Manuel Aguilar Chacón (12 August 1797, San José, Costa Rica – 7 July 1846) was head of state of Costa Rica from April 1837 to March 1838.

Early life
He was born in San José, Costa Rica, on August 12, 1797. Was the son of Miguel Antonio Aguilar y Fernández (who ordained as a priest after widowing) and Josefa de la Luz Chacón y Aguilar. He got married in León, Nicaragua, on August 4, 1824 to Inés Cueto y García de la Llana, daughter of Luis de Cueto y Cortés de la Quintana y Teodora García de la Llana. In their home, their four children were born:

 Mauro Antonio de Jesús (b. 1826), married to Rosa Guzmán y Guzmán, daughter of Juan José Guzmán, President of El Salvador in 1842 and from 1842 to 1844.
 Juan Manuel (b. 1828), deceased in his early years.
 Inés Antonia de Jesús (1830-1895), married to Juan Rafael Mora Porras, President of Costa Rica from 1849 to 1859.
 Manuel Antonio de Jesús (1832-1860), Single.

Studies
He obtained his bachelor's degree from the University of León in Nicaragua in 1820 and his Lawyer degree in 1821.

First public office
He became judge of Costa Rica in 1824, member and President of the Constituent Assembly through 1824–1825, General Ministry from 1825 to 1827, School Governing of la Casa de Enseñanza de Santo Tomás in 1826, Representative for San José in 1828, Elected federal Senator in 1828 (he was not able to take office at the time) and Federal Senator through(1832-1833). In 1830 he was elected by the Legislative Assembly as President of the Superior Court of Justice of Costa Rica, but he declined the position.

During 1833, while he was working as Federal Senator in Guatemala, the liberal groups from San José and Alajuela backed up his candidacy as chief of state of Costa Rica. Although he had the highest vote count, he was not able to achieve absolute majority and the Legislative Assembly chose José Rafael de Gallegos y Alvarado.

Manuel Aguilar Chacón returned to Costa Rica on November 21, 1833. And in 1835 he was elected again as Representative for San José to cover the period 1835–1837. He presided the house of Representatives in 1835. In March of that same year, when the elected Chief of State to conclude the period in Gallegos, Nicolás Ulloa Soto, declined the position, the Assembly voted in favor of Aguilar Chacón to assume top command but he refused to admit the electoral process.

Head of the state
With the support of the communities of Alajuela, Cartago and Heredia, Manuel Aguilar Chacón defeated Braulio Carrillo Colina in the 1837 elections and was chosen as Head of State for Costa Rica for the period 1837–1841. As Vice-chief Juan Mora Fernández was elected. Both took office on April 17, 1837 at the city of Heredia, the Capital City of Costa Rica at the time.

During his mandate, the law of 1835 that established the Capital in the City of Murciélago was repealed. He took measures in favour of health and education. He also reorganized the Superior Court of Justice.

He did face great opposition from the supporters of Braulio Carrillo Colina. He even took a serious beating. In March, 1838 he presented his resignation as Chief of State but the Legislative Assembly rejected it.

Fall and exile
Manuel Aguilar Chacón was overthrown on May 27, 1838 by a military coup d'état that rose Braulio Carrillo Colina into power. Aguilar Chacón had to flee in exile. He first was established in the state of El Salvador and later on moved to Guatemala.

Later activities
He was Commissioner of Guatemala in Costa Rica through 1843 and later on he decided to exercise his lawyer profession. In 1845 the Government of Costa Rica designated him as delegate to the "Dieta Unionista Centroamericana" (Centroamerican Union Conference) that was expected to hold a meeting in Sonsonate, El Salvador in 1846. Manuel Aguilar Chacón traveled to Sonsonate, but the union meeting was never inaugurated.

Death
He died in Sonsonate, El Salvador, on July 7, 1846, as a consequence of pneumonia.

See also
 List of presidents of Costa Rica

References

1797 births
1846 deaths
People from San José, Costa Rica
Presidents of Costa Rica
19th-century Costa Rican people
Costa Rican liberals

Manuel Aguilar Chacón


The Masters of Dirc van Delf were a group of manuscript painters active in the Netherlands between 1400 and around 1410. The name has been appended to several unknown artists who together make up an important studio of illuminators, one of the first important ones known from fifteenth-century Holland. Their name is derived from the lavish work they did to illustrate devotional texts by Dirc van Delf, court chaplain to Albrecht of Bavaria from 1389 until 1404 in The Hague. The studio's artists combined with Dirc to play an important role in the new cultural life of the royal court in the Netherlands.

Paintings by the Masters may be found in the collections of the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, California.

References
Masters of Dirc van Delf at the Getty Museum

Early Netherlandish painters
Manuscript illuminators
Dirc van Delf, Masters of
Year of birth unknown

Masters of Dirc van Delf


Huang Quan (903–965), courtesy name Yaoshu, was a Chinese painter during the Five Dynasties period and the Song dynasty who worked in the imperial painting academies of the Former Shu, Later Shu and Song dynasties. Along with Xu Xi, Huang is considered a founding master of the bird-and-flower painting.

Huang Quan was highly prolific: the 1120 catalog Xuanhe Huapu alone critiques 349 of his works. Unfortunately few are extant.

Early life

Huang Quan was born in 903, when the Tang empire had irretrievably collapsed into warlordism and civil strife. Around this time, many painters took refuge in Chengdu, Huang Quan's hometown and the capital of the relatively peaceful Xichuan Circuit, then controlled by the warlord Wang Jian. (Wang Jian founded the Former Shu empire in 907 after the Tang dynasty ended.) When Huang Quan was 12, he began his study of painting with the bird-and-flower painter Diao Guangyin (刁光胤), who had arrived in Chengdu from the Tang capital Chang'an in 903. Whereas Diao's other student Kong Song (孔嵩) never progressed beyond faithful reproduction of Diao's technique, Huang Quan sought to develop his own. He studied the water paintings of Sun Wei (孫位), another refugee from Chang'an, as well as the landscape paintings of Li Sheng (李昇), a leading local painter. By combining the strengths of all his teachers Huang was able to create a superior style.

In 919, the 16-year-old Huang Song became an imperial attendant (待詔) in the Painting Academy of Former Shu, which probably lasted until 925 when the Former Shu was conquered by the Later Tang empire.

Under Later Shu

References

903 births
965 deaths
Song dynasty painters
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms painters
Painters from Sichuan

Huang Quan (painter)


The word benign is often used to refer to a medical condition that will not become life-threatening if it is not treated, but can also mean that something is not harmful.  It is often used in relation to tumours that do not metastasise to other parts of the body.  Tumours that are referred to as being benign may still be life-threatening because of other reasons.  Because of this, the term applies mainly to their biological behaviour.

Tumors that are benign may be at risk of changing into malignancy.  These are termed "premalignant".

Medicine

Benign


The Doctor is the central character in the long-running BBC science fiction television series Doctor Who.

She is an alien, a Time Lord from the planet Gallifrey. The Doctor travels in his space-time-ship, the TARDIS, (Time And Relative Dimensions In Space) with which she can go anywhere in time and space. Because the TARDIS's chameleon circuit is broken, it looks like an old British police-call box permanently. The Doctor often takes other people with him, who are usually called "companions" or "assistants". They are always 21st century humans in the modern series, however the classic series often had human-looking aliens or people from the past or future. The most recent companion is Ruby Sunday.

Biography
The Doctor did not want to stay on Gallifrey any longer, so he "borrowed" an old Type 40 TARDIS. In the TARDIS he and his granddaughter Susan Foreman left their home planet Gallifrey. They stayed for a time on Earth in the 1960s, where Susan also went to school. Her teachers, Barbara Wright and Ian Chesterton, discovered the TARDIS. They traveled for a while with the Doctor, and returned to Earth two years later. After them the Doctor often took other people with him on his travels.

Anatomy and regeneration
As a Gallifreyan the Doctor looks like a human on the surface, but there are differences. One well-known difference is that The doctor has two hearts. As a Time Lord the Doctor can also regenerate, if doctor whos body is badly hurt and the doctor dies. During the regeneration, the body is healed and renewed, which includes a different appearance and personality. The regenerated person is the same person, with the same memories and basic personality traits; but the person also looks different and a changed personality. Because of this the Doctor could be played by different actors. This made it possible for the series to be filmed over a time of nearly fifty years without having to actually "change" the character.

Incarnations and actors of the Doctor
Up until now, the Doctor has regenerated Fifteen times, Regeneration can be controlled, but is usually decided without the doctor knowing his or her next face.
First Doctor – William Hartnell (1963–1966)
Second Doctor – Patrick Troughton (1966–1969)
Third Doctor – Jon Pertwee (1970–1974)
Fourth Doctor – Tom Baker (1974–1981)
Fifth Doctor – Peter Davison (1981–1984)
Sixth Doctor – Colin Baker (1984–1986)
Seventh Doctor – Sylvester McCoy (1987–1989, 1996)
Eighth Doctor – Paul McGann (1996)
War Doctor – John Hurt (2013)
Ninth Doctor – Christopher Eccleston (2005)
Tenth Doctor – David Tennant (2005–2010)
Eleventh Doctor – Matt Smith (2010–2013)
Twelfth Doctor – Peter Capaldi (2013–2017)
Thirteenth Doctor – Jodie Whittaker (2017–2022)
Fourteenth Doctor - David Tennant (2022–2023)
Fifteenth Doctor - Ncuti Gatwa (announced 2023–)

The Doctor has been played by other actors in other media, in theatre plays, parodies, etc. But these are not officially part of the Doctor Who storyline. Notable among them are:
 Dr. Who and the Daleks and Daleks - Invasion Earth 2150 AD – Peter Cushing (1965/1966)
 Scream of the Shalka and The Feast of the Stone – Richard E. Grant (2003)

References

Other websites
 The Doctor on the TARDIS Index File

Doctor Who characters

Doctor (Doctor Who)


William Beckley (died 1438) was an English Carmelite.

Life
Beckley was born in Kent, probably in the neighbourhood of Sandwich, where he appears to have entered the order of the Carmelites in early life.

