Piton de la Fournaise (; ) is a shield volcano on the eastern side of Réunion island (a French overseas department and region) in the Indian Ocean. It is currently one of the most active volcanoes in the world, along with Kīlauea in the Hawaiian Islands, Stromboli and Etna in Italy and Mount Erebus in Antarctica. A previous eruption began in August 2006 and ended in January 2007. The volcano erupted again in February 2007, on 21 September 2008, on 9 December 2010, which lasted for two days, and on 1 August 2015. The most recent eruption began on 2 July 2023. The volcano is located within Réunion National Park, a World Heritage Site.

Residents of Réunion sometimes refer to Piton de la Fournaise simply as le Volcan ("the Volcano"). It is a major tourist attraction on Réunion island.

Geology
The uppermost section of the volcano is occupied by the Enclos Fouqué, a caldera  wide. High cliffs, known as remparts in French, form the caldera's rim. The caldera is breached to the southeast towards the sea. The eastern flank of the volcano is unstable and is in the initial stages of failure. It will eventually collapse into the Indian Ocean and if it is a cataclysmic debris avalanche, it will generate a megatsunami. There is evidence of earlier failures on the submerged flanks and surrounding abyssal plain. The lower slopes are known as the Grand Brûlé ("Great Burn"). Most volcanic eruptions are confined to the caldera.

Inside the caldera is a  high lava shield named Dolomieu. At the top of this lava shield are Bory Crater (Cratère Bory) and Dolomieu Crater (Cratère Dolomieu), which is by far the wider of the two and named for French geologist Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu.

Many craters and spatter cones can be found inside the caldera and on the higher flanks of the volcano. Lavas with high concentrations of iridium are routinely ejected through these vents. By the trailhead of the summit path there lies a small noteworthy crater called Formica Leo, named for its resemblance to the sand pit trap of an antlion.

Located outside of the main caldera is Commerson Crater, an inactive caldera notable for receiving intense rainfall, particularly during tropical storms. During Cyclone Hyacinthe in January 1980, it received  of rainfall in 15 days, the most precipitation produced by a tropical cyclone in a single location.

Some beaches in the proximity of the volcano are greenish in color, due to olivine sand derived from picrite basalt lavas. The Grand Brûlé is formed from solidified lava flows accumulated over hundreds of thousands of years; the most recent ones are often the darkest and most vegetation-free, while older ones can be covered by dense natural vegetation.

This volcano is over 530,000 years old, and for most of its history, its flows have intermingled with those from Piton des Neiges, a larger, older and heavily eroded inactive volcano which forms the northwest two-thirds of Réunion Island. There were three episodes of caldera collapses 250,000, 65,000 and 5,000 years ago. The volcano was formed by the Réunion hotspot, which is believed to have been active for the past 66 million years. There is evidence for explosive eruptions in the past. One explosive eruption about 4,700 years ago may have had a VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index) of 5, which is the same as the 18 May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.

Eruptions

Most eruptions of Piton de la Fournaise are of the Hawaiian style: fluid basaltic lava flowing out with fire fountaining at the vent. Occasionally, phreatic eruptions (groundwater steam-generated eruptions) occur. Lava flows crossing the Grand Brûlé occasionally reach the sea. Piton de la Fournaise is one of the most active volcanoes in the world, with more than 150 recorded eruptions since the 17th century.

Eruptions within the caldera do not cause much devastation, because the caldera is uninhabited, but little infrastructure exists apart from the highway. Lava flows are generally confined to the caldera. However, lava flows have been known to cross the N2 highway; areas where the road was destroyed by the eruption are signposted with the year of eruption after the road is rebuilt. In the early 2000s, the highway was destroyed one or more times a year; road engineering services then wait for the lava to cool off and build another stretch of road. For months after an eruption, the core of the lava flows can still be hot enough to steam in rainy weather.

Eruptions outside of the caldera can pose serious hazards to the population, but are rare. Only six eruptions outside of the caldera have been recorded, most recently in 1986. The village of Piton-Sainte-Rose was evacuated in 1977 before it was inundated by a lava flow which destroyed several buildings. The lava flow crossed the highway and surrounded the local church, entered the front door, then stopped without destroying the building. The front entrance was later cleared out, and the church was brought back into service under the name of Notre-Dame des Laves ("Our Lady of the Lavas").

In April 2007, the volcano erupted and produced an estimated 3,000,000 cubic metres of lava per day. During this eruption of 2007 an incremental caldera collapse of Dolomieu occurred at the volcano over more than nine days. The collapse displacing 0.8 x 1.1 km floor downward by 330 m, with a volume of 120 million cubic metres. The caldera collapse accompanied one of the largest eruptions of lava at the volcano in the past 100 years.

An eruption began on 2 July 2023 at 8:30 a.m. local time.

Monitoring
Volcanic activity is constantly monitored by geophysical sensors (tiltmeters, extensometers, differential GPS receivers, etc.). The data from those various sensors is sent to the Piton de la Fournaise Volcano Observatory, located in Bourg-Murat, northwest of the volcano. The observatory, founded in 1978 following
the Piton-Sainte-Rose flow, is operated by the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (Global Geophysics Institute of Paris), in association with CNRS and the University of Réunion. The OVPF often publishes reports on Piton de la Fournaise's current activity via their website in French. RIGIC (the Réunion Island Geological Information Center) takes this information and translates it into English for distribution to the English-speaking scientific community.

Procedures specify several levels of alert, which are decided by the prefect of Réunion on the basis of scientific reports:
 Pre-alert: Warnings about possible eruptions; hikers accessing the caldera are warned about possible developments.
 Level 1: An eruption will occur soon; the public may not access the caldera until specialists have examined the situation and set pathways for those willing to admire the eruption.
 Level 2: An eruption is occurring inside the caldera. Access to the caldera is restricted to authorized personnel only.
 Level 3: An eruption is occurring or will occur soon outside of the caldera; some villages may have to be evacuated for safety.

Access

A forestry road followed by a track connects the highway of the plains in Bourg-Murat to the Pas de Bellecombe (Bellecombe Pass), where a parking lot and a snack bar are located. The Pas de Bellecombe is situated over the caldera rim cliffs and offers a view over the northeast part of the caldera. A stairway path descends from the pass to the caldera floor. This path is closed for safety reasons during seismic events that may precede eruptions and during eruptions. White paint marks over rocks delimit a number of footpaths ascending the lava shield inside the caldera.

