily that includes, among others, the Bisayan languages and Tagalog, the latter vaguely assumed to have originated somewhere in the eastern Visayas.
 Borneo via Panay - The controversial Maragtas dates events from around the early 13th century, which tells of a great migration of ten datus and their followers somewhere from Borneo northwards and subsequent settlements in Panay, escaping the tyranny of their Bornean overlord, Rajah Makatunaw. Sometime later, three datus Kalengsusu, Puti, and Dumaksol sailed back from Panay to Borneo, then intended to make return for Panay before blowing off course further north to the Taal river area in present-day Batangas. Datu Puti continued to Panay, while Kalengsusu and Dumaksol decided to settle there with their barangay followings, thus the story says is the origin of the Tagalogs.
 Sumatra or Java - A twin migration of Tagalog and Kapampangan peoples from either somewhere in Sumatra or Java in present-day Indonesia. Dates unknown, but this theory holds the least credibility regardless for basing these migrations from the outdated out-of-Sundaland model of the Austronesian expansion.

The scholar R. David Zorc, reconstructed the origins and prehistory of the Tagalog people based on linguistic evidence. The prehistory of the Tagalogs began slightly more than one thousand years ago, when the Tagalog language first emerged as a separate speech variety. Tagalog is classified as a Central Philippine language, and is therefore closely related to the Bikol, Bisayan and Mansakan languages. The Tagalog people originated in the general area of the Eastern Visayas or northeastern Mindanao, probably specifically around southern Leyte. Zorc notes that the Hiligaynon people also reportedly originated in Leyte, and the Tagalog and Hiligaynon languages seem to have a special affiliation with each other. The Tagalog people emigrated from their homeland and arrived in southern Luzon around 1200 to 1000 years ago. Subsequently, the Tagalogs made contact with the Kapampangans, Sambal people and the Sinauna (lit. "those from the beginning"), of which contact with the Kapampangans was most intensive.

Barangay period

Tagalog and other Philippine histories in general are highly speculative before the 10th century, primarily due to lack of written sources. Most information on precolonial Tagalog culture is documented by observational writings by early Spanish explorers in the mid-16th century, alongside few precedents from indirect Portuguese accounts and archaeological finds.

The maritime oriented barangays of pre-Hispanic Tagalogs is shared with other coastal peoples throughout the Philippine archipelago. The roughly three-tiered Tagalog social structure of maginoo (royalty), timawa/maharlika (freemen usually of lower nobility), and alipin (bondsmen, slaves, debt peons) have almost identical cognates in Visayan, Sulu, and Mindanawon societies. Most barangays were networked almost exclusively by sea traffic, while smaller scale inland trade was typified as lowlander-highlander affairs. Barangays, like other Philippine settlements elsewhere, practiced seasonal sea raiding for vengeance, slaves, and valuables alongside headhunting, except for the relatively larger suprabarangay bayan of the Pasig River delta that served as a hub for slave trading. Such specialization also applied to other large towns like Cebu, Butuan, Jolo, and Cotabato.

Tagalog barangays, especially around Manila Bay, were typically larger than most Philippine polities due to a largely flat geography of their environment hosting extensive irrigated rice agriculture (then a prestigious commodity) and particularly close trade relations with Brunei, Malacca, China (sangley), Champa, Siam, and Japan, from direct proximity to the South China Sea tradewinds. Such characteristics gave early Spanish impressions of Tagalogs as "more traders than warriors," although raids were practiced. Neighboring Kapampangan barangays also shared these characteristics.

10th–13th centuries

Although at the periphery of the larger Maritime Silk Road like much of Borneo, Sulawesi and eastern Indonesia, notable influences from Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to southwest Luzon and other parts of the Philippine archipelago by largely intermediate Bornean, Malay, Cham, and Javanese traders by this time period, likely much earlier. The earliest document in Tagalog and general Philippine history is the Laguna copperplate inscription (LCI), bearing several place names speculated to be analogous to several towns and barangays in predominantly Tagalog areas ranging from present-day Bulacan to coastal Mindoro.

The text is primarily in Old Malay and shows several cultural and societal insights into the Tagalogs during time period. The earliest recognized Tagalog polity is Tondo, mentioned as Tundun, while several other place names are theorized to be present-day Pila or Paila, Bulacan (Pailah), Pulilan (Puliran), and Binuangan. Sanskrit, Malay, and Tagalog honorifics, names, accounting, and timekeeping were used. Chiefs were referred as either pamagat or tuhan, while dayang was likely female royalty. All of the aforementioned polities seemed to have close relations elsewhere with the polities of Dewata and Mdang, theorized to be the present-day area of Butuan in Mindanao and the Mataram Kingdom in Java.

Additionally, several records from Song China and Brunei mention a particular polity called Ma-i, the earliest in 971. Several places within Tagalog-speaking areas contend for its location: Bulalacao (formerly Mait), Bay, and Malolos. Ma-i had close trade relations with the Song, directly importing manufactured wares, iron, and jewelry and retailing to "other islands," evident of earlier possible Tagalog predominance of reselling Chinese goods throughout the rest of the Philippine islands before its explicit role by Maynila in the 16th century.

15th–16th centuries: Brunei and Malacca affairs

The growth of Malacca as the largest Southeast Asian entrepôt in the Maritime Silk Road led to a gradual spread of its cultural influence eastward throughout insular Southeast Asia. Malay became the regional lingua franca of trade and many polities enculturated Islamic Malay customs and governance to varying degrees, including Tagalogs and other coastal Philippine peoples. According to Bruneian folklore, at around 1500 Sultan Bolkiah launched a successful northward expedition to break Tondo's monopoly as a regional entrepot of the Chinese trade and established Maynila (Selurong?) across the Pasig delta, ruled by his heirs as a satellite. Subsequently, Bruneian influence spread elsewhere around Manila Bay, present-day Batangas, and coastal Mindoro through closer trade and political relations, with a growing Tagalog-Kapampangan diaspora based in Brunei and beyond in Malacca in various professions as traders, sailors, shipbuilders, mercenaries, governors, and slaves.

The Pasig delta bayan of Tondo-Maynila was the largest entrepot within the Philippine archipelago primarily from retailing Chinese and Japanese manufactured goods and wares throughout Luzon, the Visayan islands (where Bisaya would mistakenly call Tagalog and Bornean traders alike as Sina), Palawan, Sulu, and Maguindanao. Tagalog (alongside Kapampangan) traders also worked elsewhere as far as Timor and Canton. Bruneian, Malay, Chinese, Japanese, Siamese, Khmer, Cham, and traders from the rest of the Philippine archipelago alike all conducted business in Maynila, and to a lesser extent along the Batangas and Mindoro coasts. However, in a broader scope of Southeast Asian trade the bayan served a niche regional market comparable to smaller trade towns in Borneo, Sulawesi, and Maluku.

Spanish colonial period

1565–1815: Galleon era
On May 19, 1571, Miguel López de Legazpi gave the title "city" to the colony of Manila. The title was certified on June 19, 1572. Under Spain, Manila became the colonial entrepot in the Far East. The Philippines was a Spanish colony administered under the Viceroyalty of New Spain and the Governor-General of the Philippines who ruled from Manila was sub-ordinate to the Viceroy in Mexico City. Throughout the 333 years of Spanish rule, various grammars and dictionaries were written by Spanish clergymen, including Vocabulario de la lengua tagala by Pedro de San Buenaventura (Pila, Laguna, 1613), Pablo Clain's Vocabulario de la lengua tagala (beginning of the 18th century), Vocabulario de la lengua tagala (1835), and Arte de la lengua tagala y manual tagalog para la administración de los Santos Sacramentos (1850) in addition to early studies of the language. The first substantial dictionary of Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. Further compilation of his substantial work was prepared by P. Juan de Noceda and P. Pedro de Sanlucar and published as Vocabulario de la lengua tagala in Manila in 1754 and then repeatedly re-edited, with the last edition being in 2013 in Manila. The indigenous poet Francisco Baltazar (1788–1862) is regarded as the foremost Tagalog writer, his most notable work being the early 19th-century epic Florante at Laura.

Prior to Spanish arrival and Catholic seeding, the ancient Tagalog people used to cover the following: present-day Calabarzon region except the Polillo Islands, northern Quezon, Alabat island, the Bondoc Peninsula, and easternmost Quezon; Marinduque; Bulacan except for its eastern part; and southwest Nueva Ecija, as much of Nueva Ecija used to be a vast rainforest where numerous nomadic ethnic groups stayed and left. When the polities of Tondo and Maynila fell due to the Spanish, the Tagalog-majority areas grew through Tagalog migrations in portions of Central Luzon and north Mimaropa as a Tagalog migration policy was implemented by Spain. This was continued by the Americans when they defeated Spain in a war.

The first documented Asian-origin people to arrive in North America after the beginning of European colonization were a group of Filipinos known as "Luzonians" or Luzon Indians who were part of the crew and landing party of the Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora de la Buena Esperanza. The ship set sail from Macau and landed in Morro Bay in what is now the California coast on October 17, 1587, as part of the Galleon Trade between the Spanish East Indies (the colonial name for what would become the Philippines) and New Spain (Spain's Viceroyalty in North America). More Filipino sailors arrived along the California coast when both places were part of the Spanish Empire. By 1763, "Manila men" or "Tagalas" had established a settlement called St. Malo on the outskirts of New Orleans, Louisiana.

The Tagalog people played an active role during the 1896 Philippine Revolution and many of its leaders were either from Manila or surrounding provinces. The first Filipino president was Tagalog creole Emilio Aguinaldo. The Katipunan once intended to name the Philippines as Katagalugan, or the Tagalog Republic, and extended the meaning of these terms to all natives in the Philippine islands. Miguel de Unamuno described Filipino propagandist José Rizal (1861–1896) as the "Tagalog Hamlet" and said of him "a soul that dreads the revolution although deep down desires it. He pivots between fear and hope, between faith and despair." In 1902, Macario Sakay formed his own Republika ng Katagalugan in the mountains of Morong (today, the province of Rizal), and held the presidency with Francisco Carreón as vice president.