While still young he proceeded to Cambridge, where the Carmelites had had a house since the year 1291. Here he seems to have taken his doctor's degree in divinity, and to have established a considerable reputation as a theologian. Bale praises his modesty of speech, and his firm proceedings against evildoers in all the assemblies ("conventibus") over which he presided. This incidental remark would alone prove him to have been a man of mark among the English Carmelites, even without the next sentence, in which we are told that while Beckley was engaged in the king's business Thomas Walden used to protect his interests at Cambridge against the complaints of his fellow-doctors there. Tanner makes mention of a letter from the chancellor and University of Cambridge  to the provincial chapter of the Carmelites at Northampton, referring to a charge that had been brought against Beckley for his absence from the university anno primo regentiæ for which offence he had been suspended. He also notices Walden's reply to this letter.

In his old age, after having spent many years at Cambridge, Beckley seems to have withdrawn to his native place, Sandwich, where, according to Bale, he became head of the Carmelite friary, and devoted the remainder of his life to study.

On his death, which occurred in 1438, he was buried in Sandwich, and the Latin verses inscribed upon his tomb, and probably written by himself, are preserved in Weever's Funeral Monuments.

Dempster has claimed Beckley as a Scottish monk, and gives several details of his life, how he was exiled from Scotland and took up his abode in France, whence he was recalled by James III, but apparently preferred to remain in England when once he set foot in that country on his return journey. But the authorities to whom Dempster appeals, Gilbert Brown (died 1612), and P. M. Thomas Sarracenus, an ex-professor of Bologna, can hardly be accepted as sufficient testimony for these statements in the face of so much contrary evidence. The tradition of a residence in France may, contain some degree of truth when we consider Bale's plain statement as to Beckley's being employed in royal business, and his subsequent statement that Beckley delivered declamations to the nobility and chief officers in many parts of England, and in Calais also.

The chief works assigned to him are similar in their titles to those of most mediaeval theologians, and consist of "Quodlibeta", "Quæstiones Ordinariæ", "Conciones Variæ", and one which, had it been preserved, might perhaps have been of some interest, entitled De Fraterculorum Decimis.

References

DNB references
These references are found in the DNB article referred to above.

External links

Year of birth missing
1438 deaths
Carmelites
People from Sandwich, Kent
English Christian monks
12th-century English people
12th-century Christian monks

William Beckley (Carmelite)


Cyberwarfare is the use of cyber attacks against an enemy state, causing comparable harm to actual warfare and/or disrupting vital computer systems. Some intended outcomes could be espionage, sabotage, propaganda, manipulation or economic warfare.

There is significant debate among experts regarding the definition of cyberwarfare, and even if such a thing exists. One view is that the term is a misnomer since no cyber attacks to date could be described as a war. An alternative view is that it is a suitable label for cyber attacks which cause physical damage to people and objects in the real world.

Many countries including the United States, United Kingdom, Russia, China, Israel, Iran, and North Korea have active cyber capabilities for offensive and defensive operations. As states explore the use of cyber operations and combine capabilities, the likelihood of physical confrontation and violence playing out as a result of, or part of, a cyber operation is increased. However, meeting the scale and protracted nature of war is unlikely, thus ambiguity remains.

The first instance of kinetic military action used in response to a cyber-attack resulting in the loss of human life was observed on 5 May 2019, when the Israel Defense Forces targeted and destroyed a building associated with an ongoing cyber-attack.

Definition
There is ongoing debate over how cyberwarfare should be defined and no absolute definition is widely agreed upon. While the majority of scholars, militaries, and governments use definitions that refer to state and state-sponsored actors, other definitions may include non-state actors, such as terrorist groups, companies, political or ideological extremist groups, hacktivists, and transnational criminal organizations depending on the context of the work.

Examples of definitions proposed by experts in the field are as follows.

Raymond Charles Parks and David P. Duggan focused on analyzing cyberwarfare in terms of computer networks and pointed out that "Cyberwarfare is a combination of computer network attack and defense and special technical operations." According to this perspective, the notion of cyber warfare brings a new paradigm into military doctrine. Paulo Shakarian and colleagues put forward the following definition of "cyber war" in 2013, drawing on Clausewitz's definition of war: "War is the continuation of politics by other means":

Taddeo offered the following definition in 2012:

Robinson et al. proposed in 2015 that the intent of the attacker dictates whether an attack is warfare or not, defining cyber warfare as "the use of cyber attacks with a warfare-like intent."

In 2010, the former US National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection and Counter-terrorism, Richard A. Clarke, defined cyberwarfare as "actions by a nation-state to penetrate another nation's computers or networks for the purposes of causing damage or disruption". The target's own cyber-physical infrastructure may be used by the adversary in case of a cyber conflict, thus weaponizing it.

Controversy of term
There is debate on whether the term "cyber warfare" is accurate. In 2012, Eugene Kaspersky, founder of Kaspersky Lab, concluded that "cyberterrorism" is a more accurate term than "cyberwar." He states that "with today's attacks, you are clueless about who did it or when they will strike again. It's not cyber-war, but cyberterrorism." Howard Schmidt, former Cyber Security Coordinator in the Obama administration, said that "there is no cyberwar... I think that is a terrible metaphor and I think that is a terrible concept. There are no winners in that environment."

Some experts take issue with the possible consequences linked to the warfare goal. In 2011, Ron Deibert, of Canada's Citizen Lab, warned of a "militarization of cyberspace", as militaristic responses may not be appropriate. However, to date, even serious cyber-attacks that have disrupted large parts of a nation's electrical grid (230,000 customers, Ukraine, 2015) or affected access to medical care, thus endangering life (UK National Health Service, WannaCry, 2017) have not led to military action.

In 2017, Oxford academic Lucas Kello proposed a new term, "Unpeace", to denote highly damaging cyber actions whose non-violent effects do not rise to the level of traditional war. Such actions are neither warlike nor peace-like. Although they are non-violent, and thus not acts of war, their damaging effects on the economy and society may be greater than those of some armed attacks. This term is closely related to the concept of the "grey zone", which came to prominence in 2017, describing hostile actions that fall below the traditional threshold of war. But as Kello explained, technological unpeace differs from the grey zone as the term is commonly used in that unpeace by definition is never overtly violent or fatal, whereas some grey-zone actions are violent, even if they are not acts of war.

Cyberwarfare vs. cyber war
The term "cyberwarfare" is distinct from the term "cyber war". Cyberwarfare includes techniques, tactics and procedures that may be involved in a cyber war, but the term does not imply scale, protraction or violence, which are typically associated with the term "war", which inherently refers to a large-scale action, typically over a protracted period of time, and may include objectives seeking to utilize violence or the aim to kill. A cyber war could accurately describe a protracted period of back-and-forth cyber attacks (including in combination with traditional military action) between warring states. To date, no such action is known to have occurred. Instead, armed forces have responded with tit-for-tat military cyber actions. For example, in June 2019, the United States launched a cyber attack against Iranian weapons systems in retaliation to the shooting down of a US drone in the Strait of Hormuz.

Cyberwarfare and cyber sanctions
In addition to retaliatory digital attacks, countries can respond to cyber attacks with cyber sanctions. Sometimes, it is not easy to detect the attacker, but suspicions may focus on a particular country or group of countries. In these cases, unilateral and multilateral economic sanctions can be used instead of cyberwarfare. For example, the United States has frequently imposed economic sanctions related to cyber attacks. Two Executive Orders issued during the Obama administration, EO 13694 of 2015 and EO 13757 of 2016, specifically focused on the implementation of the cyber sanctions. Subsequent US presidents have issued similar Executive Orders. The US Congress has also imposed cyber sanctions in response to cyberwarfare. For example, the Iran Cyber Sanctions Act of 2016 imposes sanctions on specific individuals responsible for cyber attacks.

Types of threat

Types of warfare
Cyber warfare can present a multitude of threats towards a nation. At the most basic level, cyber attacks can be used to support traditional warfare. For example, tampering with the operation of air defenses via cyber means in order to facilitate an air attack. Aside from these "hard" threats, cyber warfare can also contribute towards "soft" threats such as espionage and propaganda.
Eugene Kaspersky, founder of Kaspersky Lab, equates large-scale cyber weapons, such as Flame and NetTraveler which his company discovered, to biological weapons, claiming that in an interconnected world, they have the potential to be equally destructive.

Espionage

Traditional espionage is not an act of war, nor is cyber-espionage, and both are generally assumed to be ongoing between major powers. Despite this assumption, some incidents can cause serious tensions between nations, and are often described as "attacks". For example:
 Massive spying by the US on many countries, revealed by Edward Snowden.
 After the NSA's spying on Germany's Chancellor Angela Merkel was revealed, the Chancellor compared the NSA with the Stasi.
 The NSA recording nearly every cell phone conversation in the Bahamas, without the Bahamian government's permission, and similar programs in Kenya, the Philippines, Mexico and Afghanistan.
 The "Titan Rain" probes of American defense contractors computer systems since 2003.
 The Office of Personnel Management data breach, in the US, widely attributed to China.
 The security firm Area 1 published details of a breach that compromised one of the European Union's diplomatic communication channels for three years.

Out of all cyber attacks, 25% of them are espionage based.

Sabotage
Computers and satellites that coordinate other activities are vulnerable components of a system and could lead to the disruption of equipment. Compromise of military systems, such as C4ISTAR components that are responsible for orders and communications could lead to their interception or malicious replacement. Power, water, fuel, communications, and transportation infrastructure all may be vulnerable to disruption. According to Clarke, the civilian realm is also at risk, noting that the security breaches have already gone beyond stolen credit card numbers, and that potential targets can also include the electric power grid, trains, or the stock market.

In mid-July 2010, security experts discovered a malicious software program called Stuxnet that had infiltrated factory computers and had spread to plants around the world. It is considered "the first attack on critical industrial infrastructure that sits at the foundation of modern economies," notes The New York Times.

