Adidas AG (; stylized in all lowercase since 1949) is a German athletic apparel and footwear corporation headquartered in Herzogenaurach, Bavaria, Germany. It is the largest sportswear manufacturer in Europe, and the second largest in the world, after Nike. It is the holding company for the Adidas Group, which also owns an 8.33% stake of the football club Bayern München, and Runtastic, an Austrian fitness technology company. Adidas's revenue for 2018 was listed at €21.915 billion.

The company was started by Adolf Dassler in his mother's house. He was joined by his elder brother Rudolf in 1924 under the name Gebrüder Dassler Schuhfabrik ("Dassler Brothers Shoe Factory"). Dassler assisted in the development of spiked running shoes (spikes) for multiple athletic events. To enhance the quality of spiked athletic footwear, he transitioned from a previous model of heavy metal spikes to utilising canvas and rubber. Dassler persuaded U.S. sprinter Jesse Owens to use his handmade spikes at the 1936 Summer Olympics. In 1949, following a breakdown in the relationship between the brothers, Adolf created Adidas and Rudolf established Puma, which became Adidas's business rival.

The three stripes are Adidas's identity mark, having been used on the company's clothing and shoe designs as a marketing aid. The branding, which Adidas bought in 1952 from Finnish sports company Karhu Sports for the equivalent of €1,600 and two bottles of whiskey, became so successful that Dassler described Adidas as "The three stripes company".

History

Early years: the "Gebrüder Dassler Schuhfabrik"

The company was founded by Adolf "Adi" Dassler who made sports shoes in his mother's scullery or laundry room in Herzogenaurach, Germany after his return from World War I. In July 1924, his older brother Rudolf joined the business, which became "Dassler Brothers Shoe Factory" (). The electricity supply in Herzogenaurach was unreliable, so the brothers sometimes had to use pedal power from a stationary bicycle to run their equipment.

Dassler assisted in the development of spiked running shoes (spikes) for multiple athletic events. To enhance the quality of spiked athletic footwear, he transitioned from a previous model of heavy metal spikes to utilising canvas and rubber. In 1936, Dassler persuaded U.S. sprinter Jesse Owens to use his hand made spikes at the 1936 Summer Olympics. Following Owens' four gold medals, the name and reputation of Dassler shoes became known to the world's sportsmen and their trainers. Business was successful and the Dasslers were selling 200,000 pairs of shoes every year before World War II.

Both Dassler brothers joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in May 1933 and became members of the National Socialist Motor Corps. Adolf took the rank of Sportwart in the Hitler Youth from 1935 until the end of the war. During the war, the company was running the last sport shoe factory in Germany and predominantly supplied the Wehrmacht with shoes. In 1943, their shoe production was forced to cease operations and the company's facilities and workforce was used to manufacture anti-tank weapons. From 1942 to 1945 at least nine forced labourers were working at both sites of the company.

The Dassler factory, used for production of anti-tank weapons during World War II, was nearly destroyed in 1945 by US forces. It was spared when Adolf Dassler's wife convinced the American soldiers that the company and its employees were only interested in manufacturing sports shoes. American occupying forces subsequently became major buyers of the Dassler brothers' shoes.

Split and rivalry with Puma
The brothers split up in 1947 after relations between them had broken down, with Adolf forming a company registered as Adidas AG, from Adi Dassler, on 18 August 1949, and Rudolf forming a new firm that he called Ruda – from Rudolf Dassler, later rebranded Puma. Urban myths have popularised two backronyms for the name "Adidas": All Day I Dream About Sports and All Day I Dream About Sex.

Adidas and Puma SE entered into a fierce and bitter business rivalry after the split. The town of Herzogenaurach was divided on the issue, leading to the nickname "the town of bent necks"—people looked down to see which shoes strangers wore. Even the town's two football clubs were divided: ASV Herzogenaurach club was supported by Adidas, while 1 FC Herzogenaurach endorsed Rudolf's footwear. When handymen were called to Rudolf's home, they would deliberately wear Adidas shoes. Rudolf would tell them to go to the basement and pick out a pair of free Pumas. The two brothers never reconciled and although they are now buried in the same cemetery, they are spaced as far apart as possible.

In 1948, the first football match after World War II, several members of the West Germany national football team wore Puma boots, including the scorer of West Germany's first post-war goal, Herbert Burdenski. Four years later, at the 1952 Summer Olympics, 1500 metres runner Josy Barthel of Luxembourg won Puma's first Olympic gold in Helsinki, Finland.

At the 1960 Summer Olympics, Puma paid German sprinter Armin Hary to wear Pumas in the 100 meter sprint final. Hary had worn Adidas before and asked Adolf for payment, but Adidas rejected this request. The German won gold in Pumas, but then laced up Adidas for the medals ceremony, to the shock of the two Dassler brothers. Hary hoped to cash in from both, but Adi was so enraged he banned the Olympic champion.

The "Pelé Pact" was the most notable event in the Dassler brothers feud, when both owners of Adidas and Puma agreed not to sign a sponsorship deal with Pelé for the 1970 FIFA World Cup, feeling that a bidding war for the most famous athlete in the world would become too expensive, only for Puma to break the pact and sign him. Many business experts credit the brothers' rivalry and competition for transforming sports apparel into a multi-billion pound industry.

Corporate image

In 1952, following the 1952 Summer Olympics, Adidas acquired its signature 3-stripe logo from the Finnish athletic footwear brand Karhu Sports, for two bottles of whiskey and the equivalent of €1600.

The Trefoil logo was designed in 1971 and launched in 1972, just in time for the 1972 Summer Olympics held in Munich. This logo lasted until 1997, when the company introduced the "three bars" logo (that had been designed by then Creative Director Peter Moore), initially used on the Equipment range of products.

Tapie affair

After a period of trouble following the death of Adolf Dassler's son Horst Dassler in 1987, the company was bought in 1990 by French industrialist Bernard Tapie, for ₣1.6 billion (now €243.9 million), which Tapie borrowed. Tapie was at the time a famous specialist of rescuing bankrupt companies, an expertise on which he built his fortune.

Tapie decided to move production offshore to Asia. He also hired Madonna for promotion. He sent, from Christchurch, New Zealand, a shoe sales representative to Germany and met Adolf Dassler's descendants (Amelia Randall Dassler and Bella Beck Dassler) and was sent back with a few items to promote the company there.

In 1992, unable to pay the loan interest, Tapie mandated the Crédit Lyonnais bank to sell Adidas, and the bank subsequently converted the outstanding debt owed into equity of the enterprise, which was unusual as per the prevalent French banking practice. The state-owned bank had tried to get Tapie out of dire financial straits as a personal favour to Tapie, it is reported, because Tapie was Minister of Urban Affairs (ministre de la Ville) in the French government at the time.

Robert Louis-Dreyfus, a friend of Tapie, became the new CEO of the company in 1994. He was also the president of Olympique de Marseille, a team Tapie had owned until 1993. Tapie filed for personal bankruptcy in 1994. He was the object of several lawsuits, notably related to match fixing at the football club. During 1997, he served 6 months of an 18-month prison sentence in La Santé prison in Paris. In February 2000, Crédit Lyonnais sold Adidas to Louis-Dreyfus for a much higher amount of money than Tapie owed, 4.485 billion (€683.514 million) francs rather than 2.85 billion (€434.479 million). They also purposely bankrupted Tapie's company that owned Adidas, because only the company had the right to sue them.

Post-Tapie era

In 1994, combined with FIFA Youth Group, SOS Children's Villages became the main beneficiary.

In 1997, Adidas AG acquired the Salomon Group who specialized in ski wear, and its official corporate name was changed to Adidas-Salomon AG. With this acquisition Adidas also acquired the TaylorMade golf company and Maxfli, which allowed them to compete with Nike Golf.

In 1998, Adidas sued the NCAA over their rules limiting the size and number of commercial logos on team uniforms and team clothing. Adidas withdrew the suit, and the two groups established guidelines as to what three-stripe designs would be considered uses of the Adidas trademark.

As CEO of Adidas, Louis-Dreyfus quadrupled revenue to €5.84 billion ($7.5 billion) from 1993 through 2000. In 2000, he announced he would resign the following year, due to illness.

In 2003, Adidas filed a lawsuit in a British court challenging Fitness World Trading's use of a two-stripe motif similar to Adidas's three stripes. The court ruled that despite the simplicity of the mark, Fitness Worlds use was infringing because the public could establish a link between that use and Adidas's mark.

In September 2004, English fashion designer Stella McCartney launched a joint-venture line with Adidas, establishing a long-term partnership with the corporation. This line is a sports performance collection for women called "Adidas by Stella McCartney".

On 3 May 2005, Adidas informed the public that they had sold their partner company Salomon Group for €485 million to Amer Sports of Finland.

In August 2005, Adidas declared its intention to buy Reebok for $3.8 billion (US$). This takeover was completed with partnership in January 2006 and meant that the company had business sales closer to those of Nike in North America. The acquisition of Reebok also allowed Adidas to compete with Nike worldwide as the number two athletic shoemaker in the world.

In 2005, Adidas introduced the Adidas 1, the first ever production shoe to use a microprocessor. Dubbed by the company "The World's First Intelligent Shoe", it features a microprocessor capable of performing 5 million calculations per second that automatically adjusts the shoe's level of cushioning to suit its environment. The shoe requires a small, user-replaceable battery that lasts for approximately 100 hours of running. On 25 November 2005, Adidas released a new version of the Adidas 1 with an increased range of cushioning, allowing the shoe to become softer or firmer, and a new motor with 153 percent more torque.

In April 2006, Adidas announced an 11-year deal to become the official NBA clothing provider. The company has been making NBA, NBDL, and WNBA jerseys and products as well as team-coloured versions of the "Superstar" basketball shoe. This deal (worth over $400 million) took over the previous Reebok deal that had been put in place in 2001 for 10 years.

In November 2011, Adidas announced that it would acquire outdoor action sport performance brand Five Ten through a share purchase agreement. The total purchase price was US$25 million in cash at closing.

Recent years

By the end of 2012, Adidas was reporting their highest revenues ever and Chief Executive Herbert Hainer expressed optimism for the year ahead. Adidas now has global corporate headquarters in Herzogenaurach, Germany and many other business locations around the world such as London, Portland, Toronto, Tokyo, Australia, Taiwan and Spain.

In January 2015, Adidas launched the footwear industry's first reservation mobile app. The Adidas Confirmed app allows consumers to get access to and reserve the brand's limited edition sneakers by using geo targeting technology.

On 24 March 2015, Adidas and McDonald's unveiled the 2015 McDonald's All-American uniforms. For the third year in a row, players will be wearing short-sleeved jerseys, made with the same lightweight and breathable material as the ones used in the NBA.

In August 2015, Adidas acquired fitness technology firm Runtastic for approximately $240 million.

In May 2017, Adidas sold TaylorMade golf company (including Ashworth) to KPS Capital Partners for $425 million.

In March 2022, Adidas sold Reebok to the Authentic Brands Group, for ca. $2.5 billion.

In August 2022, the company announced that CEO Kasper Rørsted would step down in 2023. Bjørn Gulden became CEO in January 2023.

Products

Apparel
Adidas manufactures a range of clothing items, varying from men's and women's t-shirts, jackets, hoodies, pants and leggings.

The first Adidas item of apparel was the Franz Beckenbauer tracksuit created in 1967. Adidas AG is the largest manufacturer of sports bras in Europe, and the second largest manufacturer in the world.

Sportswear

Association football

One of the main focuses of Adidas has always been football kits, and the associated equipment. Adidas remains a major company in the global supply of team kits for international association football teams and clubs.

Adidas makes referee kits that are used in international competition and by many countries and leagues in the world. The company has been an innovator in the area of footwear for the sport, with notable examples including the 1979 release of the Copa Mundial moulded boot used for matches on firm dry pitches. It holds the accolade of the best selling boot of all time. The soft-ground equivalent was named World Cup and it too remains on the market.

Since 1970, FIFA, the world governing body of football, has commissioned specially designed footballs for use in its own World Cup tournaments. The Adidas Telstar was the first ball commissioned for the World Cup in 1970. The balls supplied for the 2006 World Cup, the "Teamgeist", were particularly noteworthy for their ability to travel further than previous types when struck, leading to longer range goals. Goalkeepers were generally believed to be less comfortable with the design of the ball, claiming it was prone to move significantly and unpredictably in flight.

Adidas introduced the Jabulani for the 2010 World Cup. The ball was designed and developed by Loughborough University in conjunction with Bayern München. The Adidas Brazuca for the 2014 World Cup was the first World Cup ball named by the fans. In 2022, for the 14th time in a row, Adidas created the 2022 World Cup ball, Al Rihla.

Adidas is one of the official sponsors of the UEFA Champions League, and the Adidas Finale is the competition's official match ball. Along with the aforementioned Adidas Predator boot, Adidas manufactures the adiPure range of football boots. Adidas named an official match ball of the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament the Adidas Beau Jeu which translates to "The Beautiful Game" in English. Adidas provides clothing and equipment for all teams in Major League Soccer.

Baseball
Adidas has also provided baseball equipment and sponsors numerous players of Major League Baseball and Nippon Professional Baseball in Japan.

Adidas Baseball hardgoods are licensed to Dick's Sporting Goods.

From 1997 to 2008, Adidas sponsored the New York Yankees.

Basketball
Adidas's Superstar and Pro Model shoes, affectionately known as "shelltoes" for their stylized hard rubber toe box, were fueled by, among others, coaches such as UCLA's John Wooden. Adidas drew about even with Converse in basketball by the mid-1970s before both started to fall behind then-upstart Nike in the early 1980s. Subsequently, Adidas Superstar became very popular in the 1980s hip hop streetwear scene alongside Adidas's stripe-sided polyester suits.

From 2006 to 2017, Adidas was the uniform supplier of all the 30 teams in the National Basketball Association, replacing the Reebok brand after Adidas's acquisition of Reebok. Adidas was replaced by Nike as the official uniform supplier of the league after the 2016–17 season.

Cricket

Adidas began manufacturing cricket footwear in the mid-1970s, with their initial target market being Australia. Their shoes were a radical departure from traditional leather cricket boots which had remained basically unchanged for decades, being lighter and more flexible but also offering less toe protection, so that it became not uncommon to see batsmen who had been struck by the ball on the foot hopping around in pain. Having continued to manufacture cricket footwear for many years, in 2006 the company finally entered the field of bat manufacture in 2008 and currently their bat range includes the Pellara, Incurza, Libro and M-Blaster models.

In the 1990s, Adidas signed the superstar Indian batsman Sachin Tendulkar and made shoes for him. From 2008 until his retirement, Adidas had sponsored the cricket bat used by Tendulkar. It created a new bat, 'Adidas MasterBlaster Elite', personalized for him.

In 2008, Adidas made a concerted move into English cricket market by sponsoring English batting star Kevin Pietersen after the cancellation of his lifetime deal with Woodworm, when they ran into financial difficulties. The following year they signed up fellow England player Ian Bell, Pakistan opening batsman Salman Butt and Indian Player Ravindra Jadeja.

In the Indian Premier League (IPL), Adidas sponsored the team Mumbai Indians from 2008 to 2014 and Delhi Daredevils from 2008 to 2013. They were the official sponsors of Pune Warriors India in 2011 and 2012, however the team was banned from IPL due to payment issues. In 2015 Season, Adidas sponsored Royal Challengers Bangalore.

Golf
Adidas Golf manufactures golf clothing, footwear, and accessories. Men's and women's equipment includes footwear, shirts, shorts, pants, outerwear (wind suits), base layer and eyewear.

Gymnastics
From 2000 to 2012, Adidas has provided men's and women's gymnastics wear for Team USA, through USA Gymnastics. USA Gymnastics and Adidas sponsorship concluded at the end of 2012. In 2006, Adidas gymnastics leotards for women and Adidas men's competition shirts, gymnastics pants and gymnastics shorts have been available in the United States, with seasonal leotards offered for Spring, Summer, Fall and Holidays. Adidas previous collaborated with GK Elite, since Spring 2013, Adidas gymnastics products have been available worldwide through Elegant Sports. USA Olympic team members McKayla Maroney, Jordyn Wieber, Jake Dalton and Danell Leyva are all sponsored by Adidas gymnastics.

Ice hockey
Adidas has been providing uniforms for the National Hockey League since the 2017–18 season, replacing Reebok. Adidas will no longer provide on-ice jerseys for the NHL following the 2023–24 season.

Lacrosse
In 2007, Adidas announced its entering to the lacrosse equipment, also sponsoring the Adidas National Lacrosse Classic in July 2008 for the top 600 high school underclassmen players in the United States. The company made their self into their own brand such as "Adidas Lacrosse", getting several scholarships, Bucknell (men and women), Bryant (men), Delaware (men and women), New Jersey Institute of Technology (men), and D3 powerhouse Lynchburg (men and women in fall of 2016 with soft good only)". Materials that Adidas provided were jerseys, shorts, shoes, shafts, heads, gloves, and protective pieces.

Products manufactured for the sport are sticks, gloves, protective gear and boots.

Running

Adidas currently manufactures several running and lifestyle shoes, including the Energy-boost, and the spring-blade trainers. The brand has built a strong runners' network within big European capitals, such as Paris' "Boost Energy League". In 2016 the 3rd season launched. In Paris, the Boost Energy League gathers 11 teams representing different districts of Paris.

Adidas launched two new color ways of the NMD R1 and one new color way of the NMD XR1 in September 2016.

In November 2016, Adidas teased a sneaker made from ocean plastic. The shoe is created from a fabric called "Biosteel". The shoe is called the "Adidas Futurecraft Biofabric." The material used is 15% lighter than conventional silk fibers, and is 100% biodegradable. The shoe only begin to dissolve when it is put in contact with a high concentration of the digestion enzyme proteinase, which occurs naturally. Once this happens, the shoes can decompose within 36 hours. The shoe was never released.

Adidas EQT is a style of sneakers from Adidas. It originated in the early 1990s and was relaunched in 2017. The latest Adidas EQT line released in a "Turbo Red" Pack on 26 January 2017, and included models such as the Adidas EQT Support 93/17, EQT Support ADV, and EQT Support Ultra. Adidas.com is one of the few online retailers.

Skateboarding
Adidas Skateboarding produces shoes made specifically for skateboarding, including the redesign of previous models for skateboarding. The brand also releases signature models designed by team riders.

Tennis
Adidas has been involved with tennis equipment since the mid-1960s and has historically sponsored many top tennis players, beginning with two of the most dominant male tennis players at the start of the professional era in the late 1960s, Stan Smith and Ilie Nastase. During the 1980s and 1990s, not only were they exclusive apparel and footwear sponsors of world number one men's tennis players Ivan Lendl and Stefan Edberg and ladies' world number one Steffi Graf, but each player had their own, exclusive graphic styles designed for their use during play, which were in turn marketed to the general public.

Ivan Lendl even spent the vast majority of his dominant career playing with several different models of Adidas tennis racquets, primarily using the Adidas GTX-Pro and then later the Adidas GTX Pro-T. In 2009 the company introduced a new line of tennis racquets. While the Feather was made for the "regular player", and the Response for the "club player", Adidas targeted the "tournament player" with the 12.2 oz Barricade tour model.

Kabaddi
Adidas entered Kabaddi which is still a non-Olympic sport but highly popular in the Indian subcontinent and Asian countries. In 2014, with the launch of Pro Kabaddi League a city based franchise league in India, Kabaddi took the region by storm. In 2015, they tied up with Mumbai-based franchise U Mumba.

Accessories

Adidas also designs and makes slide-style sandals, mobile accessories, watches, eyewear, bags, baseball caps, and socks. As well, Adidas has a branded range of male and female deodorants, perfumes, aftershave and lotions.

Adidas announced they would be launching a new $199 Fit Smart wristband in mid-August 2014. The wristband will pair with Adidas's miCoach app, which acts as a personal trainer.

Adilette

Adilette was the first ever pair of sandals made by Adidas, originally developed in 1963. Adidas claims that a group of athletes approached Adi Dassler requesting a shoe be made for the locker room. To this day, the resulting sandals are a best-seller. Since the original navy blue and white Adilette sandals were created nearly fifty years ago, more varieties have been created in different colours (black, red, green, grey, orange, brown, yellow, pink, golden, silver).

Most recently, Adidas has introduced a colour scheme that goes along with its Predator and adizero line; the scheme is dubbed warning (orange) and purple. Usually, the three stripes appear in the contrasting colour on the strap of the classic models. The most common Adilette livery is in navy blue or black, mixed with white colours. Also the Woodilette and Trefoil models follow a similar design but without stripes on the strap.

The model provides a contoured orthopedic rubber sole with synthetic upper, and was designed as an after sport slide sandal, but the Adilette were quickly adopted outside of the sporting world.

Adissage

Adissage is also a slide sandal. Available in black, navy, light blue, black with pink, and other assorted colors, the sandal has the trademarked three stripes on a velcro strap toward the front of the shoe. On the side of the shoe, toward the heel on either side, the manufacturers name appears, as well as on a round emblem in the actual heel of the footbed. Notably, there are tiny black massage nubs throughout the foot-bed for the purpose of massaging foot aches after sport, although popular as a casual sandal amongst non-athletes as well.

Santiossage
The Santiossage is a slide-style sandal. The sandal has the trademarked three stripes on a velcro strap toward the front of the shoe. Santiossage comes in black, navy, or red. On the side of the shoe, toward the heel on either side, the manufacturer's name appears, as well as on a round emblem in the actual heel of the foot-bed. Like the Adissage there are tiny clear massage nubs throughout the foot-bed for the purpose of massaging after-sport footaches, although the sandals are worn casually among non-athletes. Seen through these clear nubs are Adidas's three stripes.

Marketing

During the mid to late 1990s, Adidas divided the brand into three main groups with each a separate focus: Adidas Performance was designed to maintain their devotion to the athlete; Adidas Originals was designed to focus on the brand's earlier designs which remained a popular life-style icon; and Style Essentials, which dealt with the fashion market; the main group within this being Y-3 (which is a collaboration between Adidas and renowned Japanese fashion designer Yohji Yamamoto - the Y representing Yamamoto and the 3 representing the three stripes of Adidas).

Launched in 2004, "Impossible is Nothing" is one of the company's most memorable campaigns. The campaign was developed by 180/TBWA based in Amsterdam, but significant work was also done by TBWA\Chiat\Day in San Francisco. A few years later, Adidas launched a basketball specific campaign -- "Believe in 5ive"—for the 2006-2007 NBA season.

In 2011, "Adidas is all in" became the global marketing strategy slogan for Adidas. The slogan aimed to tie all brands and labels together, presenting a unified image to consumers interested in sports, fashion, street, music and pop culture. There appears to be connection with the phrase "all-in" meaning "exhausted" in some English speaking nations.

In 2015, Adidas launched "Creating the New" as its strategic business plan until 2020.

Collaborations
Adidas has done several collaborations with well known designers, including Alexander Wang, Jeremy Scott, Raf Simons, and Stella McCartney. They have also reached out to several celebrities, such as Beyoncé, Jonah Hill, Karlie Kloss, Ninja and Pharrell Williams to create some of the company's most notable and coveted pieces.

Game advertisement
The brand is featured in several games, including Daley Thompson's Olympic Challenge (Commodore Amiga), Adidas power soccer (Sony PlayStation) and Adidas Championship Football (Commodore 64, ZX spectrum, Amstrad CPC).

Marketing in India
India has been a very speculative market for Adidas. Despite this Dave Thomas, managing director of Adidas in India is ambitious for the country's potential. The company hoped to double its revenue from Rs. 805 crores by 2020. In 2015, the company signed Ranveer Singh a Bollywood actor as a brand ambassador to the company's products. Singh then was a budding actor. The company later decided to use the Indian people's passion for the game of cricket to promote their brand and launched a new cricket campaign in the country. The campaign was called FeelLoveUseHate with Indian cricketer Virat Kohli. However, in 2017, Virat Kohli was removed as the brand ambassador of the company. The cricketer later signed a major deal with Puma India. The company also sells its products online through e-commerce websites such as Myntra, Snapdeal, Jabong and Amazon. Adidas also has a website dedicated to the Indian audience that markets and sells products to its consumers in India.

Sponsorship

Adidas has numerous major kit deals with football clubs worldwide, including their main sponsor Bayern Munich. Moreover, their sponsored national teams include Germany, Spain, Mexico, Argentina, Sweden, Japan, Hungary, Belgium, Colombia, Wales and Italy.

Adidas has sponsored numerous players, including Lionel Messi, Zinedine Zidane, Kaká, David Beckham, Steven Gerrard, Gareth Bale, Thomas Müller, Xavi, James Rodríguez, Iker Casillas, Arjen Robben, Paul Pogba, Luis Suárez, George Weah, Alessandro Del Piero, Son Heung-min, Mohamed Salah and Jude Bellingham.

Adidas is one of the official sponsors of the UEFA Champions League, and the Adidas Finale is the competition's official match ball. Along with the Adidas Predator boot, Adidas manufactures the adiPure range of football boots. Adidas provides clothing and equipment for all teams in Major League Soccer (MLS).

In July 2014, Adidas and Manchester United agreed to a ten-year kit deal, beginning with the 2015–16 Premier League season. This kit deal has a guaranteed minimum value of £750 million (US$1.29 billion), making it the most valuable kit deal in sports history, and replaced rival Nike as the club's global equipment partner.

In November 2009, World Number 4 tennis player Andy Murray was confirmed as Adidas's highest-paid star with a five-year contract reportedly worth US$24.5 million. In Cincinnati, at the ATP Tennis Tournament in Mason, they have also sponsored the ball-boy and ball-girl uniforms. Adidas is also partners with Malibu Tennis Camp, Green Fitness GmbH and with Schöler & Micke Sportartikel Vertriebs GmbH.

Adidas has sponsored numerous basketball players like Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Chauncey Billups, Tim Duncan, Brandon Knight, Jeremy Lin, Tracy McGrady, Iman Shumpert and present players like James Harden, Damian Lillard, Donovan Mitchell, Candace Parker, Derrick Rose, John Wall and Trae Young. Adidas also endorsed Kobe Bryant with the Adidas Equipment KB8 as his first signature shoe until July 2002. The company also endorsed Kevin Garnett until he opted out of his contract in 2010. Gilbert Arenas was an Adidas endorser until 2010. In August 2015, James Harden left Nike for Adidas by signing a 13-year contract reportedly worth US$200 million.

In rugby union, Adidas is the current kit supplier to the All Blacks, the France national team, the Italian national rugby team and the South African Stormers and Western Province rugby union teams among others. Adidas is also the New Zealand Rugby Union clothing sponsor and supplies clothing to all Super Rugby franchises, a selection of domestic teams and national referees. Adidas are also the official match ball supplier to the Heineken Cup. Adidas was the British and Irish Lions kit supplier from 1997 to 2013. They are the jersey manufacturers of the Gold Coast Titans Rugby League club in the Australasian National Rugby League. Dual rugby and league international and former boxer Sonny Bill Williams is a global ambassador for Adidas.

Adidas has provided field hockey equipment and sponsors numerous players of Germany, England, Netherlands, Australia, Spain and Belgium. The company has been the kit provider of Argentine women's and men's teams for over 15 years. The company also sponsored clubs Reading, Beeston and East Grinstead.

Adidas also sponsors professional golfers including Collin Morikawa, Tyrrell Hatton and Xander Schauffele. Since Adidas does not make golf equipment the sponsorship is more limited to clothing and shoes.

In ice hockey, Adidas signed an agreement with National Hockey League (NHL) to be the official outfitter of uniforms and licensed apparel, starting in the 2017–18 season.

Adidas's cricket sponsorships include cricketers Lasith Malinga, Kieron Pollard, Dwayne Bravo and K. L. Rahul. Adidas's volleyball sponsorships include Ivan Zaytsev and Earvin N'Gapeth, who advertises as a model and brand ambassador for Adidas.

IP protection
In 2016, Adidas filed lawsuits against Skechers for making a duplicate Stan Smith design and for Adidas replicas such as "Springblade".

Corporate information

Current executive board
 CEO: Bjørn Gulden
 Chief Financial Officer: Harm Ohlmeyer
 Global Brands: Eric Liedtke
 Global Operations: Gil Steyeart
 Global Sales: Roland Auschel

Former management
 CEO (1993–2002): Robert Louis-Dreyfus
 CEO (2002–2016): Herbert Hainer

Financial information

Criticism

Adidas's business practises/ethics and commitment to worker welfare have been scrutinised and often criticised.

2011 All Blacks replica rugby jersey pricing

Unhappy with the local price of the Adidas replica All Blacks jersey, New Zealand-based All Blacks fans asked for price cuts and began purchasing the jersey from overseas vendors after it was revealed that the local price of NZ$220 was more than twice the price offered on some websites.

Adidas has responded by enforcing cross-border agreements to stop overseas retailers from selling to New Zealand residents. It has been labelled a public relations disaster by leading New Zealand PR firms and Consumer advocate groups. The largest New Zealand sportswear retailer Rebel Sport has stated it is angry and is considering selling the All Blacks Jerseys to the general public below cost.

2012 "shackle" sneakers
On 14 June 2012, Adidas posted on their Facebook page a picture of a pair of Jeremy Scott-designed shoes containing shackles. The picture was of a planned shoe line that Adidas intended to release in July. The photo caused controversy. Jesse Jackson was quoted as saying: "The attempt to commercialize and make popular more than 200 years of human degradation, where blacks were considered three-fifths human by our Constitution is offensive, appalling and insensitive". Jackson threatened a boycott, and NBA commissioner David Stern was at one point reportedly contacted in hopes that he would intervene. Shortly after the outcry, the company cancelled the product.

Sweatshops and labour standards
Adidas has been criticized for operating sweatshops, particularly in Indonesia. Between 2006 and 2007, Adidas rejected many of its suppliers that supported unions in favour of subcontractors with worse labour rights records. By subcontracting work to different suppliers, it is more difficult for Adidas to ensure company labour standards are enforced. Adidas's policy includes the freedom for workers to take part in collective bargaining and a non-retaliation policy towards workers who express concerns. In practice, however, many of Adidas's suppliers have not upheld these standards. At the Panarub factory in Java, 33 workers were fired after striking for better pay in 2005.

PT Kizone is another Indonesian factory where Adidas has been criticized over treatment of workers. They produced products for Adidas as well as Nike and the Dallas Cowboys until they closed in January 2011. 2,686 workers who were laid off are owed $3 million in severance pay and benefits. Nike has contributed $1.5 million but Adidas has not acted. A campaign has been initiated by United Students Against Sweatshops calling for universities to cut contracts with Adidas.

On 16 July 2012, War on Want organised activists in London to replace Adidas price tags in sports stores with 34p ones, a reference to the low hourly wage rate paid to the Indonesian workers who make Adidas goods. The campaign group Labour Behind the Label claimed that the basic pay of Indonesian Adidas workers was only £10 a week. William Anderson, head of social and environmental affairs for the Asia Pacific region, posted an entry on the company blog in which he claimed that total wages including bonuses and overtime were often double the hourly wage, and drew attention to purchasing power parity.

In April 2014, one of the biggest strikes on mainland China took place at the Yue Yuen Industrial Holdings Dongguan shoe factory, producing amongst others for Adidas.

In 2022, researchers from Nordhausen University of Applied Sciences identified cotton from Xinjiang in Adidas shirts.

Soviet themed items, and advertising
In 2018, Adidas promoted a line of Soviet themed items. After a social media outcry, they were taken off the market.

NCAA corruption scandal
Adidas executive James Gatto was indicted in the 2017 NCAA Division I men's basketball corruption scandal.

Racial diversity controversy
In June 2020, the head of global human resources at Adidas, Karen Parkin, voluntarily stepped down after some black employees raised concerns about her failure to address racism and discrimination in the workplace. The former HR chief had also made a comment about racism being "noise", in addition to not adequately addressing workforce diversity. Upon her resignation, she made a statement saying that she supports the company's continued progress towards racial justice and offered an apology.

See also

 Adidas Originals
 List of Adidas sponsorships
 Puma SE, formed by Rudolf Dassler, brother of Adolf Dassler

References

Sources

External links

  (corporate)
  (consumer)

1970s fashion
1980s fashion
1990s fashion
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
2020s fashion
1989 mergers and acquisitions
1995 initial public offerings
Athletic shoe brands
Clothing brands of Germany
Clothing companies established in 1924
Clothing companies of Germany
Companies based in Bavaria
Companies based in Herzogenaurach
Companies in the Euro Stoxx 50
Companies listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange
German companies established in 1924
Multinational companies headquartered in Germany
Premier Lacrosse League partnerships
Shoe brands
Shoe companies of Germany
Skateboard shoe companies
Sporting goods manufacturers of Germany
Sportswear brands
Swimwear manufacturers

Adidas


Scott Michael Cutler is an American songwriter, musician, record producer, and music executive. As a member of the alternative rock band Ednaswap, he co-wrote "Torn" which was covered in 1997 by Natalie Imbruglia. Her recording became the worldwide number one airplay song, and spent 14 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay Chart in the US. "Torn" has sold an estimated four million copies, it is certified Platinum in 3 countries, and was declared the "number one radio single of the 1990s" by radio personality Rick Dees. Ednaswap released three albums between 1995 and 1998 and toured with No Doubt, Weezer, and Better Than Ezra

As a songwriter and producer, he has collaborated with some of the music industry's top female artists including Madonna, Beyoncé, Katy Perry, Sinéad O'Connor, Miley Cyrus, Kelly Clarkson, Demi Lovato, and Jordin Sparks. He co-wrote "Piano in the Dark" with singer/songwriter Brenda Russell which was nominated for Song of the Year at the 31st Annual Grammy Awards. In 2007, he won the Critic's Choice Award for Best Song for "Listen" from the motion picture adaption of Dreamgirls. The song was also nominated for Best Original Song at the 2007 Academy Awards and the 2007 Golden Globe Awards.

Pulse Recording
In 2007, Cutler created the music publisher Songs of Pulse with writer/producers Josh Abraham and Anne Preven. The company, along with Pulse Management, operates under the Pulse Recording umbrella, to which he became a partner in 2010. Pulse Recording's client roster has co-written Katy Perry's "Teenage Dream", "California Gurls", "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" and "Part of Me", Taio Cruz's "Dynamite" Phillip Phillips' "Home" and Neon Trees' "Animal" and "Everybody Talks". Pulse Recording operates two Recording studios, one based at its headquarters in Los Angeles, and one based in Burbank, California. Also in 2009, he worked with Irish pop band Westlife for a track "The Difference" included in their Where We Are album where it charted #2 in both UK Albums Chart and Irish Albums Chart. In 2012, the company established a partnership with Creative Nation, the Nashville-based music management and publishing company owned by songwriter Luke Laird and his with Beth Laird.

Discography

Awards and nominations
Grammy Awards
Song of the Year ("Piano in the Dark") (Nominee)
Broadcast Film Critics Association Award
Best Song ("Listen") (Winner)
Academy Award
Best Song ("Listen") (Nominee)
Golden Globe Award
Best Song ("Listen") (Nominee)
Black Reel Awards
Best Song ("Listen") (Nominee)
Satellite Award
Best Original Song ("Listen") (Nominee)

References

External links

Record producers from Illinois
American male songwriters
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Ednaswap members
Annetenna members

Scott Cutler


A white dwarf is a compact star. Their matter is squashed together. Gravitation has pulled the atoms close together, and taken off their electrons. The mass of a white dwarf is similar to the mass of the Sun, but its volume is similar to that of the Earth.

White dwarfs are the final evolutionary state of all stars whose mass is not high enough to become a neutron star. Over 97% of the stars in the Milky Way will become white dwarf stars.§1 After the hydrogen–fusing lifetime of a main-sequence star ends, it will expand to a red giant which fuses helium to carbon and oxygen in its core. If a red giant does not have enough mass to fuse carbon, around 1 billion K, inactive carbon and oxygen will build up at its center. After shedding its outer layers to form a planetary nebula, it will leave behind the core, which is the white dwarf.

The material in a white dwarf no longer undergoes fusion reactions, so the star has no source of energy. It is not supported by the heat of fusion against gravitational collapse.

A star like our Sun will become a white dwarf when it has run out of fuel. Near the end of its life, it will go through a red giant stage, and then lose most of its gas, until what is left contracts and becomes a young white dwarf.

History
White dwarfs were discovered in the 18th century. The first white dwarf star, called 40 Eridani B, was discovered on 31 January 1783 by William Herschel.p73  It is part of a three star system called 40 Eridani.

The second white dwarf was discovered in 1862, but was at first thought to be a red dwarf. It was a small star near the star Sirius. This companion star, called Sirius B, had a surface temperature of about 25,000 kelvin, so it was thought of as a hot star. However, Sirius B was about 10,000 times fainter than the primary, Sirius A.  Scientists have discovered that the mass of Sirius B is almost the same as that of the Sun. This means that once, Sirius B was a star similar to our own Sun.

In 1917, Adriaan van Maanen discovered a white dwarf which is called Van Maanen 2.  It was the third white dwarf to be discovered.  It is the closest white dwarf to Earth, except for Sirius B.

Radiation and temperature
A white dwarf has low luminosity (total amount of light given off) but a very hot core. The core might be 107 K, while the surface is only 104 K.

A white dwarf is very hot when it is formed, but since it has no source of energy, it will gradually radiate away its energy and cool. This means that its radiation, which gives it a blue or white colour at the start, lessens over time. Over a very long time, a white dwarf will cool to temperatures at which it will no longer emit light. Unless the white dwarf gets matter from a companion star or some other source, its radiation comes from its stored heat. This is not replaced.

White dwarfs cool slowly for two reasons. They have an extremely small surface area to radiate this heat from, so they cool gradually, remaining hot for a long time. Also, they are very opaque. The degenerate matter that makes up the bulk of a white dwarf stops light and other electromagnetic radiation, so radiation does not carry away much energy.

Eventually, all white dwarfs will cool down into black dwarfs, so called because they lack the energy to create light. No black dwarfs exist yet because it takes longer than the current age of the universe for a white dwarf to cool down. A black dwarf is what will be left of the star after all of its energy (heat and light) is used up.

Re-ignition
White dwarfs may re-ignite and explode as supernovas if they get more material.  There is a maximum mass for a white dwarf to remain stable. This is known as the Chandrasekhar limit.

A dwarf might pull in material from a companion star, for example, bringing it over the Chandrasekhar limit. The extra mass would start a carbon-fusion reaction. Astronomers think this re-igniting might be the cause of Type Ia supernovas.

References

Types of stars

White dwarf


Agnotology is a branch of science which looks at the ways in which doubt or ignorance about certain subjects is created. A very good example of how this happens is the publication of scientific studies that rely on data that is inaccurate or misleading. More generally, the term also highlights the increasingly common condition where more knowledge of a subject leaves one more uncertain than before.

The neologism was coined by Robert N. Proctor,
a Stanford University professor specializing in the history of science and technology. Proctor cites the  tobacco industry's conspiracy to manufacture doubt about the cancer risks of tobacco use as a very good example of how this can be done. Under the banner of science, the industry produced research about everything except tobacco hazards to exploit public uncertainty.

The way in which media attention works can be exploited to produce ignorance. Other factors that influence it are that corporations or governments do not reveal certain facts. At times, they force these facts to be removed if they have been revealed. The methods they use include censorship, destroying documents, putting the weight of certain facts differently, or  being inattentive or forgetful.

Agnotology also focuses on how and why diverse forms of knowledge do not "come to be," or are ignored or delayed. For example, knowledge about plate tectonics was censored and delayed for at least a decade because key evidence was classified military information related to underseas warfare.

References

Subfields of sociology

Agnotology


John Wrottesley, 1st Baron Wrottesley (4 October 1771 – 16 March 1841), known as Sir John Wrottesley, 9th Baronet, from 1787 to 1838, was a British soldier and Member of Parliament.

Wrottesley was the son of Sir John Wrottesley, 8th Baronet. He served in the British Army and achieved the rank of major general. He was also appointed as Lieutenant-Colonel Commandant of the Western Regiment of Staffordshire Local Militia in 1809.

Wrottesley was also a Member of Parliament for Lichfield from 1799 to 1806, for Staffordshire from 1823 to 1832, and for Staffordshire South from 1832 to 1837. On 11 July 1838, he was ennobled as Baron Wrottesley, of Wrottesley in the County of Stafford.

Lord Wrottesley married firstly Lady Caroline Bennet, daughter of Charles Bennet, 4th Earl of Tankerville, in 1795. After his first wife's death in 1818, he married secondly Julia Conyers, daughter of John Conyers of Copped Hall, Essex, in 1819. Julia was the widow of Captain John Astley Bennet RN, the brother of Wrottesley's first wife. There were no children from this marriage. Lord Wrottesley died in March 1841, aged 69, and was succeeded in the baronetcy and barony by his son John Wrottesley.

References

External links

1771 births
1841 deaths
Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
British Army major generals
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Lichfield
UK MPs 1801–1802
UK MPs 1802–1806
UK MPs 1820–1826
UK MPs 1826–1830
UK MPs 1830–1831
UK MPs 1831–1832
UK MPs 1832–1835
UK MPs 1835–1837
UK MPs who were granted peerages
British MPs 1796–1800
32nd Regiment of Foot officers
29th Regiment of Foot officers
35th Regiment of Foot officers
Staffordshire Militia officers
Peers of the United Kingdom created by Queen Victoria

John Wrottesley, 1st Baron Wrottesley


The Sanhaja (, pl. Iẓnagen, and also Aẓnaj, pl. Iẓnajen; , Ṣanhaja or زناگة Znaga) were once one of the largest Berber tribal confederations, along with the Zanata and Masmuda confederations. Many tribes in Algeria, Burkina Faso, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Tunisia  and Western Sahara bore and still carry this ethnonym, especially in its Berber form. Other names for the population include Zenaga, Znaga, Sanhája, Sanhâdja and  Senhaja.

Triad
Sanhaja is defined as three separate confederations by Ibn Khaldun and others, the term does not refer to the same confederation. The distinction is usually made with a diacritical point placed above or below that is present in the Arabic text and often lost in English.
 Danhāǧa/Sanhaja [Sanhaja of the first type] is a confederation of: Kutāma-Zawāwa of the Kabyle mountains, including some areas like Algiers and Constantine that no longer speak Taqbaylit dialects (they occupied all the northern part of the region of the Constantincis, between the Awrās/Aures [q.v.] and the sea, that is the region containing the towns of Īkd̲j̲ān, Seṭīf, Bāg̲h̲āya, Ngaus/Niḳāwus, Tiguist/Tikist, Mīla, Constantine, Skīkda, D̲j̲id̲j̲ellī, Bellezma). This confederation includes the Massissenses of the Quinquegentiani, which we identify with the Msisna/Imsissen/Masinissa of the Massylii, on the right bank of the Soumam. The Zirid Dynasty, Hammadid Dynasty, Fatimid Caliphate, Taifa of Alpuente, Taifa of Granada, Kingdom of Ait Abbas and Kingdom of Kuku originate from this confederation.
 Aznag/Iẓnagen (زناگة, Znaga) [Sanhaja of the second type ("Sanhaja of the veil" in reference to the blue face covering)] is a confederation of: Lemta, Massufa, Warith/Banū Warit, Lamtuna/Ilemteyen, Gudāla/Djudalla/Gazzula/Geuzula/Gaetuli, Anifa, Charta, Mandala. The Kezoula-Heskoura are defined as the brothers of the Aznag (from Teskee) as opposed to being part of the Aznag confederation. The Tebo/Tebou/Toubou speakers of Tebu are defined as Znaga according to Agnosti, Lemta by al-Yaqubi. This confederation is located primarily near Western Sahara and the Draa River. The Aznag and Tuareg languages, the former of which is almost extinct having been replaced by Hassaniya Arabic, are languages that denote the Aznag region. The Al-Moravids stem from the Aznag confederation.
 Ṣanhāja [Sanhaja of the third type] is a confederation of: Maṣmūda-(G̲h̲umāra/Hintata/Barghawata) speakers of Shilha. This confederation is located primarily in the area of the Moroccan Atlas' Shilha speakers. Some Riffians today have these tribe names (Sanhadjan Rif, as a result of the later Zenati integration into this branch of the Sanhaja under the Al-Mohads).  The Al-Mohads and Hafsid Dynasty stem from this confederation.

Origins
Berber tribes such as the Sanhadja or Kutama are often attributed Himyarite origins by Arab historians (which the Sanhadja likely adopted themselves for political legitimacy), but other genealogical sources and modern genetic testing reveal this supposed origin to likely be a myth, given the predominant Berber Y haplogroup is E, and the predominant Arab Y haplogroup is J. The historian Al-Idrīsī presents one example of the Himyarite myth as following:

History

After the arrival of the religion of Islam, the Sanhaja spread out to the borders of the Sudan as far as the Senegal River and the Niger.

Sanhaja Berbers were a large part of the Berber population. From the 9th century, Sanhaja tribes were established in the Middle Atlas range, in the Rif Mountains and on the Atlantic coast of Morocco as well as large parts of the Sanhaja, such as the Kutâma, were settled in central and eastern parts Algeria (Kabylia, Setif, Algiers, Msila) and also in northern Niger. The Kutama created the empire of the Fatimids conquering all North African countries and parts of the Middle East. The Sanhaja dynasties of the Zirids and Hammâdids controlled Ifriqiya until the 12th century and established their rule in all of the countries in the Maghreb region.

In the mid-11th century, a group of Sanhaja chieftains returning from the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) invited the theologian Ibn Yasin to preach among their tribes. Ibn Yasin united the tribes in the alliance of the Almoravids in the middle of the 11th century. This confederacy subsequently established Morocco, and conquered western Algeria and Al-Andalus (part of present-day Spain).

The Zenata or Sanhaja tribes would remain in roles as either exploited semi-sedentary agriculturalists and fishermen (Zenaga or Znaga tribes), or, higher up on the social ladder, as religious (Marabout or Zawiya) tribes. Though often Arabized in culture and language, they are believed to be descended from the Zenata or Sanhaja Berber population present in the area before the arrival of the Arab Maqil tribes in the 12th century, which was finally subjected to domination by Arab-descended warrior castes in the 17th century Char Bouba war.

According to Mercer, the words Zenaga or Znaga (from the Berber root ẓnag or ẓnaj, giving the noun Aẓnag or Aẓnaj with the additional masculine singular prefix a-, or Taẓnagt or Taẓnajt with the additional feminine singular circumfix ta--t, or Iẓnagen or Iẓnajen with the additional masculine plural circumfix i--en, or Tiẓnagen or Tiẓnajen with the additional feminine plural circumfix ti--en) are thought to be a romanized distortion of Zenata and Sanhaja from Arabic.

Present day

The descendants of the Sanhaja and their languages are still found today in the Middle Atlas mountains, eastern Morocco, northern Morocco (Rif), western Algeria, Kabylia and Kabyle territories.

The Zenaga, a group believed to be of Gudala (the southernmost Sanhaja tribe) origin, inhabit southwestern Mauritania and parts of northern Senegal. However, they are a small population.

See also
Masmuda
Zenaga language
Tekna
Reguibat

References

Further reading

 John O. Hunwick (ed.), West Africa, Islam and the Arab World: Studies in Honor of Basil Davidson Paperback
 John Mercer (1976), Spanish Sahara, George Allen & Unwin Ltd ()
 Anthony G. Pazzanita (2006), Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara, Scarecrow Press
 Virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff (1980), The Western Saharans. Background to Conflict, Barnes & Noble Books ()

Berber peoples and tribes
History of Africa
Berbers in Mauritania
Berbers in Senegal
History of Mauritania
History of North Africa
Ethnic groups in Western Sahara

Sanhaja


Albert T. Robles is an American politician and former mayor, councilman, treasurer, and deputy city manager for the City of South Gate, California. In 2005 he was convicted of corruption and sentenced to 10 years in federal prison.

Political career
Robles graduated from the University of California Los Angeles and was a former aide to an African American legislator.

In 1991 Robles became the youngest mayor of South Gate at the age of 26.

In 1992 he was elected to the South Gate City Council by a predominantly Mexican-American electorate.
In 2002 Robles was appointed by the City Council to the Deputy City Manager position.
In 2003 Robles was recalled along with Mayor Xochitl Ruvalcaba, Vice Mayor Raul Moriel, and Councilwoman Maria Benavides in an election that was monitored by Los Angeles County by order of Governor Gray Davis. Robles retained his position as Deputy City Manager.

 In 2005 he was convicted on federal corruption charges then sentenced the following year to 10 years in prison.

Legal controversies

Robles was accused of making threatening statements to State Senator Martha Escutia and Assemblyman Marco Firebaugh. He was tried in 2002 but all charges were dismissed when the jury deadlocked on all counts. His attorney argued that his statements were merely the kind of language typical of South Gate politicians and not literal threats.

Robles was indicted on federal corruption charges in 2004. This stemmed from his award of contracts worth millions to friends and business associates as well as funneling money through the awarded contracts to himself and family members. He was found guilty of 30 counts of bribery, money laundering, and depriving the electorate. He was sentenced to 10 years in federal prison and ordered to pay the city of South Gate $639,000 in restitution.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
California city council members
Mayors of places in California
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
People from South Gate, California
California politicians convicted of crimes

Albert T. Robles


Saint Gontrand (c. 532 in Soissons – 28 March 592 in Chalon-sur-Saône), also called Gontran, Gontram, Guntram, Gunthram, Gunthchramn, and Guntramnus, was the king of the Kingdom of Orléans from AD 561 to AD 592. He was the third-eldest and second-eldest-surviving son of Chlothar I and Ingunda. On his father's death in 561, he became king of a fourth of the Kingdom of the Franks, and made his capital at Orléans. The name "Gontrand" denotes "War Raven".

Personal life
King Gontrand had something of that fraternal love which his brothers lacked; the preeminent chronicler of the period, St. Gregory of Tours, often called him "good king Gontrand", as noted in the quotation below from the former's Decem Libri Historiarum, in which St. Gregory discussed the fate of Gontrand's three marriages:

The good king Gontrand first took a concubine Veneranda, a slave belonging to one of his people, by whom he had a son Gundobad. Later he married Marcatrude, daughter of Magnar, and sent his son Gundobad to Orléans. But after she had a son Marcatrude was jealous, and proceeded to bring about Gundobad's death. She sent poison, they say, and poisoned his drink. And upon his death, by God's judgment she lost the son she had and incurred the hate of the king, was dismissed by him, and died not long after. After her he took Austregilde, also named Bobilla. He had by her two sons, of whom the older was called Clothar and the younger Chlodomer.

Gontrand had a period of intemperance. He was eventually overcome with remorse for the sins of his past life, and spent his remaining years repenting of them, both for himself and for his nation. In atonement, he fasted, prayed, wept, and offered himself to God. Throughout the balance of his prosperous reign he attempted to govern by Christian principles. According to St. Gregory of Tours, he was the protector of the oppressed, caregiver to the sick, and the tender parent to his subjects. He was generous with his wealth, especially in times of plague and famine. He strictly and justly enforced the law without respect to person, yet was ever ready to forgive offences against himself, including two attempted assassinations. Gontrand munificently built and endowed many churches and monasteries. St. Gregory related that the king performed many miracles both before and after his death, some of which St. Gregory claimed to have witnessed himself.

Politics

In 567, his elder brother Charibert I died and his lands of the Kingdom of Paris were divided between the surviving brothers: Gontrand, Sigebert I, and Chilperic I. They shared his realm, agreeing at first to hold Paris in common. Charibert's widow, Theudechild, proposed a marriage with Gontrand, the eldest remaining brother, though a council convened at Paris as late as 557 had forbidden such tradition as incestuous. Gontrand decided to house her more safely, though unwillingly, in a monastery in Arles.

In 573, Gontrand was caught in a civil war with his brother Sigebert I of Austrasia, and in 575 summoned the aid of their brother Chilperic I of Soissons. He reversed his allegiance later, due to the character of Chilperic, if we may give him the benefit of the doubt in light of St. Gregory's commendation, and Chilperic retreated. He thereafter remained an ally of Sigebert, his wife, and his sons until his death. When Sigebert was assassinated later in 575, Chilperic invaded the kingdom, but Gontrand sent his general Mummolus, who was always Gontrand's greatest weapon, for he was the greatest general in Gaul at the time, to remove him. Mummolus defeated Chilperic's general Desiderius and the Neustrian's forces retreated from Austrasia.

In 577, Chlothar and Clodomir, his two surviving children, died of dysentery and he adopted as his son and heir Childebert II, his nephew, Sigebert's son, whose kingdom he had saved two years prior. However, Childebert did not always prove faithful to his uncle. In 581, Chilperic took many of Gontrand's cities and in 583, he allied with Childebert and attacked Gontrand. This time Gontrand made peace with Chilperic and Childebert retreated. In 584, he returned Childebert's infidelity by invading his land and capturing Tours and Poitiers, but he had to leave to attend the baptism of Chlothar II, his other nephew, who now ruled in Neustria. Supposed to take place on 4 July, the feast of St. Martin of Tours, in Orléans, it did not and Gontrand turned to invade Septimania. Peace was soon made.

In 584 or 585, one Gundowald claimed to be an illegitimate son of Chlothar I and proclaimed himself king, taking some major cities in southern Gaul, including Poitiers and Toulouse, which belonged to Gontrand. Gontrand marched against him, calling him nothing more than a miller's son named Ballomer. Gundowald fled to Comminges and Gontrand's army proceeded to besiege the citadel. He could not capture it, but did not need to: Gundowald's followers gave him over and he was executed.

In 587, Fredegund attempted to assassinate him, but failed. He went, on 28 November, to Trier to conclude a treaty with Childebert; Brunhilda, his sister-in-law, Sigebert's wife, whose ally he had always been; Chlodosind, Childebert's sister; Faileuba, Childebert's queen; Magneric, Bishop of Trier; and Ageric, Bishop of Verdun. This was called the Treaty of Andelot and it endured until Gontrand died.

Also in 587, Gontrand compelled obedience from Waroch II, the Breton ruler of the Vannetais. He forced the renewal of the oath of 578 in writing and demanded 1,000 solidi in compensation for raiding the Nantais. In 588, the compensation was not yet paid, as Waroch promised it to both Gontrand and Chlothar II, who probably had suzerainty over Vannes.

In 589 or 590, Gontrand sent an expedition against Waroch under Beppolem and Ebrachain, mutual enemies. Ebrachain was also enemy of Fredegund, who sent the Saxons of Bayeux to aid Waroch. Beppolem fought alone for three days before dying, at which point Waroch tried to flee to the Channel Islands, but Ebrachain destroyed his ships and forced him to accept a peace, the renewal of the oath, and the surrender of a nephew as a hostage. This was all to no effect. The Bretons maintained their independent mindedness.

In 589, Gontrand made a final advance on Septimania, to no avail. He fought against the barbarians who menaced the kingdom and quelled a rebellion of his niece Basina at a Poitevin monastery with the aid of many of his bishops in 590.

Death and veneration

He died at Chalon-sur-Saône in 592, and his nephew Childebert II succeeded him. He was buried in the Church of Saint Marcellus, which he had founded in Chalon. Almost immediately, his subjects proclaimed Gontrand a saint and the Catholic Church celebrates his feast day on 28 March. The Huguenots, who scattered his ashes in the 16th century, left only his skull untouched in their fury. It is now kept there in a silver case.

References

Further reading
Henry H. Howorth. "The Ethnology of Germany. Part 3: The Migration of the Saxons." The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 7. 1878. pp. 293–320.
Dahmus, Joseph Henry. Seven Medieval Queens. 1972.
St. Gregory of Tours. The History of the Franks, Volume II: Text. Trans. by Ormonde Maddock Dalton. Clarendon Press: 1967.
Decem Libri Historiarum: Books 1-10. Translated by Ernest Brehaut. Available at Medieval Sourcebook.

External links

 Translation of Grimm's Saga No. 433, "The Sleeping King" Gontrand

530s births
592 deaths
People from Soissons
Frankish warriors
Merovingian kings
Christian royal saints
Roman Catholic royal saints
6th-century Frankish kings
6th-century Frankish saints
Colombanian saints

Guntram


Hertford College is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford. The full name of the college is the Principal, Fellows and Scholars of Hertford College in the University of Oxford. It is best-known for its bridge, called "The Bridge of Sighs".

Hertford was originally known as "Hart Hall". The land for Hart Hall was bought by Elias de Hertford in 1282. Hart Hall was a residence for students at other colleges in Oxford. In 1312, Hart Hall was purchased by Walter de Stapledon, who was the Bishop of Exeter.  De Stapledon founded Exeter College and Hart Hall was controlled by Exeter College for many years.

In 1710, William Newton became the Principal of Hart Hall.  In 1723, Newton formally proposed that Hart Hall be chartered as its own college. In 1740 a charter was granted for the new Hertford College. After Newton died, however, the college declined, and it was dissolved in 1816.

The grounds of the college was taken over by Magdalen Hall. Magdalen Hall began as a grammar school associated with Magdalen College in 1480. Magdalen Hall moved to the site of the former Hertford College in 1822. It grew at the new site, and in 1874, Magdalen Hall was given a charter as Hertford College. The new name was chosen so that it would not be confused with Magdalen College, and because it was on the location of the former Hertford College.

References

Colleges of the University of Oxford
1874 establishments in England

Hertford College, Oxford


Clinton is a Canadian village in British Columbia, Canada. Clinton is in the South Cariboo region of British Columbia. The population of Clinton was 578 at the 2006 consensus. The town of Clinton was originally known as 47 Mile House or 47 Mile but was changed to Clinton in 1863 because of the completion of the Cariboo Wagon Road which was in the area for Henry Fiennes Pelham Clinton.

Gallery

Other websites
Village of Clinton's Official website

Cities in British Columbia

Clinton, British Columbia


Johannes Thomae Bureus Agrivillensis (born Johan Bure; 1568–1652) was a Swedish polymath, antiquarian, mystic, royal librarian, poet, and tutor and adviser of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. He is a well-known exponent of Gothicism.

Life and career
Bureus was born in 1568 in Åkerby near Uppsala – where the largest and last of the pagan temples once was – in Sweden, as a son of a Lutheran parish priest. He was Sweden's first national antiquarian (riksantikvarie) and first head of Sweden's national library (riksbibliotekarie). He was also the first to document runes. He has been called the father of the Swedish grammar. In 1599, he designed the coats of arms of Helsinki and Uusimaa.

Bureus combined his runic and esoteric interests in his own runic system, which he called the "Adalruna". He was interested in the Rosicrucian manifestos. Contemporary mystics such as Jakob Böhme have studied his works. In 1611, Bureus published the first ever ABC book written in – and about – the Swedish language, Svenska ABC boken medh runor, using the runic alphabet and Latin script. He also wrote a genealogy of the Bure family, partly using runestones as sources.

References

Further reading
Thomas Karlsson: Götisk kabbala och runisk alkemi: Johannes Bureus och den götiska esoterismen. (Dissertation, Stockholm 2010.)
Håkan Håkansson: Alchemy of the Ancient Goths: Johannes Bureus' Search for the Lost Wisdom of Scandinavia. Early Science and Medicine 17 (2012), pp. 500–522. View article

External links
Article in English Gangleri's article with bibliographical references and more links.
Short article about the Rune Cross.

1568 births
1652 deaths
16th-century Christian mystics
17th-century antiquarians
17th-century Christian mystics
17th-century linguists
Grammarians from Sweden
Linguists from Sweden
People from Uppsala Municipality
Rosicrucians
Runologists
Swedish antiquarians
Swedish Christian mystics
Swedish genealogists
Swedish librarians

Johannes Bureus


John Cennick (12 December 1718 – 4 July 1755) was an English Methodist and Moravian evangelist and hymnwriter. He was born in Reading, Berkshire, England to an Anglican family and raised in the Church of England.

According to Moravian Bishop E. R. Hasse, Cennick's family was from Bohemia, and left as a result of persecutions following the Battle of White Mountain. In England, his family became Quakers when his grandfather became influenced by George Fox.

Early life
At age nine, he heard his dying aunt proclaim "Last night the Lord stood by me and invited me to drink of the fountain of life freely and I shall stand before the Lord as bold as a lion."  The words stayed with him for many years as the focus of his own fear of death and concern for his salvation.
Being from a family of humble means, John was compelled, at the age of 13, to leave school and seek an apprenticeship. He made eight trips to London looking for a position and, failing, became somewhat of a dissolute youth, spending what little money he had on plays and gambling, and engaged in lying and petty theft.
Of this period in his life, he later said "I had forgot Jesus and everlasting ages:... loving ungodliness more than goodness and to talk of lies more than righteousness."

Conversion
As a youth he delighted in attending dances, playing cards, and going to the theatre. But in 1735, while walking hastily along Cheapside, London, he experienced deep convictions of sin. These convictions were strengthened by his association with pious companions. He was greatly depressed in mind...[b]ut he did not yet possess true Christian peace. On the contrary, he went, step by step, down into the dark depths of spiritual despair.

At the age of 17, he was suddenly oppressed by a heavy spirit, which he endured for two years, until relief came when he happened into a church. There he heard the words of Psalm : "(19)Great are the troubles of the righteous, but the Lord delivereth him out of them all! (22b)And he that putteth his trust in God shall not be desolate."  He later said that he heard the voice of Christ speaking to him.

My heart danced for joy and my dying soul revived. I heard the voice of Jesus saying, "I am thy salvation". I no more groaned under the weight of sin. The fears of hell were taken away ... Christ loved me and died for me, I rejoiced in God my Saviour.

Cennick worked for a time as surveyor in Reading. He began reading the writings of George Whitfield, and through a friend at Oxford he met Whitefield, John Wesley, and Charles Wesley.

Ministry
Cennick joined the nascent Methodist movement. In 1740, he became a teacher at Kingswood, England, on Wesley's recommendation.
On Kingswood Hill, amid the remains of the old Royal Chase, a crowd of colliers had assembled for a service, but the expected preacher failed to appear. Cennick was there, and as with one instinct the eyes of all turned to him, and many voices urged him to step into the breach. He hesitated; he reasoned with himself -- he was not prepared! he had never yet preached! nor was he licensed to do so! But there before him were the people waiting for the Word; and upon him was the sense of "the burden of the Lord." And so, finally, after earnest prayer, he obeyed the inner voice...and it led him along the God-appointed path of Evangelism, where his career was so short, so bright, and so full of blessing.

Like Whitfield he differed from Wesley on particular redemption and unconditional election and was obliged to leave. He eventually allied with the Calvinistic Methodists. After Whitefield returned from America, he asked Cennick to join him on preaching tours. In 1745 Cennick went over to the Moravians, and went to Germany to study their doctrines.

Some of Cennick's first hymns were included with his sermons. His first hymns appeared during his time at Kingswood. In Charles Wesley's diary (July 1739) he wrote, "I corrected Mr. Cennick's hymns for the press." Throughout the rest of his short career and life he published several collections of hymns. His son-in-law John Swertner included several of Cennick's hymns in a Moravian collection in 1789.

Although he wrote many hymns, Cennick is remembered for in many editions of Hymns Ancient & Modern:
Be Present at Our Table, Lord
Be with Me, Lord, Where'er I Go
Children of the Heav'nly King
Christ is Our Master, Lord, and God
Hail, Alpha and Omega, Hail
Rise, My Soul, Adore Your Maker
verses of Christians, Dismiss Your Fear
verses of Lo! He comes with clouds descending

He spent much time as an itinerant evangelist in England and Ireland, enduring great and often violent opposition. By the time of his early death, he had established over 40 churches.

John Cennick died of a fever in London at only 36 years of age, leaving a wife and two children, and is buried at the Moravian cemetery (Sharon's Garden) in Chelsea, England. John Julian wrote of Cennick: "Some of the stanzas of his hymns are very fine, but the hymns taken as a whole are most unequal. Some excellent centos might be compiled from his various works." Some of Cennick's hymns not published in his lifetime were included in the Moravian Hymn Book (1789), edited by his son-in-law, Johannes Swertner. A number of his hymns are preserved in the Sacred Harp.

Works
Sacred Hymns, for the Children of God in the Days of Their Pilgrimage, 1741.
Sacred Hymns for the Use of Religious Societies, 1743.
A Collection of Sacred Hymns, 1749.
Hymns to the Honour of Jesus Christ, Composed for Such Little Children as Desire to Be Saved, 1754.

References

External links
Hymns by John Cennick
Entry for John Cennick on Hymnary.org

1718 births
1755 deaths
English Methodist hymnwriters
English evangelists
Musicians from London
English Methodists
Calvinistic Methodists
People from Reading, Berkshire
Writers of the Moravian Church
Converts to Methodism from Anglicanism
English people of the Moravian Church
English evangelicals

John Cennick


Elizabeth Langley (née Cass; 1863–1956) was an English seamstress and dress designer whose mistaken arrest for prostitution in 1887 became a minor cause célèbre.

Early life
Cass was born in Grantham, Lincolnshire, and grew up in Stockton-on-Tees. After working as a seamstress, she moved to London to be a dress designer early in 1887. She was employed by Mrs Mary Ann Bowman, and lived on her premises at 19 Southampton Row.

Mistaken arrest
On 28 June 1887 Cass went out in the late evening to do some shopping at Jay's Shop at 243–253 Regent Street (a respected retailer of silk and millinery, holding a Royal Warrant). The week had seen Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee, and London was thronged with people enjoying a month of record sunshine.

Jay's was closed, and the pavement was full of people. As she pushed her way through the crowd on Oxford Street to go home, she was suddenly arrested by PC DR 42 Endacott, of Tottenham Court Road Police Station. She was taken to the police station and charged with solicitation and prostitution, and the next morning she appeared at Great Marlborough Street Police Court before Robert Milnes Newton, one of two Stipendiary Magistrates. PC Endacott gave evidence of the arrest and testified that he had seen her three times before in Regent Street late at night soliciting for prostitution.

Cass's employer, Mrs Bowman, was called in her defence and testified that she had been in London only a few months, and had never before been out late at night. Further, she was a respectable woman of perfect character in a good job. Bowman was unshakeable in her evidence, giving the magistrate no option but to find Cass not guilty. But he added the following warning:

The clear implication is that the magistrate believed Cass to be guilty, but had persuaded Bowman to perjure herself to secure her acquittal.

On 30 June Bowman wrote to the Metropolitan Police headquarters to complain about the police's action in the case. The day after, Llewellyn Atherley-Jones, Liberal MP for North-Western Durham, first raised the case in Parliament. Atherley-Jones, a barrister by profession, took up Cass's case and on 5 July he asked the Home Secretary Henry Matthews to order an inquiry. Matthews, noting that no conviction resulted, gave what seemed to Atherley-Jones to be a flippant answer and Atherley-Jones then decided he would seek to raise the matter on the adjournment. He managed to defeat the government by five votes.

The Home Secretary then ordered the Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis, Sir Charles Warren, to undertake an inquiry. PC Endacott was suspended on 6 July and the Lord Chancellor began an inquiry into the conduct of Mr. Newton. The Metropolitan Police inquiry opened on 11 July and after six days of hearings concluded on 26 July. The report did not make any findings as to whether the arrest was justified (calling for the evidence to be tested in a court under oath), but Sir Charles Warren concluded "I am not prepared to say that I can see any grounds for accusing PC Endacott of wilful perjury. However, that is a matter on which I think the Public Prosecutors should decide".

Bowman and Cass had already begun a private prosecution of PC Endacott for perjury, and after due consideration the Law Officers wrote to their solicitors offering to take over the case, or permitting the case to go ahead under their direction. They chose the second option. Colleagues within the Metropolitan Police raised a subscription to pay for Endacott's defence. Meanwhile, the informal inquiry into the magistrate had concluded in secret, with the decision to give Newton a formal reprimand. Newton had relied for justification of his warning to Cass on a statute that allowed a magistrate to issue such a warning to a defendant who had been found guilty but whom the magistrate felt was undeserving of any sentence, and the Lord Chancellor's letter highlighted this as a mistake in law.

Perjury case
The Grand Jury found a true bill against PC Endacott for perjury on 13 September but the trial was postponed to the Michaelmas Term, eventually beginning on 31 October. On 1 November, Cass (now Mrs Langley) was called to give evidence; afterwards Mr. Justice Stephen heard a submission (in the absence of the jury) from the prosecution and ruled that the case was confined to whether PC Endacott committed perjury in saying that he had seen Cass three times before in Regent Street. The judge further said that in his own view, there was no evidence that Endacott had been wilfully mis-stating the truth: the most likely explanation was that he had been making an honest mistake. The Solicitor-General accepted that view and withdrew the prosecution.

Mrs Langley and her defenders were not pleased by this outcome. The inquiry and the trial had given the opportunity to PC Endacott's legal representatives to make further assaults on her character, and Llewellyn Atherley-Jones insisted his original objection had been to the actions of the magistrate.

References

External links
 Government defeats
 The Cass Case at The Jack the Ripper Blog
 The Official Miss Cass Enquiry at The Jack the Ripper Blog

1863 births
1956 deaths
Metropolitan Police operations
People from Grantham
British tailors

Elizabeth Cass


Harri Gustaf Holma (last name until 1906 Hellman; April 14, 1886 – April 14, 1954) was a Finnish diplomat and assyriologist.

Holma was born in Hämeenlinna. His parents were colleague Anders Victor Hellman and Anna Ida Charlotta af Enehjelm. He graduated from the Finnish Normal School in 1903 and studied at the University of Helsinki completing Bachelor and Master of Philosophy in 1907, Licentiate in 1912 and Ph.D. in 1914. Holma studied assyriology in Berlin in 1910, Leipzig and London.

Holma served as a docent of Assyriology and Semitic Philology at the University of Helsinki from 1913 to 1923, as a librarian at the Student Library from 1904 to 1919 and as secretary to the Finnish Science Club delegation, librarian and a treasurer 1914–1919. Holma was the secretary and chairman of the Estonian Assistant Committee since 1919.

After Finland became independent, Holma moved to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. He was Head of the archive department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1918, a newsreader and secretary of the post in Copenhagen from 1919 to 1920, and as Chargé d'Affaires in Berlin in 1920–1921.

In 1918, Holma was also sent to familiarize Hesse's Landgraf Friedrich Karl with Finnish culture and language who was planned for the King of Finland.

Holma served as Envoy to Berlin and Vienna from 1921 to 1927, Paris, Brussels and Luxembourg from 1927 to 1943, Holy See from 1943 to 1947 and Rome from 1947 to 1953. Holma was also a member of the Finnish delegation to the General Assembly of the League of Nations in 1935–1939 and a permanent member of the National Guard Committee of the League of Nations 1936–1941.

Holma donated his collection of art collections to the City of Lahti in 1953. He died in Capri, Italy, aged 68.

Harri Holma was married from 1912 to Alli Maria Haapakoski (1888–1963). Their son was a writer and art historian Klaus Ben Holma. Harri Holma's brother, Kaarlo Holma, was a lawyer, a colleague MP and a Parliamentary Ombudsman.

References

20th-century Finnish diplomats
Finnish Assyriologists
People from Hämeenlinna
1886 births
1954 deaths
Finnish expatriates in Italy

Harri Holma


The Bielski Brothers: The True Story of Three Men Who Defied the Nazis, Built a Village in the Forest, and Saved 1,200 Jews is a non-fiction book by Peter Duffy, which was published in 2003. It tells the story of Tuvia Bielski, Alexander Zeisal Bielski (Zus), Aharon Bielski, and Asael Bielski, four Jewish brothers who established a large partisan camp in the forests of Belarus during World War II which participated in resistance activities against the Nazi occupation of the country, and so saved 1,200 Jews from the Nazis. The book describes how, in 1941, three brothers witnessed their parents and two other siblings being led away to their eventual murders. The brothers  fought back against Germans and collaborators, waging guerrilla warfare in the forests of Belarus. By using their intimate knowledge of the dense forests surrounding the towns of Lida and Novogrudek, the Bielskis evaded the Nazis and established a hidden base camp, then set about convincing other Jews to join their ranks. The Germans came upon them once but were unable to get rid of them. As more Jews arrived each day, a robust community began to emerge; a "Jerusalem in the woods". In July 1944, after some 30 months in the woods, the Bielskis learned that the Germans, overrun by the Red Army, were retreating back toward Berlin.

At the end of the war, with Soviet control of Belarus becoming increasingly oppressive, the surviving Bielskis fled to Romania, traveling on to the British Mandate of Palestine and eventually to the United States. Asael was drafted into the Soviet Red Army and was killed in action at Marlbork in 1944.

Critical reaction
Publishers Weekly wrote: "This is a story about heroes, and Duffy does a masterful job of telling it." The publication noted that, after the war when Tuvia Bielski was living in Brooklyn, "no one knew that the local immigrant truck driver had once commanded the feared Bielski brigade. It is time the three brothers received their due."

The Library Journal critic wrote that the book "relates in vivid detail the World War II saga of the Bielski partisans", adding "[a]lthough clearly impressed with the Bielskis' accomplishments, as well as with  the men themselves, Duffy does not let that detract from recounting the less noble aspects of partisan life."

The critic for the Kirkus Reviews called it a "powerful recounting of a little-known story" and that the book was "more uplifting than most" Holocaust books, adding that the "day-in, day-out account of the next four years is an often unbearably intense chronicle of horror and courage. A novel telling a similar story would almost certainly be dismissed as outlandish, but Duffy's copious endnotes convincingly document the saga's reality."

Footnotes

References
 Peter Duffy, The Bielski Brothers: The True Story of Three Men Who Defied the Nazis, Built a Village in the Forest, and Saved 1,200 Jews, Harper Perennial, 2004,

Further reading
 Tec, Nechama. Defiance: The Bielski Partisans, Oxford University Press, 1994;
Lida Memorial Society website

2003 non-fiction books
History books about World War II

The Bielski Brothers (book)


Luweero District (also spelled as Luwero) is a district in the Central Region of Uganda. Luweero is the site of the district headquarters.

Location
Luweero District is bordered by Nakasongola District to the north, Kayunga District to the east, Mukono District to the southeast, Wakiso District to the south, and Nakaseke District to the west. The district headquarters at Luweero are approximately , by road, north of Kampala, Uganda's capital and largest city. The coordinates of the district are 00 50N, 32 30E (Latitude:0.8333; Longitude:32.500).

Overview
Luweero District was the site of a fierce insurgency by the rebel group National Resistance Army and a brutal counter-insurgency by the government of Milton Obote, known as the Luweero War or the "Bush War", that left many thousands of civilians dead during the early to mid-1980s. The area affected by the war has come to be known as the Luweero Triangle. In 2005, Nakaseke County was split from Luweero District to form Nakaseke District. Luweero District is administered by the Luweero District Administration, with headquarters at Luweero. There are several town councils within the district, each with its own urban town council:

 Bombo
 Luweero
 Wobulenzi
 Bamunanika
 Kalagala
 Kalule
 Ndejje
 Ziroobwe

Population
The 1991 national census estimated the population of the district at 255,400. The national census conducted in 2002 estimated the population at 341,300. In 2012, the population was estimated at 440,200. The August 2014 national population census enumerated the population at 458,158.

Economic activities
Agriculture is the mainstay of the district economy. It has been estimated that 85 percent of the district population are engaged in agriculture.

Prominent people

 Susan Nalugwa Kiguli is an Ugandan poet and literary scholar.

Points of interest
The following additional points of interest are located in Luweero District:
 Main Campus of Bugema University
 Main Campus of Ndejje University
 a branch Campus of Kampala University
 Bamunanika Palace, one of the palaces of the Kabaka of Buganda, located at Bamunanika
 headquarters of the Uganda Land Forces, a unit of the Uganda People's Defence Force, located at Bombo
 Bombo Military Hospital, one of the two military hospitals in Uganda, the other being Mbuya Military Hospital

Schools
Sandton Junior School Wobulenzi

Light Of Life Nursery & Primary School

Lugo Orphanage Primary School

Luweero Sda Primary School

Luwero Boys Day & Boarding Primary School

Luwero Girls Primary School

St Theresa Kisubi Girls Primary School

Ellen White Bright Future Primary School

Happy Times Junior School

Big Step Nursery And Primary School

Namaliga Church Of Uganda Primary School

Cream Bakers Junior Primary School

Donela Orange Primary School

Little Flower Primary School

Malayika Parents Primary School

Al Answari Primary School

References

External links
About Luweero District

Districts of Uganda
Central Region, Uganda

Luweero District


The swingout is the defining dance move of Lindy Hop.

Background
The swingout evolved from the breakaway, which in turn evolved from the Texas Tommy. The first documented mention of the swingout pattern that resembles breakaway was in 1911, to describe a "Texas Tommy Swing" show done at the Fairmont Hotel in San Francisco. Its variants are used in Jive, East Coast Swing, West Coast Swing and Modern Jive.

References

See also
Swing (dance)

Lindy Hop
Swing dance moves
West Coast Swing dance moves

Swingout


The secretary of state for the environment was a UK cabinet position, responsible for the Department of the Environment (DoE). Today, its responsibilities are carried out by the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities. The post was created by Edward Heath as a combination of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government, the Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of Public Building and Works on 15 October 1970. Thus it managed a mixed portfolio of issues: housing and planning, local government, public buildings, environmental protection and, initially, transport – James Callaghan gave transport its own department again in 1976. It has been asserted that during the Thatcher government the DoE led the drive towards centralism, and the undermining of local government. Particularly, the concept of 'inner cities policy', often involving centrally negotiated public-private partnerships and centrally appointed development corporations, which moved control of many urban areas to the centre, and away from their, often left-wing, local authorities. The department was based in Marsham Towers, three separate tower blocks built for the separate pre-merger ministries, in Westminster.

In 1997, when Labour came to power, the DoE was merged with the Department of Transport to form the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR), thus, essentially, restoring the DoE to its initial 1970 portfolio. The titular mention of 'the Regions' referred to the government's pledge to create regional government. In the wake of the 2001 foot and mouth crisis, the environmental protection elements of the DETR were split of and merged with the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF), to form the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). Meanwhile, the transport, housing and planning, and local and regional government aspects went to a new Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions (DTLR). A year later the DTLR also split, with transport getting its own department and the rest going to the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister.

List of environment secretaries

References

Environment
1970 establishments in the United Kingdom
1997 disestablishments in the United Kingdom

Secretary of State for the Environment


Abraham Nahum Stencl (; ; 1897–1983) was a Polish-born Yiddish poet.

Life
Stencl was born in Czeladź in south-western Poland, and studied at the yeshiva in Sosnowiec, where his brother, Shlomo Sztencl, was rabbi.

He left home in 1917; he joined a Zionist community, the HeHalutz Group. His views were not in fact Zionist, but the agricultural work appealed. Late in 1918 he received conscription papers for the Russian Army, and with his father's approval he immediately left Poland. In 1919 he travelled to the Netherlands and worked in the steel industry.

He began travelling to Germany, and emigrated to Berlin in 1921 where he met intellectuals and writers such as Franz Kafka and Kafka's lover Dora Diamant. A religious Jew by upbringing, he now led an extreme and spontaneous bohemian life, and became an habitué of the Romanisches Café.

Stencl began to write Yiddish poetry in a pioneer modernist and expressionist style, publishing poems from 1925 and several books into the 1930s. His poems were translated into German, and were well reviewed by Thomas Mann and Arnold Zweig. He ran a secretive Polish-Yiddish literary group, and kept in touch with Diamant, until she left in February 1936.

Stencl was arrested in 1936 and tortured by the Gestapo. However, he was released and made his escape to the United Kingdom, settling in London (from 1944), initially in Hampstead, but soon moving to Whitechapel. There he met again with Dora Diamant, and founded the Literarische Shabbes Nokhmitogs (later known as Friends of Yiddish), a weekly meeting involving political debate, literature, poetry and song, in the Yiddish language. He found an English translator in Joseph Leftwich. He also edited the Yiddish literary journal Loshn und Lebn, from 1946 to 1981. Diamant in 1951 defined Stencl's work as a mitzvah, to keep Yiddish alive.

When Stencl died in 1983, his great-niece donated his papers to the School of Oriental and African Studies.

Works
Un du bist Got (, Leipzig) as A. N. Sztencl
 Stencl, A. N., Fischerdorf (Fishing Village), German tr. Etta Federn, Berlin-Wilmersdorf: Kartell Lyrische Autoren, 1931.
Stencl, Abraham Nahum, Londoner soneṭn, Y. Naroditsḳi, 1937.
Stencl, Abraham Nahum, Englishe maysṭer in der moleray : tsu der oysshṭelung itsṭ fun zeyere bilder in der arṭ-galerye in Ṿayṭshepl, Y. Naroditsḳi, 1942.
Stencl, Abraham Nahum, All My Young Years : Yiddish Poetry from Weimar Germany, bilingual edition (Yiddish - English), tr. Haike Beruriah Wiegand & Stephen Watts, intro. Heather Valencia, Nottingham : Five Leaves, 2007.
An English translation of one of Stencl's poems, Where Whitechapel Stood is published in Sinclair's London: City of Disappearances, referenced below.

Notes

Sources
.

Kathi Diamant (2003), Kafka's Last Love: The Mystery of Dora Diamant.
The papers of Abrahman Nahum Stencl are held by SOAS Special Collections. Digitised items from the collection are available online.

1897 births
1983 deaths
People from Czeladź
Writers from Berlin
20th-century Polish poets
20th-century Polish Jews
Polish male poets
20th-century German poets
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom
20th-century English poets
Yiddish-language poets
English male poets
German male poets
20th-century German male writers
20th-century English male writers

Abraham Nahum Stencl


The Lloyd George Museum is dedicated to the life and times of David Lloyd George, the Welshman who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. It is located in Lloyd George's home village of Llanystumdwy, Wales, where he is buried, and is run by Gwynedd Council. It is normally open during the summer months and by appointment during the rest of the year.

The Lloyd George Museum Trust was founded in 1948, three years after the death of Lloyd George, and its secretary, Ann Parry, was the first curator of the museum. The main exhibition was opened in 1960, in the presence of Countess Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, Lloyd George's widow. It was housed in a new building designed by Clough Williams-Ellis, which was extended, refurbished and reopened in 1990. The opening ceremony was conducted by Lord Callaghan.

The museum also includes Highgate, the boyhood home of Lloyd George, which has been furnished and decorated to appear as it was in the late 19th century. The family was almost destitute following the death of Lloyd George's father, and was able to live there only through the generosity of his mother's brother Richard Lloyd (1834–1917), a shoemaker and clergyman. Richard's mother, the children's grandmother, also lived with them there.

Among the artefacts at the museum is Lloyd George's draft copy of the Conditions of Peace at Versailles. Other exhibits include deeds of freedom, documents and photographs. "Lloyd George's Crown" is a coin representing the first old age pension to be paid in Wales.

See also
 Lloyd George Society

References

External links

 Home page of the Lloyd George Museum
 Home page of the Lloyd George Society

History museums in Wales
Biographical museums in Wales
Museums in Gwynedd
Historic house museums in Wales
David Lloyd George
Llanystumdwy

Lloyd George Museum