1821–1901

Tagalog was declared the official language by the first constitution in the Philippines, the Constitution of Biak-na-Bato in 1897. In 1935, the Philippine constitution designated English and Spanish as official languages but mandated the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native languages. After study and deliberation, the National Language Institute, a committee composed of seven members who represented various regions in the Philippines, chose Tagalog as the basis for the evolution and adoption of the national language of the Philippines. President Manuel L. Quezon then, on December 30, 1937, proclaimed the selection of the Tagalog language to be used as the basis for the evolution and adoption of the national language of the Philippines. Quezon himself was born & raised in Baler, Aurora, which is a native Tagalog-speaking area. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog-based national language as wikang pambansâ (national language). In 1959, the language was further renamed as "Pilipino". The 1973 constitution designated the Tagalog-based "Pilipino", along with English, as an official language and mandated the development and formal adoption of a common national language to be known as Filipino. The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be further developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages.

Culture and society
Tagalog settlements are generally lowland, commonly oriented towards banks near the delta or wawà (mouth of a river). Culturally, it is rare for native Tagalog people to identify themselves as Tagalog as part of their collective identity as an ethnolinguistic group due to cultural differences, specialization, and geographical location. The native masses commonly identify their native cultural group by provinces, such as Batangueño, Caviteño, Bulakeño and Marinduqueño, or by towns, such as Lukbanin, Tayabasin, and Infantahin. Likewise, most cultural aspects of the Tagalog people are oriented towards the decentralized characteristics of provinces and towns.

Naming customs

Historical customs

Tagalog naming customs have changed over the centuries. The 17th-century Spanish missionary Fr. Francisco Colin wrote in his work Labor Evangelica about the naming customs of Tagalogs from the pre-colonial times up to the early decades of the Spanish colonial era. Colin mentioned that Tagalog infants were given names as soon as they were born, it is the mother's business to give them names.

Generally, the name was taken from the child's circumstances at the time of birth. In his work, Fr. Colin gave an example of how names were given:For example, Maliuag, which means "difficult," because of the difficulty of the birth; Malacas, which signifies "strong," for it is thought that the infant will be strong. This is like the custom of the Hebrews, as appears from Holy Writ. At other times the name was given without any hidden meaning, from the first thing that struck the fancy, as Daan, which signifies "road," and Damo, signifying "grass." They were called by those names, without the use of any surname, until they were married.A surname was only given upon the birth of one's first child. Fathers add Amani (Ama ni in modern Tagalog) while mothers add Ynani (Ina ni in moderm Tagalog), these names precede the infant's name which acts as the surname. Historical examples of these practices are two of the perpetrators involved in the failed Tondo Conspiracy in 1587; Felipe Amarlangagui (Ama ni Langkawi), one of the chiefs of Tondo, and Don Luis Amanicalao (Ama ni Kalaw), his son. Later, in a document dated December 5, 1625, a certain man named Amadaha was said to be the father of a principalía named Doña Maria Gada. Fr. Colin noted that it was a practice among Tagalogs to add -in to female names to differentiate them from men. He provided an example in his work:Then the first son or daughter gave the surname to the parents, as Amani Maliuag, Ynani Malacas, "the father of Maliuag," "the mother of Malacas." The names of women are differentiated from those of men by adding the syllable "in," as Ilog, "river;" Si Ilog, the name of a male; Si Iloguin, the name of a female.He proceeded to analyze the intricacies of Tagalog society and language, reflected by the customs of its people:They used very tender diminutives for the children, in our manner. Among themselves they had certain domestic and delicate appellations of various sorts for the different degrees of relationship—as that of a child for his father and mother, and vice versa. In the same way [they have appellations] for their ancestors, descendants, and collaterals. This shows the abundance, elegance, and courtesy of this language [Tagalog].By the time Fr. Colin wrote his work in the 1600s, the Tagalogs had mainly converted to Roman Catholic Christianity from the old religions of anito worship and Islam. He noted that some mothers had become such devout Catholics that they would not give their children native secular names until baptism. Upon conversion, the mononyms of the pre-colonial era had become the Tagalog people's surnames and they added a Christian name as their first name. Fr. Colin further noted that Tagalogs quickly adopted the Spanish practice of adding "Don" for prestige, when in the pre-colonial era, they would have used Lacan (Lakan) or Gat for men, while Dayang would have been added for women.In place of our "Don" (which indeed has been assigned to them with as much abuse as among ourselves), in some districts they formerly placed before their names, Lacan or Gat: as the Moluccans use Cachil, the Africans Muley, the Turks Sultan, etc. The "Don" of the women is not Lacan or Gat, but Dayang, Dayang Mati, Dayang Sanguy, i.e., "Doña Mati," "Doña Sanguy."In Tagalog society, it was considered distasteful and embarrassing to explicitly mention one another among themselves by their own names alone; adding something was seen as an act of courtesy. This manifested in the practice of adding Amani or Ynani before the first child's name. For those people of influence but without children, their relatives and acquaintances would throw a banquet where a new name would be given to the person; this new name was called pamagat. The name given was based on the person's old name, but it reflected excellence and was metaphorical. Fr. Colin also gives an example of this:Thus if one was called by his own name, Bacal, which signifies "iron," the new name given him would be Dimatanassan, signifying "not to wear out with time." If it were Bayani, which signifies "valiant" and "spirited," he was called Dimalapitan "he to whom no one is bold."Another notable practice among Tagalogs is the custom of calling one another based on a special circumstance, as a way of friendship. Fr. Colin elaborated:It is also the custom among these nations to call one another among themselves, by way of friendship, by certain correlative names based on some special circumstance. Thus if one had given a branch of sweet basil to another, the two among themselves called each other Casolasi, the name of the thing given; or Caytlog, he who ate of an egg with another. This is in the manner of the names of fellow-students or chums as used by us. These are all arguments in favor of the civilization of these Indians.

Cuisine and dining customs

Tagalog cuisine is not defined ethnically or in centralized culinary institutions, but instead by town, province, or even region with specialized dishes developed largely at homes or various kinds of restaurants. Nonetheless, there are fundamental characteristics largely shared with most of the Philippines:

 Rice is the primary staple food, while tubers are typically prepared as vegetables.
 Palm vinegar, soy sauce, calamansi, chilis, garlic, and onions are often combined in most dishes.
 Seafood and pork, are prominent, along with other meats of poultry and beef.
 Panaderias or neighborhood bakeries were inherited from Hispanic culture.

Bulacan is known for chicharon (fried pork rinds), steamed rice and tuber cakes like puto, panghimagas (desserts), like suman, sapin-sapin, ube halaya, kutsinta, cassava cake, and pastillas de leche. Rizal is also known for its suman and cashew products. Laguna is known for buko pie and panutsa. Batangas is home to Taal Lake, home to 75 species of freshwater fish. Among these, maliputo and tawilis are unique local delicacies. Batangas is also known for kapeng barako, lomi, bulalo, and goto. Bistek Tagalog is a dish of strips of sirloin beef slowly cooked in soy sauce, calamansi juice, vinegar and onions. Records have also shown that kare-kare is the Tagalog dish that the Spanish first tasted when they landed in pre-colonial Tondo.

Aside from panaderias, numerous roadside eateries serve local specialties. Batangas is home to many lomihan, gotohan, and bulalohan.

Literature

Secular
The Tagalog people are also known for their tanaga, an indigenous artistic poetic form of the Tagalog people's idioms, feelings, teachings, and ways of life. The tanaga strictly has four lines only, each having seven syllables only. Other literary forms include the  (riddle),  (a dodecasyllabic quatrain romance), and  (an ocotsyllabic quatrain romance).

Religious
Religious literary forms of the Tagalog people include:

  — verses of novenas/catechisms: no fixed metre or rhyme, though some in octosyllabic quatrains
 Pasyon — prose in octosyllabic quintillas commemorating Christ's resurrection
 Dialogo

Musical and performing arts

Historical precedences

Precolonial
Not much is known of precolonial Tagalog music, though Spanish-Tagalog dictionaries such as Vocabulario de la lengua tagala in the early colonial period provided translations for Tagalog words for some musical instruments, such as agung/agong (gong), bangsi (flute), and kudyapi/cutyapi/coryapi (boat lute), the last one was further described by the Spanish chronicler Fr. Pedro Chirino in his Relación de las Islas Filipinas, which had long faded into obscurity among modern Tagalogs. In his entry, he mentioned:In polite and affectionate intercourse, [the Tagalos] are very extravagant, addressing letters to each other in terms of elaborate and delicate expressions of affection, and neat turns of thought. As a result of this, they are much given to musical practice; and although the guitar that they use, called cutyapi, is not very ingenious or rich in tone, it is by no means disagreeable, and to them is most pleasing. They play it with such vivacity and skill that they seem to make human voices issue from its four metallic cords. We also have it on good authority that by merely playing these instruments they can, without opening their lips, communicate with one another, and make themselves perfectly understood – a thing unknown of any other nation..." (Chirino 1604a: 241).

Spanish colonial music
During the 333 years of Spanish colonization, Tagalogs began to use Western musical instruments. Local adaptations have led to new instruments like the 14-string bandurria and octavina, both of which are part of the rondalla ensemble.

There are several types of Tagalog folk songs or awit according to Spanish records, differing on the general theme of the words as well as meter.

