The Airbus A320 family is a series of narrow-body airliners developed and produced by Airbus.

The A320 was launched in March 1984, first flew on 22 February 1987, and was introduced in April 1988 by Air France.
The first member of the family was followed by the longer A321 (first delivered in January 1994), the shorter A319 (April 1996), and the even shorter A318 (July 2003).
Final assembly takes place in Toulouse in France; Hamburg in Germany; Tianjin in China since 2009; and Mobile, Alabama in the United States since April 2016.

The twinjet has a six-abreast economy cross-section and came with either CFM56 or IAE V2500 turbofan engines, except the CFM56/PW6000 powered A318.
The family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire and side-stick flight controls in airliners.
Variants offer maximum take-off weights from , to cover a  range.

The 31.4 m (103 ft) long A318 typically accommodates 107 to 132 passengers.
The 124-156 seat A319 is 33.8 m (111 ft) long.
The A320 is 37.6 m (123 ft) long and can accommodate 150 to 186 passengers.
The 44.5 m (146 ft) A321 offers 185 to 230 seats.
The Airbus Corporate Jets are business jet versions.

In December 2010, Airbus announced the re-engined A320neo (new engine option), which entered service with Lufthansa in January 2016.
With more efficient turbofans and improvements including sharklets, it offers up to 15% better fuel economy.
Earlier A320s are now called A320ceo (current engine option).

American Airlines is the largest A320 operator with 469 aircraft in its fleet. In October 2019, the A320 family surpassed the Boeing 737 to become the highest-selling airliner.
, a total of 17,837 A320 family aircraft had been ordered and 11,083 delivered, of which 10,371 aircraft were in service with more than 340 operators. The global A320 fleet had completed more than 167 million flights over 307 million block hours since its entry into service.
The A320ceo initially competed with the 737 Classic and the MD-80, then their successors, the 737 Next Generation and the MD-90 respectively, while the 737 MAX is Boeing's response to the A320neo.

Development

Origins

When Airbus designed the A300 during the late 1960s and early 1970s, it envisaged a broad family of airliners with which to compete against Boeing and Douglas (later McDonnell Douglas), two established US aerospace manufacturers. From the moment of formation, Airbus had begun studies into derivatives of the Airbus A300B in support of this long-term goal. Prior to the service introduction of the first Airbus airliners, engineers within Airbus had identified nine possible variations of the A300 known as A300B1 to B9. A 10th variation, conceived in 1973, later the first to be constructed, was designated the A300B10. It was a smaller aircraft which would be developed into the long-range Airbus A310. Airbus then focused its efforts on the single-aisle market, which was dominated by the 737 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9.

Plans from a number of European aircraft manufacturers called for a successor to the relatively successful BAC One-Eleven, and to replace the 737-200 and DC-9. Germany's MBB (Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm), British Aircraft Corporation, Sweden's Saab and Spain's CASA worked on the EUROPLANE, a 180- to 200-seat aircraft. It was abandoned after intruding on A310 specifications. VFW-Fokker, Dornier and Hawker Siddeley worked on a number of 150-seat designs.

The design within the JET study that was carried forward was the JET2 (163 passengers), which then became the Airbus S.A1/2/3 series (Single Aisle), before settling on the A320 name for its launch in 1984. Previously, Hawker Siddeley had produced a design called the HS.134 "Airbus" in 1965, an evolution of the HS.121 (formerly DH.121) Trident, which shared much of the general arrangement of the later JET3 study design. The name "Airbus" at the time referred to a BEA requirement, rather than to the later international programme.

Design effort

In June 1977 a new Joint European Transport (JET) programme was set up, established by British Aerospace (BAe), Aerospatiale, Dornier and Fokker. It was based at the then BAe (formerly Vickers) site in Weybridge, Surrey, UK. Although the members were all of Airbus' partners, they regarded the project as a separate collaboration from Airbus. This project was considered the forerunner of Airbus A320, encompassing the 130- to 188-seat market, powered by two CFM56s. It would have a cruise speed of Mach 0.84 (faster than the Boeing 737). The programme was later transferred to Airbus, leading up to the creation of the Single-Aisle (SA) studies in 1980, led by former leader of the JET programme, Derek Brown. The group looked at three different variants, covering the 125- to 180-seat market, called SA1, SA2 and SA3. Although unaware at the time, the consortium was producing the blueprints for the A319, A320 and A321, respectively. The single-aisle programme created divisions within Airbus about whether to design a shorter-range twinjet rather than a longer-range quadjet wanted by the West Germans, particularly Lufthansa. However, works proceeded, and the German carrier would eventually order the twinjet.

In February 1981 the project was re-designated A320, with efforts focused on the blueprint formerly designated SA2. During the year, Airbus worked with Delta Air Lines on a 150-seat aircraft envisioned and required by the airline. The A320 would carry 150 passengers over  using fuel from wing fuel tanks only. The -200 had the centre tank activated, increasing fuel capacity from . They would measure , respectively. Airbus considered a fuselage diameter of "the Boeing 707 and 727, or do something better" and settled on a wider cross-section with a  internal width, compared to Boeing's . Although heavier, this allowed the A320 to compete more effectively with the 737. The A320 wing went through several design stages, eventually measuring .

National shares
The UK, France and West Germany wanted responsibility over final assembly and its associated work, known as "work-share arguments". The Germans requested an increased work-share of 40%, while the British wanted the major responsibilities to be swapped around to give partners production and research and development experience. In the end, British work-share was increased from that of the two previous Airbuses.

France was willing to commit to launch aid, or subsidies, while the Germans were more cautious. The UK government was unwilling to provide funding for the tooling, requested by BAe and estimated at £250 million; it was postponed for three years. On 1 March 1984, the British government and BAe agreed that £50 million would be paid, whether the A320 flew or not, while the rest would be paid as a levy on each aircraft sold.
In 1984, the program cost was then estimated at £2 billion ($2.8 billion) by Flight International, equivalent to £ billion today.

Launch

The programme was launched on 2 March 1984. At the time, Airbus had 96 orders. Air France was its first customer to sign a "letter of intent" for 25 A320s and options for 25 more at the 1981 Paris Air Show. In October 1983, British Caledonian placed seven firm orders, bringing total orders to more than 80. Cyprus Airways became the first customer to place an order for V2500-powered A320s in November 1984, followed by Pan Am with 16 firm orders and 34 options in January 1985, and then Inex Adria. One of the most significant orders occurred when Northwest Airlines placed an order for 100 A320s in October 1986, powered by CFM56 engines, later confirmed at the 1990 Farnborough Airshow.

During A320 development, Airbus considered propfan technology, which was backed by Lufthansa. At the time unproven, the technology essentially consisted of a fan placed outside the engine nacelle, offering turbofan speeds and turboprop economics; ultimately, Airbus stuck with turbofans.

Power on the A320 was to be supplied by two CFM56-5-A1s rated at . It was the only engine available until the arrival of the IAE V2500, offered by International Aero Engines, a group composed of Rolls-Royce plc, Pratt & Whitney, Japanese Aero Engine Corporation, Fiat and MTU. The first V2500 variant, the V2500-A1, has a thrust output of , hence the name. It is 4% more efficient than the CFM56, with cruise thrust-specific fuel consumption for the -A5 at  for the CFM56-5A1.

Entry into service

In the presence of then-French Prime Minister Jacques Chirac and the Prince and Princess of Wales, the first A320 was rolled out of the final assembly line at Toulouse on 14 February 1987 and made its maiden flight on 22 February in 3 hours and 23 minutes. The flight test programme took 1,200 hours over 530 flights. European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) certification was awarded on 26 February 1988. The first A320 was delivered to Air France on 28 March, and began commercial service on 8 April with a flight between Paris and Berlin via Düsseldorf. In 1988, the clean-sheet aircraft program cost was 5.486 billion French francs.

Stretching the A320: A321

The first derivative of the A320 was the Airbus A321, also known as the Stretched A320, A320-500 and A325. Its launch came on 24 November 1988 after commitments for 183 aircraft from 10 customers were secured. The aircraft was to be a minimally changed derivative, apart from minor wing modifications and the fuselage stretch itself. The wing would incorporate double-slotted flaps and minor trailing edge modifications, increasing wing area from  to . The fuselage was lengthened by four plugs (two ahead and two behind the wings), making the A321  longer than the A320 overall. The length increase required enlarged overwing exits, which were repositioned in front of and behind the wings. The centre fuselage and undercarriage were reinforced to accommodate an increase in maximum takeoff weight of , for a total of .

Final assembly for the A321 would be, as a first for any Airbus, carried out in Germany (then West Germany). This came after a dispute between the French, who claimed the move would incur $150 million (€135 million) in unnecessary expenditures associated with the new plant, and the Germans, who argued that it would be more productive for Airbus in the long run. The second production line was located at Hamburg, which would also subsequently produce the smaller Airbus A319 and A318. For the first time, Airbus entered the bond market, through which it raised $480 million (€475 million) to finance development costs. An additional $180 million (€175 million) was borrowed from the European Investment Bank and private investors.