Stuxnet, while extremely effective in delaying Iran's nuclear program for the development of nuclear weaponry, came at a high cost. For the first time, it became clear that not only could cyber weapons be defensive but they could be offensive. The large decentralization and scale of cyberspace makes it extremely difficult to direct from a policy perspective. Non-state actors can play as large a part in the cyberwar space as state actors, which leads to dangerous, sometimes disastrous, consequences. Small groups of highly skilled malware developers are able to as effectively impact global politics and cyber warfare as large governmental agencies. A major aspect of this ability lies in the willingness of these groups to share their exploits and developments on the web as a form of arms proliferation. This allows lesser hackers to become more proficient in creating the large scale attacks that once only a small handful were skillful enough to manage. In addition, thriving black markets for these kinds of cyber weapons are buying and selling these cyber capabilities to the highest bidder without regard for consequences.

Denial-of-service attack

In computing, a denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. Perpetrators of DoS attacks typically target sites or services hosted on high-profile web servers such as banks, credit card payment gateways, and even root nameservers. DoS attacks often leverage internet-connected devices with vulnerable security measures to carry out these large-scale attacks. DoS attacks may not be limited to computer-based methods, as strategic physical attacks against infrastructure can be just as devastating. For example, cutting undersea communication cables may severely cripple some regions and countries with regards to their information warfare ability.

Electrical power grid
The federal government of the United States admits that the electric power grid is susceptible to cyberwarfare. The United States Department of Homeland Security works with industries to identify vulnerabilities and to help industries enhance the security of control system networks. The federal government is also working to ensure that security is built in as the next generation of "smart grid" networks are developed. In April 2009, reports surfaced that China and Russia had infiltrated the U.S. electrical grid and left behind software programs that could be used to disrupt the system, according to current and former national security officials. The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) has issued a public notice that warns that the electrical grid is not adequately protected from cyber attack. China denies intruding into the U.S. electrical grid. One countermeasure would be to disconnect the power grid from the Internet and run the net with droop speed control only. Massive power outages caused by a cyber attack could disrupt the economy, distract from a simultaneous military attack, or create a national trauma.

Iranian hackers, possibly Iranian Cyber Army pushed a massive power outage for 12 hours in 44 of 81 provinces of Turkey, impacting 40 million people. Istanbul and Ankara were among the places suffering blackout.

Howard Schmidt, former Cyber-Security Coordinator of the US, commented on those possibilities:

In June 2019, Russia said that its electrical grid has been under cyber-attack by the United States. The New York Times reported that American hackers from the United States Cyber Command planted malware potentially capable of disrupting the Russian electrical grid.

Propaganda
Cyber propaganda is an effort to control information in whatever form it takes, and influence public opinion. It is a form of psychological warfare, except it uses social media, fake news websites and other digital means. In 2018, Sir Nicholas Carter, Chief of the General Staff of the British Army stated that this kind of attack from actors such as Russia "is a form of system warfare that seeks to de-legitimize the political and social system on which our military strength is based".

Jowell and O'Donnell (2006) state that "propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist" (p. 7). The internet is the most important means of communication today. People can convey their messages quickly across to a huge audience, and this can open a window for evil. Terrorist organizations can exploit this and may use this medium to brainwash people. It has been suggested that restricted media coverage of terrorist attacks would in turn decrease the number of terrorist attacks that occur afterwards.

Economic disruption
In 2017, the WannaCry and Petya (NotPetya) cyber attacks, masquerading as ransomware, caused large-scale disruptions in Ukraine as well as to the U.K.'s National Health Service, pharmaceutical giant Merck, Maersk shipping company and other organizations around the world. These attacks are also categorized as cybercrimes, specifically financial crime because they negatively affect a company or group.

Surprise cyber attack
The idea of a "cyber Pearl Harbor" has been debated by scholars, drawing an analogy to the historical act of war. Others have used "cyber 9/11" to draw attention to the nontraditional, asymmetric, or irregular aspect of cyber action against a state.

Motivations
There are a number of reasons nations undertake offensive cyber operations. , a cyber security expert and adviser to NATO, advocates that states take cyber warfare seriously as they are viewed as an attractive activity by many nations, in times of war and peace. Offensive cyber operations offer a large variety of cheap and risk-free options to weaken other countries and strengthen their own positions. Considered from a long-term, geostrategic perspective, cyber offensive operations can cripple whole economies, change political views, agitate conflicts within or among states, reduce their military efficiency and equalize the capacities of high-tech nations to that of low-tech nations, and use access to their critical infrastructures to blackmail them.

Military
With the emergence of cyber as a substantial threat to national and global security, cyber war, warfare and/or attacks also became a domain of interest and purpose for the military.

In the U.S., General Keith B. Alexander, first head of USCYBERCOM, told the Senate Armed Services Committee that computer network warfare is evolving so rapidly that there is a "mismatch between our technical capabilities to conduct operations and the governing laws and policies. Cyber Command is the newest global combatant and its sole mission is cyberspace, outside the traditional battlefields of land, sea, air and space." It will attempt to find and, when necessary, neutralize cyberattacks and to defend military computer networks.

Alexander sketched out the broad battlefield envisioned for the computer warfare command, listing the kind of targets that his new headquarters could be ordered to attack, including "traditional battlefield prizes – command-and-control systems at military headquarters, air defense networks and weapons systems that require computers to operate."

One cyber warfare scenario, Cyber-ShockWave, which was wargamed on the cabinet level by former administration officials, raised issues ranging from the National Guard to the power grid to the limits of statutory authority.

The distributed nature of internet based attacks means that it is difficult to determine motivation and attacking party, meaning that it is unclear when a specific act should be considered an act of war.

Examples of cyberwarfare driven by political motivations can be found worldwide. In 2008, Russia began a cyber attack on the Georgian government website, which was carried out along with Georgian military operations in South Ossetia. In 2008, Chinese "nationalist hackers" attacked CNN as it reported on Chinese repression on Tibet. Hackers from Armenia and Azerbaijan have actively participated in cyberwarfare as part of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, with Azerbaijani hackers targeting Armenian websites and posting Ilham Aliyev's statements.

Jobs in cyberwarfare have become increasingly popular in the military. All four branches of the United States military actively recruit for cyber warfare positions.

Civil
Potential targets in internet sabotage include all aspects of the Internet from the backbones of the web, to the internet service providers, to the varying types of data communication mediums and network equipment. This would include: web servers, enterprise information systems, client server systems, communication links, network equipment, and the desktops and laptops in businesses and homes. Electrical grids, financial networks, and telecommunication systems are also deemed vulnerable, especially due to current trends in computerization and automation.

Hacktivism
Politically motivated hacktivism involves the subversive use of computers and computer networks to promote an agenda, and can potentially extend to attacks, theft and virtual sabotage that could be seen as cyberwarfare – or mistaken for it.
Hacktivists use their knowledge and software tools to gain unauthorized access to computer systems they seek to manipulate or damage not for material gain or to cause widespread destruction, but to draw attention to their cause through well-publicized disruptions of select targets. Anonymous and other hacktivist groups are often portrayed in the media as cyber-terrorists, wreaking havoc by hacking websites, posting sensitive information about their victims, and threatening further attacks if their demands are not met. However, hacktivism is more than that. Actors are politically motivated to change the world, through the use of fundamentalism. Groups like Anonymous, however, have divided opinion with their methods.

Income generation
Cyber attacks, including ransomware, can be used to generate income. States can use these techniques to generate significant sources of income, which can evade sanctions and perhaps while simultaneously harming adversaries (depending on targets). This tactic was observed in August 2019 when it was revealed North Korea had generated $2 billion to fund its weapons program, avoiding the blanket of sanctions levied by the United States, United Nations and the European Union.

Private sector

Computer hacking represents a modern threat in ongoing global conflicts and industrial espionage and as such is presumed to widely occur. It is typical that this type of crime is underreported to the extent they are known. According to McAfee's George Kurtz, corporations around the world face millions of cyberattacks a day. "Most of these attacks don't gain any media attention or lead to strong political statements by victims." This type of crime is usually financially motivated.

Non-profit research

But not all those who engage in cyberwarfare do so for financial or ideological reasons. There are institutes and companies like the University of Cincinnati or the Kaspersky Security Lab which engage in cyberwarfare so as to better understand the field through actions like the researching and publishing of new security threats.

Preparedness
A number of countries conduct exercise to increase preparedness and explore the strategy, tactics and operations involved in conducting and defending against cyber attacks against hostile states, this is typically done in the form of war games.

The Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence (CCDCE), part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), have conducted a yearly war game called Locked Shields since 2010 designed to test readiness and improve skills, strategy tactics and operational decision making of participating national organizations. Locked Shields 2019 saw 1200 participants from 30 countries compete in a red team vs. blue team exercise. The war game involved a fictional country, Berylia, which was "experiencing a deteriorating security situation, where a number of hostile events coincide with coordinated cyber attacks against a major civilian internet service provider and maritime surveillance system. The attacks caused severe disruptions in the power generation and distribution, 4G communication systems, maritime surveillance, water purification plant and other critical infrastructure components". CCDCE describe the aim of the exercise was to "maintain the operation of various systems under intense pressure, the strategic part addresses the capability to understand the impact of decisions made at the strategic and policy level." Ultimately, France was the winner of Locked Shields 2019.

The European Union conducts cyber war game scenarios with member states and foreign partner states to improve readiness, skills and observe how strategic and tactical decisions may affect the scenario.

As well as war games which serve a broader purpose to explore options and improve skills, cyber war games are targeted at preparing for specific threats. In 2018 the Sunday Times reported the UK government was conducting cyber war games which could "blackout Moscow". These types of war games move beyond defensive preparedness, as previously described above and onto preparing offensive capabilities which can be used as deterrence, or for "war".

Cyber activities by nation

Approximately 120 countries have been developing ways to use the Internet as a weapon and target financial markets, government computer systems and utilities.

Asia

China

According to Fritz, China has expanded its cyber capabilities and military technology by acquiring foreign military technology. Fritz states that the Chinese government uses "new space-based surveillance and intelligence gathering systems, Anti-satellite weapon, anti-radar, infrared decoys, and false target generators" to assist in this quest, and that they support their "Informatisation" of their military through "increased education of soldiers in cyber warfare; improving the information network for military training, and has built more virtual laboratories, digital libraries and digital campuses." Through this informatisation, they hope to prepare their forces to engage in a different kind of warfare, against technically capable adversaries. Foreign Policy magazine put the size of China's "hacker army" at anywhere from 50,000 to 100,000 individuals. Diplomatic cables highlight US concerns that China is using access to Microsoft source code and 'harvesting the talents of its private sector' to boost its offensive and defensive capabilities.

