In England and Wales, life imprisonment is a sentence that lasts until the death of the prisoner, although in most cases the prisoner will be eligible for early release after a minimum term set by the judge. In exceptional cases a judge may impose a "whole life order", meaning that the offender is never considered for parole, although they may still be released on compassionate grounds at the discretion of the Home Secretary. Whole life orders are usually imposed for aggravated murder, and can only be imposed where the offender was at least 21 years old at the time of the offence being committed.

Until 1957, the mandatory penalty for all adults convicted of murder was death by hanging. The Homicide Act of that year limited the circumstances in which murderers could be executed, mandating life imprisonment in all other cases. The death penalty for murder was suspended for five years by the 1965 Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act and was abolished in 1969 (1973 in Northern Ireland) since which time murder has carried a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment.

The Criminal Justice Act 2003 introduced new mandatory life sentences and created a new kind of life sentence, called "imprisonment for public protection" which could be imposed even for offences which would otherwise carry a maximum sentence of ten years. The consequent unprecedented levels of prison overcrowding prompted sentencing reform, including stricter criteria for the imposition of such sentences and some restoration of judicial discretion, in the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008. Imprisonment for public protection was abolished by the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012, although some prisoners remain incarcerated under the former legislation.

Life imprisonment is applicable only to defendants aged 18 and over. Those aged under 18 are sentenced to detention at His Majesty's pleasure. Any convict sentenced to a life sentence can in principle be held in custody for their whole life.

History

When Parliament was considering abolition of the death penalty, there were many MPs who were against the reform, and the deal offered was that former capital offences would always inevitably merit a mandatory life sentence. Accordingly, life imprisonment replaced the death penalty as punishment for murderers, firstly for those whose sentences were commuted and later for those whose crimes were not "aggravated" within the meaning of the Homicide Act 1957.  To begin with, it was fairly common for those sentenced to life to be released in around ten to fifteen years. As time passed, it came to be thought that longer sentences should be imposed, especially in cases such as the Moors Murders, the Yorkshire Ripper and Dennis Nilsen.  The Home Secretary was empowered to make Whole Life Orders to ensure that particularly dangerous or heinous criminals served their life sentences without the possibility of parole. As of 2006, mandatory lifers served an average of 14 years and for other lifers the average stood at nine years.

Criminal Justice Act 2003

Formerly, the Home Secretary reserved the right to set the "tariff" or minimum length of term for prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment. However, in November 2000, politicians were stripped of this power in relation to defendants aged under 18, following an appeal to the European Court of Human Rights by the murderers of James Bulger.

In November 2002, a similar decision in relation to adult offenders followed a successful challenge by convicted double murderer Anthony Anderson. Anderson had been sentenced to life imprisonment in 1988 with a recommended minimum term of 15 years, but the Home Secretary later informed him that he would have to serve at least 20 years. The House of Lords ruled that this was incompatible with his human rights.

This judgment was upheld by the European Court of Human Rights. Since then, judges have set minimum terms and only the Court of Appeal or the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom can make any amendments to the sentence. Though politicians can no longer decide when or if a life sentence prisoner can be considered for parole, the Attorney General still has the power to petition the Court of Appeal in a bid to increase any prison terms which are seen as unduly lenient. This power can only be exercised within 28 days of the sentence and that limit cannot be extended under any circumstances.

The Criminal Justice Act 2003 sets out guidelines for how long murderers should spend in prison before being considered for parole. Judges are not obliged to follow the guidelines, but must give reasons in court if they depart from them – whether recommending a lesser or higher minimum term than in accordance with the guidelines.

The guidelines recommended that multiple murderers (who murder two or more people) whose crimes involved sexual abuse, pre-planning, abduction or terrorism should never be released from prison. Such a sentence is known as a "whole life order". The murder of a single child following abduction, sexual or sadistic conduct also qualifies, as does the murder of a police or prison officer during the course of their duty (since 2015) and murder committed to advance a political, religious or ideological cause – along with any murder which was committed by someone who had previously been convicted of murder. Other multiple murders (two or more) should carry a recommended minimum of 30 years as a starting point sentence prior to consideration of additional aggravating factors and of any mitigating factors.

A 30-year minimum should also apply to the worst single murders, including those with sexual or racial motives and the use of a firearm – until 2015, the murder of a police officer in the course of duty also came within this category. Most other murders should be subject to a 15-year minimum as a starting point. There have been numerous departures from these guidelines since they were first put into practice. For example, the judge who sentenced American fugitive David Bieber for the murder of a police officer said that he should never be released from prison, whereas statutory guidelines recommended a 30-year minimum for this type of murder – this was a decade before the act was amended to include the murder of a police officer in the course of duty as one of the offenders whose life sentences should mean life.

On 23 July 2008, David Bieber won a High Court appeal against the whole life tariff recommended by the trial judge, and was instead issued with a minimum term of 37 years, effectively meaning that he would not be released until at least 2041, by which time he would be 75 years old if still alive. In the case of Mark Goldstraw, who killed four people in an arson attack on a house in Staffordshire in 2006, the trial judge set a recommended minimum of 35 years; this crime met the guidelines for a whole life term as it involved planning and resulted in the death of more than one person.

Many life prisoners have received minimum terms which, due to their length or the fact that the killer was middle aged or elderly when convicted, make it highly likely that they will never be released.

Paroles

A prisoner who has served their minimum term becomes eligible for parole. If the Parole Board agrees to release a prisoner who was sentenced to life, they are released on a life licence meaning that they will remain on parole for the remainder of their natural life. Prisoners who break the conditions of their release, or who are found to be a danger to the public, can be immediately returned to prison for an indefinite period under the terms of this licence.

In England and Wales, the average life sentence prisoners serve are around 15 to 20 years before being paroled, although those convicted of exceptionally grave crimes remain behind bars for considerably longer; Ian Huntley was given a minimum term of 40 years. Some receive whole life sentences which make it almost certain that they will die in prison; they can only be considered for release on appeal to the High Court, or in exceptional circumstances such as great age or ill health.

By 2015, there were at least 60 prisoners  in England and Wales serving such sentences, issued by either the High Court or the Home Office.  A number of prisoners have died in prison when serving such sentences including "The Yorkshire Ripper" Peter Sutcliffe, Moors Murderers (Ian Brady and Myra Hindley) and serial killer GP Harold Shipman who committed suicide four years into his sentence.

For England and Wales, the law regarding release on licence of prisoners is laid out in chapter 2 of the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997 (see in particular sections 28–30). This Act was amended and updated by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 chapters 6 and 7.

For Scotland, the law is set out in the Prisoners and Criminal Proceedings (Scotland) Act 1993, as amended in relation to life prisoners by the Convention Rights (Compliance) (Scotland) Act 2001, which incorporated changes to ensure that the procedure is compliant with the European Convention on Human Rights. The Scottish legal system does not allow a whole life sentence to be issued, but retains other forms of indefinite imprisonment, such as an Order for Lifelong Restriction.

Minimum term

Under the criminal law of England and Wales, a minimum term (formerly "tariff") is the minimum period that a person serving an indefinite sentence must serve before that person becomes eligible for parole. The sentencing judge bears responsibility for setting the minimum term.

The purpose of this mechanism has been described as follows:

The factors involved in the determination of a tariff were contested in the 1993 case of Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, two 11-year-old boys who were convicted of the murder of two-year-old James Bulger. Although the trial judge initially recommended that the pair would have to serve at least eight years in custody, the High Court later set a minimum term of 10 years. However, in July 1994 the Home Secretary Michael Howard set a tariff of 15 years, based in part on the public outcry over the murders. The ruling also came shortly after The Sun newspaper petitioned the Home Secretary with the signatures of thousands of readers for the two killers to receive stiffer sentences.

In June 1997, the House of Lords ruled that Howard had acted unlawfully when setting the 15-year minimum terms. This ruling also signalled the end of the Home Secretary's powers to set minimum terms for offenders who committed their crimes before the age of 18.

In November 2002, following a European Court of Human Rights ruling that the Home Secretary could no longer set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners, the High Court stripped the Home Secretary of his powers to set minimum terms completely. Earlier that year, following a legal challenge by another convicted murderer, Dennis Stafford, the Home Secretary had also been stripped of his powers to overrule the Parole Board's recommendations that a life sentence prisoner should be granted parole.

Another notable prisoner whose minimum sentence was increased was Myra Hindley, jailed for life in 1966 for her role in the Moors Murders; she was convicted of murdering two children and being an accessory in the murder of a third. Her partner Ian Brady was convicted of all three murders. Their trial judge later recommended to the appropriate authorities that he felt it was unlikely that Brady could ever be rehabilitated and safe to be considered for release, but felt that the same was not true of Hindley once she was removed from Brady's influence, recommending that she should be considered for parole after a period of around 25 years. This ruling was endorsed by at least one Home Secretary and High Court judge, but after the pair confessed to two more murders in 1986, Hindley's minimum term was increased to 30 years and then replaced by a whole life tariff in 1990, although she was not informed of the decision until 1994 - following a High Court ruling that the Home Secretary was obliged to inform all life sentence prisoners when or if they could be considered for parole. This was despite reports by Parole Board and prison officials which stated that Hindley should be considered for parole or at least for a transfer to an open prison as a possible prelude to parole in the near future.

Lord Longford and David Astor, two high-profile supporters of Hindley, backed her campaign for parole, and claimed that a succession of Home Secretaries were keeping her in prison in an attempt to win votes for their respective governments, as well as shying away from an inevitable tabloid media backlash that would accompany lost votes for any government whose Home Secretary failed to block Hindley's release from prison. Some sources also claimed that Hindley was being kept in prison for her own safety more than to protect the public from any risk she might pose, as she had received numerous death threats from relatives of the Moors Murders victims and from members of the public pledging to kill her if she was ever set free. Hindley lodged three appeals against her whole life tariff, but all three appeals were unsuccessful and she remained in prison until her death in November 2002, just over a week before the Home Secretary was stripped of his powers to set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners.