The maiden flight of the Airbus A321 came on 11 March 1993, when the prototype, registration F-WWIA, flew with IAE V2500 engines; the second prototype, equipped with CFM56-5B turbofans, flew in May. Lufthansa and Alitalia were the first to order the stretched Airbuses, with 20 and 40 aircraft, respectively. The first of Lufthansa's V2500-A5-powered A321s arrived on 27 January 1994, while Alitalia received its first CFM56-5B-powered aircraft on 22 March.

Shrinking the A320: A319

The A319 was the following derivative of the baseline A320. The design was a "shrink", with its origins in the 130- to 140-seat SA1, part of the Single-Aisle studies, which had been shelved as the consortium focused on its bigger siblings. After healthy sales of the A320/A321, Airbus focused once more on what was then known as the A320M-7, meaning A320 minus seven fuselage frames. It would provide direct competition for the 737-300/-700. The shrink was achieved through the removal of four fuselage frames fore and three aft of the wing, cutting the overall length by . Consequently, the number of overwing exits was reduced from four to two. The bulk-cargo door was replaced by an aft container door, which can take in reduced height LD3-45 containers. Minor software changes were made to accommodate the different handling characteristics; otherwise the aircraft was largely unchanged. Power is provided by the CFM56-5A, CFM56-5B, or V2500-A5, derated to , with option for  thrust.

Airbus began offering the new model from 22 May 1992, with the actual launch of the $275 million (€250 million) programme occurring on 10 June 1993; the A319's first customer was ILFC, which signed for six aircraft. On 23 March 1995, the first A319 underwent final assembly at Airbus' German plant in Hamburg, where A321s were also assembled. It was rolled out on 24 August 1995, with the maiden flight taking place the following day. The certification programme took 350 airborne hours involving two aircraft. Certification for the CFM56-5B6/2-equipped variant was granted in April 1996, and qualification for the V2524-A5 started the following month.

Delivery of the first A319, to Swissair, occurred on 25 April 1996; it entered service by month's end. In January 1997, an A319 broke a record during a delivery flight by flying the  great circle route to Winnipeg, Manitoba from Hamburg in 9 hours and 5 minutes. The A319 has proven popular with low-cost airlines such as EasyJet, which purchased 172 of them.

Second shrink: A318

The A318 was born out of mid-1990 studies between Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC), Singapore Technologies Aerospace, Alenia and Airbus on a 95- to 125-seat aircraft project. The programme was called the AE31X, and covered the 95-seat AE316 and 115- to 125-seat AE317. The former would have had an overall length of , while the AE317 was longer by , at . The engines were to be supplied from two Rolls-Royce BR715s, CFM56-9s, or the Pratt & Whitney PW6000; with the MTOW of  for the smaller version and  for the AE317, the thrust requirement were  and , respectively. Range was settled at  and  for the high gross weights of both variants. Both share a wingspan of  and a flight deck similar to that of the A320 family. Costing $2 billion (€1.85 billion) to develop, aircraft production was to take place in China.

Simultaneously, Airbus was developing the Airbus A318. In early 1998, Airbus revealed that it was designing a 100-seat aircraft based on the A320. The AE31X project was terminated by September 1998, and Airbus officially announced the A318 at that year's Farnborough Airshow. The aircraft was the smallest in Airbus's product range, and was developed coincidentally at the same time as the largest commercial aircraft in history, the Airbus A380. First called A319M5 in as early as March 1995, it was shorter by  ahead of the wing and  behind. These cuts reduced passenger capacity from 124 on the A319 to 107 passengers in a two-class layout. Range was , or  with upcoming Sharklets.

The 107-seater was launched on 26 April 1999 with the options and orders count at 109 aircraft. After three years of design, the maiden flight took place at Hamburg on 15 January 2002. Tests on the lead engine, the PW6000, revealed worse-than-expected fuel consumption. Consequently, Pratt & Whitney abandoned the five-stage high-pressure compressor (HPC) for the MTU-designed six-stage HPC. The 129 order book for the A318 shrunk to 80 largely because of switches to other A320 family members. After 17 months of flight certification, during which 850 hours and 350 flights were accumulated, JAA certification was obtained for the CFM56-powered variant on 23 May 2003. On 22 July 2003, first delivery for launch customer Frontier Airlines occurred, entering service before the end of the month.

Production

The Toulouse Blagnac final assembly line builds A320s, whereas the Hamburg Finkenwerder final assembly line builds A318s, A319s, and A321s. The Airbus factory in Tianjin, China assembles A319s, A320s, and A321s; A320s and A321s are also assembled at the Airbus Americas factory in Mobile, Alabama. Airbus produced a total of 42 A320s per month in 2015, and expects to increase to 50 per month in 2017.

Production of parts takes place in a large number of countries around the world.  For example, the center fuselage is made in Hamburg, Germany; the horizontal stabilizer is produced in Getafe, Spain; and the rudder is produced in Harbin, China.

As Airbus targets a 60 monthly global production rate by mid-2019, the Tianjin line delivered 51 in 2016 and it could assemble six per month from four as it starts producing A320neos in 2017; 147 Airbus were delivered in 2016 in China, 20% of its production, mostly A320-family, a 47% market share as the country should become the world's largest market ahead of the US before 2027.

In June 2018, along a larger and modernised delivery centre, Airbus inaugurated its fourth Hamburg production line, with two seven-axis robots to drill 80% of fuselage upper side holes, autonomous mobile tooling platforms and following Design Thinking principles. By January 2019, Mobile was outputting 4.5 A320s per month, raising to five by the end of the year.

In September 2019, Airbus reached a milestone with the delivery of the 9000th A320-family aircraft to Easyjet. In October 2019, Airbus inaugurated a highly automated fuselage structure assembly line for A320 Family aircraft in Hamburg, showcasing an evolution in Airbus' industrial production system. Production rates continue to rise, and Airbus aims to reach a production rate of 63 aircraft per month by 2021, which would result in the 10,000th delivery occurring early that year.

Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, demand for new jets was reduced in 2020 and Airbus cut its monthly production from 60 to 40 A320s.
In October 2020, the 500th A320 built in Tianjin, an A320neo, was delivered to China Southern, twelve years after the final assembly line start in 2008.

A320 Enhanced

Improvements
In 2006, Airbus started the A320 Enhanced (A320E) programme as a series of improvements targeting a 4–5% efficiency gain, with large winglets (2%), aerodynamic refinements (1%), weight savings and a new aircraft cabin.
Engine improvements that reduced fuel consumption by 1% were made to the A320 in 2007 with the CFM56 Tech Insertion and in 2008 with the V2500Select (One).

Sharklets

In 2006, Airbus tested three styles of winglets intended to counteract the wing's lift-induced drag and wingtip vortices more effectively than the previous wingtip fence. The first design type to be tested was developed by Airbus and based on work done by the  programme. The second type of winglet incorporated a more blended design and was designed by Winglet Technology, a company based in Wichita, Kansas, USA. Two aircraft were used in the flight test evaluation campaign – the prototype A320, which had been retained by Airbus for testing, and a new build aircraft which was fitted with both types of winglets before it was delivered to JetBlue.

Despite the anticipated efficiency gains and development work, Airbus announced that those winglets would not be offered to customers, claiming that the weight of the modifications required negated any aerodynamic benefits. On 17 December 2008, Airbus announced it was to begin flight testing an existing blended winglet design developed by Aviation Partners Inc. as part of an A320 modernisation programme using the A320 prototype.

Airbus launched the sharklet blended winglets during the November 2009 Dubai Airshow. Installation adds  but offers a 3.5% fuel burn reduction on flights over , saving approximately US$220,000 and 700 t of CO2 per aircraft per year. The  tall wingtip devices are manufactured by Korean Air Aerospace Division.

In December 2011, Airbus filed suit in the western district of Texas over Aviation Partners' claims of infringement of its patents on winglet design and construction which were granted in 1993. Airbus' lawsuit seeks to reject responsibility to pay royalties to Aviation Partners for using its designs, despite work performed together with both parties to develop advanced winglets for the Airbus A320neo.

The first sharklet-equipped Airbus A320 was delivered to Indonesia AirAsia on 21 December 2012, offering a  payload and  range increases over the original aircraft specifications.

Cabin
In 2007, Airbus introduced a new enhanced, quieter cabin with better luggage storage and a more modern look and feel, and a new galley that reduced weight, increased revenue space and improved ergonomics and design for food hygiene and recycling. It offered a new air purifier with filters and a catalytic converter, removing unpleasant smells from the air before it is pumped into the cabin, as well as LEDs for mood lighting and a new passenger service unit (PSU).

Offering 10% more overhead bin volume, more shoulder room, a weight reduction, a new intercom and in-flight entertainment system, noise reduction and slimmer PSU, the enhanced cabin can be retrofitted. The flight crew controls the cabin through touchscreen displays.

New Engine Option

The A320neo (neo for new engine option) is a development launched on 1 December 2010, making its first flight on 25 September 2014 and introduced by Lufthansa on 25 January 2016. Re-engined with CFM International LEAP-1A or Pratt & Whitney PW1000G engines and with large sharklets, it was designed to be 15% more fuel efficient. Its three variants are based on the previous A319, A320 and A321. Airbus received 6,031 orders by March 2018 and delivered 318 by May 2018. The original family was renamed A320ceo, for current engine option.