 Awit - house songs; also a generic term for "song"
 Diona - wedding songs
 Indolanin and umbay - sad songs
 Talingdao - work songs
 Umiguing - songs sung in a slow tempo with trilling vocals
 Sea shanties:
 Dolayinin - oar rowing songs
 Soliranin - sailing songs
 Manigpasin - refrains sung during paddling
 Hila and dopayinin - other kinds of boat songs
 Balicungcung - manner of singing in boats
 Haloharin, oyayi and hele-hele - lullabies
 Sambotani - songs for festivals and social reunions
 Tagumpay - songs to commemorate victory in ware
 Hilirao - drinking songs
 Kumintang - love songs; also a pantomimic "dance song" - Dr. F. Santiago
 kundiman - love songs; used especially in serenading

Many of these traditional songs were not well documented and were largely passed down orally, and persisted in rural Tagalog regions well into the 20th century.

Visual arts
The Tagalog people were also crafters. The katolanan of each barangay is the bearer of arts and culture, and usually trains crafters if none are living in the barangay. If the barangay has many skilled crafters, they teach their crafts to gifted students. Notable crafts made by ancient Tagalogs are boats, fans, agricultural materials, livestock instruments, spears, arrows, shields, accessories, jewelries, clothing, houses, paddles, fish gears, mortar and pestles, food utensils, musical instruments, bamboo and metal wears for inscribing messages, clay wears, toys, and many others.

Wood and bambooworking

Paete, Baliuag furniture, Taal furniture, precolonial boat building, joinery, and woodcarving (Paete carving, Pakil woodshaving and whittling)

Tagalog provinces practice a traditional art called singkaban, a craft that involves shaving and curling bamboo through the use of sharp metal tools. This process is called kayas in Tagalog. Kayas requires patience as the process involves shaving off the bamboo by thin layers, creating curls and twirls to produce decorations. This art is mostly associated with the town of Hagonoy, Bulacan, though it is also practiced in southern Tagalog provinces like Rizal and Laguna. It primarily serves as decoration during town festivals, usually applied on arches that decorate the streets and alleyways during the festivities.

Weaving

Notable Tagalog weaving customs include:
Taal and Lumban embroidery
Basketry
Palaspas palm weaving

Clothing

The majority of Tagalogs before colonization wore garments woven by the locals, much of which showed sophisticated designs and techniques. The Boxer Codex displays the intricacies and high standards of Tagalog clothing, especially among the gold-draped high society. High society members, which include the datu and the katolonan, also wore accessories made of prized materials. Slaves on the other hand wore simple clothing, seldom loincloths.

During later centuries, Tagalog nobles would wear the barong tagalog for men and the baro't saya for women. When the Philippines became independent, the barong tagalog were popularised as the national costume of the country, as the wearers were the majority in the new capital, Manila.

Metalworking
Metalworking is one of the most prominent trades of precolonial Tagalog, noted for the abundance of terms recorded in Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala that is related to metalworking, signifying a sophisticated practice of this art which has died down during the colonial period.

Goldworking
Goldworking in particular is of considerable significance among the Tagalogs. Gold (in Spanish, oro) was mentioned in 228 entries in Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala. In the 16th-century Tagalog region, the region of Paracale (modern-day Camarines Norte) was noted for its abundance in gold. Paracale is connected to the archipelago's largest port, Manila, through the Tayabas province and Pila, Laguna.

The Tagalog term for gold, still in use today, is ginto. The craftsman who works on metal is called panday bakal (metalsmith), but those who specialize in goldworks are called panday ginto (goldsmith).

For gold procurement, Tagalogs get the ores from mines which are called dolang (dulang in modern Tagalog) and dulangan for places where gold or metal ores can be acquired in general, not restricted to mines. Dulangan is also used as tool for acquiring such gold like wooden pans. These raw gold ores are distinguished between two types, the gintong buo (large gold) and gintong wagas (gold dusts and bits).

Material processing involves wisak (coal) which is used for heating, San Buenaventura further elaborates that this is a specific type of coal, one that "cannot melt the Chinese gold or silver with", it is used for reduction or addition sequences. Raw materials are called wagas (gold dusts and bits), pilak (silver) and tumbaga (copper). Tumbaga is also defined as "combining gold and copper", thus changing the color to red. The terms for processes are ilik (heating and melting), sangag (purifying and refining), sumbat (combining gold and silver) which turns the metal into white, subong (combining gold, silver and copper) and piral (bonding with silver or copper). These are done with tools called sangagan and patutunawan (pot, crucible). They may produce lata (soft gold), buo (large gold), mistula (pure, unalloyed gold).

For forming, metal works may undergo hibo (forming, gilding), alat-at or gitang (splitting), tungmatatak (tumatatak in modern Tagalog) (a delicate process of cutting), batbat or talag (hammering), lantay (beating), batak (stretching), pilipit (twisting), binubo (fusing), hinang (soldering), and piral (bonding with silver or copper). All of these processes are done with pamatbat, panalag (hammer), panlantay (beating instrument). These processes result in tatak (workable gold cuts) and lantay (gold foil). Leftover gold bits that are of little worth are called unbit/umbit and torn gold is called lamok.

The resulting tatak and lantay from the previous processes are then taken for designing. Gems, jewels and aromatics can also be used as additional embellishments. A Tagalog goldsmith can engrave designs on these gold pieces with dawa-dawa (styling and filigree work) which enhances the visual appeal. Kinang (lustre) or dalag are the most adored qualities of gold in Tagalog society. Sapo or dungmadalag (dumaralag in modern Tagalog) for polishing, they do this by rubbing in ochre to increase is reddish color. Baid or naynay are the terms for burnishing, bitang (sleek styling), tukol (chiselling), kalupkop (garnishing), salak (accessorizing with gems or aromatics). The tools that goldsmiths use here are called pamaid (polishing instrument) and panukol (chisel). These result in finished works such as gold ornaments, jewelleries and other gold objects.

In assaying or reworking gold ornaments, one can do uri (assaying) with tools such as urian (magnet, touchstone) and karay (weighing container). As such, precolonial Tagalogs would discern fake gold called balat from genuine gold called tunay.

After assaying the gold, precolonial Tagalogs would test its quality. The Vocabulario illustrated the quality spectrum of gold as it was formulated during the early 1600s. Dalisay is the highest part of the spectrum with 24 karats, followed by ginugulan with 22 karats, next would be hilapo for 20 karats, panangbo for less than 20 karats, panika with 18 karats, linging-in with 14 karats, and bislig with only 12 karats. Malubay and hutok are defined as gold of the lowest quality, below 10 karats. Each category is further divided into two, matanda and bata, a step superior and inferior than it; a hilapong bata is not straightforward hilapo (20 karats) while a bislig matanda is short of being straightforward lingin-in (14 karats).

Gold ornaments usually end up being buried (baon) with the dead or made use of as an heirloom or inheritance (mana, malaking ginto).

Bladesmithing

Tagalogs have long traditions in bladesmithing, with itak (bolo knife) having historical importance as a symbol. It is strongly associated with the Philippine Revolution as these farm implements were converted into fighting blades during this turbulent period. Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala recorded several Tagalog terms for specific type of blades, some of which were later replaced by Spanish loanword or fell into obscurity; kalis was the term for "sword", which has been replaced in modern Tagalog by the Spanish loanword espada. Kampilan and talibong were the terms for "cutlass", while gulok, sundang, itak and tabak were generic terms for agricultural blades, which can have different length and blade profiles.

Bladesmithing is traditionally learned through apprenticeships. A blacksmith (panday) takes a young apprentice, and the young apprentice starts off assisting the blacksmith in the forging process, as well as scabbard making, until they are well-equipped to start their own forge. In the 21st century, bladesmthing, hilt and scabbard making can be done in the forge by blacksmiths, although blacksmiths can also not make scabbards and can delegate the task to craftsmen (either woodworkers or leatherworkers) who specialize in scabbard making. There are also specialized craftsmen who make pamigkis or the strap used as belts to tie up the scabbard to the user's hips.

There are few descriptions on what pre-colonial Tagalog blades looked like, and their specific shapes and the materials used. The ones that survived to this day are from the Spanish colonial era. They demonstrate the use of wood or carabao horn for hilts. Laminated blades were also found, albeit not as common as their counterparts in Mindanao. Brass fittings were also found in both antiques and modern samples especially on ferrules (sakla) and pommels (bitling). For scabbards (kaluban), carabao leather was featured in earlier samples and persists in some towns in Laguna to this day, but the rest of the Tagalog provinces shifted to using wooden scabbards. For hilts (puluhan), carabao horn is the preferred material in Rizal, Laguna and Quezon provinces, while wood is preferred elsewhere.

In the 21st century, there are still thriving bladesmithing traditions in the rural parts of Rizal, Laguna, Mindoro, Marinduque and Quezon provinces. Bataan, Bulacan and Cavite blacksmiths mainly concentrate on mass-produced and cheaper blades that are normally sold in Sunday markets and shipped to various parts of the country. Two prominent forges are the SH and SK forges in Carmona, Cavite. Traditional blacksmithing of long blades in Batangas has largely died out and intricate pieces are only preserved as heirlooms, as most longer blades have shifted into the more plain-looking farm implements similar to those in the neighboring Cavite. On the other hand, balisong-making is still thriving in the town of Taal, Batangas.