With the death of Myra Hindley, the Home Secretary had lost perhaps the most high-profile prisoner in the prison system, whose minimum term had been increased by a succession of Home Secretaries, leaving him with limited time to select new high-profile prisoners to impose heavy sentences on. Some of these factors were used as grounds to appeal in June 2010 when one of the killers, Roy Whiting, successfully appealed to have his sentence reduced in the High Court.

A similar system operates in Scotland, whereby the trial judge fixes a "punishment part" to "satisfy the requirements of retribution and deterrence". The prisoner cannot be considered for parole until this punishment part is served.

For example, for a murder, someone may be given a life sentence with a minimum term of 15 years. This means they cannot be released on parole until the minimum term is served. Some prisoners serve considerably longer than the minimum term recommended by the trial judge – even if it was later reaffirmed or reduced by a Home Secretary or by the High Court. A notable example is Harry Roberts, jailed for life in 1966 for his role in the murder of three policemen in London. His trial judge recommended that he serve at least 30 years before being considered for parole, but he was not granted parole until 2014, by which time he had served 48 years in prison.

Starting points for murder
The terms below are only guidelines for adults, and starting points vary in different legal cases. Starting points may either be increased or decreased depending on aggravating and/or mitigating factors respectively. The guidelines are currently in Schedule 21 of the Sentencing (Pre-consolidation Amendments) Act 2020.

However, the law still states that life sentence prisoners (and prisoners issued with fixed-term prison sentences) who have been convicted of crimes committed before the Criminal Justice Act 2003 came into force (18 December 2003) are sentenced according to guidelines which existed when the crime was committed.

Whole life order

The whole life order (formerly a whole life tariff) is a court order whereby a prisoner who is being sentenced to life imprisonment is ordered to serve that sentence without any possibility of parole or conditional release. This order may be made in cases of aggravated murders committed by anyone who was aged 21 or above at the time of the crime; or where the offender was aged between 18 and 20 if the Court considers that the seriousness of the offence, or combination of offences, is exceptionally high even by the standard of offences which would normally result in a whole life order where the offender is aged 21 or over. The purpose of a whole life order is for a prisoner to spend the rest of their life in prison, although they may still be released on compassionate grounds (see compassionate release) or pardoned by the monarch, within the royal prerogative of mercy. It is the most serious criminal penalty that can be imposed for any crime in the United Kingdom.

Section 30(1) of the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997 provides that the Home Secretary may at any time release a life prisoner on licence if satisfied that exceptional circumstances exist which justify the prisoner's release on compassionate grounds. A prisoner can then be released early when criteria such as great age, injury, disability or ill health are met; this has seen several life sentence prisoners being granted early release a considerable length of time before the date when they could first apply for parole. A whole life order can also be quashed on appeal by the Court of Appeal; a number of prisoners have had their sentences reduced by this method. From 1983, the Home Secretary had the right to decide how long a life sentence prisoner should serve before being considered for parole, and the trial judge was not obliged to recommend when or if an offender should be considered for parole. In some cases, the trial judge had recommended that a life sentence prisoner should at some point be considered for parole, only for the Home Secretary to later impose a whole life order.

The question of whether a Home Secretary or any of the other appropriate authorities should have the power to impose whole life orders was a controversial one, since a decision to impose such a sanction (or not) could carry political consequences for the Home Secretary and, by extension, the government they served – as well as a backlash by the national media. Perhaps the most notable example is Myra Hindley, sentenced to life in prison in 1966 for her role in the Moors Murders. Her trial judge recommended that she should serve a minimum of 25 years before being considered for parole. However, this was later increased to 30 years and in 1990 to "whole life" by David Waddington. Supporters of her campaign for parole, most notably Lord Longford and David Astor, argued that she was being kept in prison by successive Home Secretaries afraid of going against public opinion.  She died in November 2002, having never managed to win parole; on three occasions she had appealed against the Home Office's ruling that she should never be released, but each of these appeals failed.

The introduction of the government's tariff-setting procedures in 1983 also came shortly after a number of murderers were convicted of widely reported crimes. Also in 1983, Dennis Nilsen was jailed for life for murdering 11 young men whose dismembered bodies were found at the two flats he had rented in North London. Two years earlier, "Yorkshire Ripper" Peter Sutcliffe had been found guilty of murdering 13 women and attacking seven others in a six-year spree. Nilsen and Sutcliffe remained in prison until their deaths in 2018 and 2020 respectively.

In 1976, Donald "Black Panther" Neilson was convicted on four charges of murder at the end of a highly publicised trial. All of these murderers were also subjected to a whole life order by subsequent Home Secretaries. Like Nilsen and Sutcliffe, Neilson remained in prison until his death, dying in 2011 after serving 35 years of his life sentence.

In November 2002, a successful legal challenge by convicted double murderer Anthony Anderson saw the Home Secretary stripped of the final say on how long a life sentence prisoner must serve before parole can be considered, including the right to decide that certain prisoners should never be released. This ruling had been anticipated for several months, and was delivered just days after the death of Myra Hindley, who had been widely expected to gain immediate parole in the event of the Home Secretary being stripped of these sentencing powers.

A year later, the Criminal Justice Act 2003 was passed, which required that the trial judge recommend the minimum number of years to be served (or order that life should mean life) in the case of anyone being sentenced to life imprisonment. As had been the case when the Home Secretary could determine when or if a life sentence prisoner could be considered for parole, prisoners were entitled to have their sentence reviewed by the High Court. These prisoners can also appeal to the European Court of Human Rights if their appeals to the High Court are unsuccessful.

In June 1997, the High Court had already stripped the Home Secretary of the power to decide on minimum terms for life sentence prisoners who were convicted before the age of 18, following a legal challenge by solicitors acting for Robert Thompson and Jon Venables. The pair had been found guilty of murdering Merseyside toddler James Bulger in 1993, when they were 11 years old. The trial judge's initial recommendation was that they should not be considered for parole for at least eight years. The Lord Chief Justice later ruled that the pair should serve a minimum sentence of 10 years, but following a petition by The Sun newspaper, Home Secretary Michael Howard had ruled during 1994 that the pair should not be released until they had spent at least 15 years in custody.

Only the Home Secretary can grant a release to a prisoner sentenced to a whole life order, on compassionate grounds including great age or ill health. Only four prisoners known or believed to have been issued with a whole life order have so far been released from their sentences. Three of them were IRA members who were freed under the Good Friday Agreement in 1999, having spent more than 20 years in prison for terrorist offences including murder. The other was gang member Reggie Kray, who was freed from his life sentence in August 2000 after serving 32 years (two years after the expiry of his original 30-year minimum term) due to terminal cancer; although the Home Office never confirmed that he had been issued with a whole life order, his lengthy imprisonment and the fact that he was not paroled when his tariff expired (despite being well into his sixties) helped fuel media speculation that he was among the prisoners who had been issued with a whole life order. He died a few weeks after being freed.

Many prisoners have also received minimum sentences which are likely to last for most if not all of their remaining lives, such as child killers Roy Whiting and Ian Huntley, who were both convicted of child murder and received 40-year minimum terms which mean that they cannot apply for parole until they are at least 82 and 68 respectively. Whiting's trial judge had originally recommended that life should mean life and just before the High Court stripped politicians of their sentencing powers in November 2002, Home Secretary David Blunkett set Whiting's minimum term at 50 years, which was effectively a whole life order as it meant that he could only apply for parole if he lived to be at least 92. This decision was later appealed before the High Court, and the order was reduced to a 40-year minimum term. Huntley murdered two 10-year-old girls in August 2002, but by the time he was convicted 16 months later, the Home Secretary had been stripped of powers to set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners, and that decision was instead left to the High Court.

Between 1997 and 2000, Hindley made three appeals against the ruling that life should mean life in her case, but each was unsuccessful. She remained in prison until her death in November 2002, 36 years after she was sentenced. Her campaign for parole was supported by Lord Longford and David Astor, who claimed that she was a reformed character who had merely acted as Ian Brady's accomplice under duress, and had completely changed once removed from his influence. However, opinion polls showed that the majority of the British public was opposed to Hindley being paroled, and the tabloid media largely opposed her release as well. Hindley received numerous death threats from members of the public – including the relatives of some of the Moors Murders victims – who vowed to kill her if she were ever released from prison. Widespread public and media doubt as to whether Hindley's remorse was genuine was further fueled by the fact that Hindley did not confess to two more murders until 1986, and further strengthened the belief of those who opposed her attempts to win parole that the reported turnaround in her life while in prison was nothing more than a ploy to boost her chances of parole.

Ian Brady, who committed the Moors murders with Myra Hindley, was also told by a succession of Home Secretaries that his life sentence should mean life, but unlike Hindley he never attempted to gain parole, and insisted he never wanted to be released from custody. In 1999, he made an unsuccessful legal challenge to be allowed to starve himself to death. He died in May 2017 after more than 50 years in prison, and was Britain's longest-serving prisoner.

Since 2003, the law has provided that whole life orders cannot be issued to anyone who was under the age of 21 at the time of their crime, although there had never been a previous case of a whole life order being imposed or recommended to someone who committed their crime before the age of 21.

Around 100 prisoners are believed to have been issued with whole life orders since the mechanism was first introduced in 1983, although some of them were convicted of their crimes before that date and some of the prisoners known to have been issued with the whole life order have since died in prison or had their sentences reduced on appeal.

A number of prisoners who are unlikely to ever be released or have received very long sentences have declared their wish to die; for example, Ian Brady. At least two such inmates have died by suicide in prison, Harold Shipman and Daniel Gonzalez, and there have been attempted suicides by such prisoners, including Ian Huntley. A number have died in prison as a result of ill health, including Brady's accomplice Myra Hindley and the "Black Panther" serial murderer and armed robber Donald Neilson.

Whole life sentences have also been criticised in some quarters for giving offenders no incentive to behave well and co-operate with prison staff, or make any serious attempt at rehabilitation. An example of this was highlighted by the case of Robert Maudsley, sentenced to life for a single murder in 1975, who went on to kill three inmates several years into his sentence.

