Boston United Football Club is a semi-professional association football club based in Boston, Lincolnshire, England. The club participates in the National League North, at the sixth tier of the English football league system.

The club is known as 'the Pilgrims' in reference to the Pilgrim Fathers, who left England and sailed to North America and settled near, though did not found, Boston, Massachusetts. The club's crest features the pilgrim fathers' ship, the Mayflower. The club's traditional colours are amber and black. They are rivals with Lincoln City, Scunthorpe United, Gainsborough Trinity and Grimsby Town. They play at the Jakemans Community Stadium, which was completed in 2020 with a capacity of 5,061 (2,155 seated) spectators.

The club was formed in 1933 as a successor to the short lived Boston Town. They initially competed in the Midland League, before joining the Southern League for a four-year spell in 1958. They returned to the Midland League and then joined then United Counties League, winning their first league title in 1965–66. Boston then switched to the West Midlands (Regional) League, winning the Premier Division in 1966–67 and 1967–68, before becoming founder members of the Northern Premier League in 1968. United won four Northern Premier League titles in the 1970s (1972–73, 1973–74, 1976–77 and 1977–78) and became founder members of Alliance Premier League in 1979. Boston returned to the Northern Premier League in 1993 and moved back to the Southern League Premier Division in 1998.

Boston United won the Southern League in 1999–2000 and the Conference in 2001–02 to secure a place in the Football League for the first time under the stewardship of controversial manager Steve Evans. They spent five years in the fourth tier, but entered administration in 2007 and were relegated down two divisions into the Conference North. Demoted to the Northern Premier League the next year, Boston won the Northern Premier League Premier Division play-offs in 2010 and have since had five unsuccessful play-off campaigns in the Conference and National League North.

History

The club was founded in 1933 as a successor to a club called Boston Town. Their first game was a 3–1 defeat at home to Grimsby Reserves on 26 August 1933, when a crowd of 1,544 watched Boston's no.7, Blessed, score United's first ever goal. They then had a moderate amount of success in various leagues, including the Midland League and Southern League.

The club's FA cup run of 1955–56 included a 6–1 victory at Derby County, then playing in Third Division North, with Geoff Hazledine scoring a hat-trick. This was a record away win by a non-League team against League opponents in the FA Cup. This set up a Third round match against Tottenham Hotspur of the Football League First Division at White Hart Lane on 7 January 1956. The match against Tottenham Hotspur was played in front of a crowd of 46,185. The Pilgrims lost 4–0, but the match was more notable for the travelling support. Over 10,000 Boston supporters attended the game. A number of special train services from Boston to King's Cross were set up for the day.

They were founder members of the Northern Premier League in 1968, of which they were champions four times, and of the Alliance Premier League (now the National League) in 1979. However, their Northern Premier League title wins were not enough to gain them election to the Football League, and when they won the title in 1978 they surprisingly missed out on league status in favour of runners-up Wigan Athletic, who took the Football League place previously held by Southport.

In 1985, Boston United went to Wembley for the first and only time in their history for the FA Trophy Final of the 1984–85 season, after Bob Lee scored a winning last minute goal in the 2nd leg of the semi-final against Altrincham at York Street to put the Pilgrims through. Boston lost 2–1 to Wealdstone in front of 20,775, with Chris Cook scoring United's only goal.

Boston United finished third in the Conference in 1988–89, but were unable to build on this and were relegated to the NPL in 1993. They were transferred to the Southern League, winning the title in 2000, and went fully professional in 2001. In their first season as a professional club, Boston won the Conference and were promoted to the Football League.

However, in the wake of their promotion, Boston's manager, Steve Evans, and former chairman, Pat Malkinson, were charged with breaking the Football Association's rules over the registration of players. Both men received bans from the FA, and the club were fined and docked four points from their first season in the League. This angered some, especially the Conference runners up Dagenham & Redbridge, who believed that any points deduction should have applied to the previous season, which would have meant Dagenham being promoted instead.

Youth team coach Neil Thompson was appointed as manager for Boston's maiden Football League season, and though they left it late to secure survival, they ultimately managed a creditable 15th-place finish. The following season resulted in another relegation battle, and as soon as former manager Steve Evans had served his suspension in full, Thompson was sacked and Evans was reinstated as manager, leading them to a strong late-season run and an eventual finish of 11th. Evans' return and a substantial investment in the playing squad saw Boston among the promotion favourites for the 2004–05 season, but it in fact resulted in a disappointing 16th place. 2005-06 would prove to be their most successful Football League season, with their finish of 11th being their joint-highest, but the club missing out on the play-offs by just five points (having missed out by a much larger margin in 2003–04).

 The 2006–07 season saw Boston struggle all season long, however, and in May 2007, Boston were relegated from Football League Two on the last day of the season. Steve Evans and his assistant Paul Raynor on 27 May resigned from the club, and two days later joined Crawley Town.

Because of the relegation Boston were originally scheduled to play the 2007–08 season in the Conference National but this position was immediately placed in doubt after the club's chairman Jim Rodwell entered Boston into a Company Voluntary Arrangement late in their last game so that 10 points would then be deducted in the 2006–07 season instead of the 2007–08 season. Although this meant that Boston started the 2007–08 season without a points penalty FA rules dictated that they be demoted 2 divisions as a result of HM Revenue & Customs placing a restriction into the CVA of Boston not being allowed to pay football creditors 100% of what they were owed. They therefore played the 2007–08 season in the Conference North division, two steps below the Football League. This would be United's first season under the new ownership of David Newton and Neil Kempster, who took control of the club over from ex-Chairman Jim Rodwell.

Despite finishing the 2007–08 campaign in 10th place under the guidance of Tommy Taylor, United were still in administration by the 2nd Saturday of May in 2008. This meant they were relegated again to the Northern Premier League Premier Division for the 2008–09 season. Despite coming out of administration just before the start of the new season anyway, Boston United failed to have this decision overturned. Another result of this was that they would also have to enter the FA Cup in the 1st qualifying round, something which they had not done for many years. They reached the final of the Lincs Senior Shield but were swept aside by Stamford 4–1,and finished the league campaign in 16th position.

A much more favourable campaign the following season saw The Pilgrims finish 3rd in the league where they won the play-offs, beating Bradford Park Avenue in the final thanks to an Anthony Church extra time winner to earn promotion back to the Conference North.

Joint managers Rob Scott and Paul Hurst resigned from the club in 2011 and were appointed joint managers of Conference National side Grimsby Town. Club chairman David Newton revealed he was beginning legal proceedings against the pair and Grimsby Town, for breach of contract. The Pilgrims wasted no time appointing former Boston player Jason Lee and current player Lee Canoville as joint caretaker managers. With only 7 Conference North games remaining, the pair guided United to a 3rd-place finish in the league setting up a play-off tie against Guiseley. Boston lost the first leg 1–0 at Nethermoor Park but fought back in the return leg winning 3–2 at the Jakemans Stadium to take the match to extra-time and penalties. Boston went out losing 2–3.

After a decent start to the 2012–13 season, Boston started to drop off the promotion pace, with a 7-game winless run from November to mid-December not aiding their cause. More inconsistency followed, and Jason Lee was sacked. Graham Drury took over within the same week but left the club after less than 2 months. Dennis Greene took over soon afterwards, but after a good start couldn't help the club from finishing higher than a poor 16th place, just 5 points above the relegation zone.

The following season was a marked improvement in both league and cups. Whilst Boston fell at the 2nd hurdle (2–0) at Brackley, they made the last 32 of the FA Trophy with wins over Redditch and Southport, before a 2–0 loss at Tamworth. In the league, they held on to a top 5 spot for most of the season and never fell below 8th, but they couldn't keep up with late surges by Hednesford and Guiseley, ending 1 place and 6 points off the playoffs in 6th.

The following season Boston did make the play-offs however, securing a place with a 4–1 victory at Solihull Moors before a 0–0 draw at home to relegated Leamington was enough to secure third place. A 0–0 draw at Chorley's Victory Park set up a winner takes it all second leg at York St, and goals from Scott Garner and Kaine Felix put Boston 2–0 ahead. However, Chorley forced extra time with an overhead kick from Adam Roscoe late in injury time. Despite Roscoe's extra time red card, Boston failed to score a third and the game went to penalties, which United lost after seven spot kicks when Sam Ashton saved Rene Steer's penalty.

