Fahai, born Pei Wende, was a monk who lived in Tang dynasty, and was identified as a compiler of Zen Buddhism according to the Dun-huang edition of the Platform Sutra. Fahai was a disciple of the Sixth Patriarch of Zen Buddhism, Hui-neng.

Biography
Fahai was the son of Tang chancellor Pei Xiu, and the secular name of Fahai was Pei Wende. The young Pei Wende was sent by his father to Laoshan (Hunan province) to practice Zen Buddhism. Fahai's father, the then court chancellor donated to build Miyin Temple (located in Ningxiang County, Hunan Province). The Miyin Temple host gave the Pei Wende a Buddhist name "Fahai". Fahai's master, Master Lingyou ordered ascetic practice every day. Fahai spent nearly three years cutting firewood, and delivered water for more than five hundred monks for nearly three years.

Soon after, the ascetic life of Zen Master Fahai came to a successful end and he began a three-year meditation. Master Lingyou went to the door to call the name "Fahai". The Zen master came out from his meditation room, and the doors and windows of the closed room were not damaged, which was a sign of perfection.  After Fahai achieved enlightenment after three-year of meditation, the master was instructed to travel to Lushan, Jiangxi and other places, and finally resided in the Fu Mountain in Zhenjiang, Jiangsu. From the information given by local people, there was a dojo called Zexin Temple from East Jin dynasty. Therefore, the master Fahai burned a section and vowed to rebuild the dojo and samghārama for all beings. So he started digging fields and working hard, and gradually won the support of the local people and began to build temples. At Zhenjiang, he helped locals with cultivation and gradually won the support of local people and began to build temples.

Achievements
During a foundation excavation, a batch of gold was accidentally excavated, and Fahai decided to turn it over to Zhenjiang prefecture. The prefecture reported this matter to Emperor Tang Xuanzong, the emperor was deeply moved and ordered that gold be allocated directly to the temple as court support for construction. The emperor names the temple Jinshan Temple. Fahai became the first Zen master resided at Jinshan (Gold Mountain) Temple.
Before the temple was built, the Zen master had been meditating in a cave next to Jinshan Temple, and later became a well-known Zen cave. When the Jinshan Temple was successfully completed in the end, it became the largest Zen Buddhism Temple in the Jiangnan region, and master Fahai was also called the "Kaishan Pei Zu" (honourable founder) of Jinshan Temple.

Historically, Master Fahai was known by his enlightenment through asceticism practice and was admired by people throughout Jiangsu.

As a patriarch of Zen Buddhism, Fahai was one of the editors of the Platform Sutra. Fahai contributed to the translation of the sutra and left editing notes in his version of the translation and warned haphazard transmission. A famous dialogue between Faai and the sixth patriarch Hui-Neng was recorded in the Platform Sutra:"The mind has always been the buddha, before I understood I deceived myself, knowing now how mediation and wisdom work, I cultivate both and transcend all things."

Anecdotes

Legend of the White Snake

The Legend of the White Snake has historical archetypes, of which there are two versions. One way of saying this is according to the "Jinshanzhi" record:  There is a python cave, the side of the right front, is so treacherous and dangerous, and enters the depth of four or five feet. The white python came out to eat people. When Fahai came to Zhenjiang for the first time, the old temple was torn down and overgrown with weeds. A white python from the middle of the cliff often came out and hurt people. Fahai drove the white python into the river without harming others.

Another version of this story has something to do with Jinshan Temple, but not Fahai himself. According to the Record of the High Monk, more than eighty years before Fahai came to Zhenjiang, there was a high monk named Lingtan who was the nephew of Empress Wu. He had once been a prince and later became a monk. Lingtan once drove a white python in the python cave of Jinshan. Later, people integrated these people and tales related to Jinshan Temple and Fahai which made up fiction, then the Legend of the White Snake gradually became a household story.

Leifeng Pagoda

In the legend of Leifeng Pagoda and the White Snake, monk Fahai was linked to being the guardian of the pagoda.

Leifeng Pagoda was mostly known due to the love story between the White Snake (Bai Niangzi) and Xu Xian. In the historical records and literary works about Leifeng Pagoda, the character Xu Xian was called "Xu Xuan" in Ming and Qing novels and was not "renamed" to Xu Xian until the middle of the Republic of China. When Leifeng pagoda was built there was not a story of the white snake. After the Wu dynasty was descended from the Song dynasty, the storytellers gradually evolved this legendary story. The outline of the story is basically consistent with the current legends, except that Xu Xian was renamed. Feng Menglong from Ming dynasty recorded one of the earliest and more complete versions of the White Snake legend.

The records in Feng Menglong's "Jing Shi Heng Yan", Xu Xian and Bai Niangzi (the white snake) met Master Fahai from Jinshan Temple by the dock at the West Lake, Hangzhou. Fahai became a figure in this legend. Fahai in Feng Menglong's writing is a positive figure and a monk with good morals. Later, in the version of the local drama "White Snake", Fahai was gradually shaped into a negative image that departed the couple, and eventually became a hypocritical spokesperson.

Jinshan Temple in the Legend of the White Snake is located at Hangzhou where the story took place. Historically, the connection between Zhenjiang and Hangzhou has been quite frequent. During the Song and Ming dynasties, people who travelled along the Yangtze River to Hangzhou always took Zhenjiang as a transit point and a rest stop. At that time, Hangzhou, which was famous for silk and tea, was economic prosperity. Folk storytellers at the time pulled things familiar to the travellers into the content of the storytelling, Fahai in Jinshan Temple was then connected to Leifeng Pagoda.

Fahai's figure

According to the historical record, there was a Fahai in the Tang dynasty, who lived in the Jinshan Temple. In the cave which the master meditated, there was a python. Because Master Fahai possessed great virtues and morals, the python retreated and left. At this stage, in the context of the Tang dynasty, he was a Zen master who helped built Jinshan Temple and respected by people.

In the novel of Feng Menglong from the late Ming dynasty, Fahai as a prototype in the story of had changed, and the recorded historical story was changed through folktales. Fahai in Feng Menglong's novel was still a positive image. Until modern times, many people still have the impression that Fahai is a life-saving monk.