European Court of Human Rights challenges against whole life orders
Three convicted murderers, Jeremy Bamber, Peter Moore and Douglas Vinter, all murderers who had been sentenced to whole life orders, applied to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, for the court to declare that it is a contravention of the European Convention on Human Rights for someone to be sentenced to lifelong imprisonment. When the initial ruling was delivered in January 2012, the court ruled that because the whole-life orders were imposed by a judge only after consideration of the facts of each case, and because the life prisoners could apply to the Home Secretary for compassionate release, their whole life orders did not breach their human rights.

A later appeal by the same men led to a ruling in July 2013 that there must be a prospect of review of whole life orders within 25 years of the prisoner being sentenced, and that any impossibility of parole would violate their Article 3 rights. By this stage there were at least 49 prisoners serving such sentences in England and Wales.

In February 2014, five judges at the Court of Appeal found the Strasbourg court was incorrect in concluding English and Welsh law never allowed whole life orders to be reduced because the Secretary of State could reduce such orders in "exceptional circumstances", and that all "whole life" prisoners would be entitled to a review of their sentence within 25 years of being sentenced. The whole life order in the United Kingdom is therefore in fact not really life imprisonment without parole, but it is close to it. Lord Chief Justice Lord Thomas said whole life orders were compatible with the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) in the most appalling cases of murder. Thomas said further, "Judges should therefore continue as they have done to impose whole-life orders in those rare and exceptional cases. ... In our judgment the law of England and Wales therefore does provide to an offender 'hope' or the 'possibility' of release in exceptional circumstances which render the just punishment originally imposed no longer justifiable." According to a barrister Edward Fitzgerald, whole-life prisoners since 2014 "are in a sort of limbo. In legal theory they have the right to a review after say 25 or 30 years in the light of their progress. But in actual practice there is no recognition of this fact in any policy statement by the Secretary for Justice and no real means of knowing what it is they must do to win release even after decades in custody".

In February 2015, the ECHR upheld the lawfulness of whole life orders, on the ground that they can be reviewed in exceptional circumstances, following a fresh challenge by murderer Arthur Hutchinson, who had been sentenced to life imprisonment for a triple murder in Sheffield more than 30 years earlier. Another legal challenge to the court by Hutchinson was rejected in January 2017. By this stage, there were believed to be more than 70 prisoners in England and Wales serving whole life sentences.

References
 .

External links
 Schedule 21 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003, from legislation.gov.uk
 Life Sentenced Prisoners in United Kingdom from Ministry of Justice
 Information from Liberty website regarding United Kingdom

Imprisonment and detention
England and Wales
English criminal law
English legal terminology
Sentencing (law)

Life imprisonment in England and Wales


Carolus Souliaert (died 1540?) (also known as: Swillaert, Swillart, Swilliart) was a Dutch composer active in the first half of the 16th century.

Very little is known about the life of this composer. A few chansons composed by Souliaert/ Swillaert to texts in Dutch were published by Tielman Susato in his collections of Dutch chansons.

In Het Ierste musyck Boexken, the first collection printed in 1551, there is one chanson by Carolus Swillart or Swilliart (different spellings in different part books): Myn liefkens bruyn ooghen. In the second collection Het twueeste musyck boexken (also printed in 1551), there are five chansons by Carolus Souliaert: Een costerken op syn, Het soude een knecktken, Ick ghinck gisteravent, Ick truere/ Druck en verdriet and Wilt doch met maten. Susato also published one motet by Souliaert in the collection Liber secundus ecclesiasticarum (published in 1553).

There are also a few sacral compositions by Souliaert preserved in manuscript.

Sources
 Eugeen Scheurs; introduction to the facsimile prints of Tielman Susato: Het Ierste Musyck Boexken (1987 Peer) and Het tvueetste musyck boexken (1987 Peer).

External links

Renaissance composers
Dutch male classical composers
Dutch classical composers
1540 deaths
Year of birth unknown

Carolus Souliaert


Vajjabhumi was a part of Rarh in ancient times. It is located in what is now Birbhum district in the Indian state of West Bengal. The more rugged western part of the district was known as Vajjabhumi, the country of the thunderbolt.

There is mention of the Rarh region in the Jain text Acaranga Sutra. The last (24th) great Tirthankara Mahavira had wandered  through this land, referred to as the "pathless country of Ladha". The people of this region are referred to as ill-mannered and dogs were set upon Mahavira. Some historians have opined that the people of Aryavarta, were not knowledgeable about the areas beyond their territories and often looked down upon the people of those parts. In the religious text Bodhayan, it is mentioned that those who visited Vanga had to perform penance.

References

Geography of West Bengal
Historical Indian regions
Ancient divisions in Bengal
Birbhum district

Vajjabhumi


Jing can refer to:

 Jing (software), formerly Jing Project
 Jing (name), a Chinese surname and given name
 Jing River, in China
 Jing (instrument), a large gong used in Korean traditional music

Concepts
 Chinese classics (, jīng)
 Jing (Chinese medicine), a principle in Traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese martial arts, sometimes confused with jìn (勁; power)
 Jing (Chinese opera), a major male role type in Chinese opera
 Jing (philosophy), a concept in Chinese philosophy which means "respect"

Places
 Jing County, Anhui, in China
 Jing County, Hebei, in China
 Jinghe County , also known as Jing County, in Xinjiang, China
 Chu (state), also known as Jing, in ancient China

Fiction
 King of Bandit Jing, also known as Jing: King of Bandits, a seven volume manga series by Yuichi Kumakura, and the related anime
 Jing King, a character in the Sly Cooper video game series

Others
 Jing people, an indigenous Vietnamese-speaking ethnic minority of China (also Kinh)

Jing


The Autonomy March (Polish: Marsz Autonomii, Silesian: Marsz Autōnōmije) is a demonstration that has taken place annually since 2007 around the 15th of July (the anniversary of adopting the Statute of the Silesian Voivodeship in 1920) in Katowice, Upper Silesia, Poland. It consists of a march through the streets of Katowice in front of the Voivodeship Office (the building of the former Silesian Parliament). According to the organizers, the March is a manifestation of support for the idea to restore autonomy to Upper Silesia in a modern form, modeled on Spanish or German solutions.

The participants of the March carry flags, banners, and symbols in the Upper Silesian yellow and blue colors, coats of arms with a golden eagle on a blue background. The Silesian Flag Day (Dzień Ślonskij Fany) is also celebrated on the 15th of July. The main organizer of the March is the Silesian Autonomy Movement. According to the organizers, it is the largest cyclical manifestation of local community issues in Poland.

Several hundred people took part in the first Autonomy march in 2007. The route of the march led from the Market Square to the Voivodship Office. The march ended with a rally, during which postcards were sent to the President of the Republic of Poland, Lech Kaczyński, asking him to restore autonomy. Afterwards, participants had the opportunity to watch films about Upper Silesia at the Upper Silesian Cultural Centre. In 2012, during the VI March, this amount increased to approximately 5000. In 2011 was also celebrated the 1st Upper Silesian Day, aimed at maintaining and nurturing the culture and identity of the region.

References

Upper Silesia
Festivals in Poland
Events in Katowice
Recurring events established in 2007
2007 establishments in Poland

Autonomy March


Hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes.
Depending on the charge of the ion, there are two types: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions.

Cation (positively charged)
When hydrogen loses its electron, the cations can be formed:

 Hydron: general name referring to the positive ion of any hydrogen isotope (H+)
 Proton: 1H+ (i.e. the cation of protium)
 Deuteron: 2H+, D+
 Triton: 3H+, T+
The ions produced by the reaction of these cations with water, as well as their hydrates, are also called 'hydrogen ions'.

In connection with acids, "hydrogen ions" usually refers to hydrons.

Anion (negatively charged)
Hydrogen anions are formed when additional electrons are acquired:

 Hydride: general name referring to the negative ion of any hydrogen isotope (H−)
 Protide: 1H−
 Deuteride: 2H−, D −
 Tritide: 3H−, T −

References

Hydrogen
Ions

Hydrogen ion


Peggy Sue Got Married is a 1986 American romantic fantasy comedy-drama movie. It was directed by Francis Ford Coppola. It stars Kathleen Turner and Nicolas Cage. Turner's character, Peggy Sue Bodell, goes back in time to 1960 when she attends her class of 1960 high school reunion in 1985.

Other websites

1986 comedy-drama movies
1986 fantasy movies
1986 romantic comedy movies
1986 romantic drama movies
American comedy-drama movies
American fantasy movies
American romantic comedy movies
American romantic drama movies
1980s English-language movies
Movies set in the 1960s
Time travel movies
Movies directed by Francis Ford Coppola

Peggy Sue Got Married


An icosahedron is a polyhedron (a three dimensional shape) that is made of triangles and has twenty sides.

There are many kinds of icosahedra, with some being more symmetrical than others. The best known is the regular icosahedron, a Platonic solid made of equilateral triangles.

Regular icosahedra

There are two objects, one convex and one concave, that can both be called regular icosahedra. Each has 30 edges and 20 equilateral triangle faces with five meeting at each of its twelve vertices. Both have the same symmetry so that their vertices are at similar places. The term "regular icosahedron" usually refers to the convex icosahedron, while the nonconvex form is called a great icosahedron.

Convex regular icosahedron
The convex regular icosahedron is usually simply called the regular icosahedron. It is one of the five regular Platonic solids, and it is represented by its Schläfli symbol {3, 5}, containing 20 triangular faces, with 5 faces meeting around each vertex.

Its dual polyhedron is the regular dodecahedron {5, 3} which has three regular pentagonal faces around each vertex.

Great icosahedron

The great icosahedron is one of the four regular star Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. Its Schläfli symbol is {3, }. Like the convex form, it also has 20 equilateral triangle faces, but its vertex figure is a pentagram rather than a pentagon, leading to geometrically intersecting faces. The intersections of the triangles do not represent new edges.

Its dual polyhedron is the great stellated dodecahedron (, 3), having three regular star pentagonal faces around each vertex.

Stellated icosahedra
Stellation is the process of extending the faces or edges of a polyhedron until they meet to form a new polyhedron. It is done symmetrically so that the resulting figure retains the overall symmetry of the parent figure.

