The Treaty of Kiel () or Peace of Kiel (Swedish and  or ) was concluded between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Kingdom of Sweden on one side and the Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway on the other side on 14 January 1814 in Kiel. It ended the hostilities between the parties in the ongoing Napoleonic Wars, where the United Kingdom and Sweden were part of the anti-French camp (the Sixth Coalition) while Denmark–Norway was allied to France.

Frederick VI of Denmark joined the anti-French alliance, ceded Heligoland to George III of the United Kingdom, and further ceded the Kingdom of Norway to Charles XIII, to enter a union with Sweden, in return for Swedish Pomerania. Specifically excluded from the exchange were the Norwegian dependencies of Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands, which remained in the union with Denmark. (Norway would unsuccessfully contest the Danish claim to all of Greenland in the Eastern Greenland Case of 1931–33.)

However, not all provisions of the treaty would come into force. Norway declared its independence, adopted a constitution and elected Crown Prince Christian Frederik as its own king. Sweden therefore refused to hand over Swedish Pomerania, which instead passed to Prussia after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. After a short war with Sweden, Norway accepted entering into a personal union with Sweden at the Convention of Moss. King Christian Frederik abdicated after convening an extraordinary Storting, which revised the Constitution to allow for the Union. It was formally established when the Storting elected Charles XIII as king of Norway on 4 November 1814.

Background

In the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway and the Kingdom of Sweden tried to maintain neutrality but soon became involved in the fighting, joining opposite camps. Swedish king Gustav IV Adolf entered an alliance with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Russian Empire against Napoleon Bonaparte in 1805, and declared war on Napoleonic France. The United Kingdom, which had declared war on France in 1803, paid subsidies to Sweden. Before Gustav IV Adolf marched his forces out of Swedish Pomerania, a province long coveted by Prussia, he negotiated an agreement that Prussia would not attack it. Denmark remained neutral.

In 1807, Napoleonic forces seized Swedish Pomerania and forced Prussia and Russia to sign the Treaty of Tilsit. Russia was therein obliged to attack Napoleon's enemies, and since Gustav IV Adolf refused to break his alliance with the United Kingdom, the tsar invaded Finland and severed it from Sweden in the Finnish War, 1808/1809. Sweden could no longer uphold her anti-French foreign policy, and French Marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte was elected heir to the Swedish throne in 1810. Denmark-Norway entered an alliance with France after the second British bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807.

In 1812, Napoleon's forces were decimated in their failed attempt to subdue Russia, and started their westward retreat. Sweden allied with Russia on 30 August 1812, with the United Kingdom on 3 March 1813, and with Prussia on 22 April 1813. Previously, on 23 March 1813, she had declared war on Napoleon. Bernadotte's condition for entering the anti-Napoleonic alliance was the gain of Norway, which the United Kingdom and Russia accepted in May 1813. Prussia however did not acknowledge this claim at first. Thus, Bernadotte hesitated to enter the war with full force, and only engaged in a campaign against Hamburg which on 30 June was re-conquered by allied French and Danish forces. When Prussia finally accepted the Swedish claim to Norway on 22 July, Sweden joined the alliance of Reichenbach concluded between Russia, the United Kingdom and Prussia on 14/15 June. With three armies (North, Main and Silesian, the Northern army under Bernadotte's command), the allies subsequently cleared Northern Germany of French forces. Denmark, who had maintained the alliance with Napoleon because of the Swedish claim to Norway, was isolated and, as a consequence of the war, bankrupt. Bernadotte, now free to attack Denmark after Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig in Mid-October, took his combined Swedish/Russian Army and quickly defeated the outnumbered Danish Army and occupied Holstein and Schleswig during late December 1813. Frederick VI agreed to make peace once it was clear that Bernadotte would occupy Jutland and Zealand (with British naval assistance), if necessary to force the Norwegian cession.

Dano-British treaty

The treaty between the Kingdom of Denmark and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was negotiated by Danish diplomat Edmund Bourke and the British envoy at the Swedish court, Edward Thornton. It consisted of 14 articles, to which two articles were added in Brussels on 7 April.

In article III, the United Kingdom was obliged to return all occupied Danish possessions to the Danish king. Excepted was the island of Heligoland, where the British king was granted "full and unlimited sovereignty".

In article VI, the Danish king joined the anti-Napoleonic alliance, and obliged himself to maintain an army of 10,000 men that was to be joined to the Allied forces in Northern Germany and likewise be commanded by the Swedish crown prince. This Danish contingent was to be treated the same way the Swedish contingent was treated, and the Danish king was to receive an annual 400,000 pounds of British subsidies for maintenance and pay of the army, to be paid in monthly installments as soon as the army entered Allied service.

Article VIII was concerned with the abolishment of slave trade. In article X, the British king promised the Danish king to negotiate further compensation for Denmark's territorial cessions to Sweden in a pending final peace. In article XIII, older Dano-British treaties were confirmed.

The articles added in Brussels were concerned with the property of Danish subjects in the colonies or in ceded territories, which was to remain untouched by the British for the next three years, and equal treatment of Danish, British and Hanoveranian subjects, who were not to be prosecuted because of their participation in the war on different sides, nor because of their political or religious beliefs.

Dano-Swedish treaty

The treaty between the Kingdom of Denmark and the Kingdom of Sweden was negotiated by Danish diplomat Edmund Bourke (Burke) and Swedish envoy Baron Gustaf af Wetterstedt with British mediation. It consisted of 28 articles and one separate article. In article III, the Danish king promised to join the alliance against Napoleonic France, and with reference to the Dano-British treaty confirms his obligation to put part of his army under Swedish command.

In article IV, the Danish king in his and his successors' name "irrevocably and forever" renounced claims to the Kingdom of Norway, which would enter a union with Sweden under the Swedish king. The Norwegian kingdom was defined as consisting of the bishoprics of Christiansand, Bergen, Akershus and Trondheim, as well as the coastal islands and the northern regions of Nordland and Finnmark to the Russian border. Excepted were Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands. The Norwegian subjects were freed of their obligations to the Danish king. In article VI, the Swedish crown took over the debts and financial obligations of Norway, which was to be determined by a joint Dano-Swedish commission.

Article VII ruled that Swedish Pomerania was to be handed over to Denmark. In article XV, it was ruled that the Swedish forces were to take over the Norwegian fortresses as soon as the treaty was ratified, and that they were to abandon Swedish Pomerania as soon as the Norwegian fortresses Fredriksten, Fredrikstad, Kongsvinger and Akershus were handed over. In article XIII, the Swedish king promised the Danish king to negotiate full compensation for the cession of Norway in a pending final peace, and the cession of Swedish Pomerania is described as a "proof" of this intention.

In article XII, the king of Sweden promised to maintain the Norwegian University of Christiania, and the Pomeranian University of Greifswald, which was to pass to Denmark according to article VII, and confirmed donations made before the exchange. Also, it was agreed in article XX that subjects of the Danish king could choose within the next six years whether they would finally settle in Norway or Denmark, whereby property in the realm which would not become the permanent residence was to be sold only to inhabitants of this realm. This provision was also enacted with respect to Swedish Pomerania. In article XVI, it was agreed that the governors general and all foreign-born officials of the exchanged territories, as long as they did not decide to remain, were removed from their offices. Article XXI obliged the Danish administration to hand over all civilian and military administrative documents and archives concerning Norway.

Article XVII provided for a mutual exchange of all prisoners of war. According to article XV, allied troops were to leave the Danish Duchy of Schleswig (Slesvig), but were allowed to remain in the German confederal Duchy of Holstein (Holsten), ruled in personal union with Denmark and Schleswig, to participate in the encirclement of Hamburg. In article XXVII, former Dano-Swedish peaces were confirmed as long as their provisions were not in conflict with the treaty of Kiel, namely the Treaty of Copenhagen (1660), the Treaty of Stockholm (June 1720), the Treaty of Frederiksborg (July 1720) and the Treaty of Jönköping (1809). A separate article was concerned with the cession of hostilities.

Union between Sweden and Norway

The Swedish crown price intended to invade Norway to enforce the Treaty of Kiel. This was supported by the majority of people living in Sweden. However, the Swedish elite in Christiania supported resistance. The bishop Johan Nordahl Brun wrote to Claus Pavels and urged his religious colleagues in Christiania to grab their rifles so as to never to surrender. There was a brief war but a ceasefire allowed for the union between Norway and Sweden to be established. The Norwegian Parliament voted for a constitution and elected the Swedish king to the Norwegian throne. So Danish sovereignty over Norway was superseded with Swedish sovereignty over Norway. As of 1814 a distinction was made between genuine Norwegians and those allegedly un-Norwegian. The Norwegian elite used this identity labeling to resist Swedification.

Swedish Pomerania

Due to the refusal of Norway to subordinate itself to the Swedish king, Charles XIII of Sweden did not hand over Swedish Pomerania to Frederick VI of Denmark. The problem was solved at the Congress of Vienna, when the Great Powers followed a plan worked out by Karl August von Hardenberg, prime minister of the Kingdom of Prussia, who proposed a ring exchange of territories and payments between the Kingdom of Denmark, the Kingdom of Hanover (ruled in personal union with Great Britain and Ireland), the Kingdom of Prussia and the Kingdom of Sweden.

According to Hardenberg's plan, Prussia ceded East Frisia with Emden to Hanover, and in exchange received from Hanover the Duchy of Lauenburg. This duchy was then handed over from Prussia to Denmark, along with an additional payment of 3.5 million talers. Prussia also took over a Danish debt to Sweden of 600,000 talers, and agreed on an additional payment of 2 million talers to Sweden. Denmark and Sweden in turn relinquished their claims to Swedish Pomerania in favour of Prussia. Charles XIII of Sweden then released his Pomeranian subjects from their obligations towards Sweden on 1 October 1815, and on 23 October the province was handed over to von Ingersleben, president of Prussian Pomerania.

East Greenland case

Between 1931 and 1933, Norway contested the Danish possession of all of Greenland at the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague. , this was the only case where possession of a polar territory was ever decided by an international court.

The Norwegian side argued that Denmark did not hold rights to any part of the island where she did not exact actual sovereignty, and accordingly proclaimed a Norwegian Eirik Raudes Land in eastern Greenland on 10 July 1931, which had been occupied in the previous month. On 5 April 1933 however, the court ruled that on the basis of the Treaty of Kiel and subsequent treaties, Denmark was the sovereign over the whole of Greenland.