The lower parts of the Grand Brûlé can be visited from the N2 highway. Lava flows that have crossed the road are indicated by signs. Completely free access during eruptions was permitted until 1998; access has been limited since that date, being virtually banned at present.

See also
 List of volcanoes in Réunion
 Mamelon (volcanology)
 Eruption history of Piton de la Fournaise

References

External links

 RIGIC (Réunion Island Geological Information Center)

 Reunion Island – anglophone site

Shield volcanoes of France
Hotspot volcanoes
Active volcanoes
Volcanoes of Réunion
Mountains of Réunion
VEI-5 volcanoes
Polygenetic shield volcanoes
Pleistocene shield volcanoes
Holocene shield volcanoes

Piton de la Fournaise


Cry of the Kalahari (1984) is an autobiographical book detailing two young American zoologists, Mark and Delia Owens, and their experience studying wildlife in the Kalahari Desert in Botswana in the mid-1970s. There they lived and worked for seven years in an uninhabited area named Deception Valley in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. With no roads and the nearest civilization eight hours away they had only each other and the animals they studied as company, most of which had never seen humans before. Their research focused mainly on lions, brown hyenas, jackals and other African carnivores. Cry of the Kalahari is the personal story of the Owens' encounters with these and a myriad of other animals and depicts their own struggle to live and work in such an inhospitable and unforgiving environment.

Cry of the Kalahari was a national and international bestseller, translated into seven languages and is the 1985 John Burroughs Medal winner.

References

External links
Cry of the Kalahari, book website

American autobiographies
Natural history books
Works about Botswana
Environmental non-fiction books
1984 non-fiction books
American travel books

Cry of the Kalahari


Andrew Evans (born January 25, 1991) is an American track and field athlete who competes in the discus throw.

Born to Lawrence and Laura Evans he grew up in Portage, Michigan. He competed in ice hockey, American football and discus at high school.

As a sophomore, 2007, Andrew finished as MI MHSAA D1 State Discus Runner-Up with a throw of 162'5". He also finished as All-State in Shot Put his sophomore year with a throw of 52'10.75".

He is two time MHSAA Division 1 State Discus Champion (2008 - 180'8" & 2009 - 182'10") from Portage Northern High School, MI. He finished as State Runner-Up in Shot Put in 2008 - 60'4" - & 2009 - 57'9.75",  The PN T&F team finished 2nd in the State of Michigan D1 championship in 2009.

 He made his international debut at the 2010 World Junior Championships in Athletics, taking tenth place. After a period at Kalamazoo Valley Community College he went on to attend the University of Kentucky from 2011 and took part in competitions with the Kentucky Wildcats team.

He was the winner of the discus at the Southeastern Conference outdoor championships in 2012 and 2014, finishing runner-up in the interim. At the NCAA Men's Division I Outdoor Track and Field Championships he was seventh in 2012 and improved to third in 2013. In his final year, he fell back to 14th place, however.

Leaving college and turning professional, he entered the 2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships and took third place. He failed to obtain the qualifying standard for the 2015 World Championships in Athletics, however. Both he and Russ Winger contested the final place at the 2015 NACAC Championships in Athletics and it ultimately went to Winger, with Evans being the silver medalist at the NACAC meet.

He achieved the Olympic standard in April 2016 with a new personal record of . At age 25 he made his first American Olympic team with a third-place finish at the 2016 United States Olympic Trials, finishing behind Mason Finley and Tavis Bailey.

International competitions

References

External links

1991 births
Living people
Track and field athletes from Michigan
People from Portage, Michigan
American male discus throwers
Kentucky Wildcats men's track and field athletes
Athletes (track and field) at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic track and field athletes for the United States
21st-century American sportsmen

Andrew Evans (discus thrower)


Louisine Waldron Elder Havemeyer (July 28, 1855 –  January 6, 1929) was an art collector, feminist, and philanthropist. In addition to being a patron of impressionist art, she was one of the more prominent contributors to the suffrage movement in the United States. The impressionist painter Edgar Degas and feminist Alice Paul were among the renowned recipients of this benefactor's support.

Background
Louisine Waldron Elder was born in New York City on July 28, 1855, to a merchant George W. Elder (1831–1873) and his wife, Matilda Adelaide Waldron (1834–1907). She was the second of four children: Anne Eliza Elder, later Mrs. Henry Norcross Munn (1853–1917), Adaline Deliverance Mapes Elder, later Mrs. Samuel Twyford Peters (1859–1943), and brother George Waldron Elder (1860–1916).

Life in Paris
Shortly after her father's death, Louisine Elder and her family travelled to Europe for a three-year stay. They set sail on May 25, 1873, aboard the S.S. Calabria, accompanied by their extended family, aunt Amanda McCready and family, and cousin Mary Mapes Dodge, the editor of St. Nicholas Magazine and author of Hans Brinker; or the Silver Skates. Mary Mapes Dodge's sister Sophie Mapes Tolles was living in Paris with her friend Emily Sartain, studying art in the atelier of Evariste Luminais and boarding in the pensionnat of Mme. Del Sarte, widow of François Del Sarte, famed teacher of the art of expression. Louisine and her sister Addie joined Sophie Mapes Tolles and Emily Sartain in boarding at Mme. Del Sarte's, and it was during this time that Sartain introduced Louisine to Mary Cassatt. Fellow Philadelphians, Cassatt and Sartain had studied together at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in the early 1860s and travelled to Europe together in the fall of 1871. During this time, Mary Cassatt took Louisine Elder under her wing, becoming a mentor and encouraging her to make her first art acquisition, a pastel by Edgar Degas. As time passed, particularly after Louisine married Henry O. Havemeyer, Cassatt became an advisor to the Havemeyers, helping to build their art collection and facilitating the working relationship which they would have with the Impressionist Artists, including Edgar Degas, Édouard Manet, Camille Pissarro and Claude Monet. A lifelong friendship developed between Louisine Havemeyer and Mary Cassatt, who later made several pastels of Louisine and her children.

Art collection
Together with her husband, Louisine would build perhaps the finest art collection in America. Her three-story mansion at Fifth Avenue and East 66th Street in New York was filled with the finest possible examples of works by Manet, El Greco, Rembrandt, and Corot. The home was decorated 1889-1890 by Louis Comfort Tiffany and Samuel Colman, who made it an elegant showplace for their patron's varied and important collections.  Henry Clay Frick, J.P. Morgan, and Mrs. Isabella Stewart Gardner were among the collectors with which Mr. and Mrs. Havemeyer would have known and competed.