In their book The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra, Coxeter et al. enumerated 58 such stellations of the regular icosahedron.

Of these, many have a single face in each of the 20 face planes and so are also icosahedra. The great icosahedron is among them.

Other stellations have more than one face in each plane or form compounds of simpler polyhedra. These are not strictly icosahedra, although they are often referred to as such.

Platonic solids

Icosahedron


The Gascon campaign of 1345 was conducted by Henry, Earl of Derby, as part of the Hundred Years' War. The whirlwind campaign took place between August and November 1345 in Gascony, an English-controlled territory in south-west France. Derby, commanding an Anglo-Gascon force, oversaw the first successful English land campaign of the war. He twice defeated large French armies in battle, taking many noble and knightly prisoners. They were ransomed by their captors, greatly enriching Derby and his soldiers in the process. Following this campaign, morale and prestige swung England's way in the border region between English-occupied Gascony and French-ruled territory, providing an influx of taxes and recruits for the English armies. As a result, France's ability to raise tax money and troops from the region was much reduced.

Ralph, Earl of Stafford, had sailed for Gascony in February 1345 with an advance force and, following conventional practice, laid siege to two French strongholds. Derby arrived in August and immediately concentrated available Anglo-Gascon forces and headed directly for the largest French force, which was gathering at Bergerac,  east of Bordeaux. Bergerac had good river supply links to Bordeaux and would provide a suitable forward base from which to carry the war to the French. He decisively defeated the French there, before moving to besiege the provincial capital of Périgueux. By this time the French had diverted their main effort to the south-west, under the overall command of John, Duke of Normandy, the son and heir apparent of King Philip VI of France. Unable to take Périgueux, and threatened by John's much larger force, Derby left garrisons blockading it and withdrew. One garrison, at Auberoche, was besieged by the French. Derby advanced with a small force, launched a surprise attack against the much larger French army and won another decisive victory.

The French army started to disintegrate: men were unpaid, even unfed; there was a lack of fodder for the horses; desertion was rife; and troops were selling their equipment. John lost heart on hearing of the defeat at Auberoche. The French abandoned all of their ongoing sieges of other Anglo-Gascon garrisons and retreated to Angoulême, where John disbanded his army, possibly because the French had run out of money. Derby moved back to the Garonne valley, captured the strong and well garrisoned town of La Réole, all of the French outposts downstream of it, and other strong French positions in the area. In November Derby paid off his army and overwintered in La Réole. Various small Anglo-Gascon groups maintained the pressure on the French, capturing several significant fortified places between December 1345 and March 1346.

Background

Since the Norman conquest of England in 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France. The status of the English king's French fiefs was a major source of conflict between the two monarchies throughout the Middle Ages. French monarchs systematically sought to check the growth of English power, stripping away lands as the opportunity arose. Over the centuries, English holdings in France had varied in size, but by 1337 only Gascony in south-western France and Ponthieu in northern France were left. The independent-minded Gascons had their own customs and claimed to have a separate language; they preferred their relationship with a distant English king who left them alone, to one with a French king who would interfere in their affairs. Following a series of disagreements between Philip VI of France () and Edward III of England (), on 24 May 1337 Philip's Great Council agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony, should be taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that Edward was in breach of his obligations as a vassal. This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last 116 years.

Gascony

Before the war commenced, at least 1,000 ships a year departed Gascony. Among their cargoes were over 80,000 tuns of locally produced wine. The duty levied by the English Crown on wine from Bordeaux raised more money than all other customs duties combined and was by far the largest source of state income. Bordeaux, the capital of Gascony, grew rich on this trade; it had a population of over 50,000, greater than London's, and Bordeaux was possibly richer. By this time English Gascony had become so truncated by French encroachments that it relied on imports of food, largely from England. Any interruptions to regular shipping were liable to starve Gascony and financially cripple England; the French were well aware of this.

Although Gascony was the cause of the war, Edward was able to spare few resources for it. When an English army had campaigned on the continent earlier in the war it had operated in northern France, causing the Gascons to largely rely on their own resources; they had been hard pressed as a consequence. In 1339 the French besieged Bordeaux, even breaking into the city with a large force before they were repulsed. Typically the Gascons could field 3,000–6,000 men, the large majority of whom were infantry, although up to two-thirds of them would be tied down in garrisons.

There was no formal border between English and French territory. Many landholders owned a patchwork of widely separated estates, perhaps owing fealty to a different overlord for each. Each small estate was likely to have a tower house, larger estates had castles. Fortifications were also constructed at transport choke points, to collect tolls and to restrict military passage; fortified towns grew up alongside all bridges and most fords over the many rivers in the region. Military forces could support themselves by foraging so long as they moved on at frequent intervals. If they wished to remain in one place for any length of time, as was necessary to besiege a castle, then access to water transport was essential for supplies of food and fodder and desirable for such items as siege equipment. Warfare was usually a struggle for possession of castles and other fortified points, and for the mutable loyalty of the local nobility; the region had been in a state of flux for centuries and many local lords served whichever country was stronger, regardless of national ties.

By 1345, after eight years of war, English-controlled territory mostly consisted of a coastal strip from Bordeaux to Bayonne, and isolated strongholds further inland. The French had strong fortifications throughout what had once been English-controlled Gascony. Several directly threatened Bordeaux: Libourne,  to the east allowed French armies to assemble a day's march from Bordeaux; the strongly fortified town of Blaye was situated on the north bank of the Gironde  downstream of Bordeaux and in a position to interdict its vital seaborne communications; the fortress of Langon,  south of Bordeaux, blocked upstream communication along the Garonne, and facilitated the supply of any French force advancing on Bordeaux.

Campaign

Plans
Edward determined early in 1345 to attack France on three fronts. The Earl of Northampton would lead a small force to Brittany, a slightly larger force would proceed to Gascony under the command of Henry, Earl of Derby and the main force would accompany Edward to either northern France or Flanders. The previous Seneschal of Gascony, Nicholas de la Beche, was replaced by the more senior Ralph, Earl of Stafford, who sailed for Gascony in February with an advance force. Derby was appointed the King's Lieutenant in Gascony on 13March 1345 and received a contract to raise a force of 2,000 men in England, and further troops in Gascony itself. The highly detailed contract of indenture had a term of six months from the opening of the campaign in Gascony, with an option for Edward to extend it for a further six months on the same terms. Derby was given a high degree of autonomy, for example his strategic instructions were: "si guerre soit, et a faire le bien q'il poet" (...if there is war, do the best you can...).

French intelligence had uncovered the English plan for offensives in the three theatres, but France did not have the money to raise an army in each. The French anticipated, correctly, that the English planned to make their main effort in northern France. Thus they directed what resources they had there, planning to assemble their main army at Arras on 22July. South-western France was encouraged to rely on its own resources, but as the Truce of Malestroit, signed in early 1343, was still in effect, the local lords were reluctant to spend money, and little was done.

Initial operations

Derby's force embarked at Southampton at the end of May. Bad weather forced his fleet of 151 ships to shelter in Falmouth for several weeks en route, finally departing on 23July. The Gascons, primed by Stafford to expect Derby's arrival in late May and sensing the French weakness, took the field without him. The Gascons captured the large, weakly garrisoned castles of Montravel and Monbreton on the Dordogne in early June; both were taken by surprise and their seizure broke the tenuous Truce of Malestroit. Stafford carried out a short march north to besiege Blaye with his advance party and perhaps 1,000 men-at-arms and 3,000 infantry of the Gascon lords. Having established the siege he left the Gascons to prosecute it and proceeded to Langon, south of Bordeaux, and set up a second siege. The Anglo-Gascon forces at both sieges could be readily supplied by ship. The French issued an urgent call to arms.

Meanwhile, small independent parties of Gascons raided across the region. Local French groups joined them, and several minor nobles threw in their lot with the Anglo-Gascons. They had some successes, but their main effect was to tie down most of the weak French garrisons in the region and to cause them to call for reinforcements. The few French troops in the region not garrisoning their fortifications immobilised themselves with sieges: of Casseneuil in the Agenais; Monchamp near Condom; and Montcuq, a strong but strategically insignificant castle south of Bergerac. Large areas were effectively undefended.

Edward's main army sailed on 29 June. They anchored off Sluys in Flanders until 22July, while Edward attended to diplomatic affairs. When they sailed, probably intending to land in Normandy, they were scattered by a storm and found their way to English ports over the following week. After more than five weeks on board ship the men and horses had to be disembarked. There was a further week's delay while the King and his council debated what to do, by which time it proved impossible to take any action with the main English army before winter. Aware of this, Philip despatched reinforcements to Brittany and Gascony. Peter, Duke of Bourbon was appointed commander-in-chief of the south-west front on 8August.

Battles of Bergerac and Auberoche

On 9August 1345 Derby arrived in Bordeaux with 500 men-at-arms, 1,500 English and Welsh archers, 500 of them mounted on ponies to increase their mobility, and ancillary and support troops, such as a team of 24 miners. A high proportion of the archers and some of the men-at-arms were convicted felons promised pardons if they served for the duration of the campaign, but the majority, including many of the felons, were veterans of other campaigns. After two weeks of further recruiting and organising Derby marched his army to Langon, rendezvoused with Stafford and took command of the combined force. While Stafford had to this point pursued a cautious strategy, Derby's intention was quite different. Rather than continue a war of sieges he was determined to strike directly at the French before they could concentrate their forces. The French forces in the region were under Bertrand de l'Isle-Jourdain, since the Duke of Bourbon had not yet arrived. Hearing of Derby's arrival, he decided to fall back to the communications centre and strategically important town of Bergerac,  east of Bordeaux, where there was an important bridge over the Dordogne River. This was a convenient place to concentrate French forces and assimilate reinforcements.

After a council of war Derby decided to strike at the French at Bergerac. The capture of the town, which had good river supply links to Bordeaux, would provide the Anglo-Gascon army with a base from which to carry the war to the French. It would also force the lifting of the siege of the nearby castle of Montcuq and sever communications between French forces north and south of the Dordogne. The English believed that the town could be easily taken if the French field army could be beaten or distracted. After eight years of defensive warfare by the Anglo-Gascons, there was no expectation among the French that they might make any offensive moves.