Replacement airliner
In 2006, Airbus was studying a future replacement for the A320 series, tentatively dubbed as NSR or "New Short-Range aircraft". The follow-on aircraft to replace the A320 was to be named A30X. In 2007, Airbus North America President Barry Eccleston stated that the earliest the aircraft could have been available was 2017. In January 2010, John Leahy, Airbus's chief operating officer-customers, stated that an all-new single-aisle aircraft was unlikely to be constructed before 2024 or 2025.

Design

The Airbus A320 family are narrow-body (single-aisle) aircraft with a retractable tricycle landing gear and powered by two wing pylon-mounted turbofan engines.
After the oil price rises of the 1970s, Airbus needed to minimise the trip fuel costs of the A320. To that end, it adopted composite primary structures, centre-of-gravity control using fuel, a glass cockpit (EFIS) and a two-crew flight deck.

Airbus claimed the 737-300 burns 35% more fuel and has a 16% higher operating cost per seat than the V2500-powered A320.
A 150-seat A320 burns  of jet fuel over  (between Los Angeles and New York City), or  per seat with a 0.8 kg/L fuel.
Its wing is long and thin, offering better aerodynamic efficiency because of the higher aspect ratio than the competing 737 and MD-80.

Airframe

The Airbus A320 family are low-wing cantilever monoplanes with a conventional empennage with a single vertical stabilizer and rudder. Its wing sweep is 25 degrees. Compared to other airliners of the same class, the A320 features a wider single-aisle cabin of  outside diameter, compared to the  of the Boeing 737 or 757, and larger overhead bins. Its cargo hold can accommodate unit load device containers.

The A320 airframe includes composite materials and aluminium alloys to save weight and reduce the total number of parts to decrease the maintenance costs. Its tail assembly is made almost entirely of such composites by CASA, which also builds the elevators, main landing gear doors, and rear fuselage parts.

Flight deck

The A320 flight deck features a full glass cockpit, rather than the hybrid versions found in previous airliners. It is also equipped with an Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) with side-stick controllers. The A320 has an Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) to give the flight crew information about all of the systems on the aircraft. The only analog instruments were the radio-magnetic indicator and brake pressure indicator.

Since 2003, the A320 has featured liquid crystal display (LCD) units on the flight deck instead of the original cathode ray tube (CRT) displays. These include both main displays and the backup artificial horizon, which also previously had an analog display.

Airbus offers an avionics upgrade for older A320 aircraft, the In-Service Enhancement Package, to keep them updated. Digital head-up displays are available.

The A320 retained the dark cockpit (where an indicator is off when its system is running; useful for drawing attention to dysfunctions when an indicator is lit) from the A310, the first widebody designed to be operated without a flight engineer and influenced by Bernard Ziegler, first Airbus CEO Henri Ziegler's son.

Fly-by-wire
The A320 is the world's first airliner with digital fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system: input commands through the side-stick are interpreted by flight control computers and transmitted to flight control surfaces within the flight envelope protection; in the 1980s the computer-controlled dynamic system of the Dassault Mirage 2000 fighter cross-fertilised the Airbus team which tested FBW on an A300. At its introduction, fly-by-wire and flight envelope protection was a new experience for many pilots.

All following Airbuses have similar human/machine interface and systems control philosophy to facilitate cross-type qualification with minimal training. For Roger Béteille, then Airbus president, introducing fly-by-wire with flight envelope protection was one of the most difficult decisions he had ever made, explaining: "Either we were going to be first with new technologies or we could not expect to be in the market."

Early A320s used the Intel 80186 and Motorola 68010. In 1988, the flight management computer contained six Intel 80286 CPUs, running in three logical pairs, with 2.5 megabytes of memory.

Engines
The suppliers providing turbofan engines for the A320ceo family were CFM International with the CFM56, International Aero Engines offering its V2500, and Pratt & Whitney's PW6000 engines available only for the A318, while for the A320neo family are CFM International LEAP-1A or Pratt & Whitney PW1000G engines.

Operational history
The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) issued the type certificate for the A320 on 26 February 1988. After entering the market on 18 April 1988 with Air France, Airbus then expanded the A320 family rapidly, launching the 185-seat A321 in 1989 and first delivered it in 1994; launching the 124-seat A319 in 1993 and delivering it in 1996; and launching the 107-seat A318 in 1999 with first deliveries in 2003.

, the global A320 fleet had 99.7 percent operational reliability in the last 12 months and completed more than 167 million flights over 307 million block hours since its entry into service.

Competition

The A320 family was developed to compete with the Boeing 737 Classics (-300/-400/-500) and the McDonnell Douglas MD-80/90 series, and has since faced challenges from the Boeing 737 Next Generation (-600/-700/-800/-900) and the 717 during its two decades in service. As of 2010, as well as the 737, the A320 family faces competition from Embraer's E-195 (to the A318), and the CSeries being developed by Bombardier to the A318/A319.

Airbus has delivered 8,605 A320 family aircraft since their certification/first delivery in early 1988, with another 6,056 on firm order (as of 31 December 2018). In comparison, Boeing has shipped 10,444 737 series since late 1967, with 8,918 of those deliveries since March 1988, and has a further 4,763 on firm order (as of 31 December 2018).

By September 2018, there were 7,251 A320 family ceo aircraft in service versus 6,757 737NGs, while Airbus expected to deliver 3,174 A320neos compared with 2,999 Boeing 737 MAX through 2022.
Airbus sold the A320 well to low-cost startups and offering a choice of engines could make them more attractive to airlines and lessors than the single sourced 737, but CFM engines are extremely reliable.
The six-month head-start of the A320neo allowed Airbus to rack up 1,000 orders before Boeing announced the MAX.
The A321 has outsold the 737-900 three to one, as the A321neo is again dominating the 737-9 MAX, to be joined by the 737-10 MAX.

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Maintenance
A Checks are every 750 flight hours and structural inspections are at six- and 12-year intervals.

Variants

The baseline A320 has given rise to a family of aircraft which share a common design but with passenger capacity ranges from 100, on the A318, to 220, on the A321. They compete with the 737, 757, and 717. Because the four variants share the same flight deck, all have the same pilot type rating. Today all variants are available as corporate jets. An A319 variant known as A319LR is also developed. Military versions like A319 MPA also exists. American Airlines is the largest airline operator of the A320 family of aircraft with 392 aircraft in service as of 30 September 2017.

Technically, the name "A320" only refers to the original mid-sized aircraft, but it is often informally used to indicate any of the A318/A319/A320/A321 family. All variants are able to be ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance Standards) certified for 180 minutes since 2004 (EASA) and 2006 (FAA). With launch of the new Airbus A320neo project, the previous members of the Airbus A320 family received the "current engine option" or "CEO" name.

A318

The Airbus A318 is the smallest member of the Airbus A320 family. The A318 carries up to 132 passengers and has a maximum range of . The aircraft entered service in July 2003 with Frontier Airlines, and shares a common type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants, allowing existing A320 family pilots to fly the aircraft without the need for further training. It is the largest commercial aircraft certified by the European Aviation Safety Agency for steep approach operations, allowing flights at airports such as London City Airport. Relative to other Airbus A320 family variants, the A318 has sold in only small numbers with total orders for only 80 aircraft placed .
In 2018, the A318 list price was US$77.4 million.

A319

The A319 is  shorter than the A320.
Also known as the A320M-7, it is a shortened, minimum-change version of the A320 with four frames fore of the wing and three frames aft of the wing removed. With a similar fuel capacity as the A320-200 and fewer passengers, the range with 124 passengers in a two-class configuration extends to , or  with the "Sharklets". Four propulsion options available on the A319 are the  IAE V2500, or the  CFM56. Although identical to those of the A320, these engines are derated because of the A319's lower MTOW.

The A319 was developed at the request of Steven F. Udvar-Házy, the former president and CEO of ILFC. The A319's launch customer, in fact, was ILFC, which had placed an order for six A319s by 1993. Anticipating further orders by Swissair and Alitalia, Airbus decided to launch the programme on 10 June 1993. Final assembly of the first A319 began on 23 March 1995 and it was first introduced with Swissair in April 1996. The direct Boeing competitor is the Boeing 737-700.

A total of 1,460 of the A319ceo model have been delivered with 24 remaining on order as of 30 September 2017. A 1998 A319 was $35 million new; the value was halved by 2009, and reached scrap levels by 2019.
In 2018, the A319 list price was US$92.3 million.

ACJ319

The A319CJ (rebranded the ACJ319) is the corporate jet version of the A319. It incorporates removable extra fuel tanks (up to six additional center tanks) which are installed in the cargo compartment, and an increased service ceiling of . Range with eight passengers' payload and auxiliary fuel tanks (ACTs) is up to . Upon resale, the aircraft can be reconfigured as a standard A319 by removing its extra tanks and corporate cabin outfit, thus maximising its resale value. It was formerly also known as the ACJ, or Airbus Corporate Jet, while starting with 2014 it has the marketing designation ACJ319.