See also
History of Denmark
History of Norway
Scandinavia
Norway in 1814

References

Bibliography

External links

Kiel
Kiel
Kiel
Kiel
Kiel
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1814 in Denmark
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1814 in Sweden
Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
1814 in Norway
British Heligoland
January 1814 events

Treaty of Kiel


Winnie Laban (born 1955 in Wellington) is a New Zealand politeecian, an a member o the kintra's pairlament in Wellington, representin the Labour Pairty.  She is a consteetuency member unner the proportional representation seestem, representin Mana.

1955 births
Livin fowk
Fowk frae Wellington
New Zealand politeecians

Winnie Laban


Königsberg Cathedral (; ) is a Brick Gothic-style monument in Kaliningrad, Russia, located on Kneiphof island in the Pregolya (Pregel) river. It is the most significant preserved building of the former city of Königsberg, which was largely destroyed in World War II.

Dedicated to Virgin Mary and St. Adalbert of Prague, it was built as the see of the Prince-Bishops of Samland in the 14th century. Upon the establishment of the secular Duchy of Prussia, it became the Lutheran Albertina University church in 1544. The spire and roof of the cathedral burnt down after two RAF bombing raids in late August 1944; reconstruction started in 1992, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

History

14th century to World War II
A first smaller Catholic cathedral was erected in the Königsberg Altstadt between 1297 and 1302. After the Samland bishop Johann Clare had acquired the eastern part of Kneiphof island from the Teutonic Knights in 1322, he and his cathedral chapter had a new see built at the site and ensured its autonomy by a 1333 treaty with Grand Master Luther von Braunschweig.

The construction is considered to have begun about 1330. The original building in Altstadt was subsequently demolished and materials from it were used to build the new cathedral on Kneiphof. The soil on which the cathedral was built was marshy, and so hundreds of oak poles were put into the ground before the construction of the cathedral could begin. After a relatively short period of almost 50 years, the cathedral was largely completed by 1380, while works on the interior frescoes lasted until the end of the 14th century.

The choir contained murals from the 14th and 15th centuries, late Gothic wood carvings, and medieval monuments in the Renaissance style, the chief of which was a statue of Albert, Duke of Prussia, carved by Cornelis Floris de Vriendt in 1570.

The cathedral originally had two spires. The spires (one north and one south) overlooked the entrance (west side) of the cathedral. In 1544, the two spires were destroyed by fire. The south spire was rebuilt, but the north spire was replaced by a simple gable roof. In 1640, a clock was built underneath the rebuilt spire, and from 1650 the famous Wallenrodt Library, donated by Martin von Wallenrodt, was situated underneath the gable roof.

In 1695, an organ was installed in the cathedral. In the 19th century, the organ was restored and then renewed.

On 27 September 1523, Johann Briesmann gave the first Lutheran sermon in the cathedral. From then on, until 1945, the cathedral remained Protestant.

Albert, Duke of Prussia, and some of his relatives, as well as other dignitaries, were buried in the cathedral.

Pre–World War II photos

World War II
Königsberg was the capital of East Prussia from the Late Middle Ages until 1945, and the easternmost large German city until it was conquered by the Soviet Union near the end of World War II.

In late August 1944, British bombers carried out  two-night raids on Königsberg. The first raid, on 26/27 August, largely missed the city, but the second raid, on 29/30, destroyed most of the old part of Königsberg (including Kneiphof), and the cathedral was hit. The part of the cathedral directly underneath the spire (today's Lutheran chapel) is where 20 to 25 citizens of Königsberg survived during the second air raid. During reconstruction in 1992, hundreds of skeletons, mostly of children, were discovered under tons of rubble in that area. The predominance of children and the circumstances of their interment cast doubt on whether the remains were in fact victims of the air raid.

Post–World War II

After the war, the cathedral remained a burnt-out shell and Kneiphof was made into a park with no other buildings. Before the war, Kneiphof had many buildings. One of the buildings was the first Albertina University building, where Immanuel Kant taught, which was situated next to the east side of the cathedral. New construction nearby includes the House of Soviets.

Shortly after Kaliningrad was opened to foreigners in the early 1990s after the fall of the Soviet Union, work began to reconstruct the cathedral. In 1994, a new spire was put in place using a helicopter. In 1995, a new clock was put in place. The clock has four bells (1,180 kg, 700 kg, 500 kg & 200 kg), all cast in 1995. The clock chimes every quarter of an hour. On the hour, the clock chimes by playing the first notes of Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, followed by monotonic chiming to indicate the hour. Between 1996 and 1998, work was done to construct the roof. Work was also done to put in stained glass windows.

One problem during the reconstruction was the subsidence of the cathedral which had happened over time. Even during German times, the subsidence had been evident.

Today, the cathedral has two chapels—one Lutheran, the other Russian Orthodox—as well as a museum. The cathedral is also used for concerts.

Kant's tomb

The tomb of the philosopher Immanuel Kant, the "Sage of Königsberg", is today in a mausoleum adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral. The mausoleum was constructed by the architect Friedrich Lahrs and was finished in 1924 in time for the bicentenary of Kant's birth. Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved outside and placed in a neo-Gothic chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral. Over the years, the chapel became dilapidated before it was demolished to make way for the mausoleum, which was built on the same spot, where it is today.

On 27 November 2018, Kant's tomb and statue near Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University were vandalised with pink paint by unknown assailants, who also scattered leaflets glorifying Rus' and denouncing him as a "traitor". The incident was apparently connected with a vote to rename Khrabrovo Airport, where Kant was in the lead for a while, prompting Russian nationalist resentment.

Other burials
Heinrich Reuß von Plauen
Johann von Tiefen
Martin Truchseß von Wetzhausen
Stanislovas Rapolionis
Luther von Braunschweig
Ludwig von Erlichshausen
Heinrich Reffle von Richtenberg
Albert, Duke of Prussia

References

External links

14th-century churches in Germany
Brick Gothic
Buildings and structures in Germany destroyed during World War II
Burial sites of the House of Hohenzollern
Burial sites of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck
Cathedrals in Russia
Churches completed in 1380
Churches in Kaliningrad
Churches in Kaliningrad Oblast
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Kaliningrad Oblast
Cathedral
Gothic architecture in Russia
Lutheran cathedrals
Lutheran churches in Russia
Russian Orthodox cathedrals in Russia

Königsberg Cathedral


Founded in 1949,  is located in Sanbanchō, near the Imperial Palace (Kokyo) in the heart of Chiyoda, Tokyo. It began as a sewing school opened by Otsuma Kotaka (1884–1970) in 1908. From this grew the Otsuma Girls' High School (1935) and the Otsuma Women's Vocational School (1942).

Otsuma Kotaka (大妻コタカ) was a pioneer of traditional women's education, emphasizing scientific training in homemaking skills. For almost twenty years the university specialized in home economics and became synonymous with the education of 'good wives and wise mothers' (良妻賢母, ryōsai-kenbo).   A two-year junior college was added in 1950.

In 1967 the university entered a period of diversification with the creation of a Faculty of Language & Literature and a second campus in Sayamadai, Saitama. Two hitherto independent girls' middle and high schools (Otsuma Nakano and Otsuma Ranzan) were also affiliated. In 1990 a third campus and a fourth affiliated high school were opened in Tama, Tokyo.

Like many other women's universities in Japan, Otsuma has faced the challenge of a rapidly changing job market for women. In the 70s and 80s the demand was for junior college graduates and for most of this period the Otsuma Junior College English Department was at the top of the national rankings.

The subsequent shift to a demand for four-year graduates has resulted in the retrenchment of the junior college and the creation of several new faculties, including Social Information Studies and Comparative Cultures. On December 26, 1975, Popular girl group, The Candies performed their concert at that location.

External links
Otsuma Women's University
Otsuma Women's University Faculty of Language and Literature
Otsuma Women's University School of Social Information Studies
Otsuma Women's University Faculty of Comparative Cultures

Universities and colleges in Tokyo
Private universities and colleges in Japan
Women's universities and colleges in Japan
Universities and colleges established in 1949
1949 establishments in Japan
Tama, Tokyo
Chiyoda, Tokyo

Otsuma Women's University


Robson Bonnichsen (3 December 1940 – 25 December 2004) was an anthropologist who undertook pioneering research in  First American studies, popularized the field and founded the Center for the Study of Early Man at the University of Maine (Orono) in 1981. Dr. Bonnichsen, an associate professor of Anthropology and Quaternary studies, created the Center and served as its first director. The establishment of the Center was made possible through a generous donation by the Bingham Trust. In 1990, the name of the Center was changed to the Center for the Study of the First Americans. In 1991, Dr. Bonnichsen moved the Center from Maine to Oregon State University in Corvallis. The Center relocated to its current home at Texas A&M University in the summer of 2002 to be in a more active academic setting with new education, research, and outreach opportunities. Dr. Bonnichsen served as the Center Director until his death in December 2004. Dr. Bonnichsen and his colleagues believed that humans colonized North America long before 11,000 years ago, when people of the Clovis culture left their signature artifacts in North America.

Dr. Bonnichsen not only had the vision to establish the Center, but took it to the heights of many accomplishments. Dr. Bonnichsen convened several influential conferences that set new directions in the field, including the 1989 First World Summit Conference at the University of Maine and the 1999 international peopling of the Americas conference called "Clovis and Beyond" in Santa Fe.  Dr. Bonnichsen founded the Center's quarterly news magazine, the Mammoth Trumpet, and the Center's annual journal, Current Research in the Pleistocene (discontinued in 2011).  Dr. Bonnichsen also established the Center's book series  and published 14 books.  Also during this time, he was pursuing his own pioneering research.  Professor Bonnichsen was known nationally and internationally for his interdisciplinary research projects, for overview syntheses of the field, and as a spokesperson for First American studies.

Biography
Bonnichsen was born in Twin Falls, Idaho.  In 1965, he received his B.A. in anthropology from Idaho State University, and went on to earn his Ph.D in anthropology from the University of Alberta in Canada, in 1974.

Bonnichsen took a multidisciplinary approach to the study of First Americans. He conducted archaeological research around the globe, both in locales where the ancestors of early Americans might have lived, such as China and Russia, and in locales in the Western Hemisphere where ancient American sites might be documented, such as Canada and South America. Bonnichsen, his colleagues and students searched for similarities in tools from these sites, and other early sites, looking for clues about the geographic origins of the humans who first made the journey to North America.

Bonnichsen was one of eight anthropologists who, in the case Bonnichsen, et al. v. United States, et al., sued for the right to study skeletal remains from Kennewick Man, which had already been radiocarbon dated to 9,300 years before the present. The anthropologists believed that the bones were a national treasure with the potential to reveal significant information about the origins of the humans who colonized North America, and that they should be closely examined and tested before being turned over to contemporary Native Americans for burial. The controversial case ended in a ruling from the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeal in favor of the scientists. The ruling came on February 4, 2004, ten months before Bonnichsen died.