Derby moved rapidly and took the French army at Bergerac by surprise on 26August, decisively beating them in a running battle. The exact details of the battle are confused and there are contradictions between the original sources, which is reflected in the modern accounts. Clifford Rogers provides a summary of the contemporary accounts, their discrepancies, and the treatment of these by modern historians. In any event, French casualties were heavy, many being killed or captured. Prisoners included Henri de Montigny, Seneschal of Périgord, ten other senior noblemen and many lesser nobles. Derby's share of the ransoms and the loot was estimated at £34,000 (£ in  terms), approximately four times the annual income from his lands. The survivors of the French field army rallied around de l'Isle and retreated north to Périgueux. Within days of the battle, Bergerac fell to an Anglo-Gascon assault and was subsequently sacked. Strategically, the Anglo-Gascon army had secured an important base for further operations. Politically, local lords who had been undecided in their allegiance had been shown that the English were again a force to be reckoned with.

Derby consolidated and reorganised for two weeks, left a large garrison in the town and moved north to the Anglo-Gascon stronghold of Mussidan in the Isle valley with 6,000–8,000 men. He then pushed west to Périgueux, the provincial capital of Périgord, taking several strongpoints on the way. Périgueux's defences were antiquated and derelict, but the size of the French force defending it prohibited an assault. Derby blockaded Périgueux and captured strongholds blocking the main routes into the city. John, Duke of Normandy, the son and heir of Philip VI, replaced the Duke of Bourbon, gathered an army reportedly numbering over 20,000 and manoeuvred in the area. In early October a very large detachment relieved the city and drove off Derby's force, which withdrew towards Bordeaux. Further reinforced, the French started besieging the English-held strongpoints. A French force of 7,000, commanded by Louis of Poitiers, besieged the castle of Auberoche,  east of Périgueux. Auberoche perches on a rocky promontory completely commanding the River Auvézère. The French encampment was divided in two, the majority of the soldiers camped close to the river between the castle and village while a smaller force was situated to prevent any relief attempts from the north. The chronicler Froissart tells an improbable tale that a soldier attempting to reach the English lines with a letter requesting help was captured and returned to the castle via a trebuchet. A messenger did get through to Derby, who was already returning to the area with a scratch force of 1,200 English and Gascon soldiers: 400 men-at-arms and 800 mounted archers.

After a night march Derby attacked the French camp on 21October while they were at dinner, taking them by surprise and causing heavy initial casualties. The French rallied and there was a protracted hand-to-hand struggle, which ended when the commander of the small English garrison in the castle sortied and fell upon the rear of the French. They broke and fled. Derby's mounted men-at-arms pursued them relentlessly. French casualties are uncertain, but were heavy. They are described by modern historians as "appalling", "extremely high", "staggering", and "heavy". Many French nobles were taken prisoner; lower ranking men were, as was customary, put to the sword. The French commander, Louis of Poitiers, died of his wounds. Surviving prisoners included the second in command, Bertrand de l'Isle-Jourdain, two counts, seven viscounts, three barons, the seneschals of Clermont and Toulouse, a nephew of the Pope and so many knights that they were not counted. The ransoms alone made a fortune for many of the soldiers in Derby's army, as well as Derby himself, who was said to have made at least £50,000 (£ in  terms) from the day's captives. Over the following year Philip paid large amounts from the royal treasury as contributions towards the captives' ransoms.

Exploitation

The Duke of Normandy lost heart on hearing of the defeat. There are accounts that he resigned his command and returned to Paris, only to be reinstated and sent back by his father, the King. The French abandoned all of their ongoing sieges of other Anglo-Gascon strongpoints. There were reports of the French army disintegrating: men unpaid, even unfed; lack of fodder for the horses; desertion; troops selling their equipment. Despite heavily outnumbering the Anglo-Gascon force the Duke of Normandy retreated to Angoulême and disbanded his army, possibly because the French had run out of money. Derby was left almost completely unopposed for five months.

Derby moved south after his victory, falling back on his communications as winter weather was setting in. He started clearing French fortifications from the border of English territory: the small castle at Pellegrue surrendered; that at Monségur was stormed. He then moved on the large, strongly fortified town of La Réole. This occupied a key position on the north bank of the Garonne river, only  from Bordeaux. The town had been English until captured by the French twenty-one years earlier. It had enjoyed considerable autonomy and lucrative trading privileges, which it had lost under the French. After negotiations with Derby, on 8November the citizens distracted the large French garrison and opened a gate for the English. The garrison fled to the citadel, which was considered exceptionally strong; the English proceeded to mine it. The garrison agreed a provisional surrender; if they were not relieved within five weeks they would leave. They were allowed to communicate this to the Duke of Normandy, but as he had just disbanded his army, and it was anyway mid-winter, there was little he could do. In early January 1346 the garrison left and the English replaced them. The town regained its previous privileges. Derby spent the rest of the winter there.

While this was happening the main Gascon forces disbanded. Many of the English soldiers took ship for home. After the main forces had gone home for the winter, small groups of Anglo-Gascons remained active. They cleared the valley of the Garonne downstream of La Réole of French presence, and raided the poorly fortified towns and weakly garrisoned French castles and smaller fortifications within their reach. Langon, which had resisted Stafford in the summer, was taken. Frequently Derby negotiated trade concessions or privileges with towns, or reinstated previous ones, to encourage them to open their gates to the English forces. The towns could more readily participate in the lucrative export trade through Bordeaux if under English rule, and Derby's performance lessened their fear of French retribution. Derby had considerable success with this approach, which also allowed the towns to avoid the possible dangers of a siege or sack. The citizens of several French garrisoned towns persuaded the soldiers to withdraw, so that they could pre-emptively surrender to Derby. In at least one case they seized the French soldiers in their beds and expelled them. A letter from a committee of French garrison commanders sent to PhilipVI in November claimed that towns were defecting to the English on a "daily" basis, and to Anglo-Gascon forces of trivial size. The French defenders were thoroughly demoralised.

The Duke of Bourbon, the newly-appointed French Seneschal of Gascony, unexpectedly found himself under assault. Stafford marched on the vitally important town of Aiguillon, which commanded the junction of the Rivers Garonne and Lot, "the key to Gascony", in late November. The inhabitants attacked the garrison and opened the gates to the English. By March 1346 almost the entire province of Agenais was in English hands. Bourbon held only Agen, the capital, and four castles; all were blockaded by the English. Morale was not good. As Bourbon started to assemble a new army at Agen, fights broke out with the townsfolk. Several Italian mercenaries were lynched. Since the start of the campaign the English had captured over 100 towns and castles.

Assessment

The campaign had been a disaster for the French, the worse for being unexpected; during the previous eight years of the war, the Anglo-Gascons had made no large-scale offensive moves. They had lost towns and castles; suffered heavy casualties; and had many nobles taken prisoner, who would not be available to fight until they had paid their heavy ransoms, much of which would go to fund the English war effort. Towns throughout south-west France embarked on urgent and expensive programmes to repair, improve or in some cases build from scratch their fortifications. They also paid attention to keeping them adequately garrisoned. It became next to impossible to raise tax money from the region, or to persuade men to serve away from home. This extended to areas far from where Derby had campaigned.

After two and a half years of uneasy peace, the war had restarted with a series of French humiliations. In the border region morale and, more importantly, prestige had decidedly swung England's way following this campaign, providing an influx of taxes and recruits for the English armies. Large parts of the Gascon nobility had been wavering with regard to committing themselves, and Derby's victories tipped the balance for many. Local lords of note declared for the English, bringing their retinues with them. Derby's success was essentially defensive: he had secured Gascony. He had also set the scene for a possible future Anglo-Gascon offensive; this was to come late the following year, with his series of mounted raids. For the time being, while French financial resources were hampered, their ability to raise and project large forces were not seriously impaired.

The four-month campaign has been described as "the first successful land campaign of... the Hundred Years' War", which had commenced more than eight years earlier. Derby went on to lead another successful campaign in 1346. Modern historians have praised the generalship demonstrated by Derby in this campaign: "superb and innovative tactician"; "ris[ing] to the level of genius"; "brilliant in the extreme"; "stunning"; "brilliant". A chronicler writing fifty years after the event described him as "one of the best warriors in the world".

Aftermath

In October 1345 Northampton commenced his campaign in northern Brittany, but it fizzled out in a series of failures to capture French-held Breton towns. The French decided to make their main effort in 1346 against Gascony. A large French army, "enormously superior" to any force Derby could field, assembled early in the campaigning season under the Duke of Normandy and marched up the Garonne valley. Their plan was to retake La Réole; to ensure their lines of supply they first had to retake Aiguillon. Stafford, in charge of Aiguillon's Anglo-Gascon garrison of 900 men, withstood an eight-month siege. Derby concentrated the main Anglo-Gascon force at La Réole, as a threat, and ensured that the French were never able to fully blockade the town. They found that their own supply lines were seriously harassed.

Edward III was meanwhile assembling a large army in England. The French were aware of this, but anticipated that it would sail to Gascony and attempt to relieve Aiguillon. Instead it landed in Normandy in July, achieving strategic surprise and starting the Crécy campaign. Philip VI ordered his son to abandon the siege and march north; after several delays John did, arriving in Picardy two weeks after Philip's army had been decisively beaten at the Battle of Crécy with very heavy losses. The areas facing Derby were left effectively defenceless, and he sent local Gascon forces to besiege the few major strongholds in the region still held by the French. Taking a force of approximately 2,000 Derby set out from La Réole on a grand chevauchée, a great mounted raid. During the following two months this was devastatingly successful. Not only Gascony, but much of the Duchy of Aquitaine was left securely in English hands. It was to be held until formally ceded by the French in 1360 in the Treaty of Brétigny.