Family life
On August 22, 1883, a decade after her father's death, Louisine married Henry O. Havemeyer of the American Sugar Refining Company.*

Louisine and Henry Osborne had three children:
Adaline Havemeyer, a.k.a. Mrs. Peter H.B. Frelinghuysen — (1884–1963)
Horace Havemeyer — (1886–1956)
Electra Havemeyer, a.k.a. Mrs. James Watson Webb — (1888–1960)

* (Prior to his marriage to Louisine, Henry had been married to Louisine's aunt Mary Louise Elder (1847–1897), but that marriage ended in divorce.)

Legacy
In addition to her standing as an early and important collector of Impressionist art, Louisine Havemeyer was an advocate of women's rights.

Suffrage activist
After her husband's death in 1907, Mrs. Havemeyer focused her attention on the women's suffrage movement. In 1912 she lent her artistic collection to Knoedler's Gallery in New York to raise money for the cause. In 1913, she founded the National Woman's Party with the radical suffragist Alice Paul. (The organization was previously known as the "Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage".) She repeated the money raising art exhibition at Knoedler's in 1915.

With the financial backing of Mrs. Havemeyer and others like her, Ms. Paul launched an increasingly confrontational series of protests that agitated for the right to vote.  Paul's most famous efforts were the 1913 National Suffrage Parade, which produced a riot on the eve of President Woodrow Wilson's first inauguration and, as a member of the Silent Sentinels, the wartime picketing of the White House.  During the latter, Paul used portions of the President's speeches heralding the defense of democracy in Europe which she masterfully contrasted with the denial of liberty to American women.  When jailed for obstructing traffic in 1917, she hunger struck, bringing tremendous pressure to bear on the Congress and Wilson Administration.  The Nineteenth Amendment, which extended voting rights to women, was debated by Congress, gained the necessary 2/3 votes in 1919, was sent to the states for ratification, and gained the necessary 3/4 of states ratifying in 1920.

Louisine Havemeyer became a well-known suffragist, publishing two articles about her work for the cause in Scribner's Magazine. The first, entitled "The Prison Special: Memories of a Militant", appeared in May 1922, and the other, "The Suffrage Torch: Memories of a Militant" appeared in June the same year.  In 1912 and 1915, Mrs. Havemeyer organized exhibitions of art works from her collection at Knoedler Gallery to raise funds to support suffrage efforts.  She participated in marches, much to the dismay of her children , down New York's famed Fifth Avenue and addressed a standing room only audience at Carnegie Hall upon the completion of a nationwide speaking tour.  A famous photograph of Mrs. Havemeyer shows her with an electric torch, similar in design to that of the Statue of Liberty, among other prominent suffragists. Her attempt to burn an effigy of President Wilson outside the White House in 1919 drew national attention.

After a period of failing health, Mrs. Havemeyer died in 1929. Mrs. Havemeyer is interred at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York. The terms of her will left a few choice paintings to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.  The final bequest, made possible by the generosity of her children, included nearly two-thousand works that enrich nearly every segment of the museum's collections.

Many Tiffany pieces from her Fifth Avenue home, including a magnificent peacock mantelpiece decoration, and a chandelier are on permanent display at the University of Michigan Museum of Art.  A portion of the Music Room furniture suite is on view at the Shelburne Museum.

Family legacy
Louisine's children would continue to build upon their family's legacy as art collectors. Louisine's daughter Electra Havemeyer Webb collected American fine and folk paintings and sculpture that helped to found the Shelburne Museum. The museum showcases a "collection of collections" in fine examples of early American homes and public buildings; a general store, meeting house, log cabin, and even a steamship dot the grounds. Her great-grandson, John Wilmerding, is a well known professor of art, collector, and curator, and is best known as a prolific author of books on American art. Her daughter Adaline and son Horace Havemeyer, and grandsons Horace Havemeyer, Jr. and Harry W. Havemeyer bequeathed several works from Vermeer, Goya, Corot, Manet, and others to the National Gallery of Art.

Paintings bequeathed to the Metropolitan Museum of Art

See also
Havemeyer

Resources
 Louisine Havemeyer.1993. Sixteen to Sixty: Memoirs of a Collector. New York: Ursus Press.
 Louisine W. Havemeyer. 1922. The Suffrage Torch: Memories of a Militant Scribners (May), pp. 528–538.
 Louisine W. Havemeyer. 1922. The Prison Special: Memories of a Militant Scribners (June) pp. 661–675.
 Alice Cooney Frelinghuysen. 1993. Splendid Legacy: The Havemeyer Collection New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.

References

External links

Havemeyer Collection: Magic at the Met Museum review of an art exhibit in the March 23, 1993 issue of the New York Times
Louisine Elder Havemeyer  profile from Saint Michaels College

 The Havemeyer Family Papers relating to Art Collecting in The Metropolitan Museum of Art Archives.
Archives directory, Frick Collection (February 20920)
Online edition of Frits Lugt's Les marques de collections de dessins & d'estampes
The H. O. Havemeyer Collection, a collection catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
Splendid Legacy: The Havemeyer Collection, from Google Books

American women's rights activists
American art collectors
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery
Women art collectors
American philanthropists
Louisine
1855 births
1929 deaths
American suffragists
People associated with the Metropolitan Museum of Art
American art patrons
National Woman's Party activists

Louisine Havemeyer


Brian Massumi (; born 1956) is a Canadian philosopher and social theorist. Massumi's research spans the fields of art, architecture, cultural studies, political theory and philosophy. His work explores the intersection between power, perception, and creativity to develop an approach to thought and social action bridging the aesthetic and political domains. He is a retired professor in the Communications Department of the Université de Montréal.

Overview
Massumi was instrumental in introducing the work of French philosophers Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari to the English-speaking world through his translation of their key collaborative work A Thousand Plateaus (1987) and his book A User's Guide to Capitalism and Schizophrenia: Deviations from Deleuze and Guattari (1992). His 1995 essay "The Autonomy of Affect", later integrated into his most well-known work, Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation (2002), is credited with playing a central role in the development of the interdisicplinary field of affect studies.