Bonnichsen was married several times, including to Ann Follett, with whom he had two sons, Sven and Shield, and to Mila, whose son, Max, he adopted.

References

External links
Center for the Study of the First Americans

1940 births
2004 deaths
20th-century American anthropologists
Idaho State University alumni
Oregon State University faculty
People from Twin Falls, Idaho
Scientists from Idaho
Texas A&M University faculty
University of Alberta alumni
University of Maine faculty
American expatriates in Canada

Robson Bonnichsen


Arnoldus Isaac Zacharias Mononutu (4 December 1896 – 5 September 1983) was an Indonesian nationalist, politician, and national hero of Indonesia from North Sulawesi, who served as Minister of Information from 1949 until 1950, and the again from 1951 until 1953. He later became the first Indonesia Ambassador to China, as well as the third Rector of Hasanuddin University. A member of the Indonesian National Party, Mononutu was also involved in the struggle for Indonesia's independence. Having gained his sense of nationalism during his post-secondary studies in the Netherlands. In 2020, he was posthumously given the honorary title of National Hero of Indonesia.

Early life

Arnold Isaac Zacharias Mononutu was born in Manado on 4 December 1896 to Karel Charles Wilson Mononutu and Agustina van der Slot. Both his father and grandfather were prominent figures in their time. His father was a civil servant or ambtenaar (nl) in the Dutch East Indies colonial administration. His grandfather (also named Arnold Mononutu) was the first Minahasan to complete studies at the school for the training of native physicians (STOVIA or School tot Opleiding van Inlandsche Artsen) in Batavia (now Jakarta).

When Mononutu was two years old, his father was assigned a position in Gorontalo. Four younger siblings were born in Gorontalo, but all four died when they were between five and six months old. In 1903, Mononutu went to the Dutch language elementary school (ELS or Europeesche Lagere School (nl)) in Gorontalo. He continued his studies at the ELS in Manado after his father was reassigned to a position in Manado. In 1913, Mononutu went to the Dutch secondary school (HBS or Hogere burgerschool (nl)) in Batavia where he met and became friends with AA Maramis (also from Minahasa) and Achmad Subardjo.

Time in Europe

In 1920, Mononutu headed to Europe to start his studies in the Netherlands. After a couple of years of taking preparatory courses to enroll in a university, he decided to enroll in The Hague Academy of International Law or Académie de droit international de La Haye in The Hague. Mononutu initially did not have nationalistic ideals. However, after attending the association for Indonesian students in the Netherlands or Indische Vereeniging or Perhimpunan Indonesia, Mononutu began to realize the nationalism of Indonesia. He became more involved in the organization and was elected as vice president, the same period in which Mohammad Hatta was elected as treasurer.

When Soekiman Wirjosandjojo was president of the organization, Mononutu was asked to become a representative of Indische Vereeniging among the student organizations in Paris. During his time in Paris, the Dutch Political Intelligence Department or Politieke Inlichtingen Dienst became suspicious of Mononutu's activities. The colonial government in Indonesia spread false rumors to his father that he was being sympathetic to the communists. His father was threatened to be removed from his position if he continued to send money to Mononutu. When his father stopped sending money to Mononutu, he became dependent on his Indonesian friends. He returned to the Netherlands from France and was allowed to stay with Ali Sastroamidjojo and his family. Upon secretly receiving money from his father through his uncle who was travelling to the Netherlands, Mononutu was able to pay all his debts and return home to Indonesia in September 1927.

Return to Indonesia
Upon returning to Indonesia, Mononutu was immediately involved in the local nationalist efforts. He became a member of the newly formed Indonesian National Party or Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI). Mononut also met its founder, Sukarno, for the first time. Mononutu rented a room in the same house as Suwirjo and Sugondo Djojopuspito both of whom were leaders of the Indonesian Students Association or Persatuan Pelajar Pelajar Indonesia. This organization was part of the Second Youth Congress in 1928 that produced the Youth Pledge or Sumpah Pemuda. This pledge proclaimed the three ideals of one motherland, one nation, and one language. The future Indonesian national anthem Indonesia Raya by Wage Rudolf Supratman was first heard in this venue.

Mononutu had started work for a Japanese oil exploration company Mitsui Buissan Kaisha, but would decide to work for much less pay at the newly established People's College or Perguruan Rakyat. He managed and taught courses in schools established by Perguruan Rakyat. Other instructors included Mohammad Yamin and Gunawan Mangunkusumo (the brother of Tjipto Mangunkusumo). The schools had a total of around 300 students enrolled. In 1930, Mononutu had to leave his position at Perguruan Rakyat and return to Manado, because he received word that his mother was sick.

Time in Manado and Ternate
Mononutu would stay in Manado for 12 years from 1930 to 1942. During this time, he became the director of a copra cooperative. The cooperative had around 500 members who were scattered throughout the regions of Minahasa and Bolaang Mongondow. Mononutu was able to secure credit from the People's General Credit Bank or Algemene Volkscredietbank (now Bank Rakyat Indonesia) to cover the debts of the copra farmers. This allowed the farmers to sell their copra to the cooperative, which offered more stabile and standardized prices. The copra was in turn exported through the Nationale Handelsbank, a Dutch bank that was established to finance trade between the Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies.

At the beginning of the Japanese occupation in 1942, Mononutu was sought by the Japanese because of his nationalistic stance and relationship with nationalist organizations. With the help of a sympathetic Japanese named Yamanishi, Mononutu fled to the island of Ternate (the northern part of the Maluku Islands) and remained there until the end of the occupation.

Involvement in the State of East Indonesia

After hearing of the 1945 Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, Mononutu focused his efforts to help the people of North Maluku to determine the best response to the proclamation. He was one of the individuals who established a political organization called the Unity of Indonesia or Persatuan Indonesia. A newspaper called the Tower of Independence or Menara Merdeka was published to promote the ideals of Persatuan Indonesia. The paper promoted a pro-republic message and criticized efforts by the Dutch to establish a separate state apart from the recently proclaimed Republic of Indonesia.

Efforts by the Dutch to find a federal solution for Indonesia included the establishment of the State of East Indonesia or Negara Indonesia Timur (NIT) in 1946. Mononutu became a member of the NIT parliament and headed the pro-republic group of parliament members.  He focused his efforts to persuade other members of parliament to support the notion of unifying NIT with the Republic of Indonesia. After the Dutch military offensive against the Republic of Indonesia  Operation Product in 1947, Mononutu established the Unified Struggle for Indonesian Independence or Gabungan Perjuangan Kemerdekaan Indonesia. This organization sought to highlight the actions of the Dutch to keep Indonesia as its colony. In February 1948, he led a delegation of NIT officials to visit and meet with the leaders of the Republic of Indonesia in Yogyakarta. In 1949, NIT became a constituent of the newly formed United States of Indonesia or Republik Indonesia Serikat (RIS), which was then dissolved on 17 August 1950 and replaced by a unitary Republic of Indonesia.

Information Minister

Mononutu was appointed Information Minister in the Indonesian government on three separate occasions:
 In the Republic of the United States of Indonesia Cabinet from 20 December 1949 to 6 September 1950
 In the Sukiman Cabinet from 27 April 1951 to April 1952
 In the Wilopo Cabinet from 3 April 1952 to  30 Juli 1953

During his time as information minister, several regions in Indonesia were rocked by rebellious uprisings including in West Java (Legion of the Just Ruler), South Sulawesi (by Andi Aziz), and Maluku (by Chris Soumokil). Mononutu along with Sukarno visited these regions and in large open-air meetings promoted the ideal of a unified nation.

Rector of Hasanuddin University
In 1960, Mononutu was asked by Sukarno to become rector of Hasanuddin University. In the five years as rector, the student population grew from 4000 students to 8000 students. When he started, the university only had three faculties: economics, law, and medicine. The university would add six more faculties during his tenure: agriculture, animal sciences, engineering, literature, sciences, and social politics.

Honors
On 15 February 1961, Mononutu was awarded the Bintang Mahaputera Utama, the highest honor given to a civilian by the Indonesian government. On 10 November 2020, he was posthumously conferred the honorary title of National Hero of Indonesia by President Joko Widodo in a ceremony at the State Palace.

References

Citations

Sources

1896 births
1983 deaths
Ambassadors of Indonesia to China
Government ministers of Indonesia
Indonesian nationalists
Minahasa people
National Heroes of Indonesia
People from Manado
STOVIA alumni

Arnold Mononutu


Diana Abgar (or Apcar; , 17 October 1859 – 8 July 1937) was a diaspora Armenian writer and humanitarian, who was appointed Honorary Consul to Japan of the short-lived First Republic of Armenia (1918-1920). She was the first female Armenian diplomat and one of the first women to have ever been appointed in any diplomatic post in the twentieth century.

Life
Diana Agabeg (Agabegian), whose baptismal name was Gayane, was born in Rangoon, British Burma (today Yangon, Myanmar) on 17 October 1859. Her father was an Armenian from New Julfa, Iran who migrated to South East Asia. Diana Apcar's mother Avet was from the Tateos Avetum family from Shiraz, a city in south-central Iran. Diana was the youngest of seven children in the family. Apcar was raised in Calcutta and received her education in a local convent school. Diana Apcar became fluent in English, Armenian, and Hindustani. She married Apcar Michael Apcar, a descendant of the house of Apcar of New Julfa, the same area where Apcar's maternal family, the Aghabegians, originated from as well. The Apcar family became successful tradesmen and merchants all around South-East Asia. They became especially successful in the import-export business of shellac lacquer pearls. In 1891, Diana and her husband moved to Japan to found and expand the family business. They eventually had 5 children, of which only 3 survived. At the age of sixty-seven, Apcar was experiencing numerous physical problems, such as failing eyesight, hearing loss, and arthritis. These health issues led to her death on the morning of 8 July 1937 in Yokohama. She was buried in cemetery for foreigners beside her husband and is currently being taken care of by the Society of Armenian-Japanese Friendship which is based in Tokyo.

Diplomatic career
When the Republic of Armenia gained independence on 28 May 1918, Armenia was not recognized by any international state. Yet in 1920, through Apcar's efforts, Japan became the first nation to recognize the new republic's independence. Out of respect to her efforts, Hamo Ohanjanyan, who was then the Foreign Minister of the Republic, appointed Diana Apcar Honorary Consul to Japan. This made her the first Armenian woman diplomat and one of the first women appointed in any diplomatic post in the twentieth century. However, after the fall of the First Republic of Armenia in the same year 1920, her post was abruptly terminated.