Since the 20th century of student movements until contemporary, "anti-feudalism" became mainstream advocacy of society. One of the values of "anti-feudalism" is a tribute to freedom of love and marriage. Fahai as a figure in widespread folk dramas "White Snake", became a symbol of feudal forces. The famous Chinese author Lu Xun criticised that Leifeng Pagoda was going to fall, and he also believed that it was a symbol of the feudal system and hindered the free love between young men and women.

As the story of the White Snake is widespread, the Xiang Opera, Han Opera, Sichuan Opera, Hui Opera, Yunnan Opera, Yu Opera, Cantonese Opera, Ping Opera, Hebei Xunzi, Qin Qiang and Qingping Opera all have this repertoire. Different perceptions of Fahai were received by people from different regions. As of the contemporary time, Fahai as a figure appeared in legends and novels adapted television works. In terms of literary and artistic creation, Fahai as a fictional figure is distant from his historical figure as a Buddhist monk.

References

Citations

Sources

Year of birth unknown
Tang dynasty Buddhist monks

Fahai


In different sports an athlete who wins five crowns, titles, medals, belts, or other distinctions is called a Quintuple Champion.

Boxing

In boxing, a quintuple champion is a boxer who has won world titles in at least five different weight classes.

The first man in boxing to earn this distinction was Thomas Hearns on November 4, 1988. Hearns won first the Welterweight (147 lbs) title, later annexed the Super Welterweight (154 lbs) belt. Rather than win the next closest division in weight, the Middleweight (160 lbs), he moved up three divisions to earn the Light Heavyweight (175 lbs) title. He moved down in weight to net the Middleweight (160 lbs) crown and finally moved back in weight up to Super Middleweight (168 lbs) to become the first Quintuple Champion in the history of boxing.

Since then some boxers have won six titles and become the Sextuple champions.

World's Strongest Man
Mariusz Pudzianowski is the only man to have won the World's Strongest Man title five times.

Formula One
Juan Manuel Fangio is a five-time Formula One World Champion.

Motorcycle racing
Mick Doohan won five consecutive 500 cc World Championships starting in 1994.

See also
List of boxing triple champions
List of boxing quadruple champions
List of boxing quintuple champions
List of boxing sextuple champions
List of boxing septuple champions
Octuple champion
List of The Ring world champions
List of WBC world champions
List of WBA world champions
List of IBF world champions
List of WBO world champions
List of IBO world champions

External links

Boxing champions

Quintuple champion


Dreaming Out Loud is the debut album by OneRepublic, produced by Greg Wells with two songs produced by Ryan Tedder. OneRepublic has been the number one band on MySpace for over a year, and has been in MySpace Music's Top Artists since early 2006, with over 24 million total song plays and counting. The album was released in the US on November 20, 2007, although the entire album had been leaked on to the internet months before.

List of songs
 "Say (All I Need)"
 "Mercy"
 "Stop and Stare"
 "Apologize"
 "Goodbye Apathy"
 "All Fall Down"
 "Tyrant"
 "Prodigal"
 "Won't Stop"
 "All We Are"
 "Someone to Save You"
 "Come Home"

References

2007 albums
Debut albums
Pop rock albums
OneRepublic

Dreaming Out Loud (OneRepublic album)


The Donjon de Maurepas is a ruined medieval castle in the town of Maurepas, in the French département of Yvelines (Île de France).

History
Since the 8th century, the village of Maurepas (formerly spelled Malrepast) belonged to the Abbey of Saint-Denis. Facing the Normans' invasions, they left the domain to the Lords of Chevreuse; the castle was given to the family of Malrepast. A wooden keep was replaced by a stronger castle.

During the Hundred Years' War, the Lords of Malrepast abandoned the castle. It was then used as a haunt by a band of plunderers. In 1425, the English captured and hung all the occupants of the castle.

The castle was then occupied by Aymon de Massy.

In 1432, the English conquered the area and dismantled the castle.

After the war, the domain of Maurepas returned to the family of Chevreuse, but the castle remained a ruin.

Today, only the keep, which is  high, remains on a low motte. A farm leans on the ruins.

The keep has been listed by the French Ministry of Culture as a monument historique since 1926.

See also
List of castles in France

References

Ruined castles in Île-de-France
Yvelines
Monuments historiques of Île-de-France
Maurepas

Donjon de Maurepas


Karl Friedrich Schinkel (13 March 1781 – 9 October 1841) was a Prussian architect, city planner and painter who also designed furniture and stage sets. Schinkel was one of the most prominent architects of Germany and designed both Neoclassical and neo-Gothic buildings. His most famous buildings are found in and around Berlin.

Biography

Schinkel was born in Neuruppin, Margraviate of Brandenburg. When he was six, his father died in the disastrous Neuruppin fire of 1787. He became a student of architect Friedrich Gilly (1772–1800) (the two became close friends) and his father, David Gilly, in Berlin. At that time, the architectural taste in Prussia was shaped in Neoclassical style, mainly by Carl Gotthard Langhans, the architect of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin.

After returning to Berlin from his first trip to Italy in 1805, he started to earn his living as a painter. When he saw Caspar David Friedrich's painting Wanderer above the Sea of Fog at the 1810 Berlin art exhibition he decided that he would never reach such mastery of painting and turned to architecture.  Working for the stage, in 1816 he created a star-spangled backdrop for the appearance of the "Königin der Nacht" in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera The Magic Flute, which is even quoted in modern productions of this perennial piece. After Napoleon's defeat, Schinkel oversaw the Prussian Building Commission. In this position, he was not only responsible for reshaping the still relatively unspectacular city of Berlin into a representative capital for Prussia, but also oversaw projects in the expanded Prussian territories from the Rhineland in the west to Königsberg in the east, such as New Altstadt Church.

From 1808 to 1817 Schinkel renovated and reconstructed Schloss Rosenau, Coburg, in the Gothic Revival style. He also rebuilt the ruins of Chorin Abbey.

At age 60, on 9 October 1841, Schinkel died in Berlin, Province of Brandenburg.

Commemoration
His portrait appeared on the  banknote issued by the Reichsbank from 1936 until 1945. Printing ceased in 1945 but the note remained in circulation until the issue of the Deutsche Mark on 21 June 1948.