Massumi received his B.A. in Comparative Literature at Brown University (1979) and his Ph.D in French Literature from Yale University  (1987). After a Mellon postdoctoral fellowship in the Stanford University Department of French and Italian (1987-1988), he settled in Montréal, Canada, where he taught first at McGill University (Comparative Literature Program) and later at the Université de Montréal (Communication Department), retiring in 2018. Massumi has lectured widely around the world, and his writings have been translated into more than fifteen languages.

Since 2004, he has collaborated with the SenseLab, founded by Erin Manning as an experimental "laboratory for thought in motion" operating at the intersection of philosophy, art, and activism.

Philosophy

Massumi situates his work in the tradition of process philosophy, which he defines broadly to encompass a range of thinkers whose work privileges concepts of event and emergence. For Massumi, this includes not only Alfred North Whitehead, the philosopher most closely identified with the term, but also Charles Sanders Peirce, Henri Bergson, Gilbert Simondon, Gilles Deleuze, and Félix Guattari, on all of whose work he draws extensively. He articulates process philosophy with William James's radical empiricism, which asserts the primacy of relation. This is the doctrine that relations are real, are directly experienced, and create their own terms.

Massumi has also characterized his work as "activist philosophy" (a philosophy for which the ultimate concept is activity rather than substance); "speculative pragmatism" (a philosophy for which present practice bears as much on future potential as on existing functions and known utilities); "ontogenetics" as opposed to ontology (a philosophy for which becoming is primary in relation to being); and "incorporeal materialism" (a philosophy attributing abstract dimensions of reality to the body and matter itself).

Theory of power

Massumi's earliest work on the theory of power is two-pronged. On the one hand, it examines processes of power centralization tending toward the absolutist state, which he broadly defines as fascist. On the other hand, influenced by the work of Michel Foucault, it examines processes by which power effects are distributed throughout the social field, in particular through the mass production of what he termed "low-level everyday fear." After the 9-11 attacks on the World Trade Towers, his theories of distributed power focused on the doctrine of preemption promulgated by the George W. Bush administration to serve as the framework for the "war on terror."

Massumi argues that preemption is more than a military doctrine, but has engrained itself as an invasive mode of power operating in many forms throughout society. He sees this mode of power as paradoxically productive. He gives it the label "ontopower" (the power to bring to be). Ontopower, according to Massumi, is related to but distinct from disciplinary power and biopower as analyzed by Foucault. It is allied Foucault's concept of "environmentality." Massumi analyzes ontopower as entwined with neoliberal capitalism. He argues that this entwinement makes the capitalist economy a direct power formation in its own right.

The idea that capitalist ontopower is a direct power formation that modulates the social field of emergence to capture becoming raises fundamental questions about what form political resistance and anticapitalist struggle can take. Massumi argues that there is no position "outside" capitalist power from which to critique or resist. The potential for political action nonetheless remains, but requires strategies of  "immanent critique" that counter-modulate the social field of emergence. These forms of resistance occur at the "micropolitical" level. The word micropolitics does not refer to the scale at which action takes place, but rather to its mode.

Philosophy of experience

Massumi's approach to perception and the philosophy of experience is closely tied to his political philosophy through the theory of affect. Massumi famously distinguishes emotion from affect. Following Spinoza, he defines affect as "the capacity to affect and be affected." This locates affect in encounters in the world, rather than the interiority of a psychological subject. Emotion, he argues, is the interiorization of affect toward psychological expression. He locates affect as such in a nonconscious "zone of indistinction" or "zone of indeterminacy" between thought and action. This zone of indeterminacy is the "field of emergence" of determinate experience, but itself resists capture in functional systems or structures of meaning.

Affect's resistance to capture leaves a "remainder" of unactualized capacity that continues in the world as a "reserve" of potential available for a next determination, or "taking-form" of experience in definitive action, perception and emotion. Massumi refers to this remaindering of potential across an ongoing process of serial formation as the "autonomy" of affect

Affect is implicated in all modes of experience, including language experience, as an accompanying dimension of becoming. Conversely, all modes of experience are held together in the affective field of emergence in a state of "incipiency." The difference between modes of experience is not erased in this zone of indistinction, but is present "germinally" as a minimal differential. The modes of experience untangle from each other to come to expression divergently, actualizing different tendencies. The process of the taking-form of experience is "pulsed." Each definitive taking-form reemerges from the field of emergence after a lapse that Massumi identifies with the "missing half-second" in conscious experience experimentally verified by neuropsychologist Benjamin Libet. Quoting Whitehead, he maintains that "consciousness flickers" Between pulses, experience returns to immanence in the zone of indistinction of the field of emergence, where it is "primed" (energized and oriented) for a next taking-form. This occurs at the nonconscious level of "intensity" of experience.

In his later work, Massumi develops the concept of "bare activity" to aid in the analysis of the affective field of emergence in which modes of activity that divergently express, for example as "mental" versus "physical,""action" versus "perception," or "rational" versus "emotional," are in what he calls a state of "mutual inclusion." (for which "co-motion," "superposition," and "reciprocal presupposition" are synonyms in Massumi's vocabulary). Mutual inclusion is the logic of immanence, which does not obey the law of the excluded middle.

The concept of mutual inclusion in bare activity has consequences for the theory of perception. It focuses the theory of perception on the interfusion of the senses (cross-modal relay or synesthesia) and "amodal perception" (experience that is not in any particular sense mode and is in that sense "abstract"). Massumi ties amodal perception to the "proprioceptive" experience of movement perception, and argues that the experience of movement is primary in relation to objects.

Massumi's emphasis on amodal perception gives modes of abstraction ("nonsensuous perception") a direct role in the emergence of experience. This troubles the distinction between the concrete and the abstract. Massumi analyzes the constitutive role of abstract dimensions of reality in terms of the "reality of the virtual," expanding on Bergson's theory of the virtual as reinterpreted by Deleuze. He argues that the virtual, paradoxically, is itself actualized, in the form of a supplement of experience that he calls a "semblance." A semblance in Massumi's vocabulary is the direct experience of the abstract "dynamic form" of an event. It carries a sense of vitality ("vitality affect") uniquely associated with the event. This supplementation of sensuous experience constitutes a "surplus-value of life."