In modern-day Tagalog regions, there are several types of blade profiles that persisted in rural areas. These blades may differ on nomenclature, shapes, and other designs, but nevertheless the general terms and materials are fairly consistent among different Tagalog provinces. Some of these are the following:

 Dahong palay - literally, "rice leaf", although it is also a local name for Philippine pit viper. A sword that is most commonly associated with Tagalog people. The usual blade length can range from 38 cm (15 inches) up to 76 cm (30 inches). There are at least two types of blade profiles for dahong palay and it can vary depending on the area or even among the blacksmiths. It is also called dinahong palay and rinahong palay in some provinces.
 Sungot ulang/hipon - literally, "shrimp/lobster snout". This short sword is also one of the more common blade profiles among Tagalogs. The definitive false edge at the spine that starts midway through the blade, slightly bends downwards to the tip. Its blade profile can also have subtle differences depending on the blacksmith. Sometimes it is also called sinungot ulang/hipon.
 Dahong buho - literally, "bamboo leaf". This bolo is similar to dahong palay, but usually has a wider "belly" that can sometimes make it look similar to the Tausug barong. This blade is most common in the eastern towns of Laguna.
 Balisong - a knife that originated from Barangay Balisong in Taal, Batangas where many of its traditional craftsmen are based. It is one of the most popular traditional blades in the country, popular in media, and has gained notoriety as a preferred weapon by thugs and criminals. Traditional blade profiles are the labaha, debuyod, tari, kris among others. The typical length is 29 cm (11 inches), and is normally called bentenueve. Another type is busese. Its blade is much longer than its handles, exposing half of the blade even if folded. A more recent, and longer version of balisong is the balisword, although it is mostly for novelty and usually not functional.
 Uhas tari - a sword that can also be found in Bicol Region where it is called wastari. It is generally more slender than the dahong palay, with its blade slightly curving downwards towards the tip. It goes by a myriad of other names, namely, ohas tari, hustari/hinustari, tinari, hiwas tari, bastari, huwas tari, etc. depending on the town or province.
 Binakoko - a knife that is most common in Rizal province. The usual blade length can vary from 25 cm (10 inches) up to 41 cm (16 inches). There are two known types in Rizal province: binakokong matanda which is the classic, wider version of binakoko, and the slender and slightly pointed binakokong bata also occasionally called kinabase in the province. In other Tagalog provinces, binakoko can also be used interchangeably with sinampalok and kabase/kinabase.
 Sinanduki - a small knife that is only made in the town of Binangonan in Rizal province. It has a clip point that starts mid-way through the blade. The normal blade lengths are around 23 cm (9-10 inches), though there are samples that are as long as 40 cm (16 inches).
 Sinanbartolome - a knife that was popular during the Philippine Revolution. The knife's name was taken from Bartholomew the Apostle whose depiction shows him wielding a knife. It is said that Katipuneros venerated him, a patron of knife makers, and bought many such knives during his feast day. This would later lead to the Cry of Balintawak. Modern-day Tagalog blacksmiths rarely make sinanbartolome or sanbartolome, though there are few ones who knew how to make it and can make specific orders.
 Kris - like other lowlander ethnic groups in the country, Tagalogs also employed the wavy blade called kris. It is not known what the connection is between the modern-day kris that has surviving samples from the late Spanish colonial period and the kalis mentioned in Spanish-Tagalog dictionaries of the early 17th century. Nevertheless, the modern-day non-Moro kris is distinct from its counterparts from Mindanao, the traditional gangya (guard) is absent in the kris found in Christianized areas of the country.
 Sinampalok - a short sword also found in the Bicol Region. It is named after sampalok (tamarind). It is shaped like a beak and curves downward to the tip similar to ginunting, a traditional blade from Western Visayas.

Ceramics

Tagalogs have practiced pottery since the pre-colonial period. Many fragments of such pottery were found buried among the dead. These wares are prominent in pre-colonial Tagalog society along with porcelain (kawkawan/kakawan in Tagalog) imported from Chinese traders.

By the early Spanish colonial period, Manila and nearby areas became centers for pottery production. Pottery produced from these areas were called Manila ware by H. Otley Beyer and often dated from the 16th century up to the early 19th century. They were made of terra cotta, semi-stone material with a hard and fine-grained (typically unglazed) appearance in brown, buff or brick-red color. Vases, small jars, bottles and goblets found in archaeological sites in Manila, Cavite and Mindoro were described by Beyer and others as fluted, combed and incised.

Research and investigation discovered that Manila ware pottery was fired at kilns located in present-day Makati. At least three defunct kilns were discovered in the vicinity of the Pasig River. Analyses of the patterns reveals that these were replicated from the style found in European wares and assumed to be intended for the elite market due to the Manila-Acapulco galleon.

Papercraft
Tagalogs in Bulacan practice an art called pabalat, colorful Japanese paper cut into intricate designs. These papers are then used as wrappers for pastillas, a traditional Tagalog confection that originated from Bulacan province. Aside from use as wrapper, pabalat are also used as centerpieces during feasts. Pabalat designs vary depending on the maker, but bahay kubo, rice fields, flowers, to landscapes and figures are common motifs.

Architecture

Traditional Tagalog architecture is divided into two pre-20th-century paradigms based on residential designs. The bahay kubo (pictured on top) is a pre-colonial cube-shaped house. It is made of prefabricated wooden or bamboo siding (explaining the cube shape), and raised on thick wooden stilts to make feeding animals with disposed food waste easier and to avoid flooding during the wet season and hot soil during the dry season. The bahay kubo or "cube house" features a thatched, steeply-pitched roof made of dried, reinforced palm leaves, from species such as nipa. After Spanish colonization, wealthy Tagalog families resided in the bahay na bato or "house of stone" (pictured in middle) which kept the overall form of the bahay kubo, but incorporated elements of Spanish and Chinese architecture. The builders lined the stilts and created outer walls with stone masonry or bricks. The ground level was used for storage space or small shops, while the windows were made of translucent, iridescent windowpane oyster shells to control sunlight. The roof either remained thatched or was tiled similar to Chinese roofs. Churches, convents, and monasteries in the Tagalog region tended to follow the bahay na bato paradigm contemporaneously, though with additional masonry and carvings, a bell tower, and plastered walls on the inside.

Religion
The Tagalog mostly practice Christianity (majority Catholicism and minority Protestantism) with a minority practicing Islam. The adherence forms the minority Buddhism, indigenous Philippine folk religions (Tagalog religion), and other religions as well as no religion.

Precolonial Tagalog societies were largely animist, alongside a gradual spread of mostly syncretic forms of Islam since roughly the early 16th century. Subsequent Spanish colonization in the latter part of the same century ushered a gradual spread of Roman Catholicism, resulting as the dominant religion today alongside widespread syncretic folk beliefs both mainstream and rural Since the American occupation there is also a small minority of Protestant and Restorationist Christians. Even fewer today are Muslim 'reverts' called balik-islam, and revivals of worship to pre-Hispanicized anito.

Christianity

Roman Catholicism

Roman Catholicism arrived in Tagalog areas in the Philippines during the late 16th century, starting from the Spanish conquest of the Maynila and its subsequent claim for the Crown. Augustinian friars, later followed by Franciscans, Jesuits, and Dominicans would subsequently establish churches and schools within Intramuros, serving as base for further (but gradual) proselytization to other Tagalog areas and beyond in Luzon. By the 18th century, the majority of Tagalogs are Catholics; indigenous Tagalog religion was largely purged by missionaries, or otherwise undertook Catholic idioms which comprise many syncretic folk beliefs practiced today. The Pista ng Itim na Nazareno (Feast of the Black Nazarene) of Manila is the largest Catholic procession in the nation.

Notable Roman Catholic Tagalogs are Lorenzo Ruiz of Manila, Alfredo Obviar, the cardinals Luis Antonio Tagle and Gaudencio Rosales.

Protestantism
A minority of Tagalogs are also members of numerous Protestant and Restorationist faiths such as the Iglesia ni Cristo, the Aglipayans, and other denominations introduced during American rule.

Islam
A few Tagalogs practice Islam, mostly by former Christians either by study abroad or contact with Moro migrants from the southern Philippines. By the early 16th century, some Tagalogs (especially merchants) were Muslim due to their links with Bruneian Malays. The old Tagalog-speaking Kingdom of Maynila was ruled as a Muslim kingdom, Islam was prominent enough in coastal areas of Tagalog region that Spaniards mistakenly called them "Moros" due to abundance of indications of practicing Muslim faith and their close association with Brunei.

Indigenous Tagalog faith

Most pre-Hispanic Tagalogs at the time of Spanish advent followed indigenous polytheistic and animist beliefs, syncretized primarily with some Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic expressions from a long history of trade with kingdoms and sultanates elsewhere in Southeast Asia. Anitism is the contemporary academic term for these beliefs, which had no documented explicit label among Tagalogs themselves. Many characteristics like the importance of ancestor worship, shamanism, coconuts, swine, fowl, reptilians, and seafaring motifs share similarities with other indigenous animist beliefs not just elsewhere in the Philippines, but also much of maritime Southeast Asia, Taiwanese aboriginal cultures, the Pacific islands, and several Indian Ocean islands.

Bathala is the supreme creator god who sends ancestor spirits and deities called anito as delegates to intervene in earthly affairs, and sometimes as intercessors for invocations on their behalf. Katalonan and the dambana, known also as lambana in the Old Tagalog language.

Language and orthography

The indigenous language of the Tagalog people is Old Tagalog, which has now transformed into Modern Tagalog. At present, Ethnologue lists nine distinct dialects of Tagalog, which are Lubang, Manila, Marinduque, Bataan (Western Central Luzon), Batangas, Bulacan (Eastern Central Luzon), Puray, Tanay-Paete (Rizal-Laguna) and Tayabas (Quezon). The Manila dialect is the basis of Standard Filipino. These different varieties show dialectal differences without jeopardizing mutual intelligibility. Some particular dialectal words are not mutually intelligible to other speakers of dialects, especially in the perception of Manila speakers. Most of these dialectal words are considered deep and anarchic and were preserved from Old Tagalog.

Another widely spoken language by the people is the nativized variety of English known as Philippine English. As English spread throughout the country, the language acquired new forms, features, and functions. It has also developed into a language of aspiration for many Filipinos.

In Cavite province, two varieties of Chavacano exist, which are Caviteño (Cavite Chabacano) in Cavite City and Ternateño (Bahra, Ternate Chabacano, Ternateño Chavacano) in Ternate, Cavite.