Style

Schinkel's style, in his most productive period, is defined by a turn to Greek rather than Imperial Roman architecture, an attempt to turn away from the style that was linked to the recent French occupiers. (Thus, he is a noted proponent of the Greek Revival.) He believed that in order to avoid sterility and have a soul, a building must contain elements of the poetic and the past, and have a discourse with them.

His most famous extant buildings are found in and around Berlin. These include the Neue Wache (1816–1818), the National Monument for the Liberation Wars (1818–1821), the Schauspielhaus (1819–1821) at the Gendarmenmarkt, which replaced the earlier theatre that was destroyed by fire in 1817, and the Altes Museum on Museum Island (1823–1830). He also carried out improvements to the Crown Prince's Palace and to Schloss Charlottenburg. Schinkel was also responsible for the interior decoration of a number of private Berlin residences. Although the buildings themselves have long been destroyed, portions of a stairwell from the Weydinger House were able to be rescued and built into the Nicolaihaus on Brüderstr. and its formal dining hall into the Palais am Festungsgraben.

Schinkel was extensively patronised by the Prussian royal family, producing designs for Stolzenfels Castle and completing Charlottenhof Palace for King Frederick William IV and for his brothers, Babelsberg Palace and Glienicke Palace.

Between 1825 and 1827, he collaborated with Carl Theodor Ottmer on designs for the Berliner Singakademie for Sing-Akademie zu Berlin. Since 1952, it has been known as the Maxim Gorki Theatre.

Later, Schinkel moved away from classicism altogether, embracing the Neo-Gothic in his Friedrichswerder Church (1824–1831). Schinkel's Bauakademie (1832–1836), his most innovative building, eschewed historicist conventions and seemed to point the way to a clean-lined "modernist" architecture that would become prominent in Germany only toward the beginning of the 20th century.

Schinkel, however, is noted as much for his theoretical work and his architectural drafts as for the relatively few buildings that were actually executed to his designs. Some of his merits are best shown in his unexecuted plans for the transformation of the Athenian Acropolis into a royal palace for the new Kingdom of Greece and for the erection of the Orianda Palace in the Crimea. These and other designs may be studied in his Sammlung architektonischer Entwürfe (1820–1837) and his Werke der höheren Baukunst (1840–1842; 1845–1846). He also designed the famed Iron Cross medal of Prussia and later Germany.

It has been speculated, however, that due to the difficult political circumstances – French occupation and the dependency on the Prussian king – and his relatively early death, which prevented him from seeing the explosive German industrialization in the second half of the 19th century, he was not able to live up to the true potential exhibited by his sketches.

Paintings

Buildings

See also
 Schinkelplatz
 Statue of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Berlin

References

Citations

General source
 Jörg Trempler: Schinkels Motive. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin, 2007, .
 Christoph Werner: Schloss am Strom. Die Geschichte vom Leben und Sterben des Baumeisters Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Bertuch-Verlag, Weimar 2004, .
 Christoph Werner: Castle by the River: The Life and Death of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Painter and Master Builder: A Novel. Tredition, Hamburg, 2020, .
 Christoph von Wolzogen: Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Unter dem bestirnten Himmel. Biographie. Edition Fichter, Frankfurt, 2016, .
 John Zukowsky (ed.): Karl Friedrich Schinkel 1781–1841: The Drama of Architecture. With essays by Kurt W. Forster and Wolfgang Pehnt, 2020 [2004], .

External links

  Prefatory essay from Collection of Architectural Designs including those designs which have been executed and objects whose execution was intended by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (Chicago: Exedra Books Incorporated, 1981). Also used as a reference.

Karl Friedrich Schinkel
1781 births
1841 deaths
19th-century architects
19th-century German architects
German ecclesiastical architects
German neoclassical painters
Greek Revival architects
German neoclassical architects
People from Neuruppin
People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg

Karl Friedrich Schinkel


The 2011–12 UCI Asia Tour was the 8th season of the UCI Asia Tour. The season began on 2 October 2011 with the Tour d'Indonesia and ended on 30 September 2012 with the Tour de Brunei.

The points leader, based on the cumulative results of previous races, wears the UCI Asia Tour cycling jersey. Mehdi Sohrabi from Iran was the defending champion of the 2010–11 UCI Asia Tour. Hossein Alizadeh of Iran was crowned as the 2011–12 UCI Asia Tour champion.

Throughout the season, points are awarded to the top finishers of stages within stage races and the final general classification standings of each of the stages races and one-day events. The quality and complexity of a race also determines how many points are awarded to the top finishers, the higher the UCI rating of a race, the more points are awarded.

The UCI ratings from highest to lowest are as follows:
 Multi-day events: 2.HC, 2.1 and 2.2
 One-day events: 1.HC, 1.1 and 1.2

Events

2011

2012

Final standings

Individual classification

Team classification

Nation classification

Nation under-23 classification

External links

UCI Asia Tour
2012 in road cycling
2011 in road cycling
UCI
UCI

2011–12 UCI Asia Tour


The white perch (Morone americana) is not a true perch but is a fish of the temperate bass family, Moronidae, notable as a food and game fish in eastern North America. In some places it is referred to as "Silver Bass".

The common name "white perch" is sometimes applied to the white crappie (Pomoxis annularis).

Description
Generally silvery-white in color, hence the name, depending upon habitat and size specimens have begun to develop a darker shade near the dorsal fin and along the top of the fish. This sometimes earns them the nickname "black-back". White perch have been reported up to  in length and weighing .

Ecology
Although favoring brackish waters, it is also found in fresh water and coastal areas from the St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario south to the Pee Dee River in South Carolina, and as far east as Nova Scotia. They are also found in the lower Great Lakes, Finger Lakes, Long Island Sound and nearby coastal areas, Hudson and Mohawk River system, Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay. It is also found occasionally in small landlocked lakes and ponds.

Diet
White perch are known to eat the eggs of many species native to the Great Lakes, such as walleye and other true perches. At times, fish eggs are 100% of their diet. They prefer to eat small minnows like mudminnows and fathead minnows.

In the Chesapeake Bay, white perch commonly prey upon grass shrimp, razor clams, and bloodworms which are all common to the region.

Reproduction
White perch are a prolific species. The female can deposit over 150,000 eggs in a spawning session, lasting just over a week. Several males will often attend a spawning female, and each may fertilize a portion of her eggs. The young hatch within one to six days of fertilization.