Massumi's theories reject representational accounts of thought and perception, as well as any mind/body dualism. The latter is replaced by the integral event of "bodying," coinciding with the "movement of thought." His emphasis on the nonconsciousness of the field of experience challenges the model of cognition in favor of a theory of "direct perception." Direct perception, in his account, is performative and emergent. It expresses and transmits affective powers that exceed cognitive apprehension. Direct perception, or "pure" experience, is nevertheless addressable in a mode of awareness Massumi calls "thinking-feeling" (an embodied "affective attunement" to relation and potential that he glosses in terms of Peirce's logical category of abduction).

Massumi argues that affect and direct perception are not confined within a human subject, but are "transindividual" and spread across the "nature–culture continuum." This qualifies his thought as a variety of panexperientialism, and distances it from phenomenology. In this connection, he has characterized his thought as an "extreme realism," by which he means a philosophy asserting the ultimate reality of qualities of experience, conceived as irreducible to either subjective qualia or objective properties, and as defying quantification.

Creativity

Massumi works from Whitehead's notion of "creative advance," according to which the world is in a perpetual state of emergence characterized by the continual variation of form. The speculative and pragmatic aspects of his thought come together around the notion that specific practices can be developed to further this creative movement.

In collaboration with Erin Manning, Massumi has developed a process-philosophical take on research-creation. Research-creation is a category in Canadian academia akin to what is called "art-based research" in Europe. Manning and Massumi extend the concept beyond the university and the specific domain of art. They advocate for an "ecology of practices" that explores how philosophical concepts formed in language can be "transduced" into other modes of experience in a way that furthers creative practice, and reciprocally, how the understanding that already imbues non-language based modes of experience can be brought to explicit expression in ways that further conceptual research. Through this two-way exchange, they see the potential to foster the emergence of new, nonstandard modes of knowledge that exceed disciplinary understanding and normative frames of perception. This affirmation of "minor" modes of thought and experience allies Manning and Massumi's vision of research-creation to the neurodiversity movement.

As Manning and Massumi understand it, the practice of research-creation is necessarily collective and relational, and thus carries a "proto-political" force of immanent critique.  Manning's SenseLab is conceived as a laboratory for the collaborative exploration of research-creation in its philosophical, aesthetic and political dimensions.

Early life

Massumi is the son of Rashid Massumi (Nain, Iran) from a first marriage to Elsie Szabo (Lorain, Ohio). Massumi's early childhood was spent between Lorain, Ohio and McLean, Virginia. His teenage years were spent in Scottsdale, Arizona, where he dedicated himself to ecological activism as part of the environmental movement of the early 1970s. His work with local and national environmental organizations on issues of wilderness preservation and land use, clean energy, and water conservation culminated in an internship in Washington, D.C., with The Wilderness Society, where he specialized on the issue of shale oil development.

Disillusioned with lobbying and traditional politics, Massumi later moved toward direct action in the context of the anti-nuclear movement of the late 1970s and early 1980s. During this period, he worked within a network of anarchist affinity groups called the Coalition for Direct Action at Seabrook (CDAS), an off-shoot of the Clamshell Alliance, on the organization of two occupation attempts of the Seabrook Nuclear Power Plant construction site. His particular area of focus was a planned prefigurative community, the Seabrook Freestate, that was established on squatted public land near the construction site in advance of the second occupation attempt to serve as a model for the anticipated occupation. Although these efforts failed, Massumi has remarked on the lasting influence that their model of direct action and direct democracy has had on his thinking.

Criticism

Most critical responses to Massumi's work focus on the 1995 essay "The Autonomy of Affect" and categorize him as an "affect theorist." The distinction he makes between affect and emotion, and his assertion that affect is "autonomous" in the sense that it extends beyond linguistic signification and resists cultural coding, are particular subjects of contention.

In an influential essay, Ruth Leys asserts that Massumi establishes a "false dichotomy" between mind and matter, and thinking and feeling, and disqualifies the first term of each couple. This separates the body from subjectivity, and plays into scientistic frameworks assimilating the body to inert matter. Leys argues that this undermines intentionality and rationality, which in turn makes it impossible to account for ideology or to programmatically resist it. Leys further argues that Massumi's account of the "missing half-second" negates free will.

Margaret Wetherell argues that Massumi draws too gross a demarcation between bodily experience and social action and establishes a starkly polarized distinction between controlled and autonomic processes. In Wetherell's opinion, Massumi detours the study of affect and emotion toward particular philosophical preoccupations in ways that are "radically unhelpful" and undermine a more judicious and "pragmatic" approach grounded in the social psychology literature.

Eugenie Brinkema, writing from a film theory perspective, similarly criticizes what she sees as Massumi's overreliance on the line of philosophical thinking about affect descending from Spinoza through Deleuze. She sees Massumi imposing a "split" between affect and emotion that cuts affect off from signification, leaving it merely "formless" and "outside structure."

Works as author

 A User's Guide to Capitalism and Schizophrenia: Deviations from Deleuze and Guattari (MIT Press, 1992) ()
 First and Last Emperors: The Absolute State and the Body of the Despot (with Kenneth Dean; Autonomedia, 1993) ()
 Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation (Duke University Press, 2002) ()
 Semblance and Event: Activist Philosophy and the Occurrent Arts (MIT Press, 2011) ()
 Thought in the Act: Passages in the Ecology of Experience (with Erin Manning; University of Minnesota Press, 2014) ()
 What Animals Teach Us about Politics (Duke University Press, 2014) ()
 The Power at the End of the Economy (Duke University Press, 2015) ()
 Politics of Affect (Polity Press, 2015) ()
 Ontopower: War, Powers, and the State of Perception (Duke University Press, 2015) ()
 The Principle of Unrest: Activist Philosophy in the Expanded Field (Open Humanities Press, 2017) ()
 99 Theses on the Revaluation of Value: A Postcapitalist Manifesto (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2018) ()Online project.
 Architectures of the Unforeseen: Essays in the Occurrent Arts (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2019) ()
 Couplets: Travels in Speculative Pragmatism (Duke University Press, 2021) ()
 Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation. Augmented twentieth anniversary edition. (Duke University Press, 2021) ()