Notes, citations and sources

Notes

Citations

Sources

1345 in England
1345 in France
Conflicts in 1345
14th-century military history of the Kingdom of England
Hundred Years' War, 1337–1360
Gascony
Military campaigns involving England

Gascon campaign of 1345


Renting, also known as hiring or letting, is an agreement where a payment is made for the use of a good, service or property owned by another over a fixed period of time. To maintain such an agreement, a rental agreement (or lease) is signed to establish the roles and expectations of both the tenant and landlord.  There are many different types of leases. The type and terms of a lease are decided by the landlord and agreed upon by the renting tenant.

History
Various types of rent are referenced in Roman law: rent (canon) under the long leasehold tenure of Emphyteusis; rent (reditus) of a farm; ground-rent (solarium); rent of state lands (vectigal); and the annual rent (prensio) payable for the jus superficiarum or right to the perpetual enjoyment of anything built on the surface of land.

Reasons for renting

There are many possible reasons for renting instead of buying, for example:
In many jurisdictions (including India, Spain, Australia, United Kingdom and the United States) rent paid in a trade or business is tax-deductible, whereas rent on a dwelling is not tax-deductible in most jurisdictions.
Financial inadequacy, such as renting a house when one is unable to purchase, i.e "renting by necessity".
Reducing financial risk due to depreciation and transaction costs, especially for real estate which might be needed only for a short amount of time.
When something is needed only temporarily, as in the case of a special tool, a truck or a skip.
When something is needed that may or may not be already owned but is not in proximity for use, such as renting an automobile or bicycle when away on a trip.
Needing a cheaper alternative to buying, such as renting a movie: a person is unwilling to pay the full price for a movie, so they rent it for a lesser price but give up the chance to view it again later.
The tenant may want to leave the burden of upkeep of the property (mowing the lawn, shovelling snow, etc.) to the owner or his agents.
There is no need to worry about lifespan and maintenance.
Renting keeps off-balance-sheet the debt that would burden the balance sheet of a company in case the property would have been bought.
Renting is good for the environment if products are used more efficiently by maximizing utility rather than being disposed of, overproduced and underutilized.
Risks aside, renting has the potential to generate a regular stream of revenue for the owner. The more the churn (the number of times the item is rented out) the higher the income. Eventually, the rental income crosses the product procurement value and every churn post that becomes a profit for the owner
Renting often also becomes an alternate revenue pool for idle inventory vs. overly depending on a stagnant / slowing retailing business environment

Growth of rental industry
Short-term rental of all sorts of products (excluding real estate and holiday apartments) already represents an estimated €108 billion ($160 billion) annual market in Europe and is expected to grow further as the internet makes it easier to find specific items available for rent. According to a poll by YouGov, 76% of people looking to rent would go to the internet first to find what they need; rising to 88% for those aged 25–34.

It has been widely reported that the financial crisis of 2007–2010 may have contributed to the rapid growth of online rental marketplaces, such as erento, as consumers are more likely to consider renting instead of buying in times of financial hardship. Environmental concerns, fast depreciation of goods, and a more transient workforce also mean that consumers are increasingly searching for rentals online.

A 2010 US survey found 27% of renters plan to never buy a home.

Rental investment
Net income received, or losses suffered, by an investor from renting of properties is subject to idiosyncratic risk due to the numerous things that can happen to real property and variable behavior of tenants.

Rental agreements

There is typically an implied, explicit, or written rental agreement or contract involved to specify the terms of the rental, which are regulated and managed under contract law.

Examples include letting out real estate (real property) for the purpose of housing tenure (where the tenant rents a residence to live in), parking space for a vehicle(s), storage space, whole or portions of properties for business, agricultural, institutional, or government use, or other reasons.

When renting real estate, the person(s) or party who lives in or occupies the real estate is often called a tenant, paying rent to the owner of the property, often called a landlord (or landlady). The real estate rented may be all or part of almost any real estate, such as an apartment, house, building, business office(s) or suite, land, farm, or merely an inside or outside space to park a vehicle, or store things all under Real estate law.

The tenancy agreement for real estate is often called a lease, and usually involves specific property rights in real property, as opposed to chattels.

In India, the rental income on property is taxed under the head "income from house property". A deduction of 30% is allowed from total rent which is charged to tax.

The time use of a chattel or other so called "personal property" is covered under general contract law, but the term lease also nowadays extends to long term rental contracts of more expensive non-Real properties such as automobiles, boats, planes, office equipment and so forth. The distinction in that case is long term versus short term rentals. Some non-real properties commonly available for rent or lease are:
motion pictures on VHS or DVD, of audio CDs, of computer programs on CD-ROM.
transport equipment, such as an automobile or a bicycle.
ships and boats, in which case rental is known as chartering, and the rent is known as hire or freight (depending on the type of charter)
aircraft, in which case rental is known as chartering, or leasing if the rental is longer term
specialized tools, such as a chainsaw, laptop, IT equipment or something more substantial, such as a forklift.
large equipment such as cranes, oil rigs and submarines.
a deckchair or beach chair and umbrella.
furniture
designer handbags, jewelry, sunglasses and watches.
Home appliances such as washing machines, refrigerators, televisions, microwave ovens, and air-conditioning units

In various degrees, renting can involve buying services for various amounts of time, such as staying in a hotel, using a computer in an Internet cafe, or riding in a taxicab (some forms of English use the term "hiring" for this activity).

As seen from the examples, some rented goods are used on the spot, but usually they are taken along; to help guarantee that they are brought back, one or more of the following applies:

one shows an identity document
one signs a contract; any damage already present when renting may be noted down to avoid that the renter is blamed for it when the good is returned
one pays a damage deposit (a refundable fee that may be used in part to pay for damage caused by the renter)

If the customer has a credit account with the rental company, they may rent over several months (or years) and will receive a recurring or continuation invoice each rental period until they return the equipment. In this case deposits are rarely required.

In certain types of rental (sometimes known as operated or wet rental) the charge may be calculated by the rental charge + timesheets of operators or drivers supplied by the rental company to operate the equipment. This is particularly relevant for crane rental companies.

Sometimes the risk that the good is kept is reduced by it being a special model or having signs on it that cannot easily be removed, making it obvious that it is owned by the rental company; this is especially effective for goods used in public places, but even when used at home it may help due to social control.

Persons and businesses that regularly rent goods from a particular company generally have an account with that company, which reduces the administrative procedure (transaction costs) on each occasion.

Signing out books from a library could be considered renting when there is a fee per book. However the term lending is more common.

Leasing
Rental of personal property or real property for periods often longer than a year, which is governed by the signing of a lease, is known as leasing. Leasing is usually used for high-value capital equipment, both in business and by consumers. A lease in which the renter benefits from an increase in value of the asset is known as a finance lease. A leasing agreement which is not a finance lease is known as an operating lease. In housing, when a tenant rents an apartment but only pays for their room and the common space is a lease-by-room arrangement.

Rent to own
A rental agreement may provide for the renter or lessee to become the owner of the asset at the end of the rental period, usually at the renter's option on payment of a nominal fee. Such arrangements may be known as
Rent-to-own, a term used in the United States for rental of furniture or appliances. The term is also used in the US for real estate transactions, where the tenant has an option to purchase the property at a fixed price at a specified future time. Such arrangements are also known as lease-option, lease-to-own or lease to purchase option.
Hire purchase, used in the UK and other countries for the purchase of cars, other consumer equipment and business equipment. The term lease-purchase is also used.
Closed-end leasing, used in the US and Canada for the leasing of cars. Unlike in hire purchase, the asset is sold at its residual value at the end of the term, rather than for a nominal amount.

References

Property
Finance

Renting


Geng: The Adventure Begins (, originally Geng: Misteri Hantu Durian) is a 2009 Malaysian Malay-language 3D computer animated film. The film is produced by Les' Copaque and released in Malaysian cinemas beginning 12 February 2009. Geng was launched in a ceremony held on 11 September 2007 together with short animated series Upin & Ipin that have connections with the film. Planning for the film began in late-2005 as Les Copaque commenced operations. It received financial support from ICT-related agencies such as Multimedia Development Corporation and MIMOS.

Plot

The movie begins with Badrol and Lim watching the news covering about the sudden disappearance of durians in Badrol's home village, Kampung Durian Runtuh. A news reporter interviews Badrol's grandfather Tok Dalang about the previous night (a durian fell but something managed to eat it and leave the durians shell clean). Tok Dalang and the locals dub the "something" a durian ghost since its unknown of who or what is eating the durians late at night. Badrol gets skeptical and decides to go to the village, taking Lim along with him.

After riding on a bus which gets its tire punctured, the two are forced to walk to the village which is 5 km away. After a few complains from Lim, a truck driver named Mr. Singh noticed the two and decided to give them a ride much to his friend and boss Pak Mail's chagrin. Badrol then tells them about their journey with Pak Mail talking about an abandoned house.

At the village Upin and Ipin are playing in, Uncle Muthu's outdoor restaurant while Sally is impatiently waiting for his pastries, Mak Uda, called Opah by Upin and Ipin's as she is their grandmother, arrives. The twins greet Opah who tells them to come home with their older sister Kak Ros, Opah then asks Sally to see if he has finished making her clothing and ushers to fix it as Sally tells Opah that he couldn't finish sewing the clothes simply because the buttons keep popping out and is ruining his nails. After Sally complains about Opah, Opah then asks Ah Tong about the news of the durian ghost, but Ah Tong claims the durian ghost to be unreal, Opah claims Ah Tong that he 'never believes in anything'. Sally leaves as he lost his appetite as Singh and Pak Mail drops Badrol and Lim on the shop the two then decided to ask Muthu for directions to Tok Dalang's house since Badrol hasn't been in the village for a while and he doesn't remember the way to his house but due to Muthu's unclear directions, he decided to ask Upin and Ipin to lead Badrol and Lim instead while Kak Ros drops by to deliver the pastries but decided to follow her brothers as she is forced by Uncle Muthu.

Upon arriving at Tok Dalang's (called by Atok) house and having a reunion, Badrol and Lim took Atok's suggestions which is to explore the village, Badrol and Lim then have a motorcycle race, knocking out a child named Rajoo, who forces the two to replace his radio (when Rajoo sees the two heading towards him he jumped into the water with the radio) and his one-horned cow Sapy into the water. Badrol and Lim are telling him that they going home to Tok Dalang's house.