Boston started the 2015–16 season as play-off favourites once again, but pressure mounted on Greene due to poor results including losing to Gainsborough in the FA Cup and Solihull Moors in the FA Trophy (both in the first round Boston featured in). However, Boston found spells of form later in the season to ensure 5th place at the expense of Nuneaton- a 3-point deduction received by the Warwickshire side helping the United cause.

Boston faced North Ferriby United in the play-offs, and won the first leg 2–0 at home through Grant Roberts and Zak Mills' goals. The second leg at Church Farm saw that lead overturned by King, Denton and Brooksby as United again missed out. Somewhat of an exodus then occurred as Boston saw Spiess, Mills, Piergianni, Garner, Marrs, Felix and Southwell all depart, Southwell and Mills notably moving to league sides Wycombe and Grimsby respectively.

The following season started poorly, manager Greene leaving the club in late November to be replaced by former Mansfield Town manager Adam Murray. He led the side to safety but was himself gone by November the following year. With Boston occupying a relegation spot, Craig Elliott – leaving Shaw Lane to do so – took over and guided the Pilgrims to safety, United for a time threatening to break in to the play-offs following victories over title chasing Harrogate and Salford City.

Elliott's second full season in charge was to be the club's last at York Street (2019–20). The side won through four away ties in the FA Cup to reach a second round game away to Rochdale. A draw at Spotland secured York Street one last big cup tie – the League One side winning 2–1 in a televised replay with over 4000 in attendance. Newcastle United at home was their reward. The coronavirus pandemic cut short the season and Boston finished third on points-per-game, winning a behind closed doors semi-final against Gateshead 5–3 to secure a play-off final with Altrincham. The Robins scored the only goal of the game, the club's last match at York Street.

With the new Pilgrim Way stadium delayed due to the pandemic 2020–21, still behind closed doors, started with United playing home games at Gainsborough's Northolme. A covid outbreak in the squad meant only 3 home games were played at Trinity's home, as the Boston Community Stadium opened on 5 December 2020, against Chorley. The season was ended as the coronavirus situation worsened over the Winter.

2021–22 finally saw United fans able to see a game at the new Pilgrim Way stadium, starting with a 5–0 friendly win over Lincoln City in July 2021.

Stadium

Boston United played at York Street until 2020, styled as The Jakemans Stadium through a sponsorship deal. There were four sides to the stadium: the main seated Mick George Stand; the Co-Operative York Street Stand; the Spayne Road Terrace; and the old away end—known as The Jakemans Stand and then turned into a home stand. The away fans sat in a section of the York Street Stand.

Former club chairman Jon Sotnick claimed it was not up to Football League standards and called for a new ground during the Pilgrims' time in the Football League. Planning applications were made to Boston Borough Council in June 2006, but the council turned down the application. The ground had a total capacity of 6,643.

The club built a new stadium outside the town, and on 10 April 2019 announced that the 2019–20 season was to be their last at York Street.

For the beginning of the 2020–21 season, the club were granted permission to use Gainsborough Trinity's Northolme as their home ground temporarily whilst finishing touches were applied to their new stadium.

The club played its first game at the Boston Community Stadium on 5 December 2020, resulting in a 2–0 home defeat to Chorley in the National League North.

Financial problems
On 4 December 2006, Boston's plan to relocate to a new stadium on The Boardsides was unanimously rejected by Boston Borough Council. This plunged the club's future into serious doubt. Chairman James Rodwell said the club's future was "hanging in the balance" because York Street did not have the facilities to allow the club to operate at a profit, and a ground move was required to wipe out the club's debts. Rodwell confirmed that he would be meeting with shareholders over the next couple of days to determine the best course of action, but did admit that the club's future was ultimately now in the hands of HM Revenue and Customs, who were owed a sizeable six-figure sum by the club.

In a statement he released to the club's official website on 5 December he said: "The club's financial situation at the present moment is dire. I would urge all supporters and anybody interested in the future of the football club, be that investors or potential purchasers, to come forward immediately".

In November 2006, Boston manager Steve Evans and his former chairman Pat Malkinson pleaded guilty to "conspiring to cheat the public revenue between 1997 and 2002". Both were given suspended jail sentences.

In May 2007, Boston entered into a Company Voluntary Arrangement towards the end of their last game of the season when they knew they would be relegated to the Conference. This allowed them to avoid a points deduction in the next season, but has proved a controversial move.

On 10 June 2007, the Football Conference's annual general meeting voted in favour of demoting Boston United to the Conference North, stating that the terms of the Company Voluntary Agreement which Boston entered was behind the decision. Altrincham were subsequently spared relegation for the second season running. Chief executive John Moules released this statement:

"Because Boston United are in breach of certain rules, it was felt Blue Square North was the best place for them. HM Revenue and Customs put a caveat on that CVA that Boston could not pay football creditors. That breaks Football Association, Football League and Football Conference rules and regulations. We're giving Boston the opportunity to re-establish themselves as a leading club outside the Football League. They believe the decision we have made is fair and just, and they are not going to appeal. We had meetings all day on Friday with Boston United and then informed Altrincham that they were staying up."

On 4 July 2007, Chestnut Homes, a local housing development company, announced that they had acquired Boston United FC.

In a statement at a press conference the new chairman David Newton said: "... we are happy to sit here today and make certain pledges to the loyal supporters of the club. While we are involved in the club, the club will be whiter than white. While we are here, everyone will be paid. We will be prudent in the management of the club's finances. We will strive for excellence on and off the pitch. As finances permit, we will develop the youth side of the club, and if managed well that should pay dividends in the medium to long term for the club. Above all, we will try to rebuild the reputation of this football club."

During the summer of 2007, Boston lost their entire squad except for Stewart Talbot and Paul Ellender, and new manager Tommy Taylor had to start from scratch. Nevertheless, at the end of the season it was announced Boston would be expelled from the Conference league structure after the club failed to exit administration by 10 May deadline. The Conference is the only league in the world to have this appendix, which is not a rule as such, but only a guideline to be used at the League's discretion. The Pilgrims came out of administration before the end of the summer.

Kit
When founded in 1933, Boston United inherited a kit of blue shirts, white shorts and black socks from the wound-up Boston Football Club. Later that year, these kits were changed to a black shirt with a large white 'V', a design maintained until 1937. After this, United switched to white shirts and black shorts and socks. After World War II, Boston United reverted to blue shirts of different shades with either black or white shorts and socks.

The currently colour scheme of amber and black has been in place since 1951, although the design has varied from season to season. In recent times, Boston United have had their kits supplied by Umbro (1988–90), Paulas Benara (1990–2005), Vandanel (2006–10), Errea (2010–2016), Nike (2016–2020), Adidas (2020–2023), and Umbro (2023–present).

Shirt sponsors and manufacturers
Table of kit suppliers and shirt sponsors appear below:

Players

Current squad

Out on loan

Coaching staff

Managerial history
Below is a list of Boston United managers in chronological order:

Records

Club records
Highest attendance
FA Cup 3rd round replay – 11,000 vs Derby County (9 January 1974)

Biggest FA Cup Win
FA Cup preliminary round – 10–0 vs Bilsthorpe Colliery (18 September 1937)

Club Football League Records
Biggest win – 6–0 vs Shrewsbury Town (21 December 2002)
Heaviest defeat – 9–2 vs AFC Fylde (19 November 2016)
First club to start on fewer than 0 points.

National records
Biggest FA Cup away win for a non-League side against League opponents:
FA Cup 2nd round – 1–6 vs Derby County (10 December 1955)

Honours
League
Football Conference (level 5)
Champions: 2001–02
Southern League
Champions: 1999–2000
Northern Premier League
Champions: 1972–73, 1973–74, 1976–77, 1977–78
Central Alliance League
Champions: 1961–62
United Counties League
Champions: 1965–66
West Midlands League
Champions: 1966–67, 1967–68
Southern League
Runners-up: 1998–99
Northern Premier League
Runners-up: 1995–96, 1997–98
Northern Premier League
Runners-up: 1996–97

Cup
FA Trophy
Runners-up: 1984–85
Northern Premier League Challenge Cup
Winners: 1973–74, 1975–76, 2009–10
Northern Premier League Challenge Shield
Winners: 1973–74, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78
Lincolnshire Senior Cup
Winners: 1934–35, 1936–37, 1937–38, 1945–46, 1949–50, 1954–55, 1955–56, 1956–57, 1959–60, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1988–89, 2005–06
Non-League Champions of Champions Cup
Winners: 1972–73, 1976–77
East Anglian Cup
Winners: 1960–61
Eastern Professional Floodlit Cup
Winners: 1971–72

See also
Boston United Supporters' Trust

References

External links

The Supporters' Trust website
All Boston United's Football League results and tables at footballsite
The Boston Standard (local paper) website

Football clubs in England
English Football League clubs
National League (English football) clubs
Association football clubs established in 1933
Northern Premier League clubs
Football clubs in Lincolnshire
Southern Football League clubs
Midland Football League (1889)
1933 establishments in England
Sport in Boston, Lincolnshire
Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom
Central Alliance
West Midlands (Regional) League

Boston United F.C.