At times, a parasite known as Lironeca ovalis is located in the gills. Its presence is believed to reduce the growth rate of white perch.

The white perch is currently recovering from a loss of population in the Hudson River.

Aquatic nuisance species

Some states consider the white perch to be a nuisance species due to its ability to destroy fisheries. They have been associated with the declines in both walleye and white bass populations because they feed heavily on baitfish used by those species and outcompete them for food and space. Many states have enacted laws forbidding possession of live white perch. Additionally, these states recommend not releasing captured white perch back into the water to help control its spread.

References

External links

  DNR.state.md: White perch

Morone
Perch, white
Perch, white
Fish of the Great Lakes
Fish described in 1789
Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin

White perch


The 1952 Campeonato Profesional was the fifth season of Colombia's top-flight football league. 15 teams compete against one another and played each weekend. The tournament was notable for being the fourth year of El Dorado. Millonarios won the league for 3rd time in its history after getting 46 points.

Background
The tournament was the fourth year of El Dorado. The number of teams was reduced from 18 to 15: Deportes Caldas and Once Deportivo joined to form Deportivo Manizales. Huracán de Medellín disappeared due to poor performance, while Independiente Medellín had to retire because of an economic crisis.

Universidad, who was also in an economic crisis, received a lot of players from other teams in order to enable their participation in the championship: Santa Fe loaned it Roberto Martínez, Atilio Miotti, Juan Candall, José María Arnaldo, Oscar Contreras, Luis López, Mario Fernández y Angel Perucca; Millonarios loaned Tomás Aves; Junior loaned Heraldo Ferreyro; Deportivo Manizales loaned Segundo Tessori, Vicente Gallina and Osvaldo Bianco; and Deportivo Samarios loaned Milos Dragoilovich.

Millonarios became the first team to win the championship three times, and the first team to win two consecutive titles. Alfredo Di Stéfano became goalscorer of the tournament for the second time in succession. This was the most successful year of the denominated Ballet Azul, in which also played 33 international matches, finishing with 20 wins, 10 draws and 3 losses, being the 4-2 win against Real Madrid its most memorable match.

League system
Every team played two games against each other team, one at home and one away. Teams received two points for a win and one point for a draw. If two or more teams were tied on points, places were determined by goal difference. The team with the most points is the champion of the league.

Teams

a Municipal played its home games at Itagüí

Final standings

Results

Top goalscorers

Source: RSSSF.com Colombia 1952

References

External links

Dimayor Official Page

Prim
Colombia
Categoría Primera A seasons

1952 Campeonato Profesional


Diospyros crassiflora, commonly known as Gabon ebony, African ebony, West African ebony, and Benin ebony is a species of lowland-rainforest tree in the family Ebenaceae that is endemic to Western Africa. It is named after the West African state of Gabon, though it also occurs in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria.

The wood this particular tree produces is believed to be the blackest of all timber-producing Diospyros species, and the heartwood from this tree has been used since ancient Egyptian times. It is hard and durable with very fine pores, and it polishes to a high luster. It is used to make sculptures, carvings, walking sticks, pool cues, doorknobs, tool and knife handles, gun grips, the black keys on pianos, organ-stops, guitar fingerboards and bridges, and chess pieces. It is the wood of choice for the fingerboards, tailpieces, and tuning pegs used on all orchestral stringed instruments, including violins, violas, cellos, and double basses.

The species was classified as endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature red list in 1998. A second IUCN assessment in 2018 re-listed the species as vulnerable. The new assessment was based on a more detailed dataset of occurrence and abundance. It stated that "the most severe long-term threat is the conversion of forest to agriculture and grazing, as well as logging of other commercial timber species."

References

crassiflora
Trees of Africa
Flora of Gabon
Flora of Cameroon
Flora of the Central African Republic
Flora of the Republic of the Congo
Flora of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Flora of Nigeria
Endangered flora of Africa

Diospyros crassiflora


Gerard Clifford (24 June 1941 – 12 December 2016) was a Roman Catholic auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Armagh, Northern Ireland. He was born in Lordship, County Louth. He was educated at Bellurgan National School, Bush Vocational School, St Mary's College, Dundalk, and Saint Patrick's College, Armagh.  He studied for the priesthood at St. Patrick's College, Maynooth and undertook postgraduate studies both in Maynooth and in the Jesuit Lumen Vitae, Brussels.

Clifford was ordained a priest on 18 June 1967 for the diocese and was appointed an auxiliary bishop of Armagh and Titular Bishop of Hieron on 25 March 1991. His episcopal consecration took place on 21 April 1991. The Principal Consecrator was Cardinal Daly; his Principal Co-Consecrators were Archbishop Emanuele Gerada, the Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland, and Francis Joseph MacKiernan, Bishop of Kilmore.

References

1941 births
2016 deaths
People from County Louth
20th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Ireland
21st-century Roman Catholic bishops in Ireland
20th-century Roman Catholic titular bishops
Alumni of St Patrick's College, Maynooth

Gerard Clifford


Giovanni Cesari (25 June 1843 – 10 March 1904) was an Italian singer with a soprano acuto, or high soprano voice.

Together with Alessandro Moreschi, Domenico Salvatori and Domenico Mustafà, Cesari was a famous castrato singer of the late 19th century. Born in the town of Frosinone, he was dropped off at an orphanage in 1852 by his parents. Here he started his musical education under the direction of Gaetano Capocci, financed by the Sistine Chapel. He was then admitted, upon completing his studies, as a soprano to the Sistine Chapel Choir at the age of 17 in 1861. Cesari was overall a remarkable soprano, and although he possessed a veiled voice, he was a master of song with an optimal intonation and an exquisite trill.

In addition to being a soprano at the Sistine Chapel Choir, he was also director of sacred music at several churches of Rome (Santa Lucia al Gonfalone, Santo Spirito in Sassia, etc.), and he used to arrange concerts in Rome. In 1896 he was promoted to vice-director of the Cappella, sometimes substituting for the older maestro Domenico Mustafà. He died prematurely in Rome in 1904.

His voice can be heard, rather faintly, together with those of the other choristers on the Sistine Chapel recordings made by Fred Gaisberg in 1902.