The aircraft seats up to 39 passengers, but may be outfitted by the customers into any configuration. Tyrolean Jet Services Mfg. GmbH & CO KG, MJET and Reliance Industries are among its users. The A319CJ competes with other ultralarge-cabin corporate jets such as the Boeing 737-700-based Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) and Embraer Lineage 1000, as well as with large-cabin and ultralong-range Gulfstream G650, Gulfstream G550 and Bombardier's Global 6000. It is powered by the same engine types as the A320. The A319CJ was used by the Escadron de Transport, d'Entraînement et de Calibration which is in charge of transportation for France's officials and also by the Flugbereitschaft of the German Air Force for transportation of Germany's officials. An ACJ serves as a presidential or official aircraft of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Brazil, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Malaysia, Slovakia, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, and Venezuela.

A320

The A320 series has two variants, the A320-100 and A320-200. Only 21 A320-100s were produced. These aircraft, the first to be manufactured, were delivered to Air Inter later acquired by Air France and British Airways as a result of an order from British Caledonian made prior to its acquisition.

The primary differences with the -100 were the -200's wingtip fences and increased fuel capacity, providing increased range.

Powered by two CFM56-5s or IAE V2500s with thrust ratings of , the A320's typical range with 150 passengers is . A total of 4,512 of the A320ceo model have been delivered, with 220 remaining on order as of 30 September 2017. The closest Boeing competitor is the 737-800.

In 1988, the value of a new A320 was $30 million, reaching $40 million by the end of the 1990s, a 30% increase lower than the inflation, it dipped to $37 million after 2001, then peaked to $47 million in 2008, and stabilised at $40–42 million until the transition to the A320neo.
In 2018, its list price was US$101.0 million.

A321

As the A320 was beginning operations in 1988, the A321 was launched as its first derivative the same year. The A321 fuselage is stretched by , with a  front plug immediately forward of wing and a  rear plug. The A321-100 maximum takeoff weight is increased by  to . To maintain performance, double-slotted flaps were included, in addition to increasing the wing area by , to . The maiden flight of the first of two prototypes came on 11 March 1993. The A321-100 entered service in January 1994 with Lufthansa.

As the A321-100 range was less than the A320, development of the heavier and longer range A321-200 began in 1995. The higher range was achieved through higher thrust engines (V2533-A5 or CFM56-5B3), minor structural strengthening, and an increase in fuel capacity with the installation of one or two optional  tanks in the rear underfloor hold. Its fuel capacity was increased to  and its maximum takeoff weight to . It first flew in December 1996 and entered service with Monarch Airlines in April 1997.

The A321's closest Boeing competitors are the 737-900/900ER, and the 757-200. In 2018, the A321 list price was US$118.3 million. A total 1,784 units of the A321ceo model have been delivered, with seven remaining on order as of 30 September 2023.

Conversions

Freighter

 A321P2F
A programme to convert A320 and A321 aircraft into freighters was set up by Airbus Freighter Conversion GmbH. Airframes would be converted by Elbe Flugzeugwerke GmbH (EFW) in Dresden, Germany, and Zhukovsky, Russia. The launch customer AerCap signed a firm contract on 16 July 2008 to convert 30 of AerCap's passenger A320/A321s into A320/A321P2F (passenger to freighter). However, on 3 June 2011, Airbus announced all partners would end the passenger to freighter programme, citing high demand for used airframes for passenger service.

On 17 June 2015 ST Aerospace signed agreements with Airbus and EFW for a collaboration to launch the A320/A321 passenger-to-freighter (P2F) conversion programme.
In August 2019, Qantas was announced as the launch operator for the A321P2F converted freighter, for Australia Post, with up to three aircraft to be introduced in October 2020. Titan Airways received their first A321P2F in January 2021 which was converted at Singapore Seletar Airport, the airline has two more A321P2F's that are yet to be converted.

The initial converted aircraft first flew on 22 January 2020, to be delivered to Vallair, and it secured EASA supplementary type certificate in February.
It should replace older converted Boeing 757s with 14 positions on the main deck and 10 on the lower, lifting up to  over .
Airbus sees a market for 1,000 narrowbody conversions over the 2020-2040 period. On 27 October 2020, the first A321P2F was delivered to launch operator Qantas Airways, with windows and exit doors removed, and a large hydraulically actuated main cargo door installed.

 A320P2F
After EFW began the first A320 conversion in March 2021, the A320P2F made its maiden three-hour flight on 8 December from Singapore.
The aircraft was first delivered in 2006, and its first cargo operator will be Nairobi-based Astral Aviation from the second quarter of 2022, leased from Middle Eastern lessor Vaayu Group.
The A320P2F received its supplemental type certification at the end of March 2022.

 Cargo
The A320P2F is suitable for express domestic as well as regional operations and can accommodate up to 27 metric tonnes over 1,900 nautical miles and offers space for 14 large containers/pallets on the main deck and 10 LD3-type containers on the lower deck.

Airborne Early Warning and Control System (AEW&CS)
The Indian Defence Ministry greenlit the modification by the Defence Research and Development Organisation of six Air India A320s into Airborne early warning and control planes for Rs 10,500 crore (US$ billion). They are to complement the two Indian-built Netra and three Israeli-and-Russian-made Phalcons of the Indian Air Force.

Operators

, there are 10,328 A320 family aircraft in commercial service with over 340 operators. The five largest operators are American Airlines, operating 469, China Eastern Airlines with 392, EasyJet 339, China Southern Airlines 314 and IndiGo 287. Aircraft in operation include 57 A318, 1,351 A319 (1,336 ceo + 15 neo), 6,065 A320 (4,274 ceo + 1,791 neo) and 2,855 A321 (1,722 ceo + 1133 neo) aircraft. 711 A320ceo family aircraft consisting of 23 A318s, 148 A319s, 478 A320s and 62 A321s were out of service through retirement or write-off.

Air France, British Airways, and Frontier Airlines are the only operators to have operated all four variants of the A320ceo family. Middle East Airlines received two milestone aircraft. The first was an A320ceo with manufacturer serial number (MSN) 5,000 on 20 January 2012. Eight years later, on 9 October 2020, the airline received MSN 10,000, an A321neo, at the celebration of its 75th anniversary.
In December 2022, over 10,000 A320 family aircraft were operated by more than 330 airlines, completing more than 158 million flights or 292 million hours in the air.

Orders and deliveries

The A320ceo family was the fastest-selling airliner from 2005 to 2007. Its successor, the A320neo family, improved on this with 1,420 orders and commitments in less than a year in 2011.

In November 2013, the A320 family aircraft reached 10,000 orders.

In October 2019, the A320 family became the highest-selling airliner family with 15,193 orders, surpassing the Boeing 737's total of 15,136.

In August 2021, the A320 family passed the 10,000 delivery mark, 33 years after its introduction, versus 50 years for the Boeing 737, which passed the 10,000 delivery mark in March 2018.

On 16 December 2021, the last member of the A320ceo family, an A321ceo (MSN 10315), was delivered from the assembly line Airbus Mobile in Alabama to Delta Air Lines registered N129DN.

In July 2022, total orders for the A320neo family reached 8,502, exceeding the total orders for the A320ceo family of 8,120.

In June 2023, total orders for the A321neo reached 5,163, surpassing total orders for the A320ceo of 4,763, and making it the most-ordered variant of the A320 family. In July the total orders for the A321neo reached 5,259, surpassing the record 5,205 orders for the Boeing 737-800, becoming the most ordered variant of any airliner in the world.

, a total of 11,083 A320 family aircraft have been delivered, with 20 A320ceos (2 A319s, 11 A320s and 7 A321s) remaining in the backlog. In the first eight months of 2023, Airbus has delivered 391 A320 family aircraft, comprising A320neo variants only. The A320 family backlog is over the 6,000 mark again, with A321s accounting for 60% and total orders reached 17,824, whereas cancellations incurred during the Boeing 737 MAX groundings brought total orders for the 737 slightly up to 16,054 aircraft, of which 11,550 had been delivered.

Data

Accidents and incidents

Across the entire A320 family, 160 major aviation accidents and incidents have occurred, including 48 hull loss accidents (the latest being LATAM Perú Flight 2213 on 18 November 2022), for a total of  fatalities. The A320 family has experienced 50 incidents in which several flight displays were lost.

As of 2015, the Airbus A320 family had experienced 0.12 fatal hull loss accidents for every million takeoffs and 0.26 total hull loss accidents for every million takeoffs.

Specifications

Engines

See also

Notes

References

External links

 Official Airbus website of the A320 aircraft family

A320
1980s international airliners
Twinjets
Aircraft first flown in 1987
Low-wing aircraft

Airbus A320 family


Self-mixing or back-injection laser interferometry is an interferometric technique in which a part of the light reflected by a vibrating target is reflected into the laser cavity, causing a modulation both in amplitude and in frequency of the emitted optical beam. In this way, the laser becomes sensitive to the distance traveled by the reflected beam thus becoming a distance, speed or vibration sensor. The advantage compared to a traditional measurement system is a lower cost thanks to the absence of collimation optics and external photodiodes.