Antanimbary is a town and commune () in Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Maevatanana, which is a part of Betsiboka Region. The population of the commune was estimated to be approximately 3,000 in 2001 commune census.

Antanimbary has a riverine harbour. Only primary schooling is available. The majority 60% of the population of the commune are farmers, while an additional 25% receives their livelihood from raising livestock. The most important crops are rice and raffia palm, while other important agricultural products are cassava and sweet potatoes.  Services provide employment for 5% of the population. Additionally fishing employs 10% of the population.

Infrastructure
Route Nationale 4 from Antananarivo to Mahajanga.

References and notes

Populated places in Betsiboka

Antanimbary


The 20/20 Experience (also known as The 20/20 Experience – 1 of 2) is the third studio album by Justin Timberlake. It was released on March 15, 2013, by RCA Records Three singles were released from the album. It was the best selling album of 2013 in the US.

References

2013 albums
Justin Timberlake albums
Soul albums

The 20/20 Experience


My Bicycle (Chakma: Mor Thengari) is a Bangladeshi indie film directed by Aung Rakhine. It is the country's first Chakma language film.

The Bangladesh Film Censor Board blocked the commercial release of the film, which speculators have suggested may be due to the board not speaking Chakma or due to the film showing the army in a negative light. There were no professional actors involved in the production.

Plot
An indigenous man named Komol who is fired from a job in a town and returns to his hillside native village with only a bicycle. Although his son is happy to have his father back, but he has nothing to give his family except the bicycle. Komol decides to not return to the town for new jobs but tries to secure their livelihood through the cycle. He offers to ferry passengers and goods of villagers from place to place on his cycle and earn. Unfortunately one day an accident occurs, injuring an old man. Village goons threaten Komol and declare that no one can ride on that cycle. When Komol refuses to give them extortion, they destroy his bicycle.

Cast
 Kamal Mani Chakma as Komal
 Indira Chakma as Devi

Festivals and awards
 Best Screenplay, Ufa Silver Akbuzat Ethnic Cinema Festival  2016, Russia
 Honorable Mention, Cine Kurumin - Int. Indigenous Film Festival 2016, Brazil
 Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival  2015, Estonia
 Göteborg Film Festival 2016, Sweden
 Zanzibar International Film Festival 2016, Tanzania
 17th Asiatica Mediale Film Festival, Rome 2016
 15th Winnipeg Aboriginal Film festival 2016
 Skabmagovat Film Festival, Finland 2016
 Zanzibar International Film Festival, 2016
 Kasa Asia Film Festival, Span 2016
 Phnom Pehn International Film Festival, Combodia 2016
 Bare Bones International Film and Music Festival, USA 2017

Controversy
The film received some international recognition after its exhibition in several international film festivals, that include Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival, Göteborg Film Festival and Zanzibar International Film Festival. However, it has been banned by Bangladesh Film Censor Board from screening in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Army took notice and lodged a complaint that the film showed the activities of the army in the Chittagong Hill Tracts which is a sensitive issue. The film was censored due to its unfavorable portrayal of the police and armed forces in Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict. Director Aung Rakhaine, alleged to the Censor Board for the violation of human rights.

References

External links

 Alexanderstreet

Bangladeshi drama films
2015 independent films
2015 drama films
2015 films
Censored films
Chakma language films
Bangladeshi independent films
Censorship in Bangladesh

My Bicycle


William Scott Bruford (born 17 May 1949) is an English former drummer and percussionist who first gained prominence as a founding member of the progressive rock band Yes. After leaving Yes in 1972, Bruford spent the rest of the 1970s recording and touring with King Crimson (1972–1974), Roy Harper (1975), and U.K. (1978), as well as touring with Genesis (1976). In 1978, he formed his own group, Bruford, which was active until 1980.

During the 1980s, Bruford returned to King Crimson for three years (1981–1984), collaborated with several artists (including Patrick Moraz and David Torn), and formed his own electric jazz band Earthworks in 1986. He then played with his former Yes bandmates in Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe, which eventually led to a very brief second stint in Yes. Bruford played in King Crimson for his third and final tenure from 1994 to 1997, then continued with a new acoustic configuration of Earthworks.

On 1 January 2009, Bruford retired from professional drumming, only briefly returning for a few private gigs. He has pursued other projects since then, including the operation of his two record labels, Summerfold and Winterfold, releasing an autobiography in 2009, and speaking and writing about music. In 2016, after four and a half years of study, Bruford received a PhD in Music from the University of Surrey. That year, Bruford ranked No. 16 on Rolling Stone list of the "100 Greatest Drummers of All Time". In 2017, Bruford was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Yes.

Early life
Bruford was born on 17 May 1949 in Sevenoaks, Kent, the third child of Betty and John Bruford, a veterinary surgeon. He has a brother, John, and a sister, Jane. He attended New Beacon School in Sevenoaks, followed by Tonbridge School in Tonbridge, a boarding school. Bruford decided to take up drumming at thirteen after watching American jazz drummers on the BBC2 television series Jazz 625, and practised the instrument in the attic of his house. He cites Max Roach, Joe Morello, Art Blakey and Ginger Baker as the most influential drummers on him as a young man. Around this time, Bruford's sister bought him a pair of drum brushes as a birthday present, and Bruford would practise using them on album sleeves after he was told the sound resembled a snare drum while watching Jazz 625. Bruford recalled it as "a perfect education". Though he was given a single snare drum at first, Bruford gradually built a full drum kit. He later took a few lessons from Lou Pocock, a member of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra.

During his time at boarding school, Bruford befriended several fellow jazz fans, one of them a drummer who gave Bruford lessons in improvisation and a tutorial book by American jazz drummer Jim Chapin. In 1966 and 1967, Bruford performed in The Breed, an R&B/soul four-piece with Stu Murray on guitar, Mike Freeman on saxophone, Ray Bennett (who would later play with Peter Banks's Flash) on bass, and Doug Kennard on guitar and vocals. After leaving school, Bruford took a gap year before he intended to study economics at Leeds University. In January 1968, he unsuccessfully auditioned for a place in Savoy Brown at a pub in Battersea, but he "hung around until the end and told them they had the wrong guy ... I talked my way into it". His tenure only lasted three gigs because he "messed with the beat", and followed this with a brief stint in the psychedelic rock band Paper Blitz Tissue. Bruford then spotted an ad in a music shop from The Noise, who were looking for a drummer to play with them for a six-week residency at the Piper Club in Rome, Italy. He remembered the experience as "ghastly", felt his bandmates could not play properly, and had to hitchhike back to London with his kit.

Career

1968–1974: Yes and King Crimson
Following his return to London, the 19-year-old Bruford settled into a flat in north London and placed an advertisement for drum work in Melody Maker. It was spotted by singer Jon Anderson of the psychedelic rock band Mabel Greer's Toyshop, formed of bassist Chris Squire and guitarist Clive Bayley, who sought a replacement for their departing drummer, Bob Hagger. The four met on 7 June 1968; Anderson was so impressed with Bruford that he invited him to play with the band that evening at the Rachel McMillan College in Deptford. Their entire set consisted of "In the Midnight Hour" by Wilson Pickett as it was the only song they all knew how to play through, but Bruford was impressed with the band's ability to sing in harmony. Following the gig, Bruford had several offers to join soul bands, one of which earned as much as £30 a week, but chose to remain with Anderson and Squire, who took charge in forming a new band. The four entered rehearsals, which ended in Peter Banks replacing Bayley on guitar, Tony Kaye on keyboards, and the group changing their name to Yes.