External links
Short biography

1843 births
1904 deaths
Cesari
Cesari
19th-century Italian male actors
Italian male stage actors
19th-century Italian male singers

Giovanni Cesari


Education in Norway is mandatory for all children aged from 6 to 16. Schools are typically divided into two divisions: primary and lower secondary schooling. The majority of schools in Norway are municipal, where local governments fund and manage administration. Primary and lower secondary schools are available and free of charge for all Norwegian citizens as a given right.

When primary and lower secondary education is completed, upper secondary schooling is entitled to students for enrollment, which prepares students for higher education or vocational studies.

The school year in Norway runs from mid-August to late June the following year. The Christmas holiday from mid-December to early January historically divides the Norwegian school year into two terms. Presently, the second term begins in January.

History of education in Norway

Organized education in Norway dates as far back as 2000 B.C. Shortly after Norway became an archdiocese in 1153, cathedral schools were constructed to educate priests in Trondheim, Oslo, Bergen and Hamar.

After the Reformation of Norway in 1537, following the unification with Denmark in 1536, cathedral schools were turned into Latin schools, and it was made mandatory for all market towns to have such a school.

In 1736 training in reading was made compulsory for all children, but was not effective until some years later, when ambulatory schools () were also established. In 1827, Norway introduced the  ('people's school'), a primary school which became mandatory for seven years in 1889 and nine years in 1969. In the 1970s and 1980s, the  was abolished, and the  ('foundation school') was introduced.

Traditionally poorer counties like Finnmark and Hedmark have the highest shares of inhabitants who only have completed the compulsory primary education, with numbers as high as 38%.

Under the Independent Schools Act of 2003, private schooling in Norway has become available. However, very few such schools exist in comparison to Norwegian public schools. Private schools must be founded upon a curriculum used and recognized internationally or an alternative approach to teaching – either religious or pedagogical. These schools must be approved by the government and are heavily grant-aided, and cannot select students based on subjectivity, such as skill or intelligence.

Education today
The Norwegian school system can be divided into three parts: elementary school (, ages 6–12), lower secondary school (, ages 13–16), and upper secondary school (, ages 16–19). The  and  levels are compulsory, and are commonly referred to as  ('foundation school').

Elementary and lower secondary school are mandatory for all children aged 6–16. Before 1997, mandatory education in Norway started at the age of 7. Students often have to change schools when they enter lower secondary school and almost always have to change schools when they enter upper secondary school, as many schools only offer one of the levels.

Primary school (, grades 1–7, ages 6–12)
In the first year of primary school, students spend most of their time playing educational games and learning social structures, the alphabet, basic addition and subtraction, and basic English skills. In grades 2–7, they are introduced to mathematics, English, science, religion (focusing not only on Christianity but also on all other religions, their purpose, and their history), aesthetics, and music, complemented by geography, history, and social studies in the fifth grade. No official grades are given at this level. However, the teacher often writes a comment, analysis, and sometimes an unofficial grade on tests. Tests are to be taken home and shown to parents. There is also an introductory test to let the teacher know if the student is above average or is in need of some assistance at school.

Lower secondary school (, grades 8–10, ages 13–16)
When the students enter lower secondary school, at age 12 or 13, they begin being graded on their work. Their grades together with their location in the country will determine whether they get accepted to their upper secondary school of choice or not. From eighth grade, students can choose one elective () and one language. Typical offered languages are German, French, and Spanish as well as additional English and Norwegian studies. Before the educational reform of August 2006, students could choose a practical elective instead of the languages. Teens born in 1999 and later could once again choose a practical elective known as () or career studies upon starting lower secondary school, thus getting the option to choose two electives. The electives vary significantly between schools, even in the same municipality.

A student may take the grade 10 exam in a particular subject early as long as he or she has been granted an exemption from further instruction in the elementary/middle school curriculum of that subject.

In 2009, Norwegian fifteen-year-olds performed better in OECDs Programme for International Student Assessment than other Scandinavian countries, with significant improvement since 2006. In mathematics; however, the top 10% were estimated to lag three years behind the top-scoring students in Shanghai.

Upper secondary school (, grades VG1–VG3, ages 16–18)
Secondary education in Norway is primarily based on public schools: In 2007, 93% of upper secondary school students attended public schools.
Until 2005, Norwegian law held private secondary schools to be illegal unless they offered a "religious or pedagogic alternative", so the only private schools in existence were religious (Christian), Steiner/Waldorf, Montessori schools, and . The first "standard" private upper secondary schools opened in the fall of 2005.
 is the equivalent to high school.

As of 2017, graduation from  was at 73%.

Prior to 1994, there were three branches of upper secondary schooling: general (language, history, etc.), mercantile (accounting, etc.), and vocational (electronics, carpentry, etc.) studies. The high school reform of 1994 ("Reform 94") merged these branches into a single system. Among the goals of the reform was that all students should have a certain amount of general studies large enough to make them eligible for higher education later, meaning more theory in vocational studies, and that it should be possible to cross over from one education path to another without losing too much credit. In the old system, two years of carpentry would be wasted if one wanted to switch to general studies, but in the new system one could keep credit for at least half of it.

Since the introduction of the reform  ('the knowledge promise' or 'the lifting of knowledge', the word  having two meanings) in the fall of 2006, a student can apply for a general studies () or a vocational studies () path. Inside these main paths, there are many sub-paths to follow. An upper secondary school usually offers general and vocational curriculum. Vocational studies usually follow a typical structure named the "2+2 model": after two years of school training (with workshops and a short internship in industry), the student does an apprenticeship for two years in an enterprise or a public institution. The apprenticeship is divided into one year of training and one year of practical work. Some vocational curricula are nonetheless entirely school-based, and others include three years of apprenticeship instead of two.

The new reform makes the incorporation of IT into the schooling mandatory, and many counties (responsible for the public high schools) offer laptops to general studies students for free or for a small fee.  also makes it harder to switch between electives that are taken in the second and third year in the general studies path.

Students graduating upper secondary school are called  in Norwegian. They often celebrate with parties and festivities, which are held a few weeks before the final examinations of the final year.

Educators in Norwegian schools

The titles of educators in Norwegian schools vary with the degrees they have.