While China continues to be held responsible for a string of cyber-attacks on a number of public and private institutions in the United States, India, Russia, Canada, and France, the Chinese government denies any involvement in cyber-spying campaigns. The administration maintains the position that China is also victim to an increasing number of cyber-attacks. Most reports about China's cyber warfare capabilities have yet to be confirmed by the Chinese government.

In June 2015, the United States Office of Personnel Management (OPM) announced that it had been the target of a data breach targeting the records of as many as four million people. Later, FBI Director James Comey put the number at 18 million. The Washington Post has reported that the attack originated in China, citing unnamed government officials.

Operation Shady RAT is a series of cyber attacks starting mid-2006, reported by Internet security company McAfee in August 2011. China is widely believed to be the state actor behind these attacks which hit at least 72 organizations including governments and defense contractors.

The 2018 cyberattack on the Marriott hotel chain that collected personal details of roughly 500 million guests is now known to be a part of a Chinese intelligence-gathering effort that also hacked health insurers and the security clearance files of millions more Americans, The hackers, are suspected of working on behalf of the Ministry of State Security (MSS), the country's Communist-controlled civilian spy agency.

On 14 September 2020, a database showing personal details of about 2.4 million people around the world was leaked and published.  A Chinese company, Zhenhua Data compiled the database. According to the information from "National Enterprise Credit Information Publicity System", which is run by State Administration for Market Regulation in China, the shareholders of Zhenhua Data Information Technology Co., Ltd. are two natural persons and one general partnership enterprise whose partners are natural persons. Wang Xuefeng, who is the chief executive and the shareholder of Zhenhua Data, has publicly boasted that he supports "hybrid warfare" through manipulation of public opinion and "psychological warfare".

India
The Department of Information Technology created the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) in 2004 to thwart cyber attacks in India. That year, there were 23 reported cyber security breaches. In 2011, there were 13,301. That year, the government created a new subdivision, the National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC) to thwart attacks against energy, transport, banking, telecom, defense, space and other sensitive areas.

The executive director of the Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) stated in February 2013 that his company alone was forced to block up to ten targeted attacks a day. CERT-In was left to protect less critical sectors.

A high-profile cyber attack on 12 July 2012 breached the email accounts of about 12,000 people, including those of officials from the Ministry of External Affairs, Ministry of Home Affairs, Defense Research and Development Organizations (DRDO), and the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP). A government-private sector plan being overseen by National Security Advisor (NSA) Shivshankar Menon began in October 2012, and intends to boost up India's cyber security capabilities in the light of a group of experts findings that India faces a 470,000 shortfall of such experts despite the country's reputation of being an IT and software powerhouse.

In February 2013, Information Technology Secretary J. Satyanarayana stated that the NCIIPC was finalizing policies related to national cyber security that would focus on domestic security solutions, reducing exposure through foreign technology. Other steps include the isolation of various security agencies to ensure that a synchronised attack could not succeed on all fronts and the planned appointment of a National Cyber Security Coordinator. As of that month, there had been no significant economic or physical damage to India related to cyber attacks.

On 26 November 2010, a group calling itself the Indian Cyber Army hacked the websites belonging to the Pakistan Army and the others belong to different ministries, including the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Finance, Pakistan Computer Bureau, Council of Islamic Ideology, etc. The attack was done as a revenge for the Mumbai terrorist attacks.

On 4 December 2010, a group calling itself the Pakistan Cyber Army hacked the website of India's top investigating agency, the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI). The National Informatics Center (NIC) has begun an inquiry.

In July 2016, Cymmetria researchers discovered and revealed the cyber attack dubbed 'Patchwork', which compromised an estimated 2500 corporate and government agencies using code stolen from GitHub and the dark web. Examples of weapons used are an exploit for the Sandworm vulnerability (), a compiled AutoIt script, and UAC bypass code dubbed UACME. Targets are believed to be mainly military and political assignments around Southeast Asia and the South China Sea and the attackers are believed to be of Indian origin and gathering intelligence from influential parties.

The Defence Cyber Agency, which is the Indian Military agency responsible for Cyberwarfare, is expected to become operational by November 2019.

Philippines
The Chinese are being blamed after a cybersecurity company, F-Secure Labs, found a malware, NanHaiShu, which targeted the Philippines Department of Justice. It sent information in an infected machine to a server with a Chinese IP address. The malware which is considered particularly sophisticated in nature was introduced by phishing emails that were designed to look like they were coming from an authentic sources. The information sent is believed to be relating to the South China Sea legal case.

South Korea

In July 2009, there were a series of coordinated denial of service attacks against major government, news media, and financial websites in South Korea and the United States. While many thought the attack was directed by North Korea, one researcher traced the attacks to the United Kingdom. Security researcher Chris Kubecka presented evidence multiple European Union and United Kingdom companies unwittingly helped attack South Korea due to a W32.Dozer infections, malware used in part of the attack. Some of the companies used in the attack were partially owned by several governments, further complicating attribution.

In July 2011, the South Korean company SK Communications was hacked, resulting in the theft of the personal details (including names, phone numbers, home and email addresses and resident registration numbers) of up to 35 million people. A trojaned software update was used to gain access to the SK Communications network. Links exist between this hack and other malicious activity and it is believed to be part of a broader, concerted hacking effort.

With ongoing tensions on the Korean Peninsula, South Korea's defense ministry stated that South Korea was going to improve cyber-defense strategies in hopes of preparing itself from possible cyber attacks. In March 2013, South Korea's major banks – Shinhan Bank, Woori Bank and NongHyup Bank – as well as many broadcasting stations – KBS, YTN and MBC – were hacked and more than 30,000 computers were affected; it is one of the biggest attacks South Korea has faced in years. Although it remains uncertain as to who was involved in this incident, there has been immediate assertions that North Korea is connected, as it threatened to attack South Korea's government institutions, major national banks and traditional newspapers numerous times – in reaction to the sanctions it received from nuclear testing and to the continuation of Foal Eagle, South Korea's annual joint military exercise with the United States. North Korea's cyber warfare capabilities raise the alarm for South Korea, as North Korea is increasing its manpower through military academies specializing in hacking. Current figures state that South Korea only has 400 units of specialized personnel, while North Korea has more than 3,000 highly trained hackers; this portrays a huge gap in cyber warfare capabilities and sends a message to South Korea that it has to step up and strengthen its Cyber Warfare Command forces. Therefore, in order to be prepared from future attacks, South Korea and the United States will discuss further about deterrence plans at the Security Consultative Meeting (SCM). At SCM, they plan on developing strategies that focuses on accelerating the deployment of ballistic missiles as well as fostering its defense shield program, known as the Korean Air and Missile Defense.

North Korea

Africa

Egypt
In an extension of a bilateral dispute between Ethiopia and Egypt over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, Ethiopian government websites have been hacked by the Egypt-based hackers in June 2020.

Europe

Cyprus
The New York Times published an exposé revealing an extensive three-year phishing campaign aimed against diplomats based in Cyprus. After accessing the state system the hackers had access to the European Union's entire exchange database. By login into Coreu, hackers accessed communications linking all EU states, on both sensitive and not so sensitive matters. The event exposed poor protection of routine exchanges among European Union officials and a coordinated effort from a foreign entity to spy on another country. "After over a decade of experience countering Chinese cyberoperations and extensive technical analysis, there is no doubt this campaign is connected to the Chinese government", said Blake Darche, one of the Area 1 Security experts - the company revealing the stolen documents. The Chinese Embassy in the US did not return calls for comment. In 2019, another coordinated effort took place that allowed hackers to gain access to government (gov.cy) emails. Cisco's Talos Security Department revealed that "Sea Turtle" hackers carried out a broad piracy campaign in the DNS countries, hitting 40 different organizations, including Cyprus.

Estonia
In April 2007, Estonia came under cyber attack in the wake of relocation of the Bronze Soldier of Tallinn. The largest part of the attacks were coming from Russia and from official servers of the authorities of Russia. In the attack, ministries, banks, and media were targeted. This attack on Estonia, a seemingly small Baltic state, was so effective because of how most of Estonian government services are run online. Estonia has implemented an e-government, where banking services, political elections, taxes, and other components of a modern society are now all done online.

France

In 2013, the French Minister of Defense, Mr Jean-Yves Le Drian, ordered the creation of a cyber army, representing its fourth national army corps (along with ground, naval and air forces) under the French Ministry of Defense, to protect French and European interests on its soil and abroad. A contract was made with French firm EADS (Airbus) to identify and secure its main elements susceptible to cyber threats. In 2016 France had planned 2600 "cyber-soldiers" and a 440 million euros investment for cybersecurity products for this new army corps. An additional 4400 reservists constitute the heart of this army from 2019.

Germany

In 2013, Germany revealed the existence of their 60-person Computer Network Operation unit. The German intelligence agency, BND, announced it was seeking to hire 130 "hackers" for a new "cyber defence station" unit.  In March 2013, BND president Gerhard Schindler announced that his agency had observed up to five attacks a day on government authorities, thought mainly to originate in China.  He confirmed the attackers had so far only accessed data and expressed concern that the stolen information could be used as the basis of future sabotage attacks against arms manufacturers, telecommunications companies and government and military agencies. Shortly after Edward Snowden leaked details of the U.S. National Security Agency's cyber surveillance system, German Interior Minister Hans-Peter Friedrich announced that the BND would be given an additional budget of 100 million Euros to increase their cyber surveillance capability from 5% of total internet traffic in Germany to 20% of total traffic, the maximum amount allowed by German law.