Bruford played on Yes's first five studio albums during his initial tenure: Yes (1969), Time and a Word (1970), The Yes Album (1971), Fragile (1971), and Close to the Edge (1972). He received a writing credit on just five tracks: "Harold Land", "Yours Is No Disgrace", "Heart of the Sunrise", "And You and I", and "Five Per Cent for Nothing", a 35-second track on Fragile that was his first attempt at composition. His main interest was allowing the drums to "be heard" as Squire played his bass often in the higher register, and so developed a style that involved "unusual beat placement" and time signatures. He developed his musical understanding during this time, learning "how to read the horizontal lines, but not the vertical notes." Bruford recalled Yes being hot blooded and argumentative, with personality conflicts being the eventual reason for his exit. These, for him, included problems in understanding other members' accents, differences in social backgrounds, and many other issues that set the band in a constant state of friction between Anderson, Squire, and himself.

In July 1972, after Close to the Edge had been recorded, Bruford quit to join King Crimson, later explaining: "King Crimson was one of the only gigs for a rock drummer where you could play in 17/16 and still stay in decent hotels". Rehearsals began in September 1972, followed by an extensive UK tour. His instinct to remember complicated drum parts was shown when he learned how to play the long percussion and guitar part in the middle of "21st Century Schizoid Man", "by listening to it and just learning it." Bruford cites the six months free jazz percussionist Jamie Muir was in the band as highly influential on him as a player. Bruford is featured on Larks' Tongues in Aspic (1973), Starless and Bible Black (1974), Red (1974) and the live album USA (1975). Robert Fripp disbanded King Crimson in September 1974.

1974–1980: Genesis, Bruford, and U.K.
After leaving King Crimson, Bruford felt his "sense of direction was rather stymied" and was unsure on his next step. In late 1974, he became a temporary member of the Anglo-French band Gong for a European tour after drummer Laurie Allan was busted for drugs at a border. Bruford then chose to wait for an appealing offer while earning money as a session musician. The sessions were few, however, and the ones that he was a part of he called "unmitigated disasters". In 1975, Bruford played drums on Fish Out of Water by Chris Squire, HQ by Roy Harper, and At the Sound of the Bell by Pavlov's Dog. Later in the year, he performed as guest percussionist for the jazz fusion band Brand X, featuring Phil Collins on drums. Bruford then joined National Health for several live performances, but declined an offer to join full-time as there were already many writers in the group, and felt his contributions to the music, the majority of which was already written, would have caused problems.

By mid-1976, Bruford had rehearsed with Ray Gomez and Jeff Berlin in the US but plans to form a group failed, partly due to the members living far away from each other. He wished not to force a band together, so he decided to "watch, wait, observe and absorb". From March to July 1976, Bruford toured with Genesis on their 1976 tour of North America and Europe, supporting A Trick of the Tail. It was their first album and tour after original frontman Peter Gabriel had left, leaving drummer Phil Collins to sing lead vocals. Bruford had known Collins for several years and suggested sitting in the drum seat until Genesis found a permanent replacement. Bruford is featured on the Genesis: In Concert film and the live albums Seconds Out (1977) and Three Sides Live (1982). In late 1976, Bruford became involved in a tentative rock trio with Rick Wakeman and John Wetton, but they soon disbanded. According to Bruford, "A&M Records was unwilling to let its 'star,' Wakeman, walk off with a used, slightly soiled King Crimson rhythm section, and the idea folded." Bruford then rejoined National Health for a short stint.

In 1977, Bruford recorded his debut solo album Feels Good to Me (1978), with Dave Stewart (keyboards), Jeff Berlin (bass), and Allan Holdsworth (guitar). This was Bruford's first attempt at songwriting on a substantial level, and he spent a lot of time developing tunes on the piano. The four stuck together and became a full-time band named Bruford, which also featured Annette Peacock on vocals, Kenny Wheeler on flugelhorn, and John Goodsall on rhythm guitar. Later in 1978, Bruford reunited with John Wetton and formed the progressive rock group U.K. After their debut album U.K. (1978) and several tours, Holdsworth and Bruford left the group due to disagreements on the group's musical direction. Bruford resumed activity in his own group to release One of a Kind (1979). Almost entirely instrumental, the album contains some spoken lines by Bruford during the introduction to "Fainting in Coils". Subsequent gigs spawned the live releases Rock Goes to College and The Bruford Tapes (1979). Their final album, Gradually Going Tornado (1980), features backing vocals from Canterbury scene stalwarts Barbara Gaskin and Amanda Parsons, as well as Georgina Born on cello. Unfinished songs for a projected fourth album were recorded in 1980, but remained unreleased until 2017.

1981–1993: King Crimson, Earthworks, ABWH, and Yes
In 1981, Bruford returned to King Crimson in a new formation with Fripp, Tony Levin, and Adrian Belew. The four recorded Discipline (1981), Beat (1982), and Three of a Perfect Pair (1984), all featuring Bruford on an acoustic and Simmons electronic hybrid kit. Bruford embraced the Simmons drums for the next fifteen years as it allowed him to play programmed chords, samples, tuned pitches, and sound effects, which expanded his musical palette. In 1984, Fripp disbanded the group; Bruford picked the live album Absent Lovers: Live in Montreal (1998) as one of the best rock albums he played on.

In 1983, Bruford formed a duo with Swiss keyboardist and former Yes member Patrick Moraz after he learned that Moraz was living close to him in Surrey. The project had Bruford develop a "real taste for improvising". Under the name Moraz/Bruford, the two released Music for Piano and Drums (1983) and Flags (1985), two albums recorded on acoustic instruments. The albums were supported with several live shows, including a tour of Japan. Also in 1985, Bruford was approached by Jimmy Page to be the drummer for his new band with Paul Rodgers and Pino Palladino named The Firm. He recalled: "We rehearsed briefly, but I think decided we were mutually unsuited!"

In 1986, Bruford formed his jazz group Earthworks with Django Bates, Iain Ballamy and Mick Hutton (later replaced by Tim Harries), with initial assistance from Dave Stewart. By then, electronic drum technology had improved to Bruford's satisfaction and he resumed using the Simmons kit. The band toured the US club circuit through 1987.

Bruford put Earthworks on hold in late 1988, after Jon Anderson invited him to play on a new album that also featured past Yes members Rick Wakeman and Steve Howe. Bruford was under the impression that he was performing on an Anderson solo album, but the four went on to become a group and named themselves Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (ABWH). Bruford later remarked that while ABWH could have been an interesting group had they been given time to develop instead of being pushed immediately into a recording studio, for him it was primarily a business-motivated arrangement which he took on so that he could pay for Earthworks. Bruford was attracted to the idea of recording on Montserrat, and convinced Anderson to have Tony Levin on bass. Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (1989) was supported by a world tour, and in 1990, while recording a second album, ABWH merged with Yes to become an eight-member formation. Union (1991), featuring tracks from both groups, was criticised by almost the entire band; Bruford called it "the worst record I've ever been on". He took part in the subsequent Union Tour in 1991 and 1992, and though he enjoyed the enthusiastic audiences in large venues and performing with former bandmates, he found the experience "pretty horrible". After the tour, Bruford and Howe became involved in an orchestral project that reinterpreted Yes songs with an orchestra, entitled Symphonic Music of Yes (1993).

Bruford resumed with Earthworks in January 1991, and the group released a studio and live album. After Bates left, Bruford disbanded the group in 1993. After this, their record label pushed for Bruford and Holdsworth to form a new band, but neither were too keen on the idea and the idea fell through. In the early 1990s, Bruford became an active drum clinician and taught small groups in several universities.

1994–2009: King Crimson, Earthworks II, final collaborations, and retirement
King Crimson re-emerged once more in 1994 as a six-piece band, consisting of its 1980s line-up with the additions of Pat Mastelotto sharing drumming duties with Bruford, and Trey Gunn on Chapman Stick. Dubbed the "double trio" configuration, they released Vrooom (1994), Thrak (1995), and two live albums, B'Boom: Live in Argentina (1995) and Thrakattak (1996). After Bruford and Fripp discussed the idea of holding improvisational performances together and invited Gunn and Levin to join them, Fripp conceived the ProjeKcts idea of having different subsets of King Crimson working separately as a way of developing new material for the band. The first group, ProjeKct One, performed live at the Jazz Cafe in London from 1–4 December 1997. Bruford then left the group, and King Crimson altogether, mainly due to his frustration with rehearsals, which he felt came to nothing. This also marked the end of Bruford using the Simmons electronic drums due to the high overhead costs, the time required to program the kit, and the lackluster Japanese model that was made after the original manufacturer went bankrupt.