Baybayin is the indigenous Tagalog writing system. Few people today know how to read and write in baybayin, rendering the script nearly extinct. A bill in Congress was filed to make baybayin the country's national script, yet remains pending in the Senate and the House of Representatives. Nowadays, baybayin is artistically expressed in calligraphy, drawing new forms and from old writings.

Colonial period
The Tagalog elite class were skilled Spanish speakers from the 18th to 19th centuries due to the Spanish colonial era. When the Americans arrived, English became the most important language in the 20th century. In the 21st century, the languages of the Tagalogs are Tagalog, English, and a mix of the two, known in Tagalog pop culture as Taglish. Some Spanish words are still used by the Tagalog, though sentence construction in Spanish is no longer used. Tagalogs even speak Filipino, being a standardized version of Tagalog, which is spoken as their lingua franca between different dialects.

See also
 Tagalog language
 Tagalog literature
 Filipino language
 Ethnic groups in the Philippines

Notes

References

Ethnic groups in Luzon
Ethnic groups in the Philippines
History of Manila

Tagalog people


Lake Wobegon is a fictional town in the U.S. state of Minnesota. It is the setting of Garrison Keillor's News from Lake Wobegon which is part of his weekly radio variety show, A Prairie Home Companion. Keillor tells stories of life in a small Minnesota town every week. The weekly segment is broadcast on National Public Radio and available as a podcast via iTunes.

In Keillor's weekly stories about Lake Wobegon, he describes the town:

 He usually starts the stories as "Well, it's been a quiet week in Lake Wobegon, Minnesota, my hometown, out there on the edge of the prairie."
 He says about Lake Wobegon "the little town that time forgot, and the decades cannot improve."
 He ends the stories by "Well, that's the news from Lake Wobegon, where all the women are strong, all the men are good looking, and all the children are above average."

References

Fictional locations
Radio programs
Minnesota in fiction

Lake Wobegon


Jack Lait (March 13, 1883 – April 1, 1954) was an American journalist, author and playwright. During a 50-year career he wrote prolifically and became renowned as one of the leading newspapermen of the first half of the 20th century. He is perhaps best known as co-author, with Lee Mortimer, of the controversial "Confidential" books, written in the late 1940s and early 1950s.

Early years
Jacquin Leonard Lait was born March 13, 1883, in New York City. His family then moved to Chicago, where Lait grew up. He went to grammar school but skipped high school and took a number of jobs before entering the Lewis Institute, where he graduated. Soon afterwards he began his journalistic career, working as a picture messenger for Chicago newspapers.

Journalistic career
Lait's first reporting job was for the Chicago American. He readily adapted to the newspaper world of gangland-era Chicago, quickly learning the ins and outs of the police beat. Developing a knack for sensational reportage, he moved rapidly through the Hearst newspaper ranks from reporter to columnist and from editor to executive. He left Hearst for a couple of years and wrote a daily column for the Chicago Tribune. In 1911, he started his own newspaper with Tom Burke, the Chicago Morning Telegraph, but he did not stay at the newspaper long.

In 1921, Lait became an editor of King Features Syndicate in New York. He wrote a syndicated column called All in the Family, which ran for two decades in Hearst papers. He also had a comic strip, Gus and Gussie, illustrated by Paul Fung, which ran from April 13, 1925, to February 24, 1930. In 1934 he became managing editor of the New York American and immediately fired his son George to avoid accusations of nepotism. In 1936, Lait was appointed editor of the New York Daily Mirror, succeeding Walter Howey. He remained editor until he went on sick leave in 1952. For 50 years, Lait was associated with the Hearst newspaper organization in one capacity or another. He covered every heavyweight championship fight for 35 years until his illness.

During his tenure as editor of the New York Daily Mirror, the tabloid doubled its circulation and claimed the second highest circulation of any U.S. newspaper. In 1963, nine years after Lait's death, it ceased publication following a strike and was absorbed into the then top-selling paper the New York Daily News.

Lait was known as a taciturn, tireless digger of news stories. In July 1934, as the FBI was closing in on John Dillinger in Chicago, he was on the scene for an exclusive when Dillinger was killed. Lait's story, dispatched to the International News Service in New York, reached that city before even the Chicago papers were aware of what had happened.

He was associated with entertainment newspaper Variety and became the head of the Chicago office as a side job.

Books
He had a bestseller with Beef, Iron, and Wine featuring stories of the underworld.

The "Confidential" Books
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Lait, with co-author Lee Mortimer, wrote a series of four controversial books detailing the seamy underside of America and three of its main cities. Each of the four books had the word "confidential" in its title. Mortimer was a New York Daily Mirror newspaper columnist whom Lait had hired in the 1930s when he was editor. The first book to appear was New York Confidential: The Lowdown on Its Bright Life, published in 1948. Chicago Confidential (1950) and Washington Confidential (1951) followed soon afterwards, with U.S.A. Confidential appearing in 1952. The books sold very well, and Washington Confidential became a bestseller in 1951.

The books garnered much criticism in the press and elsewhere for their sensational, salacious tone and "nonfactual accounts of alleged crime-politics links, vice and scandal." In The New York Times review U.S.A. Confidential was labeled "a rather hard-breathing lecture on coast-to-coast depravity that represents about as discouraging a picture of America as you can find at the moment." Several lawsuits were filed against Lait and Mortimer due to the "Confidential" books. Perhaps the most prominent lawsuit was by the Neiman Marcus Co., which alleged that it and its employees had been libeled in U.S.A. Confidential. Neiman sought damages totaling $7,400,000. In August 1952, a federal judge dismissed the suits on the grounds that plaintiffs had not been sufficiently identified in the book to claim damages. In April 1953, Lait and Mortimer counter-sued seeking $1,500,000 for "conspiracy and agreement to restrain commerce, and suppress the printing, publication and distribution" of the book.

Sixty-three years after its publication Washington Confidential was described in an account as an "infamous guide to the D.C. demimonde" written by "a pair of right-wing hacks determined to peel back the city's white-frosted veneer to expose a fetid underbelly of Communist sympathizers, Chinese bookies, call girls, Mafiosi, and homosexuals." It adds that while the book drips with disdain, it's "an underhanded ethnography rich in fascinating period detail."

Lait and Mortimer's books inspired the films New York Confidential (1955) and Chicago Confidential (1957) and the television series New York Confidential.

Other writing

Plays
In the summer of 1913 he was persuaded by Wilson Mizner and Paul Armstrong to write his first play, Help Wanted, which was a big success.

Films
He wrote some silent films for Texas Guinan and Wallace Reid and also worked on a freelance basis on screenplays.

Songs
He wrote several songs, including in collaboration with Con Conrad.

Vaudeville
He became an impresario working with William Morris organizing vaudeville shows at the American Music Hall in Chicago, including Harry Lauder's tours of the US and Annette Kellermann's first US appearance.

In the early 1920s he became a writer for vaudeville acts, including Sophie Tucker, Emma Carus and Georgie Price, with up to 30 acts playing at the same time.

Politics
He was a political adviser to Franklin D. Roosevelt when he was governor of New York.

Personal life and death
Lait married Laura Belle Leusch on March 6, 1906. Together they had a daughter, Lois, and two sons, Jack Lait, Jr., who became the radio and television editor at the Los Angeles Examiner, and George Lait, a director of publicity at Columbia Pictures.

Lait was bedridden for 18 months from October 1952 and went into a coma before he died April 1, 1954, of a circulatory ailment at his home in Beverly Hills, California, at the age of 71. He was survived by his wife and his three children.

Works

Plays
Help Wanted, February 11, 1914 - May 1914
One of Us, September 9, 1918 - Sep 1918
Spice of 1922, [Original, Musical, Revue] July 6, 1922 - Sep 9, 1922
Rufus LeMaire's Affairs, [Original, Musical, Revue] March 28, 1927 - May 1927
The Hook-up, May 7, 1935 - May 1935

Books
Beef, Iron, and Wine (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1916)
The Broadway Melody (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1929); novelization of the Edmund Goulding film scenario The Broadway Melody
The Big House (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1930); novelization of the Frances Marion and George Hill film scenario The Big House
Gangster Girl (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1930)
Put on the Spot (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1930); basis of 1931 film Bad Company
The Beast of the City (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1932); novelization of the screenplay by W.R. Burnett
Our Will Rogers (New York: Greenberg, 1935)
New York Confidential, The Lowdown on Its Bright Life (with co-author Lee Mortimer) (Chicago: Ziff-Davis, 1948)
Washington Confidential (with Mortimer) (New York: Crown Publishers, 1951)
Chicago Confidential (with Mortimer) (New York: Crown Publishers, 1950)
U.S.A. Confidential (with Mortimer) (New York: Crown Publishers, 1952)

Notes

References
Lait, Jack and Lee Mortimer. Washington Confidential New York: Crown Publishers, 1951.

External links

1954 deaths
1883 births
20th-century American novelists
American columnists
American male journalists
American male novelists
Writers from New York City
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
American male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American male writers
Novelists from New York (state)
20th-century American non-fiction writers
Variety (magazine) people

Jack Lait


Anne Lester Hudson is an American mathematician and mathematics educator. Her research specialty is the theory of topological semigroups; she is also known for her skill at mathematical problem-solving, and has coached students to success in both the International Mathematical Olympiad and the William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition.  She is a professor emeritus at the Georgia Southern University-Armstrong Campus (formerly Armstrong State College).

Education
Born as Anne Lester, Hudson is originally from Mississippi,
and grew up in Inverness, Mississippi, a town so small that there were only seven students in her high school class.
She did her undergraduate studies at Hollins College, with Herta Freitag as a mentor. Unusually for the time, she continued at Hollins for four years, instead of transferring after two years to another university, in order to continue working with Freitag.
She graduated in 1953.