Background
After the development of the classic external interferometric configurations (Michelson and Mach-Zehnder interferometers) which consisted of lenses, beam splitter, mirrors, and corner cube, the possibility of creating a much simpler and more compact system was investigated. Starting in the 1980s, this new configuration known as retro-injection or self-mixing was explored and applications based on the retro-injection effect in commercial laser diodes appeared in the scientific literature.
In this type of interferometric configuration the fact is exploited that a small fraction of the light emitted by a laser, after having been reflected by a vibrating target, is re-injected into the laser cavity, where a sort of coherent radiation detection is realized: the power emitted by the laser is in fact modulated both in amplitude (AM) and in frequency (FM), generating a fringes interferometric signal. This signal is a periodic function of the phase  of the back-scattered field, according to the following relation:

where  is the wave number and  is the physical distance between the laser source and the moving target. If a phase shift of an entire period is imposed, that is =, we get =.
So, if we can see an entire fringe on the oscilloscope screen, we can say that the phase shift due to the movement of the obstacle is , that is /. In this way, by counting the number of visible fringes, it is possible to calculate both the magnitude and the direction of the displacement with a resolution of /.

Compared to the classic interferometers that refer to Michelson one, this new type of interferometer is considerably simpler, since the laser beam already has all the information related to the signal that is no longer generated by the beating of two beams coming from optical path difference. Therefore, the reference optical path is no longer necessary for measurement and relies only on the interaction between the electric field that travels to the target and the electric field inside the laser cavity.

AM self-mixing laser interferometry

The trend of the amplitude modulated interferometric signal is shown, generated by a vibrating target (such as an audio speaker) powered through a sinusoidal voltage. For the properties of self-mixing laser interferometry, whenever the vibration of a vibrating target is such that its displacement is greater than or equal to / (where  is wavelength of employed laser), an interferometric fringe is created. However, with regard to amplitude modulation of the interferometric signal there are basically two consequences:
through the simple counting of the number of fringes generated, it is possible to retrieve the displacement of the target
instruments that use only the amplitude modulation (AM) are not very sensitive

The amplitude modulation (AM) of the emitted optical power is detected by the photodiode of monitor (PD) inside the laser package. In this particular interferometric technique the resolution of the displacement and vibration measurement is limited by a low signal-to-noise radio or SNR, such that the system is only suitable for slow and wide measurements .

FM self-mixing laser interferometry

Compared to the reading of the amplitude modulation performed with a photodiode, the reading of the frequency modulation is more complex, since the signal is superimposed on a carrier at the optical frequencies (of the order of THz) invisible to the semiconductor detectors and to the reading electronics, so that techniques (such as a superheterodyne receiver) or complex optical systems to convert frequency modulation into an amplitude modulation would be necessary: in fact by exploiting frequency modulation it would be theoretically possible achieving a higher signal-to-noise ratio and hence a better resolution in the condition of shifts less than half the wavelength. A system capable of converting the frequency modulation into the amplitude one is formed by a Mach-Zehnder interferometer which acts as an optical filter. The shape of the filter transfer function has a perfectly sinusoidal pattern by changing the frequency of the laser; the sinusoidal profile is repeated for the whole spectrum, due to the interference phenomenon on which the operation of the filter is based:

Filter transfer function:

where,  is an amplitude coefficient and  is the group index. It is possible to carry out the conversion appropriately by calibrating the path difference  at any optical frequency (therefore to any laser wavelength). The path difference  determines both the Free Spectral Range (FSR) of the instrument, coinciding with the bandwidth between two consecutive peaks of the transfer function, and the filter sensitivity. In particular, if the length of the Mach-Zehnder's path difference is large, then the sensitivity of the filter will be high, so that the converted signal amplitude is increased; while, if the length of the Mach-Zehnder's path difference is small, then the sensitivity of the filter will be low, so that the converted signal amplitude is reduced:

Filter sensitivity:

In order to design the Mach-Zehnder , it is needed achieving a compromise between sensitivity, FSR and dimensions of the filter, taking into account the main sources of noise in the system.

Noise sources
The noise sources that affect the entire system are related to both amplitude and frequency modulation. In particular, the noise sources related to the AM modulation are due both to the dark current noise, to the shot noise and to the electronics of the monitor photodiode, and to the laser shot noise.
Similarly, the noise sources related to FM modulation are due not only to the dark current noise, to the shot noise and to that of the FM photodiode electronics, but also to the contribution of noise related to the laser frequency modulation, which is converted into amplitude noise by the Mach-Zehnder interferometer: this latter type of noise is related to the line width of the laser, which is in turn linked to the random phase of the photons emitted by spontaneous emission.

Compatibly with the noise associated with the electronics of the instrument that will be used for the acquisition of AM and FM signals, it will be possible to reduce the path difference and therefore the noise associated with the interferometric signal, as long as the contribution of dominant noise remains that relative to frequency modulation.

References

Interferometry
Interferometers

Self-mixing interferometry


Burgundy is a former region of France. The name was from various states that were sometime outside the current borders.

Places
 Kingdom of Burgundy (intermittently 411–1378) a name given to various states located in or near Savoy in modern south-east France
 Kingdom of the Burgundians (411–534), an early medieval state founded by the Burgundians
 Lower Burgundy (879–933), also called the Kingdom of Provence, a kingdom formed from the breakup of the Carolingian Empire,
 Upper Burgundy (888–933), a kingdom formed of the breakup from the Carolingian Empire, corresponding largely to western Switzerland
 Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles (933 – late Middle Ages), a medieval state incorporated in 1033 into the Holy Roman Empire, formed from Upper and Lower Burgundy
 County of Burgundy (982–1678), a medieval county of the Holy Roman Empire to the east of the Duchy of Burgundy
 Duchy of Burgundy (1032–1477), a medieval appanage of the French crown between Savoy and the North Sea
 Burgundian Netherlands (1384–1482), the parts of the Duchy of Burgundy that correspond Low Countries
 Franche-Comté (1600s–2016), a former French province and région
 Bourgogne-Franche-Comté (2016–present): current French region formed by the union of Burgundy and the Franche-Comté
 Order-State of Burgundy (never realized), a proposed state in Western Europe intended to be formed following a German victory in the Second World War

Other
Burgundy wine
Burgundy (color)
Burgundy Records, a record label
Burgundy (stock market), an alternative stock exchange
Ron Burgundy, a fictional newscaster in the film Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy
"Burgundy", a 1999 song by Coal Chamber from their album Chamber Music
"Burgundy", a 2019 song by Chris Brown from his album Indigo
"Burgundy", a 2013 song by Earl Sweatshirt from his album Doris
Eshon Burgundy

See also

 Bourgogne (disambiguation)
 Burgoyne (disambiguation)

Burgundy (disambiguation)


Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) is one of six operational program units within the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The PPQ works to safeguard agriculture and natural resources in the U.S. against the entry, establishment, and spread of animal and plant pests, and noxious weeds in order to help ensure the protection of native flora and an abundant, high-quality, and varied food supply.

Plant pest program information
PPQ collaborates with state departments of agriculture and other government agencies to eradicate, suppress, or contain plant pests. Such collaborations may include emergency or longer-term domestic programs to target a specific pest.

Targeted pests include:
 insects and mites:
Asian longhorned beetle (ALB), Anoplophora glabripennis
cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum
celery leaf miner, Liriomyza Trifolii
cotton pests:
boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis
pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella
Cydalima perspectalis
emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis
European cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis cerasi
European grapevine moth, Lobesia botrana
fruit flies of genera in the Tephritidae family, including:
Anastrepha genus, especially the Mexican fruit fly
Bactrocera genus, notably the Melon fly; PPQ have implemented heightened surveillance measures for the entry of B. invadens
Ceratitis genus, particularly the Mediterranean fruit fly
grasshoppers
gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar dispar
imported fire ant
Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica
light brown apple moth (LBAM), Epiphyas postvittana
Mormon cricket, Anabrus simplex
palmetto weevil, Rhynchophorus cruentatus
pine shoot beetle, Tomicus piniperda
pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus
Spotted lanternfly
spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii
 mollusks:
giant African land snails
temperate terrestrial gastropods
 nematodes:
golden nematode, Globodera rostochiensis
pale cyst nematode, Globodera pallida
 Plant diseases:
black stem rust, caused by Puccinia graminis
chrysanthemum white rust, caused by Puccinia horiana
Citrus diseases
European larch canker
Gladiolus rust, caused by Uromyces transversalis
Karnal bunt, caused by Tilletia indica
plum pox, a viral disease transmitted by aphids
potato diseases
Ralstonia, a bacterial pathogen
soybean rust, caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi and Phakopsora meibomiae
sudden oak death (SOD) caused by Phytophthora ramorum
thousand cankers disease, caused by Geosmithia morbida spread by the walnut twig beetle

Pest detection and identification

PPQ aims to support APHIS goals by early detection of pests, weeds and plant diseases harmful to the economy, to allow for an organized response before significant damage is caused.

The National Identification Services (NIS) coordinates reports of plant pest identification, providing a database that may lead to quarantine actions. NIS collaborates with scientists in various specialties at institutions around the country, sending them detailed digital images of suspected pests for timely identification. Biochemical testing services are also employed.