Preschool teacher ( or ): These teachers are primarily employed in kindergartens and the first four grades of primary school. To become a preschool teacher in Norway, a bachelor's degree from a university college is required.
Adjunct teacher (): These teachers primarily work between the 5th and 10th grades of lower secondary school, but some are also employed in high schools, usually in minor subjects. To become an adjunct requires a bachelor's degree in a particular subject from a university or university college. Many adjuncts have studied other courses at a lower level, which they teach as a secondary subject (a mathematics teacher may have studied physics at a lower level, but teaches both). In addition, a one-year course in pedagogy is required.
Lecturer (): Lecturers work in upper secondary school and high schools, from 8th grade up to the third year of high school. Lecturers have a master's degree from a university, along with a pedagogy course. Lecturers usually have a more academic approach to teaching than other teachers.

Higher education

Higher education is anything beyond upper secondary school, and normally lasts three years or more. To be accepted to most higher education schools, a student must have attained a general university admissions certificate (). This can be achieved by taking general studies while in upper secondary school or through the law of 23/5 where a person must be above 23 years of age, have five years of combined schooling and work experience and have passed exams in Norwegian, mathematics, natural sciences, English and social studies. Some degrees also require special electives in second and third grade (e.g. maths and physics for engineering studies.)  The majority of higher educational institutions are run by the state and take responsibility for their own instruction, research, and dissemination of knowledge. The Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT), a professionally independent agency under the Ministry of Education and Research, assures the quality of higher education in Norway.

Where there are more applicants than students admitted, applicants are ranked based on their grades from upper secondary school. To gain access to studies commonly requiring a high GPA, like medicine, law and engineering, many students re-sit their upper secondary school examinations to improve their grades.

Higher education is broadly divided into:

Universities, which concentrate on theoretical subjects (arts, humanities, natural science), supply bachelor (three years), master (five years) and PhD (eight years) titles. Universities also run a number of professional studies including law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy and psychology. However, these are generally separate departments that have little to do with the rest of the university institution. Universities can offer their own curricula at any level without external accreditation.
University colleges (), which supply a wide range of educational choices, including university degrees at bachelor, master and PhD levels, engineering degrees and professional vocations like teacher and nurse. University colleges are required to obtain accreditation from NOKUT for study programmes at the master's and PhD level. The grade system is the same as it is for universities.
 Private schools, which tend to specialize in popular subjects with limited capacity in public schools, such as business management, marketing or fine arts. Private schools are not common, although the fraction of students attending private schools is 10% in higher education, compared to 4% in secondary and 1.5% in primary education.

There is no formal distinction between vocational and non-vocational higher education.

Timeline of Norwegian higher education

Before the 19th century the main source for higher education of Norwegians was the University of Copenhagen.
 1750: The Norwegian Military Academy is established as the "Free Mathematical School" with officer training and technical disciplines such as geographic surveying, drawing, fortification, and mathematics.
 1757: The "Mining Seminar" is established at Kongsberg to train engineers for the Kongsberg Mines. This education was moved to the Royal Frederik's University in Christiania (Oslo) in 1814 (three years after the establishment of this university).
 1811: The University of Oslo is established as Universitas Regia Fredericiana modeled on the University of Berlin (the "Humboldt Model").
 1859: The Norwegian University of Life Sciences is established as an agricultural school at Ås, Akershus
 1910: The Norwegian Institute of Technology is established in Trondheim.
 1936: The Norwegian School of Economics is established in Bergen.
 1943: The BI Norwegian Business School (BI) is established as a merchant school.
 1946: The University of Bergen is established.
 1961: The Oslo School of Architecture and Design is established.
 1972: The University of Tromsø is established.
 2005: Stavanger University College is given status as university, thus becoming the University of Stavanger.
 2007: Agder University College (established 1994) is given status as university, thus becoming the University of Agder.
 2011: Bodø University College becomes  University of Nordland, the eighth university in Norway.
 2014: Telemark University College, Buskerud University College and Vestfold University College merge to form the University College of South-Eastern Norway
2018: The University College of South-Eastern Norway gain university status, becoming the University of South-Eastern Norway

Special education
Norway's first large-scale education institution for people with intellectual disabilities was founded in 1898 by educator Emma Hjorth. Since the 1970s, the government has legislated the policy that all children should be educated in local schools. Since then, special education has taken place mostly in ordinary schools. The need for special education in school depends on the individual student's abilities and capabilities. Pupils who cannot manage to yield learning outcomes from the typical teaching style have a right to special education.

In special education, the Educational/Psychological Service maintains highly qualified specialists, educational psychologists, social welfare workers, and kindergarten teachers, playing the role of safety net in society. The Educational/Psychological Service visits school, provides students with help when needed, and assists their family members. In addition to the society system, special educators play a significant role, particularly in the content of their instructions.

According to The Act relating to Universities and Colleges, universities and university colleges must take responsibility for the students' learning environment. Institutions are expected to create an inclusive and flexible learning environment that represents universal design.

Grading
Norway has multiple different grading systems, both unique ones and ones that have been based on foreign grading systems. The former most common system of grades used at university level was based on a scale running from 1.0 (worst) through 6.0 (best) with 4.0 or above being considered passing grades.

The way the new Bologna system was introduced implies that students who had started their studies while the old system still was in effect will graduate with transcripts containing grades from both systems (i.e. both numbers and letters).

Lower levels of education use a scale running from 1 through 6, with 6 being the highest and 2 the lowest passing grade. For non-final tests and mid-term evaluations the grades are often postfixed with + or - (except 6+ and 1-) and it is also common to use grades such as 5/6 or 4/3 indicating borderline grades. However, the grades students get on their final diploma are either 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.

Examinations

At the conclusion of their school careers, upper secondary pupils aspire to graduate with a diploma. This is obtained by those who have passed all their subjects, and lists grades which are "based on teachers' determination of overall achievement marks of their own students." As well as these teacher-assigned grades, the students' diplomas may feature one or more examination grades. A minority of students will be chosen at random to sit an exam, a concept called  in Norwegian. The word  means 'subject', whilst the verb  can be translated as 'to draw, to pick', as one would describe picking a card from a pack. The dictionary translation of  is given as a description of the concept: "subjects students may be chosen to sit an exam for."

Academic schedule

Academic year in Norway
In Norway's schools, there are two semesters. The new academic year begins in the middle of August. The first semester begins in August and ends in December. The second semester begins in January and ends in June.

Breaks
In Norway's school,  there are several long vacations. For example, after the academic year ends in June, students in Norway have summer vacation, which is eight weeks from the middle of June until the middle of August. They also have Christmas holidays after the first semester ends in December until the second semester begins in January. In addition, in the last week of October, pupils in primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools have fall break, with another week-long break (winter break) in the middle of February. Students at universities or university colleges typically do not have fall and winter breaks.

National holidays
In Norway, there are thirteen national holidays that students are free from school. In the middle of April, there are four days of Easter break. Norway celebrates International Workers' Day on May 1 and its Constitution Day on May 17. Furthermore, Norway also celebrates Ascension Day in May, with the exact date depending on the each year. Ten days after Ascension Day, the country celebrates Pentecost, and Whit Monday the next day. Students do not have to attend school on these national holidays. However, some of the holidays are included in the long break. For example, New Year's day and Christmas are national holidays in Norway, but students have Christmas holidays at that time.

See also
 List of universities in Norway
 Open access in Norway

References

Further reading
  Ishii, Yuri (石井 由理; Yamaguchi University). "Awareness of Global Citizenship in the Norwegian School Curriculum(Educational Philosophy)" (Archive; ノルウェー学校教育課程に見られる地球市民の視点(教育哲学)). International Christian University publications. I-A, Educational studies (国際基督教大学学報. I-A, 教育研究) 43, 29-38, 2001-03. International Christian University. See profile at CiNii. See profile at International Christian University Repository (国際基督教大学リポジトリ). English abstract available.
 https://web.archive.org/web/20160327163436/http://www.udir.no/Upload/Brosjyrer/5/Education_in_Norway.pdf

External links

Official authorities
 Ministry of Education and Research (Kunnskapsdepartementet)
 The Norwegian Universities and Colleges Admission Service (Samordna opptak)
 The Education Mirror 2012 yearly publication from The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training with description and statistics on primary and secondary education
 The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (Utdanningsdirektoratet / UDIR) contains all syllabuses for elementary through to upper secondary school in Norway.

Reports from international organizations
 OECD Education Policy Outlook: Norway
 Information on education in Norway, OECD - Contains indicators and information about Norway and how it compares to other OECD and non-OECD countries
 Technical and vocational education in Norway, UNESCO-UNEVOC(2013) - Overview of the technical and vocational education system in Norway

Education in Norway


Leonid Hurwicz (August 21, 1917 – June 24, 2008) was an American economist and mathematician. He won the 2007 Nobel Prize in Economics.

Hurwicz invented the economic sciences of incentive compatibility and mechanism design. International economy and trade is studied using the ideas Professor Hurwicz had.

Hurwicz worked as Regents Professor of Economics (head teacher of economics) at the University of Minnesota. Professor Hurwicz believed that game theory is very important. Hurwicz shared the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Eric Maskin and Roger Myerson for their work on ways mechanism design.

Personal life
Professor Hurwicz was born in Moscow, Russia to a Jewish family a few months before the October Revolution. His family is Polish and had lived in Congress Kingdom (the part of Poland then in the Russian Empire) but they moved to Russia to escape World War I. Soon after Professor Hurwicz was born, the family returned to Warsaw, in Poland. Hurwicz and his family were treated very badly by the Bolsheviks and Nazis because they were Jewish. He became a refugee again when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. His parents and brother ran away to Russia where they were arrested by the Soviets and sent to labor camps. Hurwicz was forced to move to Switzerland, then to Portugal and finally in 1940 he moved to the United States. His family joined him there after some time.

Hurwicz hired Evelyn Jensen to help him teach during the 1940s. She grew up on a Wisconsin farm and was studying economics at the University of Chicago. Leonid and Evelyn got married in 1944 and later, lived on the Mississippi River parkway in Minneapolis, Minnesota. They have four children called Sarah, Michael, Ruth and Maxim.

He has interests in linguistics, archaeology, biochemistry and music. He has researched for meteorology and is a member of the National Science Foundation department for trying to control the weather. When Eugene McCarthy ran for president of the United States (1968), Hurwicz was a Minnesota delegate to the Democratic Party Convention and a member of the Democratic Party Platform Committee.

Hurwicz died of renal failure in Minneapolis, Minnesota at the age of 90.

Education and early work
Professor Hurwiczs father wanted him to study law and he did. In 1938 Hurwicz got a degree from Warsaw University. He enjoyed studying in economics class and went to the London School of Economics with Nicholas Kaldor and Friedrich Hayek. In 1939 he moved to Geneva where he studied at the Graduate Institute of International Studies and studied Ludwig von Mises teaching. After moving to the United States he studied more economics at Harvard University and the University of Chicago. Professor Hurwicz does not have a degree in economics but he won the Nobel prize for economics in 2007. He said, "Whatever economics I learned, I learned by listening and learning."

In 1941 Hurwicz was helping Paul Samuelson to teach at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and helping Oskar Lange to teach at the University of Chicago. At Illinois Institute of Technology during the war, Hurwicz taught electronics to the U.S. Army Signal Corps. Then from 1942 to 1944, at the University of Chicago, he was a member of the faculty of the Institute of Meteorology and taught statistics in the Department of Economics. His advisors in 1942 were Jacob Marschak and Tjalling Koopmans of the University of Chicago, who now work for the Cowles Foundation at Yale University.

Teaching and studies

Hurwicz received a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1945–1946. In 1946 he became a professor of economics at Iowa State College. From January 1942 until June 1946, he was a researcher for the Cowles Commission. He worked full-time for the Cowles Commission until October 1950 until January 1951, he was a visiting professor, teaching at classes that were taught before by Professor Koopman in the Department of Economics, and he was a very important professor there. He was also a research professor of economics and statistics at the University of Illinois, a consultant to the RAND Corporation for the University of Chicago and a consultant to the U.S. government. Hurwicz continued to be a consultant to the Cowles Commission until about 1961.