In 1961, she earned her Ph.D. in mathematics from Tulane University,
where she also met her husband, mathematician Sigmund Hudson. Her dissertation, On the Structure of Certain Classes of Topological Semigroups, was supervised by Paul Stallings Mostert. She became the first woman to earn a doctorate in mathematics at Tulane.

Career
After postdoctoral studies funded by the National Science Foundation and NATO,
Hudson became a faculty member at Syracuse University, and earned tenure there in 1966 for her research. In 1971 she moved to Armstrong State College in Georgia, "to an environment more heavily involved in undergraduate teaching".

In 1994 Hudson directed the United States Math Olympiad Program, a training program for the U.S. team in the International Mathematical Olympiad. She went to Hong Kong, where the Olympiad was held, as the coach for the team, and led the team to win the Olympiad.

Recognition
In 1993, when the Mathematical Association of America began giving out its Deborah and Franklin Haimo Awards for Distinguished College or University Teaching of Mathematics, Hudson was one of the first winners. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching named her as one of their 1996 Outstanding Professors of the Year. She was given a special commendation by the Georgia House of Representatives in 1997. Hollins College has also given her their outstanding alumna award.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
20th-century American mathematicians
American women mathematicians
Mathematics educators
Hollins University alumni
Tulane University alumni
Syracuse University faculty
20th-century women mathematicians
Mathematicians from New York (state)
20th-century American women
21st-century American women

Anne Lester Hudson


Philip Stanhope (2 May 1732 – 16 November 1768) was the illegitimate son of Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield, to whom the famous Letters to His Son were addressed. His mother was a French governess, Madelina Elizabeth du Bouchet.

Career
Despite his father taking great pains to educate him and using his influence to obtain various diplomatic appointments for what he hoped would be a high-flying career, Stanhope was treated with disdain by many because of his illegitimacy. He was a Member of Parliament for Liskeard and St Germans.  The government in 1764 wished to get possession of his seat, asked him to vacate it, and after some negotiation agreed on receiving a payment of £1,000, which was half the amount that he (or his father) had paid for it. He was also successively Resident at Hamburg (1752–59) and Envoy Extraordinary to the Diet of Ratisbon, (1763) and on 3 April 1764, he was finally appointed to the Court of Dresden, Saxony.

Family
Stanhope had met his wife, Eugenia Peters, in Rome in the spring of 1750 while on the Grand Tour. He was just 18, and she 20. Believed incorrectly by many to be the illegitimate daughter of an Irish gentleman by the name of Domville, Eugenia was described by one observer as "plain almost to ugliness" but possessing "the most careful education and all the choicest accomplishments of her sex". Her mother was noted, however, to have been "a true English goody, vulgar and unbred." Stanhope and Eugenia's two sons, Charles and Philip, were born in London in 1761 and 1763 respectively, and it was not until 25 September 1767 that he and Eugenia were married in Dresden. Stanhope went to great lengths to keep the relationship a secret from his father to the extent of engaging a separate habitation for his wife and children.

He had never lived up to the demands of his father to adopt the habits and graces he insisted were essential to succeed in life. His father issued repeated threats that unless he did as he was told he would lose his father's love, and if he were not to succeed in life it would be his own fault. At the age of 14 his father wrote: "I shall love you extremely, while you deserve it; but not one moment longer."

He did not rise as expected in the diplomatic services and preferred instead an unpretentious domestic life. Often in ill health, he died of dropsy in St Gervais, France, on 16 November 1768, aged only 36, and is buried at Vaucluse. It was generally believed that only after the death of his beloved son that Lord Chesterfield learned of the existence of Philip's wife and children. He received them kindly and took upon himself the cost of education and maintenance of his grandsons and became very attached to them.

When Lord Chesterfield died in 1773, his will caused much gossip. He provided for the two grandsons with £100 annuity each, as well as £10,000, but left Eugenia Stanhope nothing. Faced with the problem of supporting herself, she sold Chesterfield's letters to a publisher, J. Dodsley, for 1500 guineas. Chesterfield had never intended them for publication, and the result was a storm of controversy because of their perceived "immorality", which ensured several reprints and their steady sale for at least 100 years. Eugenia died at her home in Limpsfield, Surrey, in 1783 and had acquired property and a comfortable fortune. She also wrote The deportment of a married life: laid down in a series of letters, which was published in 1798.

In a codicil to her will, she directed her sons "to live in strict unity and friendship with one another, not to dissipate their fortunes and to beware of all human beings".

Philip and Eugenia's sons were educated in the law. The elder son Philip married Elizabeth Daniel, had two daughters and died aged 38 in 1801. The survivor of his two daughters, Eugenia Keir, née Stanhope, died at Madeira in 1823, with no surviving issue. The younger son, Charles, died in 1845, aged 83, without issue and bequeathed most of his estate, which included Lord Chesterfield's bequests to both himself and his late brother and his mother's properties, to the sons of Elizabeth Daniel's brother Edward Daniel, barrister-at-law.

References

Further reading
The Stanhope Legacy: The Story of Lord Chesterfield's Grandsons and the Miserable Fate of their Heirs; Cheryl Nicol
 S. M. Brewer, Design for a Gentleman: The Education of Philip Stanhope (1963)
 Willard Connely, Adventures in Biography: A Chronicle of Encounters and Findings (1960)
 Jenny Davidson, Hypocrisy and the Politics of Politeness: Manners and Morals from Locke to Austen (2004): .
 John Ward, Experiences of a Diplomatist

1732 births
1768 deaths
British diplomats
Deaths from edema
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Liskeard
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for St Germans
British MPs 1754–1761
British MPs 1761–1768
Philip

Philip Stanhope (diplomat)


List of Guggenheim Fellowships awarded in 1981.