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, Cyber Defense is nationally coordinated by the  (NCSC). The Dutch Ministry of Defense laid out a cyber strategy in 2011. The first focus is to improve the cyber defense handled by the Joint IT branch (JIVC). To improve intel operations, the intel community in the Netherlands (including the military intel organization, MIVD) has set up the Joint Sigint Cyber Unit (JSCU). The Ministry of Defense oversees an offensive cyber force, called Defensive Cyber Command (DCC).

Norway

Russia

It has been claimed that Russian security services organized a number of denial of service attacks as a part of their cyber-warfare against other countries, most notably the 2007 cyberattacks on Estonia and the 2008 cyberattacks on Russia, South Ossetia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan. One identified young Russian hacker said that he was paid by Russian state security services to lead hacking attacks on NATO computers. He was studying computer sciences at the Department of the Defense of Information. His tuition was paid for by the FSB. Russian, South Ossetian, Georgian and Azerbaijani sites were attacked by hackers during the 2008 South Ossetia War.

In October 2016, Jeh Johnson the United States Secretary of Homeland Security and James Clapper the U.S. Director of National Intelligence issued a joint statement accusing Russia of interfering with the 2016 United States presidential election. The New York Times reported the Obama administration formally accused Russia of stealing and disclosing Democratic National Committee emails. Under U.S. law (50 U.S.C.Title 50 – War and National Defense, Chapter 15 – National Security, Subchapter III Accountability for Intelligence Activities) there must be a formal Presidential finding prior to authorizing a covert attack. Then U.S. vice president Joe Biden said on the American news interview program Meet The Press that the United States will respond. The New York Times noted that Biden's comment "seems to suggest that Mr. Obama is prepared to order – or has already ordered – some kind of covert action".

Sweden
In January 2017, Sweden's armed forces were subjected to a cyber-attack that caused them to shutdown a so-called Caxcis IT system used in military exercises.

Ukraine
According to CrowdStrike from 2014 to 2016, the Russian APT Fancy Bear used Android malware to target the Ukrainian Army's Rocket Forces and Artillery. They distributed an infected version of an Android app whose original purpose was to control targeting data for the D-30 Howitzer artillery. The app, used by Ukrainian officers, was loaded with the X-Agent spyware and posted online on military forums. The attack was claimed by Crowd-Strike to be successful, with more than 80% of Ukrainian D-30 Howitzers destroyed, the highest percentage loss of any artillery pieces in the army (a percentage that had never been previously reported and would mean the loss of nearly the entire arsenal of the biggest artillery piece of the Ukrainian Armed Forces). According to the Ukrainian army this number is incorrect and that losses in artillery weapons "were way below those reported" and that these losses "have nothing to do with the stated cause".

In 2014, the Russians were suspected to use a cyber weapon called "Snake", or "Ouroboros," to conduct a cyber attack on Ukraine during a period of political turmoil. The Snake tool kit began spreading into Ukrainian computer systems in 2010. It performed Computer Network Exploitation (CNE), as well as highly sophisticated Computer Network Attacks (CNA).

On 23 December 2015 the Black-Energy malware was used in a cyberattack on Ukraine's power-grid that left more than 200,000 people temporarily without power. A mining company and a large railway operator were also victims of the attack.

Ukraine saw a massive surge in cyber attacks during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Several websites belonging to Ukrainian banks and government departments became inaccessible.

United Kingdom

MI6 reportedly infiltrated an Al Qaeda website and replaced the instructions for making a pipe bomb with the recipe for making cupcakes.

In October 2010, Iain Lobban, the director of the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), said the UK faces a "real and credible" threat from cyber attacks by hostile states and criminals and government systems are targeted 1,000 times each month, such attacks threatened the UK's economic future, and some countries were already using cyber assaults to put pressure on other nations.

On 12 November 2013, financial organizations in London conducted cyber war games dubbed "Waking Shark 2" to simulate massive internet-based attacks against bank and other financial organizations. The Waking Shark 2 cyber war games followed a similar exercise in Wall Street.

Middle East

Iran

Iran has been both victim and perpetrator of several cyberwarfare operations. Iran is considered an emerging military power in the field.

In September 2010, Iran was attacked by the Stuxnet worm, thought to specifically target its Natanz nuclear enrichment facility. It was a 500-kilobyte computer worm that infected at least 14 industrial sites in Iran, including the Natanz uranium-enrichment plant. Although the official authors of Stuxnet haven't been officially identified, Stuxnet is believed to be developed and deployed by the United States and Israel. The worm is said to be the most advanced piece of malware ever discovered and significantly increases the profile of cyberwarfare.

Iranian Cyber Police department, FATA, was dismissed one year after its creation in 2011 because of the arrest and death of Sattar Behesti, a blogger, in the custody of FATA. Since then, the main responsible institution for the cyberwarfare in Iran is the "Cyber Defense Command" operating under the Joint Staff of Iranian Armed Forces.

The Iranian state sponsored group MuddyWater is active since at least 2017 and is responsible for many cyber attacks on various sectors.

Israel
In the 2006 war against Hezbollah, Israel alleges that cyber-warfare was part of the conflict, where the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) intelligence estimates several countries in the Middle East used Russian hackers and scientists to operate on their behalf. As a result, Israel attached growing importance to cyber-tactics, and became, along with the U.S., France and a couple of other nations, involved in cyber-war planning. Many international high-tech companies are now locating research and development operations in Israel, where local hires are often veterans of the IDF's elite computer units. Richard A. Clarke adds that "our Israeli friends have learned a thing or two from the programs we have been working on for more than two decades."

In September 2007, Israel carried out an airstrike on a suspected nuclear reactor in Syria dubbed Operation Orchard. U.S. industry and military sources speculated that the Israelis may have used cyberwarfare to allow their planes to pass undetected by radar into Syria.

Following US President Donald Trump's decision to pull out of the Iran nuclear deal in May 2018, cyber warfare units in the United States and Israel monitoring internet traffic out of Iran noted a surge in retaliatory cyber attacks from Iran. Security firms warned that Iranian hackers were sending emails containing malware to diplomats who work in the foreign affairs offices of US allies and employees at telecommunications companies, trying to infiltrate their computer systems.

Saudi Arabia
On 15 August 2012 at 11:08 am local time, the Shamoon virus began destroying over 35,000 computer systems, rendering them inoperable. The virus used to target the Saudi government by causing destruction to the state owned national oil company Saudi Aramco. The attackers posted a pastie on PasteBin.com hours prior to the wiper logic bomb occurring, citing oppression and the Al-Saud regime as a reason behind the attack.  The attack was well staged according to Chris Kubecka, a former security advisor to Saudi Aramco after the attack and group leader of security for Aramco Overseas. It was an unnamed Saudi Aramco employee on the Information Technology team which opened a malicious phishing email, allowing initial entry into the computer network around mid-2012.

Kubecka also detailed in her Black Hat USA talk Saudi Aramco placed the majority of their security budget on the ICS control network, leaving the business network at risk for a major incident. "When you realize most of your security budget was spent on ICS & IT gets Pwnd". The virus has been noted to have behavior differing from other malware attacks, due to the destructive nature and the cost of the attack and recovery. US Defense Secretary Leon Panetta called the attack a "Cyber Pearl Harbor". Known years later as the "Biggest hack in history" and intended for cyber warfare. Shamoon can spread from an infected machine to other computers on the network. Once a system is infected, the virus continues to compile a list of files from specific locations on the system, upload them to the attacker, and erase them. Finally the virus overwrites the master boot record of the infected computer, making it unusable.
 The virus has been used for cyber warfare against the national oil companies Saudi Aramco and Qatar's RasGas.

Saudi Aramco announced the attack on their Facebook page and went offline again until a company statement was issued on 25 August 2012. The statement falsely reported normal business was resumed on 25 August 2012. However a Middle Eastern journalist leaked photographs taken on 1 September 2012 showing kilometers of petrol trucks unable to be loaded due to backed business systems still inoperable.

On 29 August 2012 the same attackers behind Shamoon posted another pastie on PasteBin.com, taunting Saudi Aramco with proof they still retained access to the company network. The post contained the username and password on security and network equipment and the new password for the CEO Khalid Al- Falih The attackers also referenced a portion of the Shamoon malware as further proof in the pastie.

According to Kubecka, in order to restore operations. Saudi Aramco used its large private fleet of aircraft and available funds to purchase much of the world's hard drives, driving the price up. New hard drives were required as quickly as possible so oil prices were not affected by speculation. By 1 September 2012 gasoline resources were dwindling for the public of Saudi Arabia 17 days after the 15 August attack. RasGas was also affected by a different variant, crippling them in a similar manner.

Qatar
In March 2018 American Republican fundraiser Elliott Broidy filed a lawsuit against Qatar, alleging that Qatar's government stole and leaked his emails in order to discredit him because he was viewed "as an impediment to their plan to improve the country's standing in Washington." In May 2018, the lawsuit named Mohammed bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, brother of the Emir of Qatar, and his associate Ahmed Al-Rumaihi, as allegedly orchestrating Qatar's cyber warfare campaign against Broidy. Further litigation revealed that the same cybercriminals who targeted Broidy had targeted as many as 1,200 other individuals, some of whom are also "well-known enemies of Qatar" such as senior officials of the U.A.E., Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain. While these hackers almost always obscured their location, some of their activity was traced to a telecommunication network in Qatar.

United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emirates has launched several cyber-attacks in the past targeting dissidents. Ahmed Mansoor, an Emirati citizen, was jailed for sharing his thoughts on Facebook and Twitter. He was given the code name Egret under the state-led covert project called Raven, which spied on top political opponents, dissidents, and journalists. Project Raven deployed a secret hacking tool called Karma, to spy without requiring the target to engage with any web links.

In September 2021, three of the former American intelligence officers, Marc Baier, Ryan Adams, and Daniel Gericke, admitted to assisting the UAE in hacking crimes by providing them with advanced technology and violating US laws. Under a three-year deferred prosecution agreement with the Justice Department, the three defendants also agreed to pay nearly $1.7 million in fines to evade prison sentences. The court documents revealed that the Emirates hacked into the computers and mobile phones of dissidents, activists, and journalists. They also attempted to break into the systems of the US and rest of the world.