After King Crimson, Bruford focused on acoustic jazz, partly because he felt jazz required a return to a beginning jumping-off point. In 1997 he formed a new line-up of Earthworks, using the group as a base for British musicians and to give them experience of performing internationally. This line-up involved pianist Steve Hamilton, saxophonist Patrick Clahar, and double bassist Geoff Gascoyne, soon replaced by Mark Hodgson. Although Earthworks underwent further line-up changes with Tim Garland replacing Clahar as saxophonist in 2001, Gwilym Simcock replacing Hamilton as pianist in 2004, and Laurence Cottle replacing Hodgson on bass circa 2005, the revived band maintained a consistent, predominantly acoustic post-bop approach focusing on Bruford's compositions. During 2005, Earthworks temporarily combined with Garland's Underground Orchestra to form the Earthworks Underground Orchestra.

During his final stint with Earthworks, Bruford collaborated with others in the final twelve years of his career. These included a collaboration with Americans Eddie Gomez and Ralph Towner in 1997, the jazz-rock band Bruford Levin Upper Extremities in 1998, a duo with Dutch pianist Michiel Borstlap from 2002 to 2007, the contemporary composer Colin Riley with the Piano Circus collective in 2009, and presenting drum clinics. In 2003, Bruford established two record labels: Winterfold Records, which cover his early releases including his guitar and rock-oriented music, and Summerfold Records, focusing on his jazz output, mostly from post-1987. Both are distributed by Voiceprint Records.

Bruford's final public gig was with Earthworks on 31 July 2008 at Ronnie Scott's in London. In January 2009, at the age of 59, Bruford announced that he was retiring from performing and recording, after 41 years, effective from 1 January. Among the various reasons for retiring were his growing performance anxiety that "was making life intolerable", his diminishing stamina required to tour and perform on an international scale, and what he perceived as a bleak future for the style of drumming that appealed to him. The final studio album he played on was Skin and Wire: Play the Music of Colin Riley (2009) by Piano Circus. Bruford had kept a diary of his gigs throughout his career, and logged 2,885 gigs.

2009–present: Post-retirement

In early 2009, Bruford published his autobiography. Not long into his retirement, Bruford had a brief, low key stint in Ann Bailey's Soul House, a nine-piece band performing Motown and soul covers in Ewhurst, Surrey.

In February 2016, after four and a half years of study, Bruford received a PhD degree in Music from the University of Surrey. He had wanted to do something related to music following his retirement, and considered his missed opportunity in pursuing higher education in the late 1960s as a factor in his decision to enter academia. The University of Surrey offered to award Bruford an honorary doctorate, but he wanted to put in the effort and work for his degree, which focused on creativity and music performance, specifically with a drum kit. Bruford's thesis, "Making it work: Creative music performance and the Western kit drummer", was posted online in May 2016. Bruford has since written various journal articles, book chapters and liner notes, and presented guest lectures at universities and music institutions in Europe and North America.

In April 2017, Bruford was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a former member of Yes. He attended the ceremony, but did not perform or deliver an acceptance speech. In March 2018, Bruford introduced Yes at their two London shows during their 50th Anniversary Tour. Later that year, Bruford published his second book, Uncharted: Creativity and the Expert Drummer. It is an adaptation of his PhD dissertation.

In October 2020, Bruford put much of his personal collection of instruments, microphones, tour cases and other equipment from his career up for sale, totalling 258 separate listings. In August 2021, Bruford's back catalogue of music from Bruford, Moraz/Bruford, and Earthworks were made available on digital streaming platforms for the first time. In January 2022, Bruford launched his own YouTube channel to share videos from his career with additional "thoughts and anecdotes". A 6-CD career-spanning box set of tracks on which Bruford played was released on 29 April 2022.

On 3 August 2023, Bruford performed at the John Wetton tribute concert in East Sussex. He was not billed at the event, but performed a live run-through of Bryan Ferry's cover of "Let's Stick Together", which Wetton had played on, with Phil Manzanera, Guy Pratt, and Chris Difford.

Band timeline

 Yes (1968-1972, 1991-1992)
 King Crimson (1972-1974, 1981-1984, 1994-1997)
 Gong (Nov/Dec 1974)
 National Health (1975)
 Trigger (Roy Harper Band) (1975)
 Genesis (as concert drummer on A Trick of the Tail Tour 26.3.-11.7.1976)
 Absolute Elsewhere (1976)
 Bruford (1977-1980)
 U.K. (1978)
 Bill Bruford's Earthworks (Mark I: 1986-1993, Mark II: 1997-2008)
 Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe (ABWH, 1988–1990)
 ProjeKct One (1997)
 Network Of Sparks (1999)
 Bruford Levin Upper Extremities (B.L.U.E., 1998-2000)

Timeline

Personal life
Bruford married his wife Carolyn in March 1973; they live in Surrey. They have three children, Alex, Holly, and Jack; Alex was formerly the drummer of the indie rock band Infadels.

It was at Bruford's wedding reception where Jon Anderson met Jamie Muir, who inspired Anderson to read Autobiography of a Yogi which became the origin of Yes's double album Tales from Topographic Oceans (1973).

Bruford described himself as a "lapsed atheist".

Songwriting
When interviewed in 1982, Bruford commented on his ability to compose for King Crimson. "It's very hard to know how to communicate in a band like that where the individuals are competent enough to produce their own kinds of sounds, it's very hard to write for a band like that."

Legacy
Many other drummers have cited Bruford as an influence, including Danny Carey, Mike Portnoy, Matt Cameron, Brann Dailor, Tim "Herb" Alexander, Gene Hoglan, Aaron Harris, Chad Cromwell, Ben Koller, Chris Pennie, Steve Arrington, Mac McNeilly, Morgan Simpson of Black Midi, Eric Kretz, and Martin Dosh. In addition, other artists have been quoted expressing admiration for his work including Neil Murray, Jimmy Keegan, and Adrian Younge.

Awards
In 1990, the readers of Modern Drummer voted him into that magazine's Hall of Fame.

Books
Bill Bruford: The Autobiography. Yes, King Crimson, Earthworks and More (2009)
Uncharted: Creativity and the Expert Drummer (2018)

Discography

Solo
Bruford
Feels Good to Me (1978)
One of a Kind (1979)
The Bruford Tapes (1979, live recording)
Gradually Going Tornado (1980)
Rock Goes to College (2006, live recording)

Compilations
Master Strokes: 1978–1985 (1986)
Making a Song and Dance: A Complete-Career Collection (2022)

As band member

Guest appearances

Notes
Citations

Sources

External links

 Official website at BillBruford.com
Bill Bruford Interview at NAMM Oral History Collection (2011)

1949 births
Living people
People from Sevenoaks
English atheists
English jazz drummers
British male drummers
English rock drummers
Yes (band) members
King Crimson members
Post-bop drummers
Jazz fusion drummers
Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe members
E.G. Records artists
Musicians from Kent
Progressive rock drummers
U.K. (band) members
British male jazz musicians
Earthworks (band) members
Genesis (band) members
Bruford Levin Upper Extremities members
Gordian Knot (band) members

Bill Bruford


William Dennison Cary was the founder and namesake of Cary, Illinois, and one of its early prominent citizens.

He was born in 1808 in Sandy Creek, New York. In 1830 he married Lodemia Ells, who was one year older than he. Their first child, Cornelia, was born in 1832. Two years later, they welcomed another daughter, Hulda. In the next few years, five more children expanded their family to nine members.

While William and Lodemia's family grew, he bought , in three separate purchases, thus creating the first section of Cary, Illinois. In 1845, he built on West Main Street a red brick house, which still stands today. However, the house was moved to a lot on East Ross Street in 1966, when Ameritech bought the West Main property. The present-day house includes two sections that were added later.