1981 U.S. and Canadian Fellows

 Walter Abish, Writer, New York City
 Claude Abraham, Professor Emeritus French, University of California, Davis
 Alice Adams, Artist, Bronx, New York
 Eric G. Adelberger, Professor of Physics, University of Washington
 Reginald Edgar Allen, Professor of Philosophy and Classics, Northwestern University
 David Hershel Alpers, William B. Kountz Professor of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine
 Peter G. Anastos, Choreographer, Cincinnati, Ohio
 Elliot Aronson, Emeritus Professor of Psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz
 Margaret Atwood, Writer, Toronto
 James L. Axtell, William J. Kenan, Jr. Professor of Humanities, College of William and Mary
 Edward Bakst, Film Maker, New York City
 Rudolf Baranik, Deceased. Fine Arts
 Pranab Kumar Bardhan, Professor of Economics, University of California, Berkeley
 Edward Barnes, Composer, New York City
 Elizabeth Ann Bates, Professor of Psychology & Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego
 Larry Thomas Bell, Composer, Boston
 Peter Mayo Bell, Geophysicist, Carnegie Institution of Washington's Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, DC
 Warren Frank Benson, Composer; Emeritus Professor of Composition, Eastman School of Music
 Darwin K. Berg, Professor of Biology, University of California, San Diego
 Albert Jeffrey Berger, Professor of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, School of Medicine
 Marshall Howard Berman, Writer; Professor of Political Science, City College and Graduate Center, City University of New York
 Thomas Paul Bernstein, Associate Professor of Political Science, Columbia University
 Gina Berriault, Writer; Assistant Professor of Creative Writing, San Francisco State University
 Michael James Berry, Robert A. Welch Professor of Chemistry, Rice University
 Jake Berthot, Artist, New York City
 John Simeon Block, Film Maker, Upper Montclair, New Jersey
 Skip Blumberg, Video Artist, New York City.
 Jean V. Bony, Deceased. Architecture
 Weston Thatcher Borden, Professor of Chemistry, University of Washington
 Anthony Braxton, Composer, Middleton, Connecticut
 Ann Lesley Brown, Professor of Educational Psychology, University of California, Berkeley
 Paul Louis Brown, Artist, Brooklyn, New York
 Anne Pippin Burnett, Emeritus Professor of Classics, University of Chicago
 Gerald Busby, Composer, New York City
 Daryle H. Busch, Roy A. Roberts Distinguished Professor of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence
 Frederick Busch, Writer; Edgar W. B. Fairchild Professor of Literature, Colgate University
 Walter Cahn, Carnegie Professor of the History of Art, Yale University
 Calum MacNeill Carmichael, Professor of Comparative Literature and Biblical Studies, Cornell University
 Karen A. Carson, Artist, Santa Monica, California
 David Chandler, Professor of Chemistry, University of California at Berkeley
 Fredric Lawrence Cheyette, Professor of History, Amherst College
 Tom Clancy, Artist, New York City
 Michael Tran Clegg, Professor of Genetics, University of California, Riverside, CA
 Arthur Morris Cohen, Artist, New York City
 Bernard Cecil Cohen, Vice-Chancellor Emeritus and Quincy Wright Professor Emeritus of Political Science, University of Wisconsin–Madison
 Joel E. Cohen, Abby Rockefeller Mauzé Professor of Populations, Rockefeller University
 Thomas James Colchie, Translator, New York City
 George Ramsay Cook, Professor of History, York University
 Peter M. Daly, chairman, Professor of German, McGill University
 Julie Dash, Film Maker, Atlanta, Georgia
 Alvin E. Davis, III, Professor of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital, Cincinnati OH
 William Theodore de Bary, John Mitchell Mason Professor and Provost Emeritus, Columbia University
 Gérard Defaux, Professor of French, Johns Hopkins University
 Mary Madeline DeFrees, Poet, Seattle, Washington
 Andrew David deGroat, Choreographer
 Eric Delson, Professor of Anthropology, Herbert Lehman College and Graduate Center, City University of New York
 Stuart Ross Dempster, Composer; Emeritus Professor of Music, University of Washington
 Martha Ann Derthick, Julia Allen Cooper Professor of Government and Foreign Affairs, University of Virginia at Charlottesville
 William G. Dever, Professor of Near Eastern Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Arizona
 Charles Donahue, Jr., Professor of Law, Harvard Law School
 Donald Frank DuBois, Group Leader, Statistical Physics and Materials Theory Group, University of California, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
 Jay Dusard, Photographer and Writer, Prescott, Arizona
 Stuart Dybek, Writer; Distinguished Professor of English, Western Michigan University
 Harrison Echols, Deceased. Biochemistry & Molecular Biology
 Harold M. Edwards, Professor of Mathematics, New York University
 Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, Alice Freeman Palmer Professor Emeritus of History, University of Michigan
 Robert Francis Engs, Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania
 Jay Franklin Fellows, Deceased. 19th Century English Literature
 John Arthur Ferejohn, William Bennett Munro Professor of Political Science, Stanford University
 Franklin M. Fisher, Professor of Economics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 Robert Fizdale, Deceased. Biography
 Kent V. Flannery, James B. Griffin Distinguished University Professor of Anthropology and Curator, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan
 Suzanne Fleischman, Professor of French and Romance Philology, University of California, Berkeley
 Bengt Fornberg, Professor of Applied Mathematics, University of Colorado
 Murray J. Fraser, Retired Professor of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital, Sydney, Australia
 Michael Frede, Philosopher
 Eliot L. Freidson, Professor of Sociology, New York University
 William Gaddis, Deceased. Fiction
 Bruce Ganem, Franz and Elisabeth Roessler Professor of Chemistry, Cornell University
 Robert Erwin Garis, Writer; Katherine Lee Bates Professor Emeritus of English, Wellesley College
 Christopher John Garrett, Professor of Oceanography, University of Victoria, Canada
 Ernest Gellhorn, Professor of Law and Dean, School of Law, Case Western Reserve University
 William A. Gibbons, Head, Professor of Chemistry, University of London
 John Glad, Associate Professor of Germanic and Slavic Languages and Literatures, University of Maryland at College Park
 Joanna McClelland Glass, Playwright, Novelist, Screenwriter, Toronto
 Arthur Gold, Deceased. Biography
 Joseph Goldstein, Stanley Ruttenberg Professor of Law, Yale Law School
 David Gordon, director, Pick Up Company, New York City
 Harold Grad, Deceased. Applied Mathematics
 William Albert Graham, Jr., Professor of the History of Religion and Islamic Studies, Harvard University
 Mark Granovetter, Joan Butler Ford Professor of Sociology, Stanford University
 Robert Molten Gray, Professor of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University
 Robert L. Griess, Professor of Mathematics, University of Michigan
 Sanford Jay Grossman, Steinberg Trustee Professor of Finance, The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania
 Branko Grünbaum, Professor of Mathematics, University of Washington
 James Edwin Guillet, Emeritus Professor of Chemistry, University of Toronto
 C. David Gutsche, Robert A. Welch Professor of Chemistry, Texas Christian University
 Allen Guttmann, Professor of English and American Studies, Amherst College
 David Drisko Hall, Professor of American Religious History and Bartlett Lecturer on New England Church History, Harvard University
 Dolores Hayden, Professor of Architecture, Urbanism and American Studies, Yale University
 Max Knobler Hecht, Professor of Biology, Queens College and Graduate Center
 Donald R. Helinski, Research Professor of Biology, University of California, San Diego
 T. Walter Herbert, Herman Brown Professor of English, Southwestern University
 Alfred John Hiltebeitel, Professor of Religion, George Washington University
 Derek Michael Hirst, William Eliot Smith Professor of History, Washington University in St. Louis
 Melvin Hochster, R.L. Wilder Professor of Mathematics, University of Michigan
 Cecelia Holland, Writer, Fortuna, California
 Denis Hollier, Professor of French, Yale University
 Ole R. Holsti, Emeritus Professor of International Affairs, Duke University
 Lawrence Hubert, Lyle H. Lanier Professor of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
 Allan Jacobs, Professor of City and Regional Planning, University of California, Berkeley
 John D. Joannopoulos, Associate Professor of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 Christopher H. Johnson, Professor of History, Wayne State University
 Elizabeth W. Jones, Professor of Biological Sciences, Carnegie-Mellon University
 Kenneth D. Jordan, Professor of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh
 Harold H. Kelley, Professor Emeritus of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles
 Martyn Carden Kellman, Emeritus Professor of Geography, York University
 Daniel J. Kevles, J.O. and Juliette Koepfli Professor of the Humanities, California Institute of Technology
 Vera Klement, Artist; Emeritus Professor of Art, University of Chicago
 Arthur Louis Koch, Professor, Department of Microbiology, Indiana University
 Melvin Joel Konner, Professor of Anthropology and Assistant Professor of Psychiatry, Emory University
 Josef Krames, Film Maker; Communications Coordinator, The Cleveland Clinic Educational Foundation
 William Bernard Kristan, Jr., Professor of Biology, University of California, San Diego
 Paul Kwilecki, Photographer, Bainbridge, Georgia
 Tsit-Yuen Lam, Professor of Mathematics, University of California, Berkeley
 Benjamin Lax, Director Emeritus, Francis Bitter National Magnet Laboratory, M.I.T., Professor Emeritus of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 Henry Marshall Leicester, Jr., Professor of English Literature, University of California, Santa Cruz
 Hope Jensen Leichter, Elbenwood Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University
 John Anthony Lennon, Composer; Professor of Music, University of Tennessee
 William Carl Lineberger, E. U. Condon Distinguished Professor of Chemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder
 Richard J. Lipton, Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Princeton University
 Peter J. Loewenberg, Professor of History, University of California, Los Angeles
 Mason Ira Lowance, Jr., Professor of English, University of Massachusetts Amherst
 Tom C. Lubensky, Mary Amanda Wood Professor of Physics, University of Pennsylvania
 Robert E. Lucas, Jr., John Dewey Distinguished Service Professor of Economics, University of Chicago
 Pedro Lujan, Artist, New York City
 William A. Lundberg, Artist; Professor of Art, University of Texas at Austin
 Paul Michael Lützeler, Rosa May Distinguished University Professor in the Humanities, Washington University in St. Louis
 Bernd Magnus, Professor of Philosophy; director, Center for Ideas and Society, University of California, Riverside
 William Maguire, Photographer; Professor of Visual Arts, Florida International University
 Alfred K. Mann, Bernard & Ida Grossman Professor of Physics, University of Pennsylvania
 Zohar Manna, Professor of Computer Science, Stanford University
 Peter J. Manning, Professor of English, State University of New York at Stony Brook
 Francisco Márquez-Villanueva, Alice Kingsley Porter Professor of Romance Languages and Literatures, Harvard University
 Marianne W. Martin, Deceased. Fine Arts Research
 William Martin McClain, Professor of Chemistry, Wayne State University
 Paul A. McDonough, Photographer; Adjunct Associate Professor, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, NY: 1981.
 Brooks McNamara, Professor of Performance Studies, New York University: 1981.
 Michael R. McVaugh, Professor of History, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: 1981.
 Devon W. Meek, Deceased. Chemistry: 1981.
 Jeffrey Mehlman, Associate Professor of French, Boston University: 1981.
 Thomas R. Metcalf, Professor of History, University of California, Berkeley: 1981.
 Michael Mewshaw, Writer, Charlottesville, Virginia: 1981.
 John Meyendorff, Deceased. Religion: 1981.
 W. J. T. Mitchell, Professor of English, University of Chicago: 1981.
 Luke W. Mo, Professor of Physics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University: 1981.
 Mauricio Montal, Professor of Biology, Adjunct Professor Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego: 1981.
 Roy P. Mottahedeh, Gurney Professor of History and Director, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Harvard University: 1981.
 Lavonne Mueller, Playwright, New York City: 1981.
 Carol Muske, Poet; Professor of English and Creative Writing, University of Southern California: 1981.
 Joel Arthur Myerson, Carolina Distinguished Professor of American Literature, University of South Carolina: 1981.
 Tetsuo Najita, Robert S. Ingersoll Distinguished Service Professor in History and Japanese Studies, University of Chicago: 1981.
 Kenneth Henry Nealson, Senior Research Scientist, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California: 1981.
 Colbert Ivor Nepaulsingh, Associate Vice President for Academic Affairs, SUNY-Albany: 1981.
 Charles Eric Neu, Professor of History, Brown University: 1981.
 Laura Mené Newman, Artist; Instructor, Cooper Union, New York: 1981.
 James Carson Nohrnberg, Professor of English, University of Virginia: 1981.
 Tim O'Brien, Writer, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1981.
 Sharon Olds, director, Creative Writing Program, New York University: 1981.
 Albert Padwa, William Patterson Timmie Professor of Chemistry, Emory University: 1981.
 Robert Treat Paine, Emeritus Professor of Zoology, University of Washington: 1981.
 Nell Irvin Painter, Professor of History; Acting Director, Afro-American Studies Program, Princeton University: 1981.
 Thomas Lee Pangle, Professor of Political Science, University of Toronto: 1981.
 Loren Wayne Partridge, Professor of the History of Art, University of California, Berkeley: 1981.
 John F. Peck, Poet, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1981.
 Marjorie G. Perloff, Sadie Dernham Patek Professor Emeritus of Humanities, Stanford University: 1981.
 Lewis Curtis Perry, John Francis Bannon Professor of History and American Studies, St. Louis University: 1981. Honoring John Francis Bannon
 William Samuel Peterson, Professor of English, University of Maryland at College Park: 1981.
 Tobias Picker, Composer, New York City
 Charles R. Plott, Edward S. Harkness Professor of Economics and Political Science, California Institute of Technology: 1981.
 Joel Porte, Ernest I. White Professor of American Studies and Humane Letters, Cornell University: 1981.
 Joanna Pousette-Dart, Painter, New York City: 1981.
 Curtis Alexander Price, Principal, The Royal Academy of Music, London: 1981.
 Maureen Quilligan, May Department Stores Company Professor of English, University of Pennsylvania: 1981.
 Alexander Rabinowitch, Professor of History and Dean of International Programs, Indiana University: 1981.
 Vladimir Rif, Film Maker, New York City: 1981.
 Lawrence Rosen, Chair, Professor of Anthropology, Princeton University: 1981.
 Alexander Rosenberg, Former Professor of Philosophy, University of California, Riverside: 1981.
 Margaret W. Rossiter, Marie Underhill Noll Professor of the History of Science, Cornell University: 1981.
 Meridel Rubenstein, Photographer; Instructor, Santa Fe Community College: 1981.
 Sara Rudner, Choreographer, New York City; director, Dance Program, Sarah Lawrence College: 1981
 Richard Ruland, Professor of English, Washington University in St. Louis
 Michael Ryan, Poet, Professor of English, University of California, Irvine: 1981.
 Harvey Sachs, Writer, Arezzo, Italy: 1981.
 Wendy Lang Salinger, Poet, Wainscott, New York: 1981.
 Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz, Kenan Professor Emeritus of History, New York University: 1981.
 Michael Schaller, Professor of History, University of Arizona: 1981.
 James Schevill, Writer; Retired Professor of English, Brown University: 1981.
 Thomas J. Schopf, Deceased. Biology: 1981.
 James Marcus Schuyler, Deceased. Poetry: 1981.
 Paul A. Schweitzer, Professor of Mathematics, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro: 1981.
 Arden Scott, Artist, Greenport, New York: 1981.
 Nicholas Z. Scoville, Professor of Astronomy, California Institute of Technology: 1981.
 Andrew Tennant Scull, Professor of Sociology and Science Studies, University of California, San Diego: 1981.
 Meryle Secrest, Writer, Rockville, Maryland: 1981.
 Charles P. Segal, Walter C. Klein Professor of the Classics, Harvard University: 1981.
 Julius L. Shaneson, Professor of Mathematics, and Francis J. Carey Chair, University of Pennsylvania: 1981.
 Ntozake Shange, Writer, Philadelphia: 1981.
 Peter L. Shillingsburg, Professor of English, University of North Texas: 1981.
 Raymond Siever, Emeritus Professor of Geology, Harvard University: 1981.
 Burton Herbert Singer, Professor of Demography and Public Affairs, Princeton University: 1981.
 Meredith Anne Skura, Professor of English, Rice University: 1981.
 Thomas O. Sloane, Professor Emeritus of Rhetoric, University of California, Berkeley: 1981.
 Dave Smith, Boyd Professor of English, Louisiana State University, and Coeditor, The Southern Review, Baton Rouge: 1981.
 Roger M. Spanswick, Professor of Plant Physiology, Cornell University: 1981.
 Roswell Howard Spears, Film Maker; director, James Agee Film Project, State College, Pennsylvania: 1981.
 J. E. R. Staddon, James B. Duke Professor of Psychology and Professor of Zoology, Duke University: 1981.
 Paul Elliot Starr, Professor of Sociology, Princeton University; co-editor, The American Prospect: 1981.
 W. Clark Still, Jr., Professor of Chemistry, Columbia University: 1981.
 Tison C. Street, Composer, Boston, Massachusetts: 1981.
 Barry G. Stroud, Professor of Philosophy, University of California, Berkeley: 1981.
 John Floyd Sturgeon, Video Artist, Troy, New York: 1981.
 Jon Swan, Writer, Canaan, Connecticut; associate editor, School of Journalism, Columbia University: 1981.
 Larry Michael Sweet, Engineer, Burlington, Connecticut: 1981
 Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Professor of Anthropology and Curator of Southeast Asian Ethnology in the Peabody Museum, Harvard University: 1981.
 Saul Arno Teukolsky, Hans A. Bethe Professor of Physics and Astronomy, Cornell University: 1981.
 Leonard M. Thompson, Charles T. Stillé Professor Emeritus of History, Yale University; director, Southern African Research Program, Yale: 1981.
 Leslie L. Threatte, Jr., Professor of Classics, University of California, Berkeley: 1981.
 Janet Margaret Todd, Fellow, Sussex College, Cambridge, England: 1981.
 Marianna Torgovnick, Associate Chair of English Department; Professor of English, Duke University: 1981.
 Robert Edward Tracy, Emeritus Professor of English and Celtic Studies, University of California, Berkeley: 1981.
 Billie Lee Turner II, Milton P. and Alice C. Higgins Professor of Environment and Society, Clark University: 1981.
 Frederick Turner, Writer; Founders Professor, School of Arts and Humanities, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson: 1981.
 Donald Robert Uhlmann, Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson: 1981.
 Eugene Charles Ulrich, Professor of Hebrew Scriptures, University of Notre Dame: 1981.
 John Von Hartz, Writer, New York City: 1981.
 David B. Wake, Professor of Integrative Biology, Curator of Herpetology, and Director, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley: 1981.
 John Walker, Artist, Brookline, Massachusetts: 1981.
 Gerald C. Weales, Professor Emeritus of English, University of Pennsylvania: 1981.
 Michael Weil, Film Maker, San Francisco: 1981.
 Otto Karl Werckmeister, Mary Jane Crowe Distinguished Professor of Art History, Northwestern University: 1981.
 Roger J. B. Wets, Professor of Mathematics, University of California, Davis: 1981.
 David Anthony Wevill, Poet; Associate Professor of English, University of Texas at Austin: 1981.
 Robert Huddleston Wiebe, Emeritus Professor of History, Northwestern University: 1981.
 Henry G. Wilhelm, Writer, Grinnell, Iowa; Director of Research, Preservation Publishing Company: 1981.
 Mira Wilkins, Professor of Economics, Florida International University: 1981.
 Samm-Art Williams, Playwright: 1981.
 Joan Hoff Wilson, Professor of History and Director, Contemporary History Institute, Ohio University: 1981.
 James Irving Wimsatt, Louann and Larry Temple Centennial Professor Emeritus of English, University of Texas at Austin: 1981.
 Saul Winegrad, Professor of Physiology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine: 1981.
 David Weaver Wing, Photographer; Coordinator of the Photography Program, Grossmont College: 1981.
 Isaac Witkin, Sculptor, Pemberton, New Jersey: 1981.
 Lee Alan Witters, Eugene W. Leonard Professor of Medicine & Biochemistry; Chief, Endrocine/Metabolism Division, Dartmouth Medical School: 1981.
 Robert Wohl, Professor of History, University of California, Los Angeles: 1981.
 John Womack, Jr., Robert Woods Bliss Professor of Latin American History and Economics, Harvard University: 1981.
 Robert Wayne Woody, Professor of Biochemistry, Colorado State University: 1981.
 Donald E. Worster, Hall Distinguished Professor of American History, University of Kansas: 1981.
 Richard S. Wortman, Professor of History, Columbia University: 1981.
 George T. Wright, Regents Professor Emeritus of English, University of Minnesota: 1981.
 Carl Isaac Wunsch, Cecil and Ida Green Professor of Physical Oceanography, Massachusetts Institute of Technology: 1981.
 Maurice Zeitlin, Professor of Sociology, University of California, Los Angeles: 1981.
 Ramon Zupko, Composer; Emeritus Professor of Music Composition, Western Michigan University: 1981.
 Menachem Zur, Composer; Bronx, New York: 1981.