At night, Tok Dalang talks about the Durian Ghost, and Badrol and Lim sleep, with Lim wanting to go to the bathroom. The next day, they go to Tok Dalang's durian orchard with Rajoo's wagon, with an impromptu musical number ensuing. After Upin, Ipin and Rajoo ride a leaf, they find a fox-like creature named Oopet. Kak Ros, Badrol and Lim find them and at night, they go camping. A monster then chases them and they go to the cave, where they get chased by a snake monster and attacked by large leeches. Tok Dalang, Opah, Muthu and Ah Tong then go to the orchard to find them. Oopet is then revealed to have been eating the durians. Oopet tells Rajoo to find his mother. Badrol and Lim get kidnapped by Uncle Singh (revealed to be disguised as the monster) to the cabin. Rajoo then sneaks to the cabin that Uncle Singh and Pak Mail have some plans for haunting the orchard. They manage to save Badrol and Lim and escape the cabin. Oopet tries to help his mother but Pak Mail catches him, with his mother then attacking Pak Mail and Uncle Singh for wanting to kidnap her son. They escaped, but his mother is chasing them. They go to the cave again and Oopet tells them to run while Oopet's mother is fighting the snake monster.

They say farewell to Oopet, and Tok Dalang, Opah, and Muthu find Upin, Ipin, Badrol, Lim and Rajoo, with them the accusing Abang Salleh of following Mr. Singh's and Pak Mail's plans. Lim hands Rajoo his CD player and calls him, along with Upin, Ipin, Badrol and Kak Ros part of a "gang". In a mid-credits scene, we see Pak Mail and Mr. Singh roaming in Oopet's world, with them getting chased by Oopet's mother.

Production
It took two years, RM 4.7 million and 40 local animators to complete Geng, which director Mohd Nizam Abdul Razak compares as cheap against Western animation budgets worth "around RM15 million to RM40 million" and "about 130 to 150 animators". Les'Copaque Production's managing director, Burhanuddin Md Radzi, told that planning the film began when Mohd Nizam, Muhammad Usamah Zaid and Mohd Safwan Ab Karim met him to read out their plan. In terms of cost-saving, he said that the computers were bought from Low Yat Plaza with modifications of their own, besides financial and logistic support from MDeC, MIMOS Bhd and MOSTI". Maya and MentalRay were employed as the main 3D animation software. Nizam added that supply from Mimos worth millions of ringgit allowed Les' Copaque to perform rendering in only six to eight months compared to the usual over-one-year period, as well as saving costs. Geng was completed in August 2008 at 108 minutes, and was previewed to invited guests from MDeC, Finas, Mimos, RTM, Media Prima, Astro and the press. It had been shortened to 90 minutes on the advice of Finas to please the cinema operators. Les' Copaque was also busy completing the Upin & Ipin shorts for television which somewhat disrupted post-production of Geng. Les' Copaque prepared five original Geng reels, three of which were sent to Kantana Group in Bangkok, Thailand for audio mixing. In November 2008, Les' Copaque announced the Censorship Board's approval of their film without cuts and permission to screen by Finas. The music for Geng is mainly composed by Yuri Wong, who also composed music for the related animated series Upin & Ipin, along with Mohamed Azfaren Aznam, who contributed music as a second composer.

Reception
Les' Copaque has been reported to place targets ranging from RM5 million to RM10 million, and even RM100 million after considering international distribution plans. Geng opened on 12 August 2011 to incredible public response and rave reviews. On its first week in Malaysian cinemas, it gained RM2.3 million at the box office. As of 1 April, it was confirmed that Geng had amassed RM 6,314,526 of ticket sales throughout its seven weeks on Malaysian silver screens, in a rare event in which a Malaysian film has single-handedly defeated an array of major foreign releases, which at that time included Oscar nominees Slumdog Millionaire and The Curious Case of Benjamin Button.

Box office chronology

Awards
2009
 International Film Festival for Children, Indonesia
Anugerah Pilihan Penonton (People's Choice Awards)
 22nd Malaysian Film Festival
2 Jury's Choice Awards (box office, animated feature film with distinctive characters)
 MSC Malaysia Kre8tif! Industry Awards
Best Editor (Mohd Faiz Hanafiah)
Best Music/Score (Yuri Wong)

References

External links

Production blog of Geng: The Adventure Begins

2009 films
Malay-language films
Malaysian comedy films
Films set in 2008
Malaysian animated films
2009 computer-animated films
Les' Copaque Production films
Grand Brilliance films

Geng: The Adventure Begins


José Luís Marques Peixoto (; born September 4, 1974) is a Portuguese author, poet and playwright. A professional writer since 2001, his works have been translated into more than 30 languages.

Biography
José Luis Peixoto was born in the village of Galveias, in the Portuguese region of Alentejo. He lived in Galveias until the age of 18. He obtained a bachelor's degree in modern languages and literature from NOVA University Lisbon. After university, he was a teacher for some years in several schools in Portugal and Cape Verde, before becoming a professional writer in 2001.

Peixoto's first book, Morreste-me (English title: You Died on Me), was published in 2000. In 2001, he became the youngest ever recipient of the José Saramago Prize, at the age of 27, for his novel Nenhum Olhar.

International editions
Translated editions of Peixoto's books are available from the following publishers: Bloomsbury (UK), Doubleday, Random House (US), Grasset, Seuil (France), Literatura Random House (Spanish-speaking countries), Companhia das Letras (Brazil), Einaudi (Italy), Kedros (Greece), Meulenhoff, Atlas Contact (Nederlands), Kineret (Israel), Wsoy (Finland), Polirom (Romania), Bozicevic (Croatia), Bakur Sulakauri (Georgia), Kontrast (Serbia), among others.

Awards
2001: José Saramago Prize, for Nenhum Olhar (best novel published in all Portuguese speaking countries on the two previous years)
2007: Prémio Cálamo, for Cemitério de Pianos (best foreign novel published in Spain in 2007)
2008: Prémio de Poesia Daniel Faria, for Gaveta de Papéis (best poetry book published in Portugal by a poet under 35 years old)
2013: Prémio da Sociedade Portuguesa de Autores, for A Criança em Ruínas (best poetry book published in Portugal on the previous year)
2013: Prémio Salerno Libro d'Europa, for Livro (best novel published in Europe in 2012)
2016: Oceanos Prize, for Galveias (best novel published in all Portuguese-speaking countries in 2015)
2019: The Best Translation Award-Japan for Galveias (best foreign novel translated into Japanese in 2019)

Bibliography

Novels
 2000: Nenhum Olhar (English titles: Blank Gaze (UK), The Implacable Order of Things (US))
 2002: Uma Casa na Escuridão
 2006: Cemitério de Pianos (English title: The Piano Cemetery)
 2010: Livro
 2014: Galveias
 2015: Em Teu Ventre
 2019: Autobiografia

Short-novels/fictional narrative

 2000: Morreste-me (English title: You Died on Me)
 2003: Antídoto
 2008: Cal
 2011: Abraço

Poetry
 2001: A Criança em Ruínas
 2002: A Casa, a Escuridão
 2008: Gaveta de Papéis
2020: Regresso a Casa

Travel literature
 2012: Dentro do Segredo: Uma viagem na Coreia do Norte
 2017: O Caminho Imperfeito

Children's literature

 2012: A Mãe que Chovia
 2016: Todos os Escritores do Mundo Têm a Cabeça Cheia de Piolhos

References

External links
Official website
Travel website (in Portuguese)
Peixoto at Bloomsbury

1974 births
Living people
People from Ponte de Sor
21st-century Portuguese poets
Portuguese male poets
Portuguese male novelists
21st-century Portuguese dramatists and playwrights
Portuguese songwriters
Male songwriters
Portuguese male dramatists and playwrights
21st-century Portuguese male writers

José Luís Peixoto


Namiki Shōzō I (並木正三) (1730–1773) was a prominent Japanese playwright who produced roughly 100 works for bunraku (puppet theater) and for kabuki. Shōzō is also credited with inventing the revolving stage (回り舞台, mawaributai), one of many tricks of stagecraft used extensively in kabuki, and with popularizing the use of trapdoors (セリ上げ, seriage).

Shōzō left bunraku in 1751; adapting plays from bunraku to kabuki was a very common practice, and it is likely that many of Shōzō's kabuki plays began as puppet productions.

His roughly one hundred plays were mostly jidai-mono (時代物, historical plays), and include Keisei ama no hagoromo (The Feathery Garment from Heaven, 1753), Sanjikkoku yobune no hajimari (The Beginning of the Heavy Cargo Ships on the Yodo River, 1758), and Sanzen-sekai yarikuri ōrai (Kin'emon the Notorious Pirate, 1772).

References
Takaya, Ted T. (1985). "Namiki Shōzō." Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. Tokyo: Kodansha Ltd.

See also
Namiki Shōzō II

Kabuki playwrights
Bunraku
1730 births
1773 deaths
18th-century Japanese dramatists and playwrights
Japanese writers of the Edo period
18th-century Japanese people

Namiki Shōzō I


Lapseki (from Greek: Λάμψακος, Lampsakos) is a town in Çanakkale Province, Turkey. It is the seat of Lapseki District. Its population is 14,984 (2021). The mayor is Eyüp Yılmaz (AKP).

The district of Lapseki is known for its cherries, and a cherry festival is held annually in the town.

History

The town was founded by Greek colonists from Phocaea in the 6th century BC. Soon afterwards it became a competitor of Miletus, controlling the trade routes in the Dardanelles. The modern Turkish name derives from the original Greek name.

Lapseki was founded about 500 BC, one of 4 settlements along the Dardanelles at that time. In ancient times, while the city was under the rule of King Mendrom and named Pityausa, the king, who defended the colonists from Foça from the attacks of the local people, minted coins for the first time in its history in the name of his daughter Lapseke and later the city was given this name by the colonists to express their indebtedness to him. In this way, the name Lampsakos, then Lapseki, was passed down to the present day.