External links
 Village of Cary, and biography of William Dennison Cary

People from Cary, Illinois
1808 births
Year of death missing
People from Sandy Creek, New York

William Dennison Cary


Roman Sikora (born 3 July 1970 in Třinec) is a contemporary Czech playwright and journalist. He grew up in the town of Třinec in eastern Czech Republic where he worked in the local steel plant, Třinec Iron and Steel Works before moving to Brno. Here he went on to graduate from the Drama Department of Brno's renowned Janáček's Academy of Performing Arts (JAMU), his field of study being drama literary management. He later worked as the night receptionist in the Brno City Theatre where he continued in his efforts to move closer to the practice of theatre operations. He was a member of the editorial board of the former internet theatrical magazine of eternal fury YORICK and the author of essays and reviews published in the same periodical. He currently lives in Prague working as an editor for the 'Literární noviny', Prague's cultural/political journal as well as working as a theatrical editor for the internet server Tiscali.cz.

His play 'Smetení Antigony' (The Detritus of Antigone) was awarded the second prize in the Alfréd Radok Foundation competition for original drama in 1997. Some of his plays have been translated into other languages, mainly German, French, Hungarian and Slovene.

In 2007 a film portrayal of the playwright was made, called "Sikora. Malý osobní marketingový epos" (Sikora. A small personal marketing epic). The film was directed by Ivo Bystřičan.

Plays
 Kočka na mráčku (1994), (The Cat on the Cloud)
 Sodomagomora! (1995), (Sodomgomorrah)
 Černá noc (1996), (Black Night)
 Tank (1996), (The Tank)
 Vlci (1997), (Wolves)
 Smetení Antigony (1997), (The Detritus of Antigone)
 Krásná hra s jarními květy (1997), (The Beautiful Play with Spring Flowers)
 Sibir (1997)
 Nehybnost (1998), (Immobility)
 Opory společnosti (2000), (Pillars of Society)
 Včera to spustili (2002)
 Jitro kouzelníků (2003)
 Největší básník (2004)
 Kolchida (2006)

References

 Roman Sikora profile (Czech)
 interview with Roman Sikora in czech

1970 births
Living people
Writers from Třinec
20th-century Czech dramatists and playwrights
Czech male dramatists and playwrights
Czech journalists

Roman Sikora


The Webb River is a  river in western Maine. It is a tributary of the Androscoggin River, which flows to the Kennebec River and ultimately the Atlantic Ocean.

The Webb River begins at the outlet of Webb Lake near the southern border of the town of Weld and flows south, quickly entering the town of Carthage, where it turns southwest, then south again. The southernmost  of the river forms the boundary between the towns of Mexico and Dixfield. The river enters the Androscoggin just west of the village of Dixfield.  The entire course of the river is paralleled by Maine Route 142.

See also
 List of rivers of Maine

References

Maine Streamflow Data from the USGS
Maine Watershed Data From Environmental Protection Agency

Tributaries of the Kennebec River
Rivers of Maine
Rivers of Franklin County, Maine
Rivers of Oxford County, Maine

Webb River


Appeal to novelty is a fallacy where a person would claim that Subject B is better than Subject A because Subject B is newer, or that "newer is better". This fallacy is understandable because people find new discoveries everyday. Since new discoveries are made everyday, people are quick to think that the new thing will be better than the old thing because of the possibility that the new thing was made to fix the mistakes of the old thing.

An example of appeal to novelty is that "the newer versions of the iPhone will always be better then the older versions because smartphone technology becomes more advanced every year."

An example that people use to prove this argument wrong is New Coke, because even though it was made later than the older Coca-Cola, most people who have tasted New Coke say it tasted worse than Coca-Cola.

The opposite of appeal to novelty is appeal to tradition.

References

Logical fallacies

Appeal to novelty


The Manx (; ) are a minority ethnic group originating on the Isle of Man, in the Irish Sea in Northern Europe. They belong to the diaspora of the Gaelic ethnolinguistic group, which now populate the parts of the British Isles and Ireland which once were the Kingdom of the Isles and Dál Riata. A recent genetical analysis of traditional Manx surnames, identified that the majority of the native manx population belong to the Haplogroup R-DF13 group. The native culture of the  Isle of Man is described as Celtic with significant Gaelic, Norse,
Norse-Gaelic, and minor northern English influences. The Manx are governed by themselves through Tynwald (Ard-whaiyl Tinvaal), the legislature of the island, which was introduced by Viking settlers over a thousand years ago. The native mythology and folklores of the Manx belong to the overall Celtic Mythology group, with Manannán mac Lir, the Mooinjer veggey, Buggane, Lhiannan-Shee, Ben-Varrey and the Moddey Dhoo being prominent mythological figures on the island. Their language, Manx Gaelic (Gaelg, Gailck) is derived from Middle Irish, which was introduced by settlers that colonised the island from Gaelic Ireland. However, Manx gaelic later developed in isolation and belongs as a separate Goidelic language of the Insular Celtic languages.

Isle of Man demographics

According to the 2011 interim census, the Isle of Man is home to 84,655 people, of whom 26,218 reside in the island's capital Douglas (Doolish). The largest proportion of the population was born on the island, but major settlement by English people (Sostnagh/ Sostynagh) and others has significantly altered the demographics. According to the 2011 census, 47.6% were born in the Isle of Man, and 37.2% were born in England, with smaller numbers born elsewhere: 3.4% in Scotland, 2.1% in Northern Ireland, 2.1% in the Republic of Ireland, 1.2% in Wales and 0.3% born in the Channel Islands, with 6.1% of the population having been born elsewhere in the world.

Manx people living in the UK were commonly grouped by the 2001 census under "White British". The extremely high ratio of "come-overs" to "natives" has brought with it changes in terms of culture, identity and speech. Manx people have also made a significant contribution elsewhere through migration. The Manx have a long tradition of moving to Liverpool for work, hence a lot of Liverpool people have Manx ancestry, among them are Paul McCartney of The Beatles, American actress Olivia Wilde, former Vice President of the United States Dan Quayle and Chris Cornell of the bands Soundgarden, Audioslave and Temple of The Dog. Many Manx people emigrated to the United States, with notable populations in Cuyahoga County and Lake County, Ohio.

Languages

Manx people have traditionally had three vernaculars:

 Manx, a Gaelic language (çhengaghyn Gaelgagh).
 English language
 Anglo-Manx, the distinctive indigenous English dialect of the Manx, now much diluted.
 British English, the usual form of English used in the Isle of Man, especially for formal purposes.

The English language is used in Tynwald (Tinvaal); the use of Manx there is restricted to a few formulaic phrases. However, some Manx is used to a limited extent in official publications, street signs etc. Education in the Manx language is offered in schools, The Bunscoill Ghaelgagh is a Manx-language primary school in St John's, Isle of Man.  it is the only school in the world where children are taught their lessons solely in Manx and which allows children to learn the language fluently.

The school is considered successful and is part of the Manx language revival. After UNESCO listed the language as extinct in 2009, pupils wrote letters asking "If our language is extinct then what language are we writing in?", and the classification was later changed to "critically endangered". Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland (Ealish ayns Çheer ny Yindyssyn) is read in translation after 30 copies were presented to the  by the Manx Gaelic Society when the book was officially launched.

History and politics

The Isle of Man is one of the six Celtic nations, and has been under Norse, Scottish, English control and self-governing for much of the past thousand years.

The earliest traces of people in the Isle of Man date to around 8000 BC, during the Mesolithic Period, also known as the Middle Stone Age. Small, nomadic family groups lived in campsites, hunting wild game, fishing the rivers and coastal waters and gathering plant foods.

The Neolithic period was marked by important economic and social changes. By 4000 BC, people once reliant upon the uncultivated natural resources of the land and sea had adopted cereal growing and stock rearing, using imported species of grain and animals. Large-scale clearance of natural woodland provided fields for crops and animal fodder.

During the Iron Age, Celtic influence began to arrive on the island. Based on inscriptions, the inhabitants appear to have used a Brythonic language; however, at some point, possibly c. 700 AD, it is assumed that Irish invasion or immigration formed the basis of a new culture, and the Manx came to speak Gaelic. This language has developed in isolation since, though it remains closely related to Irish, and Scottish Gaelic.

At the end of the 8th century, Viking settlers began to arrive and establish settlements, eventually coming to dominate the island.

The Norse Kingdom of Mann and the Isles was created by Godred Crovan in 1079. The Norse had a major impact on the island, leaving behind Norse placenames, and influencing its distinctive political system, Tynwald (from Old Norse, Þingvóllr), which is one of the oldest parliamentary democracies in the world.