Work as editor

Theory Out of Bounds University of Minnesota Press book series, 1993-2007. Co-edited with Michael Hardt and Sandra Buckley.
 The Politics of Everyday Fear (University of Minnesota Press, 1993) ()
 A Shock to Thought: Expression After Deleuze and Guattari (Routledge, 2002) ()
Technologies of Lived Abstraction MIT Press book series, 2009-2017. Co-edited with Erin Manning.
Thought in the Act Duke University Press book series, begun 2017. Co-edited with Erin Manning.
Immediations Open Humanities Press book series, 2015-2018. Edited by SenseLab.
Immediations  (continuation) Punctum Books book series, begun 2018. Edited by SenseLab.
 Animals, Animality and Literature , Cambridge Critical Concepts, ed. Bruce Boehrer, Molly Hand, and Brian Massumi (Cambridge University Press, 2018) ()

Works as translator

 The Postmodern Condition, Jean-François Lyotard, tr. Brian Massumi and Geoff Bennington (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984). ()
 Noise: The Political Economy of Music, Jacques Attali (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985). )
 Nomadology: The War Machine, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari (New York: Semiotext(e), 1986). ()
 Heterologies: Discourse on the Other, Michel de Certeau (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986). ()
 A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari (University of Minnesota Press, 1987). ()

References

External links
SenseLab
Inflexions: A Journal for Research-Creation.
Brian Massumi Works at the Australian National University. Humanities Research Centre. (Inactive)

1956 births
Living people
Mass media theorists
Yale University alumni
Academic staff of the Université de Montréal
People from Lorain, Ohio
20th-century Canadian philosophers
21st-century Canadian philosophers
Canadian people of Iranian descent
Philosophers of education
Brown University alumni

Brian Massumi


Sheikh Razzak Ali (28 August 1928 – 7 June 2015) was a Bangladeshi politician, Deputy Law Minister of State and Deputy Speaker and two time Speaker of Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad. Ali died on 7 June 2015.

Early life
Born in 1928 in Hitampur village, Paikgacha in Khulna district, Ali obtained his MA in economics from Dhaka University in 1952. He obtained his LLB from Dhaka University in 1954 and later his MA in Bengali literature from the same university. He actively participated in the Language Movement of 1952, mass-upsurge of 1969, the Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971 and movement against autocracy during 1982–1990.

Career

Teacher
Between 1949 and 1950, Ali worked as a teacher in the RKBK Harishchandra Collegiate School of Prafulla Chandra Ray in Paikgachha Upazila.

Journalist
In the early 1950s, he started his career as a journalist briefly working for the then Pakistan Observer as a reporter and as a commercial editor for the Weekly Pakistan Post.

Lawyer
Ali began his legal practice in the District Judge's Court of Khulna in 1958 and was enrolled in Dhaka High Court Bar in 1963. He then was elected as the President of Khulna Bar in 1964 and as its general secretary in 1972 before being elected member of the Bangladesh Bar Council in 1973. He was also elected as the President of Jessore District Bar several terms. He founded Khulna City Law College of which he acted as vice-principal. Later, he was made principal of the college and remained in this post for 25 years.

Politician

Razzak Ali was known for his honesty and integrity throughout his political career. He was a founding member of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), founding President of Khulna District BNP from 1979 to 1991 and also was the Member of the BNP Standing Committee. He was elected first vice-chairman of BNP in 1992. After becoming Speaker he relinquished the post of party vice-chairman.

In 1979, he was elected Member of Parliament from Khulna-5 constituency and then from Khulna-2 constituency in 1991 and 1996.

He was appointed State Minister for law and Justice on 20 March 1991. On 5 April 1991, he was elected as Deputy Speaker and was unanimously elected as the Speaker of the 5th Parliament on 12 October 1991, a position he held until 1996. In June 1992, he attended the 1st Conference of the Speakers of the SAARC Countries (Colombo, Sri Lanka) and was elected the President of Association of SAARC Speakers and Parliamentarians. In September of the same year, he presided over the IPU conference held in Stockholm (Sweden) as the vice-president. He was re-elected in 1996 as the Speaker of the 6th Parliament. He presided over the session which passed the Caretaker Government Bill on 15 February 1996.

In 2006, he resigned from the BNP to join the Liberal Democratic Party (Bangladesh) as its Executive President. He quit politics in 2009.

Diplomat

Ali was Bangladesh High Commissioner to the UK between 2002 and 2003, when he resigned from his position.

Charitable activities
Ali was the founding Principal of Khulna City Law College. He also established Sundarban College of Khulna. He was the founder of Saburonnssa Women College, Boyra Secondary School, Tutparha Secondary School, Shaheed Zia Secondary College and Paikgacha Degree College of Khulna. He also was one of the founders of Majid Memorial City College, Khulna University, Khulna Medical College, Khulna Mahila Alia Madrasha and Hazi Foyez Uddin Secondary School. He is the founder President of Shiromoni Eye Hospital of Khulna. He was the founding trustee of Bangladesh Legal Aid and Services Trust (BLAST) and a founding member of the Lions Club Eye Hospital in Khulna. He also founded the City Law College mosque, Hitampur Jamay mosque and Kopilmoni Shah Jafar Awlia mosque.

References

External links

1928 births
2015 deaths
People from Khulna
Politicians from Khulna Division
University of Dhaka alumni
Bangladesh Nationalist Party politicians
Deputy Speakers of the Jatiya Sangsad
Speakers of the Jatiya Sangsad
5th Jatiya Sangsad members
6th Jatiya Sangsad members
7th Jatiya Sangsad members

Sheikh Razzak Ali


The flag of England is the national flag of England, a constituent country of the United Kingdom. It is derived from Saint George's Cross (heraldic blazon: Argent, a cross gules). The association of the red cross as an emblem of England can be traced back to the Late Middle Ages when it was gradually, increasingly, used alongside the Royal Banner. It became the only saint's flag permitted to be flown in public as part of the English Reformation and at a similar time became the pre-eminent maritime flag referred to as a white ensign.
It was used as a component in the design of the Union Jack in 1606.

It has been widely used since the 1990s, specifically at national sporting events, especially during the campaigns of England's national football teams.

Origins

In 1188 Henry II of England and Philip II of France agreed to go on a crusade, and that Henry would use a white cross and Philip a red cross. Thirteenth-century authorities are unanimous on this reversal to the intuitive.