The city was under the Byzantines for a long period before being passed into Ottoman hands after its conquest by Süleyman Pasha in 1356. Occupied at the end of World War I, the town was freed from the British and French forces on 25 September 1922, toward the end of the War of Independence. In the district are the graves of 15,000 soldiers who lost their lives during the War of Independence.

Economy
The primary livelihood of the people in the area is agriculture, with fishing and tourism also being important. The most common fruits of the district include cherries and peaches. First held in 1983, the annual Cherry Festival takes place 2–12 June. A fair is also held in Lapseki on 1–4 September but shaded by the fair in nearby town Çardak in 22–26 August which closes with a wrestling competition each year - the second oldest competition in Turkey After Kirkpinar in Edirne. People come to watch the wrestlers from near provinces such as Bursa. Apart from these, the beaches and summer houses in seaside villages attract tourists as well. Numan Kurtulmuş, the deputy prime minister of Turkey, has a summer house in Suluca village of Lapseki. There are direct ferries to Gelibolu at every o'clock from Lapseki. It is an intercontinental trip from Asia to Europe.

Çanakkale 1915 Bridge
The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge is a major project planned to be completed in March 2022. It will be constructed over the Dardanelles strait from Lapseki to Sütlüce in Gallipoli Peninsula. The completion of the project is a part of the government's goals for their 2023 vision program to improve the country's infrastructure. It will provide a link from Europe to western Turkey, which is projected to boost both regional tourism and the local economy. The bridge will hold six lanes of automobile traffic. A railroad is also planned to cross on the bridge that is intended to connect the region to Istanbul or Edirne and Europe. The groundbreaking for the bridge took place on March 18, 2017. The bridge was officially opened by President Tayyip Erdogan on 18 March 2022.[6] It is the fourth bridge over the Turkish Straits.[7]With a main span of 2,023 m (6,637 ft), the bridge surpassed the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan by 32 m (105 ft) to become the longest suspension bridge in the world.[4]

See also
Lampsacus
Abramios the Recluse
Çanakkale 1915 Bridge

References

Populated places in Çanakkale Province
Dardanelles
Fishing communities in Turkey
Populated coastal places in Turkey
District municipalities in Turkey
Lapseki District

Lapseki


Limba Ram is an Indian archer who represented India in international competitions, including three Olympics.  He equalled an archery world record in 1992 at the Asian Archery Championships in Beijing. He was awarded the Padma Shri Award in 2012.

Early life
Limba Ram was born in Saradeet Village (Jhadol tahsil, Udaipur district, Rajasthan state, India) on January 30, 1972. His family belongs to the Ahari tribe and because of poverty, Limba Ram relied on hunting birds like sparrows, partridges as well as other animals in the jungle with his indigenous bamboo bow  and reed arrows. In 1987, one of his Uncles brought news that government would be conducting trials in the nearby village of Makradeo to train good archers. At this trial, 15-year-old Limba Ram and three other boys (among whom was future Arjuna Award winning Archer Shyam Lal) were spotted by selectors of the Sports Authority of India. Thereafter, all four boys were sent to New Delhi for the Special Area Games Programme, a four-month training camp under the coaching of R. S. Sodhi.

The Akhil Bharatiya Vanavasi Kalyan Ashram, the RSS-linked organisation that works for tribal welfare, has claimed that it identified Limba Ram through its Ekalavya Khelkood Pratiyogita competition.

Career
Limba Ram was spotted and trained by the Sports Authority of India in 1987. In that same year, he became overall champion at the National Junior Level Archery Tournaments held in Bangalore. Just one year later, in 1988, Limba Ram would be victorious at the National Senior Level Tournament, earning for himself not just the title of overall champion but also the honour of representing his country at the Summer Olympics held that year in Seoul. In 1989, he reached the quarterfinals of the World Archery Championships held in Lausanne, Switzerland. In the same year, he would finish in second place at the Asian Cup in Individuals and India got team Gold.

In 1990, he helped India finish fourth at the Beijing Asian Games. He represented India in three Olympics. In 1992,  he equalled the world record of Takayoshi Matsushita in the Beijing Asian Archery Championships in the 30 meters event, with a score of 358/360 to bag the gold medal. After receiving this news Parliament of India congratulated Limba Ram. In 1992 at the Barcelona Olympics, Ram missed the Bronze medal because score was tied and the opponent player has shot just 1 ten higher in the 70-meter segment and finished with 9th rank in qualifying round and finished 4th in elimination round and did not qualify for Bronze Medal match. In 1995, he stood with second rank and the team would win a gold medal at the Commonwealth Games held in New Delhi. In 1996 he was National Champion with Asian Record.
And also participated in 1996 Atlanta Summer Olympics.

Awards
The Government of India honoured him with the Arjuna award in 1991 and Padma Shri in 2012.

Decline
In 1996 Limba Ram joined TATA Group. In the same year he suffered from serious shoulder injury while playing football in training camp at Kolkata. He was unable to shoot a bow and lost his focus and concentration. He discontinued his job with TATA due to this problem. He joined Punjab National Bank in 2001 as a cashier. In 2003, he participated in third National ranking prize money archery tournament organised by Sports Authority of India but finished 16th.

Present status
On January 10, 2009, to 2012 London Olympics Archery Association of India signed and appointed Limba Ram as National Archery Chief Coach for 2009 World Cup and 3 Gold, 3 Silver, 4 Bronze medals, 2010 World Cup Medals: 2 Gold, 3Silver, 2 Bronze Commonwealth Games and won 3 Gold, 1 Silver and 4 Bronze medals under his coaching, 2010 Guangzhou Asian Games 1 Silver and 2 Bronze medals, 2011 World Cup Medals: 1 Gold,8 Silver, 2 Bronze, 2011 World Archery Championship Medals: 1 Silver, 2011 World Archery Youth Championship Medals: 1 Gold, 1 Silver, 2 Bronze and 2012 London Olympic Games, 2012 World Cup Medals: 1 Gold, 2 Silver
Total 11 Golds, 20 Silvers and 16 Bronze medals under season 2009 to 2012 London Olympics his coaching, guidance and his achievement as National Chief Coach of Indian Archery.

References

External links

Indian male archers
Living people
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Archers at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Archers at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Archers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Olympic archers for India
Archers from Rajasthan
Rajasthani people
1972 births
People from Udaipur district
Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports
Archers at the 1994 Asian Games
Archers at the 2002 Asian Games
Asian Games competitors for India

Limba Ram


The Midnight Caller is a play by American playwright Horton Foote. The work was first performed in 1957 as part of a student production at the Neighborhood Playhouse with a cast including Robert Duvall. It had its professional premiere Off-Broadway at the Sheridan Square Playhouse where it opened on July 2, 1958. Directed by Leo Penn, the opening night cast included Mary James as Alma, Rebecca Dark as Cutie, Mary Perry as Rowena, Nora Dunfree as Mrs. Crawford, Justin Reed as Ralph, Patricia Frye as Helen, and Robert Morris as Harvey.

External links
 Online script at google books

1957 plays
Plays by Horton Foote
Off-Broadway plays

The Midnight Caller (play)


Optimum contract and par contract are two closely related (and sometimes confused) bridge scoring terms in the card game contract bridge.

Optimum contract
The optimum contract is the one that offers the best chance of gaining the most scoring points whilst minimising the risk of failure. It is that contract that cannot be improved upon by further bidding nor could it have been improved upon by taking a different line in earlier bidding.

At Chicago or IMP scoring it is generally worth bidding game even with a slightly less than 50% chance of success due to the relatively high value of the bonuses (especially when vulnerable). In duplicate pairs scoring, the subtle difference between a major suit game, a NT game and a minor suit game make the declaration an important decision.

Each side has its own optimum contract and, for a side with poor hands, "pass" may be the optimum call.

Par contract
Where there is competitive bidding (i.e. both sides are bidding) the extra dimension of sacrificial bidding is added, and the theoretical optimum contract can be overtaken by the par contract.
The par contract on a deal is that contract that results from optimal bidding by both sides and that neither side could improve by further bidding. It will either be equal to the optimum contract of one side or it will exceed the optimum contract of both sides. If the latter, it is only considered par if the doubled penalty is less than the value of the opposing optimum contract.

Par score or par result
The par result is that score that arises from the par contract and on which neither side could reasonably improve by changing their line of play. Game theoreticians would refer to such a par result as a Nash equilibrium.

The term par score originated in the game of golf.

Notes

Contract bridge bidding

Optimum contract and par contract


Ennerdale Water is the most westerly lake in the Lake District National Park in Cumbria. It is a glacial lake, with a maximum depth of 150 feet (45 metres). At ½ mile to a mile (700 to 1,500 metres) wide and 2½ miles (3.9 kilometres) long is one of the smallest lakes in the area. To the west of the lake lies the small village of Ennerdale Bridge, with of two pubs and a few houses. It is close to the port of Whitehaven, the town of Cleator Moor and the village of Cleator.

Legends and facts

The Girt dog of Emmerdale
In 1810 a large carnivore killed hundreds of sheep in and around Ennerdale before it was hunted down and killed. The Girt (dialect for 'Great') Dog of Ennerdale was a mysterious creature that killed between 300 and 400 sheep over six months in the fells of Cumberland, England, in 1810.
It is now commonly thought that the Girt Dog of Ennerdale was a thylacine (otherwise known as the Tasmanian tiger or Tasmanian wolf.) Travelling circuses and menageries of the time were known to keep what were described as "tiger wolves" – a description that fits the thylacine perfectly. As import laws and animal control were so relaxed in the early part of the nineteenth century, an escape from one of these itinerant shows is easy to imagine.

Other
Though the Lake District is a popular UK location for film shoots, Ennerdale has been left relatively in the shadow, with only a few brief exceptions. The closing sequences of the film 28 Days Later (2002), directed by Danny Boyle, were filmed around the Ennerdale area, and include a sweeping, panoramic view of the lake.

Once a year, during the last week in August, the Ennerdale Show brings local people together with agricultural displays, competitions, arts and crafts.

Former US President Bill Clinton proposed to his wife Hillary on the banks of Ennerdale Water in 1973.

References

Lakes of the United Kingdom

Ennerdale Water