In 1266, under the Treaty of Perth, Norway's King Magnus VI ceded the isles to Scotland. For more than a century the Isle of Man, during the Anglo-Scottish wars, passed between Scotland and England. During this troubled period, the Island was captured by the Scottish army of Robert the Bruce in 1313. Later in the 14th century, when England once more seized the Island, the Lordship – indeed kingship – was given to the Montacute family, Earls of Salisbury.

In 1405, the Lordship was granted to Sir John Stanley, whose descendants (later the Earls of Derby) ruled the Isle of Man for over 300 years. The lordship passed through a female line to the Dukes of Atholl in 1736 and was eventually purchased by the British Crown in 1765.

Since 1866, when the Isle of Man obtained a measure of home rule, the Manx people have developed into a modern nation with an economy based decreasingly on agriculture and fishing and increasingly first on tourism and then on financial and other services.

The 20th century saw a revival of interest in Manx music and dance, and in the Manx language, though the last native (first language) speaker of Manx died in the 1970s. In the middle of the 20th century, the Taoiseach Éamon de Valera visited and was so distressed at the lack of support for Manx that he immediately had two recording vans sent over to record the language before it disappeared completely.

The economic changes gave a short-lived impetus to Manx nationalism in the 1970s and 1980s, spawning Mec Vannin, a nationalist group, as well as the now-defunct Manx National Party and  ("Underground"), which mounted a direct-action campaign of spray-painting and house-burning. Nationalist politics has since declined and a number of its former proponents are now in mainstream politics.

The 1990s and early 21st century have seen a greater recognition of indigenous Manx culture, such as the first Manx-medium primary school, though Manx culture still remains on the margins of popular culture for the majority of Manx residents.

Chronicles of Mann and English possession

The Chronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles or Manx Chronicle is a manuscript relating the early history of the Isle of Man. The Chronicles are a yearly account of significant events in Manx history from 1016. Written in Latin, it documents the island's role as the centre of the Norse kingdom of Mann and the Isles. The Chronicles also document the influence of its kings, religious leaders and the role of Rushen Abbey.

There have been campaigns to transfer the possession of the Chronicles by the British Library in England, back permanently to the Isle of Man and to the Manx people. In 2014, the Celtic League supported this cause, demanding the return of the manuscript to the Isle of Man. They continue to pursue a campaign for the reappropriation of artefacts back to their Celtic countries.

See also

 List of Manx people
 List of residents of the Isle of Man
 Manx surnames, surnames originating on the Isle of Man

 Manx Americans

References

External links

People
Gaels
Ethnic groups in the Isle of Man

Manx people


Western literature, also known as European literature, is the literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages of Europe, and is shaped by the periods in which they were conceived, with each period containing prominent western authors, poets, and pieces of literature.

The best of Western literature is considered to be the Western canon. The list of works in the Western canon varies according to the critic's opinions on Western culture and the relative importance of its defining characteristics. Different literary periods held great influence on the literature of Western and European countries, with movements and political changes impacting the prose and poetry of the period. The 16th Century is known for the creation of Renaissance literature, while the 17th century was influenced by both Baroque and Jacobean forms. The 18th century progressed into a period known as the Enlightenment Era for many western countries. This period of military and political advancement influenced the style of literature created by French, Russian and Spanish literary figures. The 19th century was known as the Romantic era, in which the style of writing was influenced by the political issues of the century, and differed from the previous classicist form.

Western literature includes written works in many languages:

Albanian literature
Armenian literature
American literature
Argentine literature
Australian literature
Austrian literature
Basque literature
Belarusian literature
Belgian literature
Bosnian literature
Brazilian literature
British literature
Bulgarian literature
Canadian literature
Catalan literature
Croatian literature
Colombian literature
Cypriot literature
Czech literature
Danish literature
Dutch literature
English literature
Estonian literature
Finnish literature
French literature
Gaelic literature
German literature
Greek literature
Ancient Greek literature
Georgian literature
Hungarian literature
Icelandic literature
Irish literature
Italian literature
Kashubian literature
Latin literature
Latin American literature
Latvian literature
Lithuanian literature
Luxembourgian literature
Macedonian literature
Maltese literature
Mexican literature
Moldovan literature
New Zealand literature
Northern Irish literature
Norwegian literature
Polish literature
Portuguese literature
Romanian literature
Russian literature
Scottish literature
Serbian literature
Slovak literature
Slovene literature
Sorbian literature
Spanish literature
Swedish literature
Swiss literature
Ukrainian literature
Welsh literature
Yiddish literature

16th century

Renaissance and Reformation

England
Medieval and early modern England was the time of reformation, in which a "Protestant aesthetic" was developed, while the Church of England attempted to separate their notoriety with the Pope and move away from the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. Johannine literature, being "hymnic, densely troped and symbolic, structured, inspired", became the inspiration for many poets of the period. A group of poets bloomed from this reformation, the rejection of the Pope and moving away from Roman Catholic Church. Amongst these were the most significant John Donne, George Herbert and Thomas Traherne, and constituted a group of poets known as "revelatory poetics".

The narrative which grew more prominent in English literature due to this movement towards Johannine theology incorporated an increase of spiritual themes, with "supernatural forces" and an "enchantment narrative" guiding the writings of the time. Johannine theology focused on the "divine" nature of Christ and disregards the materialistic and human aspect acknowledged in Catholic texts. It has been argued that the writings of Saint John the Evangelist, which was considered an integral part of Johannine theology, coincided with Pauline theology during the early modern era to hold influence over the English literature of the time. Author Paul Cefalu claims this form of "high Christology" was seen in the writings of John Donne, when he states that the "Gospel of Saint John containes all Divinity". However, it is argued by author P. M. Oliver that the theology which was indoctrinated in the poetry of revelatory poets including John Donne was expanded on and created by the poets themselves.

Prominent forms of literature which shaped and contributed to this era of Reformation include significantly structured prose and poetry, including the Spenserian stanza; the sonnet, which is a form of poem easily distinguishable by its fourteen-line form with a structured rhyme format; and the pastoral mode, a genre of literature which is significantly attributed to English poet Edmund Spenser, who created collections of poetry which portrays an idealistic version of rural living. Spenser has been "dubbed 'the English Virgil'" due to his influence on this particular genre.

Significant texts from 16th-century early modern England were primarily religious in context and include:

 The Great Bible, edited by Myles Coverdale.
 The first Book of Common Prayer, published on January 15, 1549, after being accepted by the House of Lords. The book, due to the political and authoritative changes of the time of the reformation, attempted to provide a "compromise" between Protestant and Roman Catholic beliefs. The author of the book, Thomas Cranmer, assisted in creating a standard version of the modern English language.

Golden Age

Spain
The Spanish Golden Age spanned over the course of the 16th century and was a time of development and acceleration in the arts and literature in Spain. This acceleration of poetry, drama and prose forms of literature was partly due to the increase in contact that Spain gained to other European nations including Italy. During this time, a prominent Spanish poet arose named Garcilaso de la Vega. He utilised literary devices seen in foreign nations within his work, and was able to, therefore, replace the stanza forms originally used in Spain with Italian meters and stanza forms. The poet was influenced by Petrarchan imagery and the works of Virgil, and was used as inspiration by subsequent poets of the time. Garcilaso integrated a variety of mythological allusions into his works, in which he took inspiration from the Italian Renaissance of the mid-16th century.

17th century

Prose and poetic literature within western regions, most prominently in England during the early modern era, had a distinct Biblical influence which only began to be rejected during the Enlightenment period of the 18th century. European poetry during the 17th century tended to meditate on or reference the scriptures and teachings of the Bible, an example being orator George Herbert's "The Holy Scriptures (II)", in which Herbert relies heavily on biblical ligatures to create his sonnets.

Jacobean era

England

The Jacobean period of 17th-century England gave birth to a group of metaphysic literary figures, metaphysical referring to a branch of philosophy which tries to bring meaning to and explain reality using broader and larger concepts. In order to do this, the use of literary features including conceits was common, in which the writer makes obscure comparisons in order to convey a message or persuade a point.

The term metaphysics was coined by poet John Dryden, and during 1779 its meaning was extended to represent a group of poets of the time, then called "metaphysical poets". Major poets of the time included John Donne, Andrew Marvell and George Herbert. These poets used wit and high intellectual standards while drawing from nature to reveal insights about emotion and rejected the romantic attributes of the Elizabethan period to birth a more analytical and introspective form of writing. A common literary device during the 17th century was the use of metaphysical conceits, in which the poet uses "unorthodox language" to describe a relatable concept. It is beneficial when trying to bring light to concepts that are difficult to explain with more common imagery.