North America

United States

Cyberwarfare in the United States is a part of the American military strategy of proactive cyber defence and the use of cyberwarfare as a platform for attack. The new United States military strategy makes explicit that a cyberattack is casus belli just as a traditional act of war.

U.S. government security expert Richard A. Clarke, in his book Cyber War (May 2010), had defined "cyberwarfare" as "actions by a nation-state to penetrate another nation's computers or networks for the purposes of causing damage or disruption." The Economist describes cyberspace as "the fifth domain of warfare," and William J. Lynn, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense, states that "as a doctrinal matter, the Pentagon has formally recognized cyberspace as a new domain in warfare . . . [which] has become just as critical to military operations as land, sea, air, and space."

When Russia was still a part of the Soviet Union in 1982, a portion of a Trans-Siberia pipeline within its territory exploded, allegedly due to a Trojan Horse computer malware implanted in the pirated Canadian software by the Central Intelligence Agency. The malware caused the SCADA system running the pipeline to malfunction. The "Farewell Dossier" provided information on this attack, and wrote that compromised computer chips would become a part of Soviet military equipment, flawed turbines would be placed in the gas pipeline, and defective plans would disrupt the output of chemical plants and a tractor factory. This caused the "most monumental nonnuclear explosion and fire ever seen from space." However, the Soviet Union did not blame the United States for the attack.

In 2009, president Barack Obama declared America's digital infrastructure to be a "strategic national asset," and in May 2010 the Pentagon set up its new U.S. Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM), headed by General Keith B. Alexander, director of the National Security Agency (NSA), to defend American military networks and attack other countries' systems. The EU has set up ENISA (European Union Agency for Network and Information Security) which is headed by Prof. Udo Helmbrecht and there are now further plans to significantly expand ENISA's capabilities. The United Kingdom has also set up a cyber-security and "operations centre" based in Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), the British equivalent of the NSA. In the U.S. however, Cyber Command is only set up to protect the military, whereas the government and corporate infrastructures are primarily the responsibility respectively of the Department of Homeland Security and private companies.

On 19 June 2010, United States Senator Joe Lieberman (I-CT) introduced a bill called "Protecting Cyberspace as a National Asset Act of 2010", which he co-wrote with Senator Susan Collins (R-ME) and Senator Thomas Carper (D-DE). If signed into law, this controversial bill, which the American media dubbed the "Kill switch bill", would grant the president emergency powers over parts of the Internet. However, all three co-authors of the bill issued a statement that instead, the bill "[narrowed] existing broad presidential authority to take over telecommunications networks".

In August 2010, the U.S. for the first time warned publicly about the Chinese military's use of civilian computer experts in clandestine cyber attacks aimed at American companies and government agencies. The Pentagon also pointed to an alleged China-based computer spying network dubbed GhostNet which was revealed in a 2009 research report.

On 6 October 2011, it was announced that Creech AFB's drone and Predator fleet's command and control data stream had been keylogged, resisting all attempts to reverse the exploit, for the past two weeks. The Air Force issued a statement that the virus had "posed no threat to our operational mission".

On 21 November 2011, it was widely reported in the U.S. media that a hacker had destroyed a water pump at the Curran-Gardner Township Public Water District in Illinois. However, it later turned out that this information was not only false, but had been inappropriately leaked from the Illinois Statewide Terrorism and Intelligence Center.

In June 2012 the New York Times reported that president Obama had ordered the cyber attack on Iranian nuclear enrichment facilities.

In August 2012, USA Today reported that the US conducted cyberattacks for tactical advantage in Afghanistan.

According to a 2013 Foreign Policy magazine article, NSA's Tailored Access Operations (TAO) unit "has successfully penetrated Chinese computer and telecommunications systems for almost 15 years, generating some of the best and most reliable intelligence information about what is going on inside the People's Republic of China."

In 2014, Barack Obama ordered an intensification of cyberwarfare against North Korea's missile program for sabotaging test launches in their opening seconds.
On 24 November 2014, Sony Pictures Entertainment hack was a release of confidential data belonging to Sony Pictures Entertainment (SPE).

In 2016 President Barack Obama authorized the planting of cyber weapons in Russian infrastructure in the final weeks of his presidency in response to Moscow's interference in the 2016 presidential election. On 29 December 2016 United States imposed the most extensive sanctions against Russia since the Cold War, expelling 35 Russian diplomats from the United States.

Economic sanctions are the most frequently used the foreign policy instruments by the United States today Thus, it is not surprising to see that economic sanctions are also used as counter policies against cyberattacks. According to Onder (2021), economic sanctions are also information gathering mechanisms for the sanctioning states about the capabilities of the sanctioned states.

In March 2017, WikiLeaks published more than 8,000 documents on the CIA. The confidential documents, codenamed Vault 7 and dated from 2013 to 2016, include details on CIA's software capabilities, such as the ability to compromise cars, smart TVs, web browsers (including Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and Opera Software ASA), and the operating systems of most smartphones (including Apple's iOS and Google's Android), as well as other operating systems such as Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux.

In June 2019, the New York Times reported that American hackers from the United States Cyber Command planted malware potentially capable of disrupting the Russian electrical grid.

The United States topped the world in terms of cyberwarfare intent and capability, according to Harvard University's Belfer Center Cyber 2022 Power Index, above China, Russia, the United Kingdom and Australia.

In June 2023, the National Security Agency and Apple were accused by the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) of compromising thousands of iPhones, including those of diplomats from China, Israel, NATO members, and Syria. Kaspersky Lab said many of its senior staff and managers were also hit by the ongoing attack, which it first suspected in early 2023. The oldest traces of infiltration date back to 2019. Kaspersky Lab said it had not shared the findings with Russian authorities until the FSB announcement.

Cyberpeace

The rise of cyber as a warfighting domain has led to efforts to determine how cyberspace can be used to foster peace.  For example, the German civil rights panel FIfF runs a campaign for cyberpeace − for the control of cyberweapons and surveillance technology and against the militarization of cyberspace and the development and stockpiling of offensive exploits and malware. Measures for cyberpeace include policymakers developing new rules and norms for warfare, individuals and organizations building new tools and secure infrastructures, promoting open source, the establishment of cyber security centers, auditing of critical infrastructure cybersecurity, obligations to disclose vulnerabilities, disarmament, defensive security strategies, decentralization, education and widely applying relevant tools and infrastructures, encryption and other cyberdefenses.

The topics of cyber peacekeeping and cyber peacemaking have also been studied by researchers, as a way to restore and strengthen peace in the aftermath of both cyber and traditional warfare.

Cyber counterintelligence
Cyber counter-intelligence are measures to identify, penetrate, or neutralize foreign operations that use cyber means as the primary tradecraft methodology, as well as foreign intelligence service collection efforts that use traditional methods to gauge cyber capabilities and intentions.

On 7 April 2009, The Pentagon announced they spent more than $100 million in the last six months responding to and repairing damage from cyber attacks and other computer network problems.
On 1 April 2009, U.S. lawmakers pushed for the appointment of a White House cyber security "czar" to dramatically escalate U.S. defenses against cyber attacks, crafting proposals that would empower the government to set and enforce security standards for private industry for the first time.
On 9 February 2009, the White House announced that it will conduct a review of the country's cyber security to ensure that the Federal government of the United States cyber security initiatives are appropriately integrated, resourced and coordinated with the United States Congress and the private sector.
In the wake of the 2007 cyberwar waged against Estonia, NATO established the Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence (CCD CoE) in Tallinn, Estonia, in order to enhance the organization's cyber defence capability. The center was formally established on 14 May 2008, and it received full accreditation by NATO and attained the status of International Military Organization on 28 October 2008. Since Estonia has led international efforts to fight cybercrime, the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation says it will permanently base a computer crime expert in Estonia in 2009 to help fight international threats against computer systems.
 In 2015, the Department of Defense released an updated cyber strategy memorandum detailing the present and future tactics deployed in the service of defense against cyberwarfare.  In this memorandum, three cybermissions are laid out.  The first cybermission seeks to arm and maintain existing capabilities in the area of cyberspace, the second cybermission focuses on prevention of cyberwarfare, and the third cybermission includes strategies for retaliation and preemption (as distinguished from prevention).

One of the hardest issues in cyber counterintelligence is the problem of attribution. Unlike conventional warfare, figuring out who is behind an attack can be very difficult. However Defense Secretary Leon Panetta has claimed that the United States has the capability to trace attacks back to their sources and hold the attackers "accountable".

Doubts about existence
In October 2011 the Journal of Strategic Studies, a leading journal in that field, published an article by Thomas Rid, "Cyber War Will Not Take Place" which argued that all politically motivated cyber attacks are merely sophisticated versions of sabotage, espionage, or subversion – and that it is unlikely that cyber war will occur in the future.

Legal perspective
NIST, a cyberwarfare framework, was published in 2014 in the US.S.

The Tallinn Manual, published in 2013, is an academic, non-binding study on how international law, in particular the jus ad bellum and international humanitarian law, apply to cyber conflicts and cyber warfare. It was written at the invitation of the Tallinn-based NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence by an international group of approximately twenty experts between 2009 and 2012.

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (members of which include China and Russia) defines cyberwar to include dissemination of information "harmful to the spiritual, moral and cultural spheres of other states". In September 2011, these countries proposed to the UN Secretary General a document called "International code of conduct for information security".

In contrast, the United approach focuses on physical and economic damage and injury, putting political concerns under freedom of speech. This difference of opinion has led to reluctance in the West to pursue global cyber arms control agreements. However, American General Keith B. Alexander did endorse talks with Russia over a proposal to limit military attacks in cyberspace. In June 2013, Barack Obama and Vladimir Putin agreed to install a secure Cyberwar-Hotline providing "a direct secure voice communications line between the US cybersecurity coordinator and the Russian deputy secretary of the security council, should there be a need to directly manage a crisis situation arising from an ICT security incident" (White House quote).

A Ukrainian international law scholar, Alexander Merezhko, has developed a project called the International Convention on Prohibition of Cyberwar in Internet. According to this project, cyberwar is defined as the use of Internet and related technological means by one state against the political, economic, technological and information sovereignty and independence of another state. Professor Merezhko's project suggests that the Internet ought to remain free from warfare tactics and be treated as an international landmark. He states that the Internet (cyberspace) is a "common heritage of mankind".