Hurwicz was given a job by Walter Heller at the University of Minnesota in 1951, where he became a professor of economics and mathematics in the School of Business Administration. Most of his work for the rest of his life was in Minnesota, but he studied and was a teacher elsewhere in the United States and Asia. In 1955 and again in 1958 Hurwicz was a visiting professor, and a fellow on the second visit, at Stanford University and there in 1959 he published "Optimality and Informational Efficiency in Resource Allocation Processes" on making rules for buyers and sellers and governments share wealth. He taught at Bangalore University in 1965 and, during the 1980s, at Tokyo University, People's University (now Renmin University of China) and the University of Indonesia. In the United States he was a visiting professor at Harvard in 1969, at the University of California, Berkeley in 1976, at Northwestern University twice in 1988 and 1989, at the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1998, the California Institute of Technology in 1999 and the University of Michigan in 2002. He was a visiting Distinguished Professor at the University of Illinois in 2001.

In the University of Minnesota in 1961, Hurwicz became chairman of the Statistics Department, Regents Professor of Economics in 1969, and Curtis L. Carlson Regents Professor of Economics in 1989. He taught subjects ranging from theory to welfare economics, public economics, rules for large companies and mathematical economics. Although he retired from full-time teaching in 1988, Hurwicz taught graduate school as Professor Emeritus in the autumn of 2006. In 2007 his ongoing research was described by the University of Minnesota as "comparison and analysis of systems and techniques of economic organization, welfare economics, game-theoretic implementation of social choice goals, and modeling economic institutions." Professor Hurwiczs published works in these fields date back to 1944. Professor Hurwicz is known internationally for his good work researching economic theory, specially with rules for big businesses and governments using mathematical economics. In the 1950s, he worked with Kenneth Arrow on non-linear programming. Kenneth Arrow became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Economics prize in 1972. Hurwicz helped Daniel McFadden, who won a Nobel prize in 2000.

Hurwiczs work was important to help show how large economic systems should be studied. Some of these systems are capitalism and socialism. Professor Hurwiczs ideas of how to share wealth are also very important. The theory of incentive compatibility that Hurwicz developed changed the way many economists think about sharing in the future, explaining why centrally planned economies may fail and how rewards for certain people make a difference when making decisions.

Hurwicz is part of teams who edit several journals. He co-edited and contributed to two collections for Cambridge University Press: Studies in Resource Allocation Processes (1978, with Kenneth Arrow) and Social Goals and Social Organization (1987, with David Schmeidler and Hugo Sonnenschein). His recent journals include "Economic Theory" (2003, with Thomas Marschak), "Review of Economic Design" (2001, with Stanley Reiter) and "Advances in Mathematical Economics" (2003, with Marcel K. Richter). Hurwicz has taught works by Fisher-Schultz (1963), Richard T. Ely (1972), David Kinley (1989) and Colin Clark (1997).

Awards

Memberships and honorary degrees
Hurwicz was voted to be a fellow of the Econometric Society in 1947 and in 1969 was the Econometric Societys president. Hurwicz was made part of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965. In 1974 he was made a part of the National Academy of Sciences and in 1977 was made a Distinguished Fellow of the American Economic Association. Hurwicz was given a National Medal of Science in 1990 by President of the United States George H. W. Bush, for studying Behaviorial and Social Science, given to him for his new work on the theories of how to share wealth in modern decentralization.

He served on the United Nations Economic Commission in 1948 and the United States National Research Council in 1954. In 1964 he was a member of the National Science Foundation Commission on Weather Modification. He is a member of the American Academy of Independent Scholars (1979) and a Distinguished Scholar of the California Institute of Technology (1984).

Hurwicz has received six honorary doctorates (PhD), from Northwestern University (1980), the University of Chicago (1993), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (1989), Keio University (1993), Warsaw School of Economics (1994) and Universität Bielefeld (2004). He is an honorary visiting professor of the Huazhong University of Science and Technology School of Economics (1984).

Using Hurwiczs name
Some important things have been given Professor Hurwicz's name such as the Hurwicz criterion, an idea that Professor Hurwicz had in 1950, and is thought of as very important for economics. The Hurwicz Criterion is also called "under uncertainty". Hurwicz had the idea of putting Abraham Walds work together with work done by Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1812. The Hurwicz Criterion tells people to think very carefully of what is good and what is bad before making decisions. Different types of the Hurwicz Criterion have been thought of. Leonard Jimmie Savage made some changes to the first Hurwiczs criterion in 1954. The four peoples work – Laplace, Wald, Hurwicz and Savage – that the Hurwicz Criterion has been based on was studied, corrected and used for over fifty years by many different people including John Milnor, G. L. S. Shackle, Daniel Ellsberg, R. Duncan Luce and Howard Raiffa, but some people say the work was started by Jacob Bernoulli.

The Leonid Hurwicz Distinguished Lecture is given to the Minnesota Economic Association. John Ledyard (2007), Robert Lucas, Roger Myerson, Edward C. Prescott, James Quirk, Nancy Stokey and Neil Wallace are some of the people who have given the lecture since it was thought to be important in 1992.

Nobel Economics Prize
In October 2007, Hurwicz shared The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel with Eric Maskin of the Institute for Advanced Study and Roger Myerson of the University of Chicago "for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory." During a telephone interview, a member of the Nobel Foundation told Hurwicz and his wife that Hurwicz is the oldest person ever to win the Nobel Prize. Hurwicz said, "I hope that others who deserve it also got it." When he was asked what the most important part of mechanism design is, he said welfare economics. The three Nobel prize winners used game theory work by mathematician John Forbes Nash, to discover the best way to reach a good outcome, without forgetting individual people. Mechanism design has been used as a guide for talks and taxation, voting and elections, to design auctions such as those for communications bandwidth, elections and labor talks and for pricing business stocks.

Professor Hurwicz was not able to attend the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm because of his age, Hurwicz received the prize in Minneapolis. Accompanied by Evelyn, his wife for sixty years, and his family, he was the most important guest at a meeting in the University of Minnesota with the university president Robert Bruininks. After watching the Nobel Prize awards ceremony on television, Jonas Hafstrom, the Swedish ambassador to the United States, awarded the Economics Prize to Professor Hurwicz.

Important work by Professor Hurwicz

Related pages
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country

Notes

References

Other websites

1917 births
2008 deaths
American economists
American Nobel Prize winners
Holocaust survivors
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Polish Jews
Refugees from Nazism
Russian Jews
Scientists from Minneapolis
Educators from Minneapolis

Leonid Hurwicz