John Donne was a prominent metaphysical poet of the 17th century. Donne's poetry explored the pleasures of life through strong use of conceits and emotive language. Donne adopted a more simplistic vernacular compared to the common Petrarchan diction, with imagery derived mainly from God. Donne was known for the metaphysical conceits integrated in his poetry. He used themes of religion, death and love to inspire the conceits he constructed. A famous conceit is observed in his well-known poem "The Flea" in which the flea is utilised to describe the bond between Donne and his lover, explaining how just as multiple bloods are within one flea, their bond is inseparable.

18th century

Enlightenment era
The Enlightenment era was a time of progression which spanned over the 18th century across many western countries. Upon recent years, this time of "enlightenment" was split into two degrees of progression, both a "moderate" and "radical" form, and was observed to be less harmonious across regions in its nature than previously thought.

Literature has been produced to comment on the different versions of "Enlightenment" that spawned across Europe during the 18th century. Henry Farnham stated in his book The Enlightenment in America that the "Moderate Enlightenment […] preaches balance, order and religious compromise", whereas the "Revolutionary Enlightenment" attempted to "construct a new heaven and earth out of the destruction of the old".

Netherlands

Significant texts which shaped this literary period include Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, an anonymously published treatise in Amsterdam in which the author, Spinoza, rejected the Jewish and Christian religions for their lack of depth in teaching. Spinoza discussed higher levels of philosophy in his treatise, which he suggested was only understood by elitists. This text is one of many during this period which attributed to the increasing "anti-religious" support during the time of Enlightenment. Although the book held great influence, other writers of the time rejected Spinoza's views, including theologian Lambert van Valthuysen.

France
The time of enlightenment and advancement meant that both sacred and secular authors were pushing women to be at a higher level of literary knowledgeability. France was attempting to improve the education of young women and therefore have this be seen as a reflection of the advancement of society. This led to the emergence of a new genre of literature in 18th-century France of books of conduct for girls and unmarried women. Pieces by authors including Marie-Antoinette Lenoir, Louise d'Épinay and Anne-Thérèse de Lambert all shared the same role of shaping young French women to lead successful and progressive lives. However, this form of education for women during the 18th century has been observed to be more oppressive than empowering.

Spain

The War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714) led to the French control over Spain. This influenced their cultural identity and, therefore, the Enlightenment period held an impact on Spanish literature in the 18th century. The court of Madrid during the 18th century saw an increase in influence from the French and the Italian, with literary influences derived increasingly from authors during the English Enlightenment period. English authors who are stated to hold influence on Spanish "Ilustrados" include John Locke, Edmund Burke, Edward Young and Thomas Hobbes. New takes on literature began to emerge during this time, led by poets including Ignacio de Luzán Claramunt and Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, who contributed greatly to the neoclassical movement of the 18th century through drama and poetic forms of literature. Only until the 20th century, however, was the Spanish Enlightenment period properly acknowledged by scholars, with past research regarding the Spanish Enlightenment period as a "time of foreign imitation".

The Spanish Enlightenment held impact on women in Spain, with more women publishing literature, becoming members as well as subscribers to publications including the Semanario de Salamanca and the . Numerous women who contributed to the Spanish Enlightenment period include poet Margarita Hickey, author Frasquita Larrea, and poet María Gertrudis Hore.

Russia

During the 18th century, Russia was experiencing expansions in military and geographical control, a key facet of the Enlightenment period. This is reflected in the literature of the time period. Satire and the panegyric had influenced the development of Russian literature as seen in the Russian literary figures of the time including Feofan Prokopovich, Kantemir, Derzhavin and Karamzin.

Sublime era

Spain
Spanish literature of the 18th century, apart from being influenced by the Enlightenment period, was influenced by the literary concept of the "sublime". The "sublime" was the linkage between Spanish Neoclassical poetry and Romantic poetry prevalent during the 18th century, and was a concept of literary, rhetorical and philosophical value. Longinus described the literary devices that the sublime creates as those that allowed the reader to experience something similar to the speaker. He had created a style of language that was not used to persuade, but merely to transport the reader into the mind of the speaker.

19th century

Romantic era

Italy

The Romantic era for literature was at its pinnacle during the 19th century and was a period which influenced western literature. Italian writers of the 19th century, including the likes of Leopardi and Alessandro Manzoni, detested being grouped into a "category" of writing. Therefore, Italy was home to many isolated literary figures, with no unambiguous meaning for the term "Romanticism" itself. This was explained in the writings of Pietro Borsieri, in which he depicted the term Romanticism as being a literary movement that was self-defined by the writers. Contrastingly, it was noted by writers of the time, including Giuseppe Acerbi, how Italian Romantics were merely mimicking the trends seen in foreign nations in a hasty way which lacked the depth of foreign writers. Authors including Ludovico di Breme,  and Giovanni Berchet did classify themselves as Romantics, however they were critiqued by others, including Gina Martegiani, who wrote in her essay "Il Romanticismo Italiano Non Esiste" of 1908 that the authors who considered themselves Romantics only created two-dimensional imitations of the works of German Romantic authors.

The poetry of the Romantic era of Italy was focused greatly on the motif of nature. Romantic poets drew inspiration from ancient Greek and Latin poetry and mythology, while poets of this time period also sought to create a sense of unity within the country with their writings.

Political disunity was prevalent in 19th-century Italy, reflected in the Risorgimento. After the Neapolitan Revolution of 1799, the term "Risorgimento" was used in the context of a movement of "national redemption" as stated by Antonio Gramsci. The one facet which held Italy together during this time of political disunity was the poetry and writings of the time period, as suggested by Berchet. The desire for freedom and the sense of "national redemption" is reflected heavily in the works of Italian Romantics, including Ugo Foscolo, who wrote the story The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis, in which a man was forced to commit suicide due to the political persecutions of his country.

Britain

Historical events including the European Revolution, within which the French revolution is claimed to be most significant, contributed to the development of 19th-century British Romanticism. These revolutions birthed a new genre of authors and poets who used their literature to convey their distaste for authority. This is seen in the works of poet and artist William Blake, who used primarily philosophical and biblical themes in his poetry, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth, also known as the "Lake Poets", whose literature including the Lyrical Ballads is claimed to have "marked the beginning of the Romantic Movement".

There was known to be two waves of British Romantic authors; Coleridge and Wordsworth were grouped into the first wave, while a more radical and "aggressive" second wave of authors included the likes of George Gordon Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. Due to the adamant aggression of Byron in his poetic works which advocated for an anti-violence revolution and world in which equality existed, a form of fictional character was born named the "Byronic hero", who is known to be rebellious in character. The Byronic hero "pervades much of his work" and Byron is considered a reflection of the character he created.

Greek and Roman mythology was prevalent in the works of British Romantic poets including Byron, Keats and Shelley. However, there were poets who rejected the notion of mythological inspiration, including Coleridge, who preferred to take inspiration from the Bible to produce significantly religious-inspired works.

British 19th-century Romanticism developed literature which focused on the "self-organisation of living beings, their growth and adaption into their environments and the creative spark that inspired the physical system to perform complex functions". There are observed close ties between medicine, a concept which was experiencing innovation during the 19th century, and Romantic English literature. British Romanticism also had influences from 13th-/16th-century Italian art as a consequence of British artists who resided in Italy during the time of Bonaparte's invasion dealing paintings to London clients from medieval to the High Renaissance Italian periods. The exposure to these artworks influenced British literature and culture during a time "when Britain was struggling to prove the value of its own visual culture". The art gave inspiration and "shaped the aesthetic" of Romantic literature for writers including the likes of author Mary Shelley. The diversity and lack of standard seen in the work of infamous Italian artists including Michelangelo and Raphael allowed Romantic writers to celebrate new forms and ways of expression. English essayist William Hazlitt articulated how the lack of restriction, and ample artistic liberty and freedom seen through the artworks of Raphael inspired poets of the Romantic era. Michelangelo's artworks, which "embodied the sublime", were reflected in the literature of Dante and Shakespeare, with constant analogies being made at the time comparing the two.

See also
Persian literature in Western culture
Oceanian literature

References

External links

Western culture
Literature by continent

Western literature