On the February 2017 RSA Conference Microsoft president Brad Smith suggested global rules – a "Digital Geneva Convention" – for cyber attacks that "ban the nation-state hacking of all the civilian aspects of our economic and political infrastructures". He also stated that an independent organization could investigate and publicly disclose evidence that attributes nation-state attacks to specific countries. Furthermore, he said that the technology sector should collectively and neutrally work together to protect Internet users and pledge to remain neutral in conflict and not aid governments in offensive activity and to adopt a coordinated disclosure process for software and hardware vulnerabilities. A fact-binding body has also been proposed to regulate cyber operations.

In popular culture

In films

 Independence Day (1996)
 Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003)
 Live Free or Die Hard (2007)
 Terminator Genisys (2015)
 Snowden (2016)
 Terminator: Dark Fate (2019)

 Documentaries

 Hacking the Infrastructure: Cyber Warfare (2016) by Viceland
 Cyber War Threat (2015)
 Darknet, Hacker, Cyberwar (2017)
 Zero Days (2016)
 The Perfect Weapon (2020)

In television
 "Cancelled", an episode of the animated sitcom South Park
 Series 2 of COBRA, a British thriller series, revolves around a sustained campaign of cyberwar against the United Kingdom and the British government's response to it.

See also

 Automated teller machine
 Computer security
 Computer security organizations
 Cyber spying
 Cyber-arms industry
 Cyber-collection
 Cyberterrorism
 Cyberweapon
 Duqu
 Fifth Dimension Operations
 IT risk
 iWar
 List of cyber attack threat trends
 List of cyber warfare forces
 List of cyberattacks
 Military-digital complex
 Penetration test
 Proactive cyber defence
 Signals intelligence
 United States Cyber Command
 Air Force Cyber Command
 Fleet Cyber Command
 Marine Corps Cyberspace Command
 United States Army Cyber Command
 Virtual war
 Convention on Cybercrime
 Vulkan files leak

References

Further reading

 Andress, Jason. Winterfeld, Steve. (2011). Cyber Warfare: Techniques, Tactics and Tools for Security Practitioners. Syngress.
 Bodmer, Kilger, Carpenter, & Jones (2012). Reverse Deception: Organized Cyber Threat Counter-Exploitation. New York: McGraw-Hill Osborne Media. , ""
 Brenner, S. (2009). Cyber Threats: The Emerging Fault Lines of the Nation State. Oxford University Press.
 Carr, Jeffrey. (2010). Inside Cyber Warfare: Mapping the Cyber Underworld. O'Reilly.
 Conti, Gregory. Raymond, David. (2017). On Cyber: Towards an Operational Art for Cyber Conflict. Kopidion Press.

Fritsch, Lothar & Fischer-Hübner, Simone (2019). Implications of Privacy & Security Research for the Upcoming Battlefield of Things. Journal of Information Warfare, 17(4), 72–87.
 Gaycken, Sandro. (2012). Cyberwar – Das Wettrüsten hat längst begonnen. Goldmann/Randomhouse.
 Geers, Kenneth. (2011). Strategic Cyber Security. NATO Cyber Centre. Strategic Cyber Security, , 169 pages
 Halpern, Sue, "The Drums of Cyberwar" (review of Andy Greenberg, Sandworm: A New Era of Cyberwar and the Hunt for the Kremlin's Most Dangerous Hackers, Doubleday, 2019, 348 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 20 (19 December 2019), pp. 14, 16, 20.

 Woltag, Johann-Christoph: 'Cyber Warfare' in Rüdiger Wolfrum (Ed.) Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford University Press 2012).

External links

Warfare by type
Computer security procedures
Computing terminology
Cybercrime
Espionage
Hacking (computer security)
Information sensitivity
Mass intelligence-gathering systems
Military intelligence collection
Military technology
National security
Sabotage
Security engineering
Social engineering (computer security)
Spyware
Hazards

Cyberwarfare


Brigadier-General Francis Howard, 1st Earl of Effingham (bapt. 20 October 1683 – 12 February 1743) was an English peer and army officer.

Francis was the second son of Francis Howard, 5th Baron Howard of Effingham. On 26 July 1722, he was commissioned captain and lieutenant-colonel in the 3rd Regiment of Foot Guards. Howard succeeded as Baron Howard of Effingham in 1725, with the death of his older brother Thomas Howard.

He continued to rise in the Army, and was made lieutenant and lieutenant-colonel in the 1st Troop of Horse Grenadier Guards on 15 July 1731. He was created Earl of Effingham on 8 December of that year, and made a Deputy Earl Marshal on 13 December. The next year, on 22 July 1732, he received the colonelcy of a regiment of foot, which he held until 1737. On 21 June 1737, he became Captain and Colonel of the 2nd Troop Horse Grenadier Guards, with the rank of a colonel of horse, and was promoted brigadier-general on 2 July 1739. On 22 December 1740, he became Captain and Colonel of the 4th Troop of Horse Guards. He died in February 1743, and was succeeded by his eldest son Thomas (the son of his first wife Diana), then an officer in the Horse Grenadier Guards.

References

1683 births
1743 deaths
18th-century British Army personnel
Earls in the Peerage of Great Britain
British Army brigadiers
British Life Guards officers
Francis Howard, 1st Earl of Effingham
Lancashire Fusiliers officers
Scots Guards officers
Peers of Great Britain created by George II
Earls of Effingham
Barons Howard of Effingham

Francis Howard, 1st Earl of Effingham


Purple Feather Records is an independent record label started by the members of the rock band The Donnas. In or before May 2006, The Donnas and Atlantic Records "parted ways". The band then sought a deal with other record companies but was unable to get one with terms that were to their liking, so the following year, they formed their own label. The Donnas announced their decision in Billboards July 2007 'Independents Day' issue, which they were on the cover.

The label is distributed by RedEye Distribution in the United States, and various other distributors around the world.

The first album released on Purple Feather Records was The Donnas' own Bitchin' on September 18, 2007. The album reached #8 on the Independent Albums chart and #89 on the Billboard 200.

The Donnas released a second album (their last to date) through the label entitled Greatest Hits Vol. 16 on July 7, 2009.

References

External links
The Donnas' official website

American independent record labels

Purple Feather Records


Eirik Greibrokk Dolve (born 5 May 1995) is a Norwegian pole vaulter.

He won the 2013 European Junior Championships, finished ninth at the 2014 World Junior Championships, fourth at the 2015 European U23 Championships and eleventh at the 2017 European U23 Championships. He also competed at the 2011 World Youth Championships, the 2012 World Junior Championships, the 2015 European Indoor Championships and the 2016 European Championships without reaching the final.

He won the Norwegian championship title in 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016. He represented the Bergen-based sports club IL Fri since childhood before switching in 2016 to Fana IL.

His personal best vault is 5.66 metres, achieved in June 2016 in Prague.

References

1995 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Bergen
Norwegian male pole vaulters
21st-century Norwegian people

Eirik Greibrokk Dolve


A mince pie, also known as 'minced pie', is a small British fruit-based mince sweet pie. It is usually served during the Christmas season.  Originally it was a savoury pie, now it is a sweet pie.

Its ingredients are traceable to the 13th century, when returning European crusaders brought with them Middle Eastern recipes containing meats, fruits and spices.

The early mince pie was known by several names, including mutton pie, shrid pie and Christmas pie. Typically its ingredients were a mixture of minced meat, suet, a range of fruits, and spices.

The ingredients for the modern mince pie can be traced to the return of European crusaders from the Holy Land. Middle Eastern methods of cooking, which sometimes combined meats, fruits and spices, were popular at the time. Pies were created from such mixtures of sweet and savoury foods; in Tudor England, shrid pies (as they were known then) were formed from shredded meat, suet and dried fruit. The addition of spices such as cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg was "in token of the offerings of the Eastern Magi".

Early pies were much larger than those of today, and oblong shaped. "The coffin of our Christmas-Pies, in shape long, is in imitation of the Cratch" (Jesus's crib). In old English cookery books the crust of a pie is generally called 'the coffin'.

References

Pies

Mince pie


Richard Arthur Wollheim (5 May 1923 − 4 November 2003) was a British philosopher noted for original work on mind and emotions, especially as related to the visual arts, specifically, painting.  Wollheim served as the president of the British Society of Aesthetics from 1992 onwards until his death in 2003.

Biography
Richard Wollheim was the son of Eric Wollheim, a theatre impresario, and Constance (Connie) Mary Baker, an actress who used the stage name Constance Luttrell. He attended Westminster School, London, and Balliol College, Oxford (1941–2, 1945–8), interrupted by active military service in World War II. In 1949 he obtained a congratulatory first in Philosophy, Politics and Economics, and began teaching at University College London, where he became Grote Professor of Mind and Logic and Department Head from 1963 to 1982. He retired from that position to take up professorships, first, at Columbia University (1982–85) and then the University of California at Berkeley (1985–2002). He chaired the Department at UC Berkeley, 1998–2002. On retirement from Berkeley, he served briefly as a guest lecturer at Balliol College. Additionally, he held visiting positions at Harvard University, the University of Minnesota, Graduate Center, CUNY, the University of California at Davis, and elsewhere. Wollheim gave several distinguished lecture series, most notably the Andrew M. Mellon lectures in Fine Arts, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. (1984), published as Painting as an Art.

In 1962, he published an article "A paradox in the theory of democracy", in which Wollheim argued that a supporter of democracy faces a contradiction when he votes. On the one hand he wants a particular party or candidate to win, but on the other hand he wants whoever wins the most votes to win. This has become known as Wollheim's paradox.

His Art and its Objects was one of the twentieth century's most influential texts on philosophical aesthetics in English. In a 1965 essay, 'Minimal Art', he seems to have coined the phrase, although its meaning eventually drifted from his. As well as for his work on the philosophy of art, Wollheim was known for his philosophical treatments of depth psychology, especially Sigmund Freud's. His posthumously-published autobiography of youth, Germs: A Memoir of Childhood, with complementary essays, discloses a good deal about his family background and his life up to early manhood, providing valuable material for understanding his interests and sensibility.