1981 Latin American and Caribbean Fellows

 Hugo Aréchiga, Chief, Postgraduate and Research Studies, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, Mexico City: 1981.
 Reinaldo Arenas, Deceased. Fiction: 1981.
 Lourdes Arizpe, Research Professor of Social Anthropology, College of Mexico, Mexico City: 1981.
 Paulo Bruscky, Artist, Recife, Brazil: 1981.
 Carlos F. Bunge, Senior Research Physicist, Institute of Physics, and Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Biomedical Institute, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City: 1981.
 German Cáceres, Composer; president, El Salvador Council for Music: 1981.
 Adolfo Canitrot, Senior Research Economist, Center for Studies of the State and Society, Buenos Aires: 1981.
 Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino, Professor of Linguistics and Director, Center for Applied Linguistics, National University of San Marcos, Lima: 1981.
 Miguel Cervantes, Artist, Mexico City: 1981.
 Teresa del Conde, director, Museum of Fine Arts, Bosque de Chapultepec, Mexico City: 1981.
 Luis Frangella, Deceased. Fine Arts: 1981
 Griselda Gambaro, Writer, Buenos Aires: 1981.
 Néstor García Canclini, Research Professor of Social Anthropology, National School of Anthropology and History, Mexico City; director, Center for Documentation and Research, National Institute of Fine Arts, Mexico City: 1981.
 Belita Koiller, Professor of Physics, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro: 1981.
 Daniel Leyva, Poet; Assistant Director of Cultural Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Relations, Mexico, D.F.: 1981.
 Sergio Miceli Pessôa de Barros, Fuel Professor of Sociology, University of São Paulo: 1981.
 Lygia Carvalho Pape, Artist; Adjunct Professor, Center for Architecture and Art, Santa Ursula University, Rio de Janeiro: 1981.
 María Blanca París Oddone, Historian, Montevideo: 1981.
 Arnaldo F. Rocha, Professor of Chemistry, University of Amazonas; Research Chemist, National Research Institute of the Amazon, Manaus: 1981.
 José Luis Saborío, Professor of Cell Biology, Center for Research and Advanced Studies, National Polytechnic Institute, Mexico City: 1981.
 Affonso Romano de Sant'Anna, Poet; Professor of Literature, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro: 1981.
 Juan Pablo Terra, Deceased. Political Science: 1981.
 Patricio von Hildebrand, director, Amazon Research Program, Bogotá: 1981.

See also
Guggenheim Fellowship

External links
 Guggenheim Foundation home page

1981
1981 awards