In the past about 2% of all live plant import allotments were inspected, however that has shown to be inflexible. The likelihood of detection of a problem when using the 2% rule is not homogeneous. The biggest problem is that likelihood of successful detection is correlated with size of allotment - that is to say, an inspected sample of less than 2% is good enough for a larger shipment, while 2% is not good enough for a small shipment. There are also other disparities due to the actual contents of the shipment especially between species of declared material, location of origin, and target pests. As a result, PPQ, APHIS, and phytosanitary authorities in other countries are moving towards a more adaptive inspection thoroughness regime.

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology
The Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST) is PPQ's scientific support division, providing research and data to make scientifically valid regulatory and policy decisions. The center also develops technology and practical tools for PPQ personnel to conduct pest detection, exclusion and management operations.

The division's project areas include:
 Trade risk analysis and treatment – the potential impact on U.S. agriculture of pests and diseases associated with imported plant products, and treatment of these products to reduce such risks.
 Pest detection – through development of surveillance programs.
 Identification and diagnostics – developing and testing new detection technologies, and accrediting external laboratories in their use.
 Emergency response – providing scientific support during plant health emergencies.
 Harmful plant strategies – implementing existing methods and developing new technologies for the identification, exclusion, eradication, and management of invasive weeds and regulated plants.
 Biological control – developing technologies to allow natural enemies to effectively mitigate the impacts of invasive pests, arthropods, weeds, and plant pathogens.

Plant import and export

PPQ advises on regulations for international and interstate trade with the aim of preventing the introduction of foreign plant pests. This notably includes procedures on the import of live plants, fresh fruits and vegetables, and solid-wood packing material.

Domestic standards are delegated by the National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO) which assumes the responsibilities for ensuring the U.S. export program meets international standards. It provides certification of commodities as a service to U.S. exporters.

The North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO), operating between the U.S., Canada and Mexico, was created in 1976 to set Regional Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (RSPM). It depends upon regulators, scientists, producers and industry associations to collaborate in scientific standards to protect agricultural, forest, and other plant resources while facilitating trade.

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), established 1951, is an international plant health agreement that aims to protect cultivated and wild plants by preventing the introduction and spread of pests. This is done through International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM).

Accreditation, Certification, and Network Services

The Accreditation, Certification, and Network Services (ACNS) unit manages the National Seed Health System; the U.S. Nursery Certification Program; the U.S. Greenhouse Certification Program; the State National Harmonization Program for seed potatoes; Special Foreign Inspection and Certification programs; Plants in Growing Media; Postentry Quarantine, Audit-based Certification Systems pertaining to section 10201(d)(1) of the Farm Bill; and the National Clean Plant Network pertaining to section 10202 of the Farm Bill.

Identification Technology Program
ITP produces images, videos, identification keys, tools, and molecular diagnostics supporting PPQ's activities.

See also
 Food security
 Sanitary and phytosanitary measures and agreements

Sources
 USDA APHIS | About APHIS
 USDA APHIS | Plant Health (PPQ) Home Page
 USDA APHIS | Plant Pests and Diseases
 Hot projects
 USDA APHIS | PPQ Science and Technology
 USDA APHIS | Plant Health (PPQ) Home Page
 USDA APHIS | Imports and Exports
 Imports exports plants manual
 USDA APHIS Application Access - Home to PCIT and VEHCS.
 Ippc
 Nappo
 USDA APHIS | Plant Health Permits
 ePermit: eAuthentication

References

External links

Export and import control
Regulators of biotechnology products
United States Department of Agriculture agencies
Foreign trade of the United States
Phytosanitary authorities

Plant Protection and Quarantine


Anaplectoides prasina (green arches) is a species of moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in both the Palearctic and Nearctic realms.

Distribution
Europe East to Siberia, Central Asia, Mongolia, China, Tibet, Korea and Japan. Also in Armenia and the Caucasus. In North America South Canada, Washington, Oregon, North Utah, New Mexico, New Jersey, Ohio, North Carolina.

Description
The wingspan is 40–50 mm. Green, variously tinged with dark green or blackish; a green-tinged cream coloured or whitish blotch between the reniform stigma and outer line; stigmata dark green edged with black; inner and outer lines black, conversely edged with white, or whitish green, or concolorous; hindwing fuscous with a paler fringe. — In jaspidea Bkh. the pale patch beyond the reniform stigma is wanting and the stigmata are blacker; ab. pallida Tutt represents the extreme pale form, the whole wing being whitish green, in which the white patch beyond the reniform is absorbed, and the lines and shades are distinct only in the costal half of wing; — ab. suffusa Tutt is a rare form in which the green tints are superseded by red brown with the area round the stigmata blackish; — in albimacula Hornmz., from the Bukowina, the ground colour is a mixture of dark and light grey, with the patch beyond the reniform clear white, or filled in with grey; — lugubris Petersen from Esthland is dark brownish grey with only slight traces of green or white colouring.

The moth flies from May to August depending on the location.

The larva is purplish brown, with a pale dorsal line intersecting a row of blackish dorsal blotches; spiracular line pale, with a dark edge above.

The larvae are broad generalists, known to feed on both herbaceous plants and hardwoods. Caterpillars are known to be found on plants including blueberries, hazelnut, maples, and raspberry plants.

References

External links

Green arches at UK moths
Lepidoptera of Belgium
Funet Taxonomy
Moth Photographers Group
Lepiforum.de
Vlindernet.nl

Noctuinae
Moths of North America
Moths of Asia
Moths of Europe
Moths described in 1775

Anaplectoides prasina


Triumph mey refer tae:

Business
 Triumph (TWN), a defunct German motorcycle manufacturer
 Triumph Cycle Co. Ltd., a British bicycle brand
 Triumph Engineering Co Ltd, a defunct Breetish motorcycle manufacturer
 Triumph Group, an aerospace manufacturin an repair company
 Triumph International, a warldwide unnerwear manufacturer
 Triumph Motor Company, a British caur manufacturer
 Triumph Motorcycles Ltd, a current Breetish motorcycle manufacturer
 Norton Villiers Triumph, a defunct Breetish motorcycle manufacturer

Entertainment
 Triumph (band), a Canadian hard rock baund
 Triumph (Triumph album), their 1976 eponymous first album
 Triumph (The Jacksons album)
 Triumph (Philip Bailey album)
 "Triumph" (song), a 1997 rap single bi the Wu-Tang Clan
 Triumph, the Insult Comic Dog, a character frae the television show Late Night with Conan O'Brien
 "Triumph" (Rome), an episode o the television series Rome
 Triumph (comics), a former Justice League member
 Triumph (novel), 1993 alternate history novel bi Ben Bova set at the end o Warld War II
 Triumph Studios, a computer game development company based in the Netherlands
 Triumph Films, a division o Sony Pictures Entertainment
 Triumph (1917 film), a 1917 film starrin Lon Chaney, Sr.
 Triumph (1924 film), a 1924 film directit bi Cecil B. DeMille
 Triumph of the Will, 1934 Nazi propaganda film

Places in the Unitit States
 Triumph, Idaho
 Triumph, Illinois
 Triumph, Louisiana
 Triumph Tounship, Custer Coonty, Nebraska
 Triumph Tounship, Warren Coonty, Pennsylvania

Ither uises
 Triumph (magazine), a defunct Catholic publication
 Carnival Triumph, a cruise ship
 Roman triumph, a celebration for a victorious military commander in ancient Rome
 a scuppernong (muckle muscadine Vitis rotundifolia) cultivar
 A trick-taking 15t century card game
 BC Triumph Lyubertsy, a Roushie basketbaw team
 , a ferry awned bi Seatruck Ferries

See an aa
 Trionfo, a form o festivity in Renaissance Italy
 HMS Triumph, USS Triumph an USNS Triumph warships

es:Triunfo

Triumph


Fanny Adele Watson (1873-1947) was an American painter and lithographer.

Watson was born on  April 30, 1873 in Toledo, Ohio. In 1880 her family moved to Pasadena, California after the death of her father. She studied at the Art Students League of New York as a young adult, and returned to California in 1917. She traveled to Paris and became a pupil of Raphael Collin and friends with poet/artist Khalil Gibran. She exhibited and was a member of the American Artists Professional League, the Pen and Brush Club, and the Society of Independent Artists. She also exhibited her work at the National Academy of Design. She was influenced by Symbolism and Mysticism.

Watson's first public exhibit was in 1913. Watson's first New York solo exhibit was held in 1916 at the Folsom Galleries and was reviewed as having "joy, freedom, vitality and abounding sense of rhythm." Reviewing an exhibit of Watson's work in 1918, Anna T. Craig, writing for American Art News, suggested, "Miss Watson had especially the dramatic, epic and pageant sense for conveying her thoughts through her work." Arthur Miller, writing for the Los Angeles Times in 1933 about Watson's exhibit of paintings and painted screens, suggested "Miss Watson see landscape in terms of the soul of man." Miller continued, "this is her first Los Angeles showing of her works which have gained favor in the East."

Watson's work is associated with the California Coast and Zion National Park in Utah. Watson died in Pasadena, California, on March 23, 1947.