There then follows a historiographical tradition claiming that Richard the Lionheart himself adopted the full red cross flag and the patron saint from the Republic of Genoa at some point during his crusade. This idea can be traced to the Victorian era, Perrin (1922) refers to it as a "common belief", and it is still popularly repeated today even though it cannot be substantiated.
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent made a variation to this in a bilingual preface to a brochure made for the British Pavilion at Genoa Expo '92. The relevant passage read:
The St. George's flag, a red cross on a white field, was adopted by England and the City of London in 1190 for their ships entering the Mediterranean to benefit from the protection of the Genoese fleet. The English Monarch paid an annual tribute to the Doge of Genoa for this privilegeGenoa page at Flags of the World by ed. Filippo Noceti, 2001

Red crosses seem to have been used as a distinguishing mark worn by English soldiers from the reign of Edward I (1270s), or perhaps slightly earlier, in the Battle of Evesham of 1265, using a red cross on their uniforms to distinguish themselves from the white crosses used by the rebel barons at the Battle of Lewes a year earlier. Perrin notes a roll of accounts from 1277 where the purchase of cloth for the king's tailor is identified as destined for the manufacture of a large number of pennoncels (pennons attached to lances) and bracers (worn by archers on their left forearms) "of the arms of Saint George" for the use by the king's foot soldiers (). Perrin concludes from this that the introduction of the Cross of St George as a "national emblem" is originally due to Edward I. By 1300, there was also a greater "banner of Saint George", but not yet in a prominent function; the king used it among especially banners of king-saints Saint Edward the Confessor and Saint Edmund the Martyr alongside the royal banner. George had become popular as a "warrior saint" during the Crusades, but the saint most closely associated with England was Edward the Confessor. This was so until the time of Edward III, who in thanks for Saint George's supposed intervention in his favour at the Battle of Crécy gave him a special position as a patron saint of the inceptive Order of the Garter in 1348. From that time, his banner was used with increasing prominence alongside the Royal Banner and became a fixed element in the hoist of the Royal Standard. Yet the flag shown for England in the Book of All Kingdoms of 1367 is solid red (while Saint George's Cross is shown for Nice and, in a five-cross version, for Tbilisi). The Wilton Diptych from the late 1390s shows a swallow-tailed Saint George cross pennant held by an angel in between (the then reigning) King Richard II (accompanied by Edward the Confessor and Edmund the Martyr) and a scene of the Virgin and Child flanked by angels wearing Richard's own heraldic devices.

Saint George's Day was considered a "double major feast" from 1415, but George was still eclipsed by his "rivals" Saints Edward and Edmund.

John Cabot, commissioned by Henry VII to sail "under our banners, flags and ensigns", may have taken a Saint George's banner to Newfoundland in 1497.

That Saint George is the primary patron saint of England is among several lasting changes of height of the English Protestant Reformation, via the content which the teenage king and his Protestant advisors issued to all churches and clerics. These rules were the revised prayer book of 1552. Just as with the Marian persecutions (four years of counter-revolution after his natural death) all defecting clerics faced likely deprivation which was the loss of their office and if more broadly heretical, burning at the stake. The book made clear all religious flags, including saints' banners except for Saint George were abolished.

Further use of this cross as a maritime flag alongside royal banners, is found in 1545.

Henry V, the history play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written near 1599 includes the fictitious scene of the battle of Agincourt where the king's final rally is:
Cry 'God for Harry! England, and Saint George!"
[Exeunt. Alarum, and chambers go off.]
thus promoting the notion that the cult or festivities specifically to the saint, or focus on the Order of the Garter put him significantly ahead of two other national saints – instead of depicting that they were approximately equal.  The quote became rapidly well known in London, across social classes, and thus imagery entrenched that Saint George was "historically" the primary saint.

In 1606, after the Union of the Crowns in 1603, it was combined with the Scottish St Andrew's Cross to form the Union Jack, which James VI & I ordered be flown from the main tops of ships from both England and Scotland. The "Red Crosse" continued to be flown from the fore-top by James' subjects in "South Britaine"—i.e., the Saint George cross was used with the new union flag on English vessels.

In the 19th century, it became desirable for all nations of Europe (and later worldwide) to identify a national flag.  During that time, the terms Britain and England were used largely interchangeably, the Union Flag was used as national flag de facto, even though never officially adopted. The observation that the Cross of St George is the "national flag of England" (as opposed to the Union Flag being the flag of all of the United Kingdom) was made in the context of Irish irredentism, as noted by G. K. Chesterton in 1933,

As a very sensible Irishman said in a letter to a Dublin paper: "The Union Jack is not the national flag of England." The national flag of England is the Cross of St. George; and that, oddly enough, was splashed from one end of Dublin to the other; it was mostly displayed on shield-shaped banners, and may have been regarded by many as merely religious.

In 2018 the mayor of Genoa reminded that England should pay for the last 247 years for using the flag of Genoa.

Derived flags

Union Flag

The flag of England is one of the key components of the Union Flag. The Union Flag has been used in a variety of forms since the proclamation by Orders in Council 1606, when the flags of Scotland and England were first merged to symbolise the Union of the Crowns. (The Union of the Crowns having occurred in 1603). In Scotland, and in particular on Scottish vessels at sea, historical evidence suggests that a separate design of Union Flag was flown to that used in England.
In the Acts of Union of 1707, which united the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England to become the Kingdom of Great Britain, it was declared that "the Crosses of St. George and St. Andrew be conjoined, in such Manner as her Majesty shall think fit, and used in all Flags, Banners, Standards and Ensigns, both at Sea and Land."

From 1801, to symbolise the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, a new design which included St Patrick's Cross was adopted for the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Flag of the United Kingdom, having remained unchanged following the partition of Ireland in 1921 and creation of the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland, continues to be used as the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

City of London

The flag of the City of London is based on the English flag, having a centred St George's Cross on a white background, with a red sword in the upper hoist canton (the top left quarter).  The sword is believed to represent the sword that beheaded Saint Paul who is the patron saint of the city.

Royal Navy

The flag used by the British Royal Navy (the White Ensign) is also based on the flag of England, consisting of St George's Cross and a Union Flag in the canton.  In addition to the United Kingdom, several countries in the Commonwealth of Nations also have variants of the White Ensign with their own national flags in the canton, with St George's Cross sometimes being replaced by a naval badge.

Universities of England

Contemporary use

Church of England
Churches belonging to the Church of England which have a pole may fly St George's Cross. A desirable variant (per an order from the Earl Marshal in 1938) is for the church to fly the flag with the arms of the diocese in the left-hand upper corner.

Sporting events

The flag heavily dominates for that of England at sports events in which England competes, for example during England Cricket matches (the Cricket World Cup and The Ashes), during Rugby Union matches and in football. It is also used in icons on the internet and on the TV screen to represent teams and players from England.

For at least some decades before about 1996, most of the flags waved by supporters were Union Flags. In a sporting context, the flag is often seen being waved by supporters with the addition of 'ENGLAND' across its horizontal bar.

Queen's 90th Birthday Celebration

In May 2016, the flag was flown by a mounted rider during The Queen's 90th birthday celebration at Windsor, alongside the flags of Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

English nationalism

As the flag of England, it is used in English nationalism. This is largely in parallel to the use of the flag of Scotland in Scottish nationalism. However Scotland has been recognised as a nation within a nation. The flag of Scotland has been officially defined by the Scottish Parliament in 2003 and is flown there and almost universally by Scottish authorities. There is no English legislature; the entire British legislature sits in England and is only subject to very weak conventions on voting on English matters. The flag of England does not figure in legislation, and its use by English nationalists is complex as these divide among those who are far-right as heavily opposed to further immigration and seeking to distinguish between residents in the jobs market and welfare state system such as the British National Party (founded 1982) and the English Defence League (founded 2009) and those who merely seek the level of devolution of Scotland, or Wales.  Underscoring this complexity, in January 2012 Simon Hughes, the deputy leader of the Liberal Democrats, supported calls for a devolved English parliament and which continues under such lobbies as the Campaign for an English Parliament, and is occasionally a minor debate subject at all of the major parties' annual conferences.

Since the flag's widespread use in sporting events since the mid-1990s, the association with far-right nationalism has waned, and the flag is now frequently flown throughout the country both privately and by local authorities.

Outside England

Due to the spread of the British Empire, the flag of England is currently, and was formerly used on various flags and coats of arms of different countries, states and provinces throughout the territories of the British Empire. St George's Cross is also used as the city flag of some northern Italian cities, such as Milan and Bologna and other countries such as Georgia.

Australia

Canada

Channel Islands

Elsewhere

Commonly

Navies

Nautical, non-naval

Rarely

Historically

See also
 Royal Banner of England
 Royal coat of arms of England
 List of English flags
 List of British flags
 Saint Patrick's Flag
 Tudor Rose
 Flags of Europe
 Flags of the English Interregnum
 St George's Day in England
 Flag of Georgia (country)

References

External links

 http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gb-eng.html Flag of England at flags of the world website

Flags of the United Kingdom
National symbols of England
Red and white flags
Flags with crosses

Flag of England


The Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua ("Valencian Academy of the Language"), also known by the acronym AVL, is an institution created on September 16, 1998, by the Valencian Parliament, which belongs to the set of official institutions that compose the Generalitat Valenciana, according to the Act of Autonomy of the Valencian Community.

Its primary function is to determine and set the official standards for the Valencian language as used in the Valencian Community (known in other territories as Catalan), and foster its use. According to its foundational law, the AVL linguistic regulations for Valencian must follow current Valencian genuine linguistic reality, respect Valencian lexicographic and literary tradition and start from the consolidated regulations based upon the Normes de Castelló, a set of orthographic rules for Valencian signed in 1932.

The headquarters of the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua are in Valencia.
In addition this variety of the language follows the pattern of Pompeu Fabra standards who standardized the Catalan language in Catalonia. The AVL linguistic rule does not differ a great deal from the IEC (Institute for Catalan Studies) standards. Nevertheless, AVL grammar (Gramàtica normativa valenciana) includes some specific features of Valencian syntax, and its dictionary (Diccionari normatiu valencià) contains thousands of words which are specific for the Valencian variety, as well as Valencian specific verb conjugation and some accent marks which differ from the Catalan language in Catalonia.

Notes

External links
Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua – Web site of this institution (Valencian)

Valencian
Catalan language
Language regulators
Valencian Community
1998 establishments in Spain
Organizations established in 1998

Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua


Fernando J. Bonilla Ortiz (born 1962 in Ponce, Puerto Rico) is a Puerto Rican political figure who served as the 21st Secretary of State of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Bonilla also served as the Executive Director of the Puerto Rico Ports Authority.

As Secretary of State, Bonilla was constitutionally empowered to assume the seat of Governor of Puerto Rico in case that the incumbent was incapable to do so. After the federal indictment of incumbent Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá, the possibility existed that Acevedo might resign his position, thereby elevating Bonilla to the seat of governor.

Early life and education
Bonilla received a Juris Doctor from the University of Puerto Rico School of Law and an LLM from Tulane University School of Law. He served as law clerk to Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico Miriam Naveira from 1985–1987. Bonilla worked primarily in the private sector, specializing in maritime law.

Public service career
Bonilla was appointed Executive Director of the Puerto Rico Ports Authority in early 2005 by Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá. After Marisara Pont Marchese's confirmation was rejected by the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico for the post of Secretary of State, Governor Acevedo turned to Bonilla and nominated him in the summer of 2005 for the position. He was confirmed by both houses of the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico and effectively began serving in both posts.

In Puerto Rico, the Secretary of State has the role, but not the official title, of Lieutenant Governor, in addition to heading the State Department. However, the Constitution provides that whenever the Governor is unable to carry out his duties, dies, is impeached or resigns, the Secretary of State shall succeed in the post. If Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá would have resigned after the federal indictment of March 27, 2008, Bonilla would have assumed the governorship.

On January 2, 2009, after fulfilling the traditional role of serving as the initial Master of Ceremony of incoming Governor Luis Fortuño's Inaugural Ceremonies, he introduced and turned over that role to his successor, former Puerto Rico Senate President Kenneth McClintock, who, coincidentally, was also a fellow Tulane University School of Law graduate.

References

External links
Biography in Spanish (Archived)

Living people
Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico) politicians
Secretaries of State of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican people of Spanish descent
Tulane University Law School alumni
1962 births
University of Puerto Rico alumni

Fernando Bonilla


Portland Museum is a museum on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, southern England. It is located at the southern end of the hamlet of Wakeham. The museum is housed in two 17th-century thatched cottages, which have both been Grade II Listed since 1951. One of the museum's cottages, Avice's Cottage, is featured in Thomas Hardy's 1897 novel The Well-Beloved, as the home of three generations of "Avices" - the novel's heroines.

Portland Museum was founded by Marie Stopes, who