Works

After her son took over the family business in Japan, Apcar had more time to concentrate on her humanitarian, literary, and diplomatic career. She started working with numerous journals and newspapers such as The Japan Advertiser, The Far East, The Japan gazette, and Armenia (later to be known as New Armenia). She focused much of her literature on the oppressed and their circumstances. She wrote about the Armenian plight in the Ottoman Empire in order to raise global awareness. By 1920 she had already written over nine books in dedication to the Armenian Genocide. She also wrote many articles on international relations and the impact of imperialism on world affairs and global peace.
These works include:
 The Great Evil. Yokohama, Japan: "Japan Gazette" Press, 1914, 114 pp.
 Peace and No Peace. Yokohama, Japan: "Japan Gazette" Press, 1912, 101 pp.
 The Peace Problem. Yokohama, Japan: "Japan Gazette" Press, 1912, 131 pp.
 On the Cross of Europe's Imperialism: Armenia Crucified. Yokohama, Japan: 1918, 116 pp.
 In His Name ... Yokohama, Japan: "Japan Gazette," 1911. 52 pp.
 Betrayed Armenia. Yokohama, Japan:  "Japan Gazette" Press, 1910, 77 pp.
 The Truth about the Armenian Massacres. Yokohama, Japan: "Japan Gazette," 1910, 26 pp.
 Home Stories of the War. Kobe, Japan: The Kaneko Printing Works, 1905, 47 pp.
 Susan. Yokohama, Japan: Kelly and Walsh, Limited, 1892, 109 pp.

The Stateless Diplomat
A great-granddaughter of Diana Apcar, Mimi Malayan, found a box of her writings in 2004 and began researching her life. In 2018 she completed a documentary film The Stateless Diplomat, drawing on previously unpublished writings. She also established a website making available many of Apcar's publications.

References

1859 births
1937 deaths
People from Yangon
Armenian Christians
Burmese people of Armenian descent
Indian people of Armenian descent
Ambassadors of Armenia to Japan
People from the First Republic of Armenia
20th-century Armenian women politicians
20th-century Armenian politicians
Armenian women diplomats
20th-century Armenian women writers
19th-century Armenian women writers
20th-century Armenian writers
19th-century Armenian writers
Women ambassadors
People from British Burma

Diana Abgar


Akaki Shanidze () (Born: 26 February 1887 in Nogha, Samtredia, Georgia, Died 29 March 1987 in Tbilisi, Georgia) was a Georgian linguist and philologist. He was one of the founders of the Tbilisi State University (1918) and Academician of the Georgian Academy of Sciences (1941); Doctor of Philological Sciences (1920), Professor (1920). He became a doctor in Tbilisi State University. His most important Georgian works were in linguistic sciences.

Shanidze graduated from the St. Petersburg University in 1909. His numerous works heavily influenced modern scholarly research of the Georgian and its sister Kartvelian languages both in Georgia and abroad with his tutorship of the Norwegian Kartvelologist Hans Vogt.

During his career, he was awarded:
 3 Orders of Lenin
 Order of the Red Banner of Labour
 Order of Friendship of Peoples
 Order of the Badge of Honour
 Jubilee Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary since the Birth of Vladimir Il'ich Lenin"
 Medal "For Labour Valour"

See also

List of Georgians

References

Shanidze, Akaki. In: Dictionary of Georgian National Biography.
Akaki Shanidze Foundations

1887 births
1987 deaths
Linguists from Georgia (country)
Philologists from Georgia (country)
Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Centenarians from Georgia (country)
Men centenarians
Academic staff of Tbilisi State University
Kartvelian studies scholars
Members of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences
Linguists from the Soviet Union
20th-century linguists
20th-century philologists
Honoured Scientists of Georgia (country)

Akaki Shanidze


Russian Women () is a two-poem cycle by Nikolai Nekrasov, telling the stories of two women, the wives of the Decembrists, who followed their husbands, Sergey Trubetskoy and Sergey Volkonsky, to their exile in Siberia. Part one, Princess Trubetskaya (Княгиня Трубецкая), was written in July 1871; part two, Princess M.N. Volkonskaya (Княгиня М.Н. Волконская, based upon Volkonskaya's  memoirs), a year later. Both were published by Otechestvennye Zapiski, in April 1872 and January 1873, respectively, in 'softened', censorship-friendly versions. Both were included into the 1873 Stikhotvoreniya (Стихотворения, Poems) collection, now as a single, two-part work.

References

Poetry by Nikolay Nekrasov
1872 poems

Russian Women


Shekhinah Mountainwater (October 24, 1938 - August 11, 2007) was a musician, author, teacher, priestess of Aphrodite, and a key figure in the Goddess movement. She is well known on the west coast of the United States, but has a significant following throughout America and abroad for her music, writing, teaching, WomanRunes, Moonwheels, Goddess ritual, and spiritual and social activism.

Mountainwater referred to herself as a "muse-ical mystical magical woman who loves the Goddess and women, a foremother of the Womanspirit movement, a teacher of Women's Mysteries, and a priestess of Aphrodite." She dedicated her life to sharing and expressing the love of the Goddess, leading women to reclaim their power and connection to one another and to the earth. Her music, poetry, tarot and learned writings are still celebrated in women's circles worldwide.

Mountainwater was a pioneer of what is now referred to in some circles as "Pagan music;" her unique melding of folk and spiritual, ritualistic themes eventually led to her passion for the Goddess. She began folksinging during the American folk music revival of the 1950s and 60's, and played in the same coffee houses in the Village in New York as Bob Dylan and Joni Mitchell. Mountainwater was one of the first musicians in the early 60's folk movement to start re-tuning the guitar to simple chords, creating a unique and resonant sound that was reminiscent of the organ, or sometimes even the bag-pipe. This movement was called "Modal Music." In Mountainwater's case, the lower strings were often used to create a base-drone, while the others harmonized or quarreled with them. Although the bulk of her early influences were Scottish, Celtic, English, Appalachian and American folk, her work has Arabic and African under/overtones. Besides creating a distinctive style and sound, she was a prolific and gifted poet. Her literary compositions stand on their own for eloquence and social pertinence. Motivated by a passionate spirituality, she often chose mythical or occult themes for her treatments. She was able to communicate stories from the protagonist's perspective, allowing the listener to delve into the psyche of her characters—to feel the pain and joy of an icon personified.

As she became more active in the women's spiritual community, her songs were often overtly political, or designed as tools for trance induction and prayer. Her creations however, remained unfailingly personal and poetic, and many remember her ironic wit and brilliance in performance.

Mountainwater is best known for her book Ariadne's Thread: A Workbook of Goddess Magic. The work is considered a classic by many practitioners and seekers of women's spirituality and goddess worship. The text encourages women to find their own spiritual path, using the figure of the ancient goddess Ariadne as a metaphor, and elucidating the mysteries of woman-centered spirituality, while offering guidance through the cycles of life. These include the phases of the moon, the yearly nature holidays, and the aspects of divination. Ariadne's Thread can be used as a study guide or manual; each chapter concludes with suggested exercises, meditations, and reading lists. The book will be republished in the fall of 2018 by Echo Point Books.

Mountainwater's songs and chants endeared her to music lovers as well as witches and practitioners of Goddess worship, magic and ritual. Witch's Choice, Lady with the Lamp, Cry of the Phoenix, Mischievous Fairy, Lady Mother of All, The Year is a Dancing Woman, A Solstice Story, and Power Spot are just a few of her most popular titles.

Mountainwater was diagnosed with cancer in 2005, and died on August 11, 2007. Since her passing, her children have endeavored to establish her intellectual estate through the home-spun company known as ShekhinahWorks. In 2014, Shekhinah's birth-daughter committed to an ongoing project to collect, collate and make available her mother's works. Her projects include: republishing Ariadne's Thread, publishing a digital, or Kindle copy of Ariadne's Thread, creating a commemorative Facebook page, YouTube channel, and website, and a remastering and publishing of Mountainwater's original tarot deck. More information can be found at https://www.shekhinahmountainwater.com.

WomanRunes

In 2012, Molly Remer of Brigid's Grove found Mountainwater's Womanrunes in a copy of Sagewoman magazine from 1988. She made her own set and then began to expand on the interpretations of the symbols. With the permission of Mountainwater's estate, Remer created a card deck of the runes and wrote a book of interpretations to accompany the deck. She published the deck and book in 2014 in order to reintroduce the women's spirituality movement to these "woman-identified" runes.

References

External links
 ShekhinahWorks website
 Shekhinah Mountainwater Memorial Facebook page
 ShekhinahWorks YouTube channel

American spiritual writers
American folk musicians
1939 births
2007 deaths
Feminist spirituality
American modern pagans
Converts from Judaism
Performers of modern pagan music
American feminists
American women musicians
Radical feminists
Modern pagans of Jewish descent

Shekhinah Mountainwater


Umar Farooq Ahmed (4 January 1979) is a former Danish cricketer. Farooq's batting style is unknown, but it is known he bowled slow left-arm orthodox.

Farooq first played for Denmark Under-19s against Ireland Under-19s in the 1995 International Youth Tournament in the Netherlands, making three appearances during the tournament. He later made five appearances in the 1997 International Youth Tournament in Bermuda, before being selected in Denmark's squad for the 1998 Under-19 World Cup, making his Youth One Day International (YODI) debut in the tournament against Ireland Under-19s. He made five further YODI appearances in that World Cup, the last of which came against Namibia Under-19s.

His senior debut for Denmark came in a friendly against the Marylebone Cricket Club in 2002 at Svanholm Park, Brøndby. In that same year, he played in the European Cricket Championship, making four appearances in the tournament. The following year, he played in what would be his only List A match, against Wales Minor Counties in the 1st round of English domestic cricket's 2004 Cheltenham & Gloucester Trophy, which was held in August 2003 to avoid fixture congestion early in the 2004 season. In the match, played at Pen-y-Pound, Abergavenny, Denmark won the toss and elected to bat first, making 189/8 from their 50 overs, with Farooq being dismissed for 12 runs by Matthew Mason. In Wales Minor Counties successful chase, Farooq bowled 10 wicketless overs, conceding 24 runs. Wales Minor Counties final margin of victory was by 7 wickets. His final appearances for Denmark came in September 2003, with two appearances against Ireland.