In 1953 the Pasadena Art Institute held a retrospective of Watson's work, and again in 1963, the Pasadena Art Institute held a memorial exhibition of her work. Watson's work was included in the 2022-2023 exhibit, At the Dawn of a New Age: Early Twentieth-Century American Modernism, at the Whitney Museum of American Art where examples of her work are also held. Her work is also in the collections of the Orange County Museum of Art and the Philadelphia Museum of Art.

Note
There was another Adele Watson who was a contemporary who was an actress: Adele Watson (1890-1933) from Minnesota starred in over 20 films in the 1920s-1930s.

References

External links

1873 births
1947 deaths
19th-century American women artists
20th-century American women artists
Artists from Toledo, Ohio
Art Students League of New York alumni

Adele Watson


Bus Stop is a 1956 American romantic comedy-drama movie directed by Joshua Logan and was based on the 1955 play of the same name by William Inge. It stars Marilyn Monroe, Don Murray (in his Oscar-nominated role), Arthur O'Connell, Betty Field, Eileen Heckart, Robert Bray, Hope Lange and was distributed by 20th Century Fox. It was spun-off into a TV series Bus Stop in 1961 and ran for one season.

References

Other websites

1956 romantic comedy movies
1956 romantic drama movies
1950s comedy-drama movies
American romantic comedy movies
American romantic drama movies
American comedy-drama movies
Movies based on plays
20th Century Fox movies
Movies directed by Joshua Logan
Movies adapted into television series
Movies set in Montana
Movies set in Arizona
Movies set in Utah

Bus Stop (movie)


The Lawrence Foundation is a private family foundation in the United States focused on making grants to support environmental, education, human services and other causes. It makes both program and operating grants and does not have any geographical restrictions. Nonprofit organizations that qualify for public charity status under section 501(c)(3) of the US Internal Revenue Code or other similar organizations are eligible for grants from The Lawrence Foundation.

Background
The Lawrence Foundation was established in 2000 by Jeff Lawrence and Diane Troth (husband and wife) from the proceeds received from the acquisition of Trillium Digital Systems, Inc. by Intel Corporation. Trillium Digital Systems, Inc. developed and licensed communications software and was founded in 1988 by Jeff Lawrence and Larisa Chistyakov. The founding trustees of the foundation were Jeff and Diane. Diane died in 2016. The current trustees are Jeff and his two children.

Grant funding
Since its founding in 2000, the Foundation has received over 17,000 grant applications and made grants of over US$ 6 million. In 2020, the Foundation received over 1,700 grant applications and approved about 40 grants worth over US$ 200,000. The Foundation ended 2020 with over US$ 4 million in assets. Statistics of all applications received and grants made in 2020 and earlier can be found here. To apply to The Lawrence Foundation, non-profits must use the Common Grant Application, an online grant application and management system. The Lawrence Foundation does not accept paper-based letter of inquiry and/or grant applications.

Direct funding
In March 2005, The Lawrence Foundation, in conjunction with the Natural Resources Defense Council and Tufts University, organized and hosted a workshop of environmental economists from academia. The purpose of the workshop was to identify, develop and engage a network of economists and others that shared and supported a common vision of developing, delivering and advocating credible and effective economic theories and arguments for environmental protection, stewardship, and investment. In 2006, the economists who attended that meeting started Center for the Applied Study of Economics and Environment (CASE&E), with a year of preliminary programs – launching an online directory of economists open to working with the environmental movement, and offering summer internships with environmental groups, and dissertation support, for economics graduate students. The organization continues to grow and recently changed its name to Economics for Equity and the Environment Network (E3) to more accurately reflect its current focus.

Other

Lawrence is a common name and there are other Lawrence Foundations in the United States with different grantmaking focuses and interests than The Lawrence Foundation in Santa Monica, CA.

References

External links
 The Lawrence Foundation

Foundations based in the United States
2000 establishments in the United States
Non-profit organizations based in California

The Lawrence Foundation


The Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (Liberal-Demokratische Partei Deutschlands, LDP, or LDPD) was created in 1945, in the zone occupied by the Soviet Union (that would later become the German Democratic Republic, DDR). Originally, it had liberal views. It was one of the bloc parties of the Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands. Together with Liberal parties in West Germany, they wanted to form a single Liberal party, wich they called Democratic Party of Germany, ("Demokratische Partei Deutschlands"). After the German Unification, they joined the FDP.

1945 establishments in Germany
Political parties in Germany

Liberal Democratic Party of Germany


Splitting Image is a 2 issue comic-book limited series created in 1993 by Don Simpson (though based on an idea from Image co-founder Rob Liefeld) and published by Image Comics. It satirizes the founders of Image and their initial titles such as Savage Dragon, Spawn, Youngblood, WildC.A.T.s: Covert Action Teams, Cyber Force, Shadowhawk, Wetworks, and Pitt. Issue #2 ends with a cliffhanger ending featuring Megaton Man, Captain Everything from normalman, and Mr. Spook from Tales of the Beanworld which was continued in the Megaton Man/normalman Special.
In 2017, to celebrate the publisher's 25th anniversary, Image released an 80-Giant Special collecting both issues of Splitting Image along with the Normalman/Megaton Man special and supplementary material.

References
Splitting Image @ comicbookdb
Summary of issue #1
Summary of issue #2

Image Comics limited series
Parody superheroes
Parody comics
1993 comics debuts
Satirical comics

Splitting Image


Buto or Butos or Butosos, was the later, Greek name for an ancient Egyptian city  95 km east of Alexandria in the Nile Delta of Egypt. It is the modern Kem Kasir.

History
Buto originally was two cities, Pe and Dep, which merged into one city that the Egyptians named Per-Wadjet.  The goddess Wadjet was its local goddess, often represented as a cobra, and she was considered the patron deity of Lower Egypt.

The city was an important site in Ancient Egypt since more than ten thousand years. Archaeological evidence shows that Upper Egyptian culture replaced the Buto-culture at the delta when Upper and Lower Egypt were unified.

Uses
The Greek historians told that town was celebrated for its temple and oracle of the goddess Wadjet.
They also told that at Buto there was also a sanctuary of Horus.

References

Buildings and structures in Ancient Egypt

Buto


Mangal Pandey was an Indian soldier who played a key role in the events taking place just before the outbreak of the Indian rebellion of 1857. He was a sepoy (infantryman) in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI) regiment of the British East India Company. In 1984, the Indian government issued a postage stamp to remember him. His life and actions have also been portrayed in several cinematic productions.

Early life

Mangal Pandey was born in Nagwa, a village of upper Ballia district, Ceded and Conquered Provinces (now in Uttar Pradesh), to a Hindu Brahmin family.

Mangal Pandey had joined the Bengal Army in 1849. In March 1857, he was a private soldier (sepoy) in the 5th Company of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry.

Mutiny
On the afternoon of 29 March 1857, Lieutenant Baugh, Adjutant of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry, then stationed at Barrackpore was informed that several men of his regiment were in an excited state. Further, it was reported to him that one of them, Mangal Pandey, was pacing in front of the regiment's guard room by the parade ground, armed with a loaded musket, calling upon the men to rebel and threatening to shoot the first European that he set eyes on. Testimony at a subsequent enquiry recorded that Pandey, unsettled by unrest amongst the sepoys and intoxicated by the narcotic bhang, had seized his weapons and ran to the quarter-guard building upon learning that a detachment of British soldiers was disembarking from a steamer near the cantonment.

Baugh immediately armed himself and galloped on his horse to the lines. Pandey took position behind the station gun, which was in front of the quarter-guard of the 34th, took aim at Baugh and fired. He missed Baugh, but the bullet struck his horse in the flank bringing both the horse and its rider down. Baugh quickly disentangled himself and, seizing one of his pistols, advanced towards Pandey and fired. He missed. Before Baugh could draw his sword, Pandey attacked him with a talwar (a heavy Indian sword) and closing with the adjutant, slashed Baugh on the shoulder and neck and brought him to the ground. It was then that another sepoy, Shaikh Paltu, intervened and tried to restrain Pandey even as he tried to reload his musket.

A British Sergeant-Major named Hewson had arrived on the parade ground before Baugh, summoned by an Indian naik (corporal). Hewson had ordered Jemadar Ishwari Prasad, the Indian officer in command of the quarter-guard, to arrest Pandey. To this, the jemadar stated that his NCOs had gone for help and that he could not take Pandey by himself. In response Hewson ordered Ishwari Prasad to fall in the guard with loaded weapons. In the meantime, Baugh had arrived on the field shouting 'Where is he? Where is he?' Hewson in reply called out to Baugh, 'Ride to the right, sir, for your life. The sepoy will fire at you!' At that point Pandey fired.

Hewson had charged towards Pandey as he was fighting with Lieutenant Baugh. While confronting Pandey, Hewson was knocked to the ground from behind by a blow from Pandey's musket. The sound of the firing had brought other sepoys from the barracks; they remained mute spectators. At this juncture, Shaikh Paltu, while trying to defend the two Englishmen called upon the other sepoys to assist him. Assailed by sepoys who threw stones and shoes at his back, Shaikh Paltu called on the guard to help him hold Pandey, but they threatened to shoot him if he did not let go of the mutineer.