Personal life
Wollheim married Anne Barbara Denise (1920-2004), daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel George Powell, of the Grenadier Guards, after her divorce from her first husband, the literary critic Philip Toynbee. They had twin sons, Bruno and Rupert.  Their marriage was dissolved in 1967. Wollheim married Mary Day Lanier in 1969; their daughter is Emilia.

Publications
For an extensive bibliography of Richard Wollheim's publications by a professional bibliographer, see Eddie Yeghiayan's UC-Irvine site. See also the 'Philweb' listing.

Note: given his unique mind, personality, and distinctive writing styles, along with his curiosity and sociability, many of Richard Wollheim's publications are outside academic categories. Besides books, he published many articles, in journals and edited collections, book reviews, and gallery catalogues for shows. He also left writings in manuscript, letters and recordings of his talks.

Books and separately published works (selected)
F. H. Bradley. Harmondsworth; Baltimore: Penguin, 1959. 2d edition, 1969.
'Socialism and Culture'. (Fabian Tract, 331.) London: Fabian Society, 1961.
'On Drawing an Object'.  London: University College, 1965 (long essay).  Repr. in On Art and the Mind.
Art and Its Objects: an Introduction to Aesthetics.  New York: Harper & Row, 1968.  Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970. As Harper Torchbook, 1971.
Art and its Objects: With Six Supplementary Essays. 2d edition. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
A Family Romance. London: Jonathan Cape, 1969.  New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1969 (novel).
Freud. (Fontana Modern Masters.) London: Collins, 1971. Paperback, 1973. American and later Cambridge University Press (1981) eds. titled Sigmund Freud.
On Art and the Mind: essays and lectures.  Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,1972.
'The Good Self and the Bad Self: the Moral Psychology of British Idealism and the English School of Psychoanalysis Compared' (1975)—repr. in The Mind and Its Depths, 1993.
'The Sheep and the Ceremony' (1976)—repr. in The Mind and Its Depths, 1983.
The Thread of Life. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1984.
Painting as an Art. Andrew M. Mellon Lectures in Fine Arts, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987.
The Mind and Its Depths. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1993 (essays).
On the Emotions. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999.
Germs: a memoir of childhood. London: Waywiser Press, 2004.

Edited books
The Image in Form: Selected Writings of Adrian Stokes (1974)
Freud: A Collection of Critical Essays (1974)
Philosophical Essays on Freud, with James Hopkins.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
R.B.Kitaj : A Retrospective, with Richard Morphet.  London: Tate Publishing, 1994.

Selected articles
"Minimal Art", Arts Magazine (January 1965): 26–32. Repr. in On Art and the Mind.
"Nelson Goodman's Languages of Art", The Journal of Philosophy: 62, no. 16 (Ag. 1970): 531.
"Adrian Stokes, critic, painter, poet", Times Literary Supplement (17 February 1978): 207–209.
"The Cabinet of Dr Lacan", Topoi: 10 no. 2 (1991): 163–174.
"A Bed out of Leaves", London Review of Books 25, no. 23 (4 December 2003).

Notes

External links
 The Guardian's obituary, Arthur Danto
 ''The Daily Telegraph'''s obituary (Archived by Wayback Machine)
 ''The San Francisco Chronicle'''s obituary
 ''The New York Times'''s obituary
   UCL obituary – PDF format
   Bruce Vermazen, Richard Wollheim Remembered

1923 births
2003 deaths
20th-century British non-fiction writers
20th-century British philosophers
Academics of University College London
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Analytic philosophers
Aristotelian philosophers
British essayists
British Jews
British male non-fiction writers
Columbia University faculty
Epistemologists
Harvard University staff
Jewish philosophers
Metaphysicians
Moral psychologists
Ontologists
People educated at Westminster School, London
Philosophers of art
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of education
Philosophers of mind
Philosophers of psychology
Political philosophers
Presidents of the American Philosophical Association
Presidents of the Aristotelian Society
Social philosophers
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Voting theorists
British military personnel of World War II

Richard Wollheim


WarBreeds is a real-time strategy video game developed and published by Red Orb Entertainment and Broderbund. The game is set in a far off galaxy where the humanoid amphibian race called the Yedda have died out due to famine, disease and civil war, leaving their four former servitor races to fight for supremacy for their planet. WarBreeds features the ability to fully customise the warriors with many types of weapons which provide over 35,000 unique combinations. The central theme and mechanic of the game is genetic engineering.

Gameplay
WarBreeds includes skirmishes, a multiplayer mode, and campaigns. WarBreeds has four playable sides, only two of which are playable in campaign mode. As the campaign progresses, another side joins with the player, providing more depth in what they do with their warriors.

WarBreeds provides a different concept on construction of units and buildings as compared with other real time strategy games. WarBreeds allows the player to create many units and structures, but it limits the player on the amount of structures by making them harvest power from spore pods. Although other RTS games use units to gather resources like food, lumber, gold, Vespene gas, Tiberium, etc., resources in WarBreeds are harvested by buildings at a constant rate based on the abundance of resources within a certain radius of those buildings. The player is also limited on how many units they can create.

A major gameplay factor in WarBreeds is the ability to collect DNA from dead enemies, thereby gaining their technologies. Players can gain access to alternate tech trees in some other RTS games, but only Warbreeds makes it a constant, crucial part of gameplay.

Clans
There are four playable clans in Warbreeds, each with their own characteristics. Each race has its own variant of Shaman (the builder/tech class used to plant crops and create structures), and then four units. The game's setting establishes that the Tanu, Kelika, and Sen-Soth were created as servitor races to the Yedda, the first sapient inhabitants of the planet Aeolia; then a group of Yedda religious reactionaries tried to create a prophesied holy warrior—the Magha'Re. The Magha, however, proved to be homicidal and ran the Yedda almost to extinction. The three other races quickly adapted to the Yedda technology, revealing themselves to be far more intelligent than their creators had intended, and became viable competition to the Magha, engaging in a four-way war.

The Tanu campaign mode has the Kelika as eventual allies, and the Magha's campaign has them eventually enslave the Sen-Soth.

Tanu
The saurian Tanu are all reptilian and have orange as a dominant color. Their units are the fastest movers. Their units are the Scouts (bipedal, swift-moving, fragile units who can mount two weapons), Raptors (a more warlike Scout who can take a head-mounted weapon as well as arm-weapons, as well as having an increase in resilience), Ophidians (large, four-legged creatures who take two shoulder mounts and a head mount; fast speed and moderate armor), and the dirigible Jubjub, which has a natural light laser weapon. The Tanu's indigenous tech includes defensive structures and most melee weapons.

Kelika
The elephantine or cetacean Kelika are blue with some purple. They tend to be slow, but they can take a beating. Their units are the Thumper (small, fast-moving creature with a natural buzzsaw attack), the Mongrel (gangly bipedal creature), the Behemoth (similar to an Ophidian, but slower and with more armor), and the mighty Leviathan (notable for being one of two units in the game which can take four arm-weapons, their spinning attack, and also for the phenomenal amount of punishment they can endure). The Kelika's indigenous tech includes an eclectic array of structures and armaments, including at the highest level the Summoner structure and the Missile limb-weapon, two of the most powerful weapons in the game.

Sen-Soth
The insectoid Sen-Soth are colored purple, yellow, and green. Their units tend to be relatively fragile, but are moderately quick, and have very fast development times, allowing them to quickly grow formidable numbers of troops. They include the lightly armed Snipe, the quadrupedal Myrmidon, the giant Dhuganaya (the other unit with four weapon mounts), and the flying Aphid (the only flying unit which allows the player to choose its weapons). The Sen-Soth's indigenous tech includes helpful support structures, perception enhancing Eyestalks, and good ranged weapons.

Magha
Unlike the other three races, the Magha have no immediate counterpart, apart from looking demonic or devilish. Their units are characterized by red and white, and two of their units have a stealth feature; after being out of combat for a short period of time, the Shadows and Reavers become invisible to the enemies. Their units are the four-legged Shadows, the bladed-armed Dervishes (who attack by spinning their arms like a circular saw), the tall, bipedal Reavers, and the aerial Vipers, who function as bombardiers. The Magha's indigenous tech includes landmines, teleporters, whips, and explosive weapons including the kamikaze.

Reception

The game received mixed reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings.

References

External links

1998 video games
Broderbund games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Post-apocalyptic video games
Real-time strategy video games
Red Orb Entertainment games
Science fiction video games
Video games about amphibians
Video games about extraterrestrial life
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set on fictional planets
Windows games
Windows-only games

WarBreeds


Buckeye was an unincorporated community in Yolo County, California, United States. It was located  northeast of Winters, at an elevation of 118 feet (36 m).

History
Buckeye was named for the native Buckeye (Aesculus californica) trees growing along Buckeye Creek. The town was in existence before April 11, 1855, when a church was then built in it. Reverend JN Pendegast, the pastor of the church in nearby Woodland, reported the news in 1858 that a church had indeed been built in Buckeye.

The local post office was established on May 17, 1855, and named after the town. JO Maxwell was the postmaster between 1857-1860 and transferred the post office to his store named Buckeye Store which he built in 1857.

In 1870 the area had a Masonic Hall, saloon, hotel, two stores, blacksmith, shoemaker's shop, boarding house, and the Buckeye School, which was located on County Roads 31 and 90A. It also still had a post office.

Buckeye thrived until the Vaca Valley Railroad was built  west of the town. The railroad tracks reached the  new townsite of Winters in 1875, when the town was established. The Vaca Valley and Clear Lake Railroad passed by Buckeye  away in 1877, when it progressed north from Winters to the new townsite of Madison, when the town was established.  Buckeye residents subsequently moved to the new towns of Winters and Madison, and the post office was closed. They even divided the church's building materials between the two cities they were migrating to. In 1879 the only thing left of the town was the school they had built and two farmers who had stayed behind.

References

Ghost towns in California
Former settlements in Yolo County, California
1879 disestablishments in California

Buckeye, Yolo County, California