References

External links
Umar Farooq at ESPNcricinfo
Umar Farooq at CricketArchive

1979 births
Living people
Danish cricketers
Danish people of Pakistani descent

Umar Farooq (cricketer)


The Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) is a United States Air Force (USAF) sixth-generation air superiority initiative with a goal of fielding a "family of systems" that is to succeed the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor. A crewed fighter aircraft is the centerpiece program of NGAD and has been referred to as the Penetrating Counter-Air (PCA) and is to be supported by uncrewed collaborative combat aircraft (CCA), or loyal wingman platforms, through manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-T).

The NGAD originates from DARPA's Air Dominance Initiative study in 2014, and is expected to field the new fighter aircraft in the 2030s. While having an identical name and sharing some technology developments, the program is distinct from the U.S. Navy's NGAD program, which has the F/A-XX as its crewed fighter component and would have a similar fielding timeframe.

History
The NGAD originated from DARPA studies initiated in 2014 to explore concepts for air superiority systems of the 2030s for the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy. DARPA had completed its Air Dominance Initiative study in March 2014 and based on the results, the Department of Defense acquisition chief Frank Kendall launched the Aerospace Innovation Initiative (AII) in 2015 to develop X-plane prototypes to demonstrate technology for future aircraft. In 2016, the USAF followed up the DARPA studies with the Air Superiority 2030 (AS 2030) flight plan, but while the plan stated the need for a family of systems, it was still focused on a specific member of the family called the Penetrating Counter-Air (PCA). In 2018, AS 2030 evolved into the NGAD and expanded its focus from a single addition towards a suite of capabilities.

The NGAD aims to develop several key technologies in areas such as propulsion, stealth, advanced weapons, digital design (CAD-based engineering), and thermal management of the aircraft signature. The program changes traditional Air Force acquisition by the separation of design, production, and support functions in the development process with a $9 billion budget through 2025. More frequent industry competitions and simulations in the design and manufacturing process are characteristic of the development program. NGAD is described as a "family of systems", with a fighter aircraft as the centerpiece of the system, and other parts of the system likely to be uncrewed collaborative combat aircraft to carry extra munitions and perform other missions. In particular, NGAD aims to develop a system that addresses the operation needs of the Pacific theater of operations, where current USAF fighters lack sufficient range and payload. USAF commanders have noted that there may be two variants of NGAD: one with long range and payload for the Indo-Pacific and one more oriented to the relatively short ranges between possible battle areas in Europe. The fighter is expected to leverage adaptive cycle engines being developed under the Adaptive Engine Transition Program (AETP) and Next Generation Adaptive Propulsion (NGAP) program, with flight ready engines expected by 2025.

The crewed fighter component of the NGAD was briefly envisioned to follow the rapid development and procurement cycles of the "Century Series" fighter aircraft of the 1950s and 1960s; dubbed "Digital Century Series" by Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (SAF/AQ) Will Roper, fighter designs would be continually iterated to enable the rapid insertion of new technology and procured in small batches. In September 2020, Roper stated that a full-scale prototype of the NGAD fighter aircraft has been flown. In May 2021, chief of staff of the USAF General Brown stated that the NGAD will start replacing the F-22 once it is operational in sufficient quantity, with the fielding goal in the 2030s. The F-22 has also been used to test NGAD technology and some advances are expected to be applied to the F-22 as well. Due to the complexity and sophistication of modern aircraft design, however, the "Digital Century Series" concept was eventually abandoned in lieu of a more traditional development and procurement approach. In June 2022, the USAF determined that critical technologies were ready to support the program for Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) and the formal solicitation was announced in May 2023, with the goal of source selection in 2024.

On 27 July 2023, Kathy Warden, CEO and President of Northrop Grumman, confirmed that the company quietly notified the U.S. Air Force that it would not bid as a prime contractor for the program, leaving Boeing and Lockheed Martin as the probable two remaining contenders for the main manned fighter component of the program.

Developments
The cost of each plane was not disclosed by Secretary of the Air Force Frank Kendall, but is expected to be in the hundreds of millions. "It's going to be an expensive airplane" said Kendall. In 2023, the Air Force's force structure planning projects approximately 200 manned NGAD fighters, although this is a notional figure for rough planning assumptions.

SMG Consulting shared an infographic on the program, showing dimensions, cost, and combat radius, based on the Lockheed Martin 6th generation fighter artist impressions.

See also
 Global Combat Air Programme
 Mikoyan PAK DP
 Future Combat Air System

References

Military aircraft procurement programs of the United States
Proposed military aircraft of the United States
Stealth aircraft
Twinjets

Next Generation Air Dominance


Fatso Jetson is an American desert rock band from Palm Desert, California, formed in 1994 by Yawning Man members Mario Lalli and Larry Lalli, along with Tony Tornay. They are often credited as the fathers of the desert strain of stoner rock later made most famous by their slightly younger neighbors Kyuss and Queens of the Stone Age. While musically similar to some of their stoner brethren, Fatso Jetson incorporate a broader variety of musical influences that includes punk and surf.

Biography
Fatso Jetson hail from the Palm Desert area in California. Living in the desert, secluded away from the trendy "scenes" in Los Angeles, Orange County and San Diego, the only places for original music to be played have been pool halls, Mexican restaurants (after hours) and the occasional struggling bar looking to make some fast cash. On many occasions, the only place for a band to play has been in secluded desert canyons powered by a generator. Then in 1994, Mario and Larry Lalli opened the desert's first "rock club". It was at this club that the three decided to form a band.

Fatso Jetson formed after Tony, Mario and Larry spent way too much time together playing pool, drinking beer and watching TV after hours at Mario and Larry's nightclub, "Rhythm & Brews". They decided that since they already played the appropriate instruments, that their time would be better spent playing music.

They played their first show in September 1994, opening for former Black Flag guitarist Greg Ginn. On the basis of this show, Greg decided he wanted to release an album with the band on his record label SST. The band then went on to play as many shows as possible including a small 6 show tour with fellow desert dwellers Kyuss.

Then, in August 1995, Fatso Jetson's first record, "Stinky Little Gods" was released. Just over 2 years later in November 1997, the band released their second full length opus, "Power Of Three", again on SST. It was around this time that the band hooked up with Brant Bjork (ex-Kyuss, ex-Fu Manchu skinsman) who played rhythm guitar. Brant stayed in this capacity until touring with Fu Manchu forced him to leave the band, though he did appear on two 7" releases. One a split with The Bloodshot, and the other a split with Fu Manchu.

In late 1997 Fatso Jetson started to look for another record label and found themselves in the company of Bongload Custom Records. In April 1998, Tony, Mario and Larry entered Monkey Studios in Palm Springs to record their 3rd full length offering for Bongload, "Toasted", produced by Chris Goss (Masters of Reality). Then in August 1998, Gary Arce joined the band as a rhythm guitarist for a tour up the coast with Queens of the Stone Age and continued in this role for a while playing on the 'Flames For All' record and toured with the band for a European tour and an appearance at the Dynamo festival in 1999 until he finally departed in April 2000.

In 2001, Fatso Jetson headed back in the studios to record their fifth album Cruel & Delicious. It was recorded by Schneebie of Earthlings? and released on Josh Homme's record label Rekords Rekords. It features 13 songs including a cover of Devo's "Ton O' Love".

The band continues today as a four piece, adding Vince Meghrouni on the saxophone and harmonica. They still write new material and play as many shows as possible.

In addition to playing shows in and around Los Angeles, Mario and Larry operated a small restaurant and club in Sierra Madre, California called 'Café 322,' which is now closed.

Band members

Current members
 Mario Lalli – vocals, guitar
 Larry Lalli – bass
 Tony Tornay – drums
 Vince Meghrouni – saxophone, harmonica
 Dino Von Lalli – guitar

Former members
 Brant Bjork – guitar (1997–1998) – (Kyuss, Fu Manchu)
 Gary Arce – guitar (1998–2000) – (Yawning Man, Big Scenic Nowhere)

Discography

Albums
 Stinky Little Gods – 1995 – SST Records
 Power of Three – 1997 – SST Records
 Flames for All – 1999 – Man's Ruin Records
 Toasted – 2001 – Bong Load Custom Records
 Cruel & Delicious – 2002 – Rekords Rekords
 Fatso Jetson Live (LP) – 2007 – Cobraside
 Archaic Volumes – 2010 – Cobraside
 Live at Maximum Festival – 2014 – Go Down Records
 Idle Hands – 2016 – Heavy Psych Sounds
  Live From Total Annihilation – 2022 – Ripple Music – (Split album with All Souls)
 Legends of the Desert: Volume 3 – 2023 – Desert Records (Split album with Dali's Llama)

Singles and EPs
 "Jailbreak" CD/split-7inch w/ Fu Manchu – 1998 – Sessions Records
 Split 7-inch w/ The Bloodshot – 1998 – Miracle Records
 Split 7-inch w/ Fireball Ministry – 1999 – Cattle Prod Records
 Split 7-inch w/ Oak's Mary – 2010 Third Conspiracy
 Split 12-inch w/ Yawning Man – 2013
 12-inch Tour EP Live at Maximum Festival – 2013
 Earlyshapes split 7-inch w/ Herba Mate – 2014 – Go Down Records
 Split 12-inch w/ Farflung – 2015
 Dreamhomes / Die Cast Split 7-inch w/ del-Toros – 2016 – Shattered Platter

Compilations
 Welcome to Meteor City – 1998 – Meteor City
 Graven Images – A Tribute to the Misfits – 1999 – Firebird Records
 Stoned Again – 2000 – Bong Load Custom Records

Associated acts
 Yawning Man
 Kyuss
 Queens of the Stone Age
 The Chuck Dukowski Sextet
 Throw Rag

References

External links

Fatso Jetson at MySpace
Homepage

Musical groups from Riverside County, California
American stoner rock musical groups
People from Palm Desert, California
Musical groups established in 1994
1994 establishments in California

Fatso Jetson


Value-added tax (often called by its initial letters "VAT" or "V.A.T.") is the English name of a tax that is added to things sold in the European Union. It is like a sales tax that is charged in some US States.

The tax is paid every time goods are sold.
 The maker charges the wholesaler VAT and pays the tax to the government
 The wholesaler charges the shop VAT and pays the government the tax minus the tax it has already paid to the maker
 The shop charges the customer VAT and pays the government the tax minus the tax it has already paid to the wholesaler.

The tax can be complicated to work out, because every business or person has to charge the tax, and have an invoice to show they have paid some tax. The only person who pays the full amount of tax is the customer of the shop.

The government also charges VAT on some services. This is because some companies do not make a thing which can be used (goods) instead they do something to help a customer (that is, provide a service).

For example, a garage-owner might sell a spare part for a customer's car. The garage-owner charges VAT because spare parts are "goods". If the garage-owner helps the customer by fitting the spare parts into the car, the garage-owner would charge extra for his time, and would also charge VAT on the amount he charged for the service of fitting the parts.

VAT is not added to all products. Children's books and clothes do not have VAT.

Taxation

Value-added tax


Haller is a surname of English and German origin. It is the last name of:

 Albin Haller (1849–1925), French chemist
 Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777), Swiss anatomist and physiologist, also notable for his contributions to botany
 Albrecht von Haller (1758–1823), botanist, son of Albrecht von Haller senior
 Barbara Haller, German female curler
 Benoît Haller (born 1972), French baroque singer and conductor of La Chapelle Rhénane
Beth Haller aka BA Haller was a professor at Towson University
 Berthold Haller (c. 1492–1536), Swiss educator, preacher and church reformer
 Christina Haller (born 1968), German female curler
 David Charles Haller, fictional comic character
 Frank Haller (1883–1939), American boxer
 Gert Haller (1944–2010), German manager
 Gottlieb Emmanuel von Haller (1735–1786), botanist, son of Albrecht von Haller senior
 Granville O. Haller (1819–1897), American Civil War officer and Seattle businessman
 Harry Haller, the subject of Hermann Hesse's Steppenwolf (novel)
 Helmut Haller (1939–2012), West German footballer
 J. Alex Haller (1927–2018), American surgeon
 Johann Haller (1463–1525), Polish printer
 Johannes Evangelist Haller (1825–1900), Archbishop of Salzburg
 Jost Haller (fl. 1440–1470), Alsatian painter
 Józef Haller (1873–1960), Polish general
 Julia Haller, American ophthalmologist
 Karl Ludwig von Haller (1768–1854), Swiss jurist and author
 Kevin Haller (born 1970), Canadian hockey player
 Martin Haller (1835–1925), German architect, member of the Hamburg Parliament
 Nicolaus Ferdinand Haller (1805–1876), German politician
 Paul Haller Roshi, Buddhist teacher and abbot
 Rene Haller (born 1933), Swiss naturalist
 Salomé Haller, French opera singer
 Sébastien Haller (born 1994), Ivorian footballer
 Stanisław Haller (1872–1940), Polish general, Józef's cousin
 Theodore N. Haller (1864–1930), Seattle businessman and son of G. O. Haller
 Tom Haller (1937–2004), American baseball player
 Wilhelm Haller (1935–2004), South German business and social entrepreneur

See also
 Galler
 Haller von Hallerstein, German and Hungarian noble family
 Haller index, devised by J. Alex Haller and others
 Haller, Luxembourg, a town in eastern Luxembourg
 Haller, a river in Lower Saxony, Germany
 Haller Lake, lake and neighborhood near Seattle, Washington
 Heller (disambiguation)

German-language surnames

Haller


Unified threat management (UTM) is an approach to information security where a single hardware or software installation provides multiple security functions. This contrasts with the traditional method of having point solutions for each security function. UTM simplifies information-security management by providing a single management and reporting point for the security administrator rather than managing multiple products from different vendors. UTM appliances have been gaining popularity since 2009, partly because the all-in-one approach simplifies installation, configuration and maintenance. Such a setup saves time, money and people when compared to the management of multiple security systems. Instead of having several single-function appliances, all needing individual familiarity, attention and support, network administrators can centrally administer their security defenses from one computer. Some of the prominent UTM brands are Cisco, Fortinet, Sophos, Netgear, Huawei, Wi-Jungle, SonicWall and Check Point. UTMs are now typically called next-generation firewalls.

Features

UTMs at the minimum should have some converged security features like
 Network firewall
 Intrusion detection service (IDS)

Intrusion prevention service (IPS)

Some of the other features commonly found in UTMs are:

 Gateway anti-virus
 Application layer (Layer 7) firewall and control
 Deep packet inspection
 Web proxy and content filtering
Email filtering for spam and phishing attacks
 Data loss prevention (DLP)
 Security information and event management (SIEM)
 Virtual private network (VPN)
Network access control
 Network tarpit
Additional security services against Denial of Services (DoS), Distributed Denial of service (DDoS), Zero day, Spyware protection

Disadvantages

Although an UTM offers ease of management from a single device, it also introduces a single point of failure within the IT infrastructure. Additionally, the approach of a UTM may go against one of the basic information assurance / security approaches of defense in depth, as a UTM would replace multiple security products, and compromise at the UTM layer will break the entire defense-in-depth approach.

References

Computer network security
Computer security procedures

Unified threat management


Elika or Alika or Ileka (, also Romanized as Ālīkā; also known as Īlīkā and Īlkā) is a village in Owzrud Rural District, Baladeh District, Nur County, Mazandaran Province, Iran on the road from Tehran to the Caspian Sea (Chaloos Road). It is close to Yush, where the famous Iranian poet Nima Yushij was born. The village was known for coal mines that were harvested during the 1930s until the 1970s. At the 2006 census, its existence was noted, but its population was not reported.

References

Populated places in Nur County

Alika (village)


The ascending aorta (AAo) is a portion of the aorta commencing at the upper part of the base of the left ventricle, on a level with the lower border of the third costal cartilage behind the left half of the sternum.

Structure
It passes obliquely upward, forward, and to the right, in the direction of the heart's axis, as high as the upper border of the second right costal cartilage, describing a slight curve in its course, and being situated, about  behind the posterior surface of the sternum.  The total length is about .

Components
The aortic root is the portion of the aorta beginning at the aortic annulus and extending to the sinotubular junction. It is sometimes regarded as a part of the ascending aorta, and sometimes regarded as a separate entity from the rest of the ascending aorta.

Between each commissure of the aortic valve and opposite the cusps of the aortic valve, three small dilatations called the aortic sinuses.

The sinotubular junction is the point in the ascending aorta where the aortic sinuses end and the aorta becomes a tubular structure.

Size
A thoracic aorta diameter greater than 3.5 cm is generally considered dilated, whereas a diameter greater than 4.5 cm is generally considered to be a thoracic aortic aneurysm. Still, the average diameter in the population varies by for example age and sex. The upper limit of standard reference range of the ascending aorta may be up to 4.3 cm among large, elderly individuals.

Relations
At the union of the ascending aorta with the aortic arch the caliber of the vessel is increased, owing to a bulging of its right wall.

This dilatation is termed the bulb of the aorta, and on transverse section presents a somewhat oval figure.

The ascending aorta is contained within the pericardium, and is enclosed in a tube of the serous pericardium, common to it and the pulmonary artery.

The ascending aorta is covered at its commencement by the trunk of the pulmonary artery and the right auricula, and, higher up, is separated from the sternum by the pericardium, the right pleura, the anterior margin of the right lung, some loose areolar tissue, and the remains of the thymus; posteriorly, it rests upon the left atrium and right pulmonary artery.

On the right side, it is in relation with the superior vena cava and right atrium, the former lying partly behind it; on the left side, with the pulmonary artery.

Branches
The only branches of the ascending aorta are the two coronary arteries which supply the heart; they arise near the commencement of the aorta from the aortic sinuses which are opposite the aortic valve.

Clinical significance
 is extensive atherosclerotic calcification of the ascending aorta. It makes aortic surgery difficult, especially aortic cross-clamping, and incisions may result in excessive aortic injury and/or arterial embolism.

Images

References

External links

Arteries of the thorax
Aorta

de:Aorta#Abschnitte

Ascending aorta


DIGIC Pictures is a Hungarian 3D animation studio based in Budapest, specializing in the production of 3D animated game cinematics CGI. Digic also provides motion capture services at its own studio, Digic Motion. The company produces 3D animated shorts and visual effects in association with video games, feature films or commercial advertisements.

History
DIGIC Pictures was founded in December 2001 by Alex S. Rabb, originally creating trailers and promotional teasers for video games, as part of video game developer Black Hole Entertainment. Digic Pictures, as the cinematic department of Black Hole, produced animation sequences for RTS games developed by Black Hole. In 2002, Digic produced five 3D cinematics – Intro, Outro, Human, Beast, Fallen – for the EA game called Armies of Exigo that was completed in 2003. With Andrew G. Vajna, the studio became involved in the production of 60 VFX scenes of the American film Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines.

Since 2006, Digic Pictures has worked with video game developers while also producing animated shorts for gamer audiences, including intros, outros, trailers and teasers for Warhammer, Darksiders, Assassin's Creed, and Mass Effect episodes. The Assassin's Creed Unity trailer was introduced at E3 in 2014. In November 2014, Digic made a cinematic for Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare. In 2015, the Assassin's Creed Unity: Dead Kings, and Assassin's Creed Syndicate cinematic trailer were released. Also in 2015, the Witcher 3: Wild Hunt cinematic trailer was published.

In 2016, Digic produced content for Destiny: The Taken King, Kingsglaive: Final Fantasy XV, and the Final Fantasy XV – Omen trailer. In 2017, DIGIC Pictures made CG trailers for League of Legends: Warwick The Wrath of Zaun, Lineage M, Gwent: The Witcher Card Game, and Assassin's Creed Origins. Besides CG trailers, Digic also created in-game CG cinematics for Destiny 2.

Since 2021 DIGIC is a part of Embracer Group

Game cinematics

VFX & commercials

References

External links

Saber Interactive
Visual effects companies
Hungarian companies established in 2001
Mass media companies established in 2001
Hungarian animation studios
2021 mergers and acquisitions
Companies based in Budapest

Digic Pictures


The Governor General's Award for English-language children's writing is a Canadian literary award that annually recognizes one Canadian writer for a children's book written in English. It is one of four children's book awards among the Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit, one each for writers and illustrators of English- and French-language books. The Governor General's Awards program is administered by the Canada Council.

In name, this award is part of the Governor General's Award program only from 1987 but there was a single award for "Juvenile" literature from 1949 to 1958, and the four present-day "Children's" awards were established in 1975 under a Canada Council name. In the event, the "Canada Council" and "Governor General's" awards have recognized writing in an English-language children's book every year from 1975.

Juvenile fiction

The oldest of now-14 annual Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were inaugurated in 1936. One award for a "juvenile" book was introduced in 1949, and conferred every year to 1958. Throughout those ten years, the juvenile literature award was one of five in the program, all for English-language books.
Two of the Governor General's Award-winning writers also won the Canadian Library Association award for children's book writing, recognizing the same book: Richard Lambert in 1949 and Farley Mowat in 1958. The CLA Book of the Year for Children Award was conferred six times during these ten years.

Canada Council Children's Literature Prize

In 1975 the Canada Council established four annual prizes of $5000 for the year's best English- and French-language children's books by Canadian writers and illustrators. Those
"Canada Council Children's Literature Prizes" were continued under the "Governor General's Awards" rubric from 1987, and continue today. Among them the English-language writing prize was awarded every year from 1975.
Three of the CCCLP-winning English-language writers also won the annual Canadian Library Association award for children's book writing, recognizing the same book. Their CLA Book of the Year for Children Awards are dated one year later: Kevin Major 1979, Cora Taylor 1986, and Janet Lunn 1987. The CLA Book of the Year was inaugurated in 1947 and has been awarded every year since 1963.

Two of the CCCLP-winning English-language writers also won the CLA Young Adult Book Award, recognizing the same book, namely Monica Hughes in 1983 and Janet Lunn in 1987. That is, Janet Lunn and Shadow in Hawthorn Bay (1986) won both the CLA awards for children's and young-adult books.

According to one WorldCat library record The Trouble With Princesses (McClelland & Stewart, 1980) "retells stories about Northwest Coast princesses and compares them with similar Old World princesses", . For their collaboration Christie Harris won the CCCLP prize for English-language writing and Douglas Tait won the CLA award for children's book illustration, the 1981 Amelia Frances Howard-Gibbon Illustrator's Award.

Children's literature (writing)

Four books listed below, winners of the English-language writing award under the "Governor General's" name, were also named CLA Book of the Year for Children: Bedard 1991, Wynne-Jones 1994, Porter 2006, and Nielsen 2013. Four of them also won the CLA Young Adult Book Award: Wieler 1990, Johnston 1995, Wynne-Jones 1996, and Brooks 2003.

1980s

1990s

2000s

2010s

2020s

See also

 Governor General's Award for English-language children's illustration
 Governor General's Award for French-language children's literature
 Governor General's Award for French-language children's illustration

References

Canadian children's literary awards
Children English
English
Awards established in 1949
1949 establishments in Canada
Awards disestablished in 1958
Awards established in 1987
1987 establishments in Canada
English-language literary awards

Governor General's Award for English-language children's literature


Llangelynnin (; Welsh for The church of Celynnin) is a former parish in the Conwy valley, in Conwy county borough, north Wales.  Today the name exists only in connection with the church, a school in the nearby village of Henryd, and the nearby mountain ridge, Craig Celynnin.

Llangelynnin Church (Welsh: Eglwys Llangelynnin) is possibly one of the remotest churches in Wales (), and is amongst the oldest; that at Llanrhychwyn, further up the valley, is a little older.  The church is dedicated to Saint Celynnin, who lived in the 6th century and probably established the first religious settlement here.  It lies at a height of about  feet, above the village of Henryd in the Conwy valley, in the shelter of Tal y Fan (), the mountain to the south-west.

A small and simple building, it probably dates from the 12th century (although some sources cite the 13th century), and was probably pre-dated by an earlier church of timber, or wattle and daub construction.  Llangelynnin is also the name of the former parish, the primary school in nearby Henryd (Ysgol Llangelynnin). Celynnin's name is also carried by Craig Celynnin, a mountain ridge adjacent to the church.

St. Celynnin
Celynnin lived in the 6th century, and according to tradition was one of the sons of Helig ap Glanawg, a prince who lived at Llys Helig (in what is now known to a natural rock formation) before the sea inundated the land off the coast of Penmaenmawr. It is said that Celynnin was related to Rhun, son of Maelgwn Gwynedd, Prince of Gwynedd, who is known to have ruled in the 6th century, and that he was also a brother to Rhychwyn, the saint associated with Llanrhychwyn church.

Location

Next to the church lie the remains of an Iron Age hut circle, and some stories romantically suggest that this was where St. Celynin himself lived. It is also reputed to have been used as a cockfighting ring. The church is overlooked from the north-east by the adjacent crags of Cerrig-y-ddinas, the site of an Iron Age hillfort.  These crags afford wide views down the Conwy valley to the sea, and up the valley as far as Dolgarrog.

Pathways
Many old paths lie in the area, and these routes would have been established at a time when the hills were considerably more wooded.

An old walled bridleway route leads east from the church, down through Parc Mawr, an area of woodland now owned by the Woodland Trust, who are replacing the Forestry Commission's 1960s-planted conifers with native species.  The path through the wood leads towards the valley bottom, and to the west a route leads towards Penmaenmawr, past the Bronze Age standing stones of Maen Penddu. To the south-west a path meets the important Neolithic route and Roman Road passing through Bwlch-y-Ddeufaen, which connected the Conwy valley to the north coast near Llanfairfechan, and places further westwards.

The church building
The porch was added in the 15th century, and features an unusual "squint window" in its east (right) wall.  Repairs to the porch roof were made using yew wood, and therefore it is quite possible that these came from the churchyard, which at one time contained trees. The door hinges and threshold date from the 14th century, although the door itself is more recent.

The nave is the oldest part of the church, dating from the 12th century, and the present chancel was added later, probably in the 14th century.  Originally the nave would not have been paved, as it is today, and indeed, the rear of the north chapel remains unpaved even today.  The roof contains dark oak rafters.

The north transept was added in the 15th century and was known as Capel Meibion, the "men's chapel".  The window at the back of the chapel was a more recent addition.

Opposite the north transept, a south transept was also added, probably in the 16th century.  This was called Capel Eirianws (meaning "Plum Orchard", the name of a local farm), whose owner possibly had it built.  This chapel was demolished in the 19th century, but some remains are still visible from outside.

The present east window dates from the 15th century, and replaced a smaller 14th century window.

Since demolition of the south chapel (and the gallery) in the 19th century, the church has changed little.

Artifacts
The twist-turned altar rails and the altar screen date from the 17th century. The removal of a pulpit to the left of the altar revealed inscriptions on the east wall, and further removal of whitewash revealed the Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments, in Welsh.  The inscription "Fear God and honour the King", together with scrollwork, can clearly be seen today, as can a skull and cross-bones!  The Welsh version of the Lord's Prayer, on the sill, is hardly visible, after vandalism.

The remains of the rood screen in front of the more recent lectern date from the 14th century, and would have separated the nave from the chancel.  The church once had a rood loft and gallery, and the remains of these can be seen in  on the nave walls, and from the beam at the back of the church.  The gallery was demolished in the 19th century.

The reader's desk possibly dates from the 16th century, although the door is more recent.

The wooden benches in the nave date from the 18th century, although at least one bench in the church dates from 1629. One bench (at the front of the north chapel) still bears the initials R.O.B., this being the Reverend Owen Bulkeley, a former rector, who died in 1737.  A church inventory of 1742 records a particular bench which was used by women only.

Just inside the church, on the wall, is a holy water stoup, used until the 19th century for making the sign of the Cross.  At the back of the church is an octagonal font, which probably dates from the 13th or 14th century. The bell has no inscription and its date is therefore unknown.

On the wall in the nave is a bier, used to carry the dead to the churchyard.

Renovation
Major renovation of the church was carried out in 1932 and in 1987.  This later renovation work was carried out under the guidance of Gerald Speechley, and a plaque in the church records this.  He died three years later.

The churchyard

The churchyard is walled, with an arched entrance in the eastern wall. Today it is almost devoid of tree growth, but this was not always so.

The churchyard contains a fair number of gravestones, dating back to the 14th century.  These graves were not dug in any uniform layout.  Indeed, the rock outcrops to such a degree that finding space for graves has been a problem over the centuries.

The Holy Well
In the south-eastern corner of the churchyard is a well, Ffynnon Gelynin (sometimes known as "The Holy Well of St. Celynin"), a small walled rectangular pool, which was renowned for its power to cure sick children.  One old story relates that parents would throw items of their sick child's clothing into the water. If the clothes floated their child would live. If they sank the child was destined to die of the illness.  The well was once roofed over but this structure no longer exists.  The walls around the well, and probably the benches too, were later additions made when the churchyard was restored.  The presence of surface water at this elevation was probably the reason for its designation as a site for early settlement, and the holy well itself almost certainly predates the church.

Outside the churchyard
Outside the churchyard itself, close to the well, are the remains of a round building.  A church terrier of 1742 refers to this, and to its use as a stable.

Beyond the south-east corner of the churchyard there was once an old inn, demolished in the 19th century.

Access to the church

Despite its remoteness, the church is well signposted from Henryd, which lies off the B5106 south of Conwy.  The single track road is metalled up to the small car park below the church.  The church is not named on the Ordnance Survey map, but lies at reference SH751737.

The church is open to visitors at most times. Only occasionally are services held in the church, in the summer and on special occasions.

The "new" church
Llangelynnin church was used regularly until 1840, when it closed following depopulation of the area.  A new church was consequently built, carrying the same name, nearer the centres of population.  This church is situated close to the 15th century Groes Inn (on the B5106 road), on the road which runs from the inn to the village of Rowen.  Whereas the old church reflects a simple mediaeval design, the new church was designed by Thomas Jones of Chester in a much grander, lofty late Georgian style. Unusually, the tower has a square lower storey surmounted by an octagonal embattled upper stage.  The original plans of 1839 still exist .

A plaque in the doorway refers to the "re-erection" of the building, implying perhaps that there was an earlier building on this site, but there is no evidence to this effect, and no gravestones pre-date 1839.  The Religious Census of 1851 refers to it being erected in "1839 or 1840", but makes no reference to the Old Church.

This "new" church also eventually closed (in the 1980s), but the font from the church is now displayed by the altar in Llangelynnin old church. Llangelynnin "new" church is now the studio of David Chapman, a sculptor and artist.

Llangelynnin – The wider parish
The following extract comes from A Topographical Dictionary of Wales (1849) by Samuel Lewis :
LLANGELYNIN (LLAN-GELYNIN), a parish, in the union of Conway, hundred of LlêchWedd-Isâv, county of Carnarvon, North Wales, 3 miles (S. by W.) from Conway; containing 270 inhabitants. This parish, which derives its name from the dedication of its church to St. Celynin, who flourished towards the close of the sixth century, is situated at the north-eastern extremity of the county, bordering upon Denbighshire. A memorable battle was fought at Cymryd, in or near the parish, in the year 880, between the forces of Anarawd, Prince of North Wales, and those of Edred, Earl of Mercia, who attempted the conquest of the country. In this conflict Anarawd was completely victorious; he drove the Mercians from the field of battle, and continued to pursue them until they were finally expelled from the principality: the victory was called Dial Rhodri, or "Roderic's revenge," as Anarawd thus fully avenged the slaughter of his father Roderic in a descent of the Saxons upon Anglesey. The village, which is small, is beautifully situated in a fertile vale under the mountain called Tàl-y-Van. The surface of the parish is mountainous, the lands partially inclosed and cultivated, the soil various, and the surrounding scenery marked with features rather of boldness than of beauty. The living is a discharged rectory, rated in the king's books at £7; patron, the Bishop of Bangor. The incumbent's tithes have been commuted for a rent-charge of £250, and the glebe comprises five acres: a rent-charge of £5 is paid to the parish-clerk. The church is a small ancient edifice, in a state of considerable dilapidation. There are places of worship for Independents and Wesleyan Methodists; a day school in connexion with the Church, and a Sunday school belonging to the Independents. The Rev. Launcelot Bulkeley, in 1718, bequeathed £60, the interest to be paid to four widows, who are appointed at a vestry, and regularly receive the donation.

Notes

References
 The Old Churches of Snowdonia by Harold Hughes & Herbert North, Bangor, 1924
 The Conwy Valley & The Lands of History by K. Mortimer Hart, Gwasg Carreg Gwalch, 1987
 Terriers of Llangelynnin Church, held by Gwynedd Archives.
 Langelynnin Church's own information sheet

External links

 A website about the church
 A history of the "new" church"
 History of the Groes Inn, and the area

Villages in Conwy County Borough
Grade I listed buildings in Conwy County Borough

Llangelynnin, Conwy


Teen magazines are magazines aimed at teenage readers.  They usually consist of gossip, news, fashion tips and interviews and may include posters, stickers, small samples of cosmetics or other products and inserts.

The teen magazine industry is overwhelmingly female-oriented. Several publications, such as Teen Ink and Teen Voices, cater to both male and female audiences, although publications specifically targeting teenage boys are rare. Many scholars have critiqued teen magazines, as the topics presented are narrow and only present a limited range of female roles, some believe that they are effective because of the relationship developed between magazine and reader. There is a distinct feminine space that is made by the text itself as editors of teen magazines focus on making the content of their text appropriate to the analytical ability of their readers.

Along with most mainstream magazines, teen magazines are typically sold in print at supermarkets, pharmacies, bookstores and newsstands.

History
Teen magazines first gained prominence in the United States during the 1940s, with Seventeen magazine being the first known publication geared towards a demographic of teenage girls. Examples of popular magazines during that time include Sassy, YM, CosmoGirl, Teen, and Teen People. Nowadays, popular contemporary American teen magazines include Seventeen, Teen Vogue, J-14, and Tiger Beat.

Teen magazines are produced in many countries worldwide, and are widely popular in Australia, Latin America, Europe, and Asia. In the United Kingdom, Fleetway's Honey (1960–1986) is regarded as having established the sector. Large-scale Canadian teen magazines include the Faze magazine.

Since 1972, teen magazines in the United States have reached out to the African-American market with publications such as Right On! (produced by Sterling-McFadden, which also produces Tiger Beat) and Word Up!.

In the United Kingdom, changes in the way teenagers spend their money (and the fact that there were fewer of them, though they had more cash) led to many casualties in the 1990s because titles were unable to compete with mobile, digital and online media. Magazine publishers have moved down the age range with publications for "tweenagers" (those aged 9 to 13) gaining popularity, such as It's Hot, BOP, J-14 and Tiger Beat.

Audience
Although in the United States, adolescence is generally considered to be the period between the ages 11 and 19, and teen magazines usually cater to people within that range, many readers comprise an even wider age range. According to a 2006 report by Magazine Publishers of America, 78% of teens read magazines. Of the media that adolescents refer to for information about sex, teen magazines are particularly important because they influence knowledge, attitudes, and values about sex and sexuality, especially for teenage girls.

According to Amy S. Pattee, author of The Developmental Appropriateness of Teen Magazines, the experience of reading teen magazines can result in heavy psychological impacts on their readers. The covers and content of the latest teen magazines promise adolescent girls dates, beauty, and success. Compared to the rich superstar singer, and the skinniest model shown and praised in the magazine, the reader is most likely to be left with a negative self-image and a heavy desire to aspire to be just like the women they read about.

Subgenres
Teen magazines tend to be categorised as lifestyle (e.g. Sugar), entertainment (often based on music), or comics.

While some teen magazines focus almost exclusively on music and film stars, others feature more extensive coverage of lifestyle issues and are virtually junior versions of magazines such as Cosmopolitan or Cleo. Cosmopolitan is more focused on readers between the ages of 18 and 25, whereas Seventeen and Teen Vogue are geared towards teenagers and focus more on the bubbly teen gossip, celebrity culture, and newly stated trends on fashion and beauty.

On the web
In recent years, rapid technological advancement and the rise of the Internet has led to the emergence of online teen magazines. Examples include Faze in Canada, which is published in both web and print versions, and Rookie, an independently run online magazine and book series founded in 2011 by Editor-in-Chief Tavi Gevinson, which publishes writing, photography, and other forms of artwork by and for teenagers. With a digital format, the accessibility of teen magazines has also greatly increased, reaching readers from a diverse range of backgrounds and nationalities.

In the UK, sales in the teen magazine sector peaked in 1998. Teenagers had many more attractions competing for their cash and their attention, such as media delivered on the web and through mobile phones. Also, the booming celebrity weeklies attracted more teens from ever-younger ages (driven by celebrity TV series). In response to this, in April 2007, National Magazines - publisher of Cosmopolitan and Cosmo Girl! - launched a digital weekly magazine for teens, Jellyfish, in a trial. This was the second attempt in the UK to establish a new online business model, the first being Monkey from Dennis, which aims to sell to men aged 18 to 34. In both cases, readers sign up to be sent the 'eMag' by email. Each issue features interactive elements and 'pages' that can be 'turned'. However, National Magazines closed Cosmo Girl! in June and the Jellyfish experiment was drawn to a close in August.

Critical reception

The experience of reading teen magazines can result in heavy psychological impacts on their readers. The covers and content of the latest teen magazines promise adolescent girls dates, beauty, and success As teen magazines are full of images of society's definition of physical perfection, compared to the rich superstar singer, and the skinniest model shown and praised in the magazine, the reader is left with a negative self-image and a heavy desire to aspire to be just like the women they read about.

Teen magazines overtly suggest through content and pictures, how women should look, dress, and act; they more subtly suggest, through exclusion of pictures and content what women should not do, be, or think. The teen magazine, with its images of corporeal perfection and promises of social success, can be seen as evidence of a social ideal to which developing teens may aspire when reading the magazine. Self-development is influenced by an individual's alignment with a social group. Such identification may lead an adolescent to form a mirror group, or clique of her own. As teens seek refuge in a socially safe category; teen magazines in particular offer monthly images of social promise.

Childhood is commonly considered to be a time/space of innocence. Research shows that the over sexualisation in teen magazines is believed to be a contributing factor of pushing girls into adolescence prematurely.  Premature adolescence has proven to lead to a wide range of issues including body image, eating disorders, sexual violence, and self-esteem.  Teen magazines are not only over sexualized, but sexually ambivalent as well—that is, messages about sex and sexuality contradict each other. For example, Carpenter noted that Seventeen magazine offers traditional scenarios of sex by urging teenage girls to refrain from intercourse until love or marriage is present, yet the same magazine simultaneously offers recreational scenarios of sex in which teenage girls are encouraged to explore their sexuality before marriage and with multiple partners.

Research shows that teen magazines are also having cultural impacts on its readers. Kelley Massoni, author of Modeling Work, considers teen magazines as a possible source for girl's perceptions about the work world, including their own career futures. The labor market in Seventeen-land is heavily skewed towards professional occupations, particularly in the entertainment industry. A close reading of the text reveals four primary messages about the world of work: entertainment careers are a viable and prestigious option, men are the norm as workers, men hold the power, and fashion modeling is the pinnacle of "women's work".

The embarrassing stories column that is popular in most, if not all, teen magazines, is constructed not only to entertain the reader but also to offer behavioral guidance. The texts of these columns, titled, "Say Anything" in YM, "Trauma Rama" in Seventeen, and "Why Me?" in Teen, consist of a collection of embarrassing incidents in the magazine readers' lives. Readers are encouraged to write to the magazine's editors with their own tales, which, if published, are rated by the magazine staff. These ratings imply an mutual empathy and personal interaction between the author of the story and the reader. When reading of a fellow teen's traumatic experience involving a leaking maxi-pad and a light-colored dress or the humiliation involved in passing loud gas during a silent chemistry test, it does seem as if no barriers exist between the personal and the publishable. These texts included in teen magazines are socially instructive. Clearly, teenaged girls caught "out of control" (making out with a partner, showing off to attract attention, applying makeup with a heavy or an uneducated hand) risk embarrassment and social alienation. The teenage reader, made aware of the risks of certain behaviors in certain scenarios can, by studying these columns, develops a certain understanding of societal rules.

See also

 List of teen magazines
 Teen drama - list of teen dramas
 Teen film - list of teen films
 Teen idol
 Teen pop
 Teen sitcom - list of teen sitcoms

References

 MagForum.com A comprehensive guide to teen magazines covering the last few decades
 The first cover of Jellyfish can be seen at .
 Teen Life - Bulgarian lifestyle teen magazine
 'Jellyfish closure is another blow for teen sector,' Guardian, 14 August 2007: Media.Guardian.co.uk

External links
 Enverdo - online magazine
 Monthly V SHINE International
 Faze Magazine
 Relate Magazine
 Stunnazine Magazine

 01
.
Works about adolescence
Youth culture
Magazine genres

Teen magazine


Additive may refer to:

Mathematics
 Additive function, a function in number theory
 Additive map, a function that preserves the addition operation
 Additive set-function see Sigma additivity
 Additive category, a preadditive category with finite biproducts
 Additive inverse, an arithmetic concept

Science
 Additive color, as opposed to subtractive color
 Additive model, a statistical regression model
 Additive synthesis, an audio synthesis technique
 Additive genetic effects
 Additive quantity, a physical quantity that is additive for subsystems; see Intensive and extensive properties

Engineering
 Feed additive
 Gasoline additive, a substance used to improve the performance of a fuel, lower emissions or clean the engine
 Oil additive, a substance used to improve the performance of a lubricant
 Weakly additive, the quality of preferences in some logistics problems
 Polymer additive
 Pit additive, a material aiming to reduce fecal sludge build-up and control odor in pit latrines, septic tanks and wastewater treatment plants
 Biodegradable additives

Other uses
 , one of the grammatical cases in Estonian
 Food additive, any substance added to food to improve flavor, appearance, shelf life, etc.
 Additive rhythm, a larger period of time constructed from smaller ones

Additive