Some of the sepoys of the quarter-guard then advanced and struck at the two prostrate officers. They then threatened Shaikh Paltu and ordered him to release Pandey, whom he had been vainly trying to hold back. However, Paltu continued to hold Pandey until Baugh and the sergeant-major was able to get up. Himself wounded by now, Paltu was obliged to loosen his grip.  He backed away in one direction and Baugh and Hewson in another, while being struck with the butt ends of the guards' muskets.

Intervention of General Hearsey
In the meantime, a report of the incident had been carried to the commanding officer of the garrison Major-General J. Hearsey, who then galloped to the quarter-guard with his two officer sons. It was now late afternoon and off-duty sepoys from the 43rd BNI; another regiment forming part of the Barrackpore brigade, had joined the crowd on the parade ground. While all were unarmed, Hearsey saw the possibility of general mutiny and sent orders to British troops to assemble at the Governor-General's residence.

Taking in the chaotic scene at the bell-of-arms (arsenal) of the 34th BNI, Hearsey then rode up to the guard, drew his pistol and ordered them to do their duty by seizing Mangal Pandey. The General threatened to shoot the first man who disobeyed. The men of the quarter-guard fell in and followed Hearsey towards Pandey. Pandey then put the muzzle of the musket to his chest and discharged it by pressing the trigger with his foot. He collapsed bleeding, with his regimental jacket on fire, but not mortally wounded.

With British and Indian officers now in control of the situation Mangal Pandey, "shivering and convulsed", was taken to the regimental hospital for treatment under guard.

Trial and execution
Pandey recovered and was brought to trial less than a week later. When asked whether he had been under the influence of any substances, he stated steadfastly that he had mutinied on his own accord and that no other person had played any part in encouraging him. He was sentenced to death by hanging, along with Jemadar Ishwari Prasad, after three Sikh members of the quarter-guard testified that the latter had ordered them not to arrest Pandey.

Mangal Pandey's execution took place on 8 April 1857, before all of the Indian and British units stationed in Barrackpore. The Delhi Gazette of 18 April described the hanging in some detail, stating that Pandey had refused to make any disclosures and that the occasion "had a most disheartening effect upon the sepoy regiments upon the ground".

Jemadar Ishwari Prasad was separately executed by hanging on 21 April. In contrast to the silent Mangal Pandey, the jemadar expressed regret for his actions and urged the sepoys present to obey their officers in future.

Aftermath

The seven (out of ten) companies of the 34th B.N.I. Regiment stationed at Barrackpore on 29 March were disbanded "with disgrace" on 6 May as a collective punishment after an investigation by the government, for failing to perform their duty in restraining a mutinous soldier and their officer. That came after a period of six weeks while petitions for leniency were examined in Calcutta. Sepoy Shaikh Paltu was promoted to havildar (sergeant) and decorated with the Indian Order of Merit for his behavior on 29 March, but he was murdered in an isolated part of the Barrackpore cantonment shortly before most of the regiment was discharged.

The Indian historian Surendra Nath Sen notes that the 34th B.N.I. had a good recent record and that the Court of Enquiry had not found any evidence of a connection with unrest at Berhampore involving the 19th B.N.I. four weeks before (see below). However, Mangal Pandey's actions and the failure of the armed and on-duty sepoys of the quarter-guard to take action convinced the British military authorities that the whole regiment was unreliable. It appeared that Pandey had acted without first taking other sepoys into his confidence but that antipathy towards their British officers within the regiment had led most of those present to act as spectators, rather than obey orders.

Motivation
The personal motivation behind Mangal Pandey's behaviour remains confused. During the incident itself he shouted to other sepoys: "come out – the Europeans are here"; "from biting these cartridges we shall become infidels" and "you sent me out here, why don't you follow me". At his court-martial, he stated that he had been taking bhang and opium, and was not conscious of his actions on 29 March.

There were a wide range of factors causing apprehension and mistrust in the Bengal Army immediately prior to the Barrackpore event. Pandey's reference to cartridges is usually attributed to a new type of bullet cartridge used in the Enfield P-53 rifle which was to be introduced in the Bengal Army that year. The cartridge was thought to be greased with animal fat, primarily from cows and pigs, which could not be consumed by Hindus and Muslims respectively (the former a holy animal of the Hindus and the latter being abhorrent to Muslims). The cartridges had to be bitten at one end before use. The Indian troops in some regiments were of the opinion that this was an intentional act of the British, with the aim of defiling their religions.

Colonel S. Wheeler of the 34th B.N.I. was known as a zealous Christian preacher. The wife of Captain William Halliday of the 56th B.N.I. had the Bible printed in Urdu and Hindi and distributed among the sepoys, thus raising suspicions amongst them that the British were intent on converting them to Christianity.

The 19th and 34th Bengal Native Infantry were stationed at Lucknow during the time of the annexation of Oudh in 1856 because of alleged misgovernment by the Nawab. The annexation had negative implications for sepoys in the Bengal Army (a significant portion of whom came from that princely state). Before the annexation, these sepoys had the right to petition the British Resident at Lucknow for justice – a significant privilege in the context of native courts. As a result of the East India Company's action, they lost that special status, since Oudh no longer existed as a nominally independent political entity.

The 19th B.N.I. is important because it was the regiment charged with testing the new cartridges on 26 February 1857. However, right up to the mutiny the new rifles had not been issued to them, and the cartridges in the magazine of the regiment were as free of grease as they had been through the preceding half-century. The paper used in wrapping the cartridges was of a different colour, arousing suspicions. The non-commissioned officers of the regiment refused to accept the cartridges on 26 February. This information was conveyed to the commanding officer, Colonel William Mitchell; he took it upon himself to try to convince the sepoys that the cartridges were no different from those they had been accustomed to and that they need not bite it. He concluded his exhortation with an appeal to the native officers to uphold the honour of the regiment and a threat to court-martial such sepoys as refused to accept the cartridge. However, the next morning the sepoys of the regiment seized their bell of arms (weapons store). The subsequent conciliatory behaviour of Mitchell convinced the sepoys to return to their barracks.

Court of Enquiry
A Court of Enquiry was ordered which, after an investigation which lasted nearly a month, recommended the disbanding of the 19th B.N.I. The same was carried out on 31 March. The 19th B.N.I. were allowed to retain items of uniform and were provided by the government with allowances to return to their homes. Both Colonel Mitchell of the 19th B.N.I. and (subsequent to the incident of 29 March) Colonel Wheeler of Pandey's 34th B.N.I. were declared unsuited to take charge of any new regiments raised to replace the disbanded units.

Consequences
The attack by and punishment of Pandey is widely seen as the opening scene of what came to be known as the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Knowledge of his action was widespread amongst his fellow sepoys and is assumed to have been one of the factors leading to the general series of mutinies that broke out during the following months. Mangal Pandey would prove to be influential for later figures in the Indian Nationalist Movement like V.D. Savarkar, who viewed his motive as one of the earliest manifestations of Indian Nationalism. Modern Indian nationalists portray Pandey as the mastermind behind a conspiracy to revolt against the British, although a recently published analysis of events immediately preceding the outbreak concludes that "there is little historical evidence to back up any of these revisionist interpretations".

During the rebellion that followed, Pandee or Pandey became the derogatory term used by British soldiers and civilians when referring to a mutinous sepoy. This was a direct derivation from the name of Mangal Pandey.

Film, stage and literature
A film based on the sequence of events that led up to the mutiny entitled Mangal Pandey: The Rising starring Indian actor, Aamir Khan along with Rani Mukerji, Amisha Patel and Toby Stephens, directed by Ketan Mehta was released on 12 August 2005.

The life of Pandey was the subject of a stage play titled The Roti Rebellion, which was written and directed by Supriya Karunakaran. The play was organized by Sparsh, a theatre group, and presented in June 2005 at The Moving Theatre at Andhra Saraswat Parishad, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.

Samad Iqbal, a fictional descendant of Mangal Pandey, is a central character in Zadie Smith's debut novel White Teeth. Pandey is an important influence on Samad's life and is repeatedly referenced and investigated by the novel's characters.

Commemoration

The Government of India commemorated Pandey by issuing a postage stamp bearing his image on 5 October 1984. The stamp and the accompanying first-day cover were designed by Delhi-based artist C. R. Pakrashi.

A park named Shaheed Mangal Pandey Maha Udyan has been set up at Barrackpore to commemorate the place where Pandey attacked British officers and was subsequently hanged.

See also
 Barrackpore Mutiny of 1824
 Pandey
 Bahadur Shah II

References

Cited sources

Further reading
 Amin, Agha H.,  The Sepoy Rebellion of 1857–59: Reinterpreted, 1998, Strategicus and Tacticus
 Mukherjee, Rudrangshu, Mangal Pandey: Brave Martyr or Accidental Hero?, 2005, Penguin Books (India),

External links

 Man who led the mutiny

Revolutionaries of the Indian Rebellion of 1857
1857 deaths
People from Ballia district
British East India Company Army soldiers
People executed by British India by hanging
1827 births
Prisoners and detainees of British India
19th-century executions by British India
Barrackpore
Indian independence activists from Uttar Pradesh
Indian independence armed struggle activists

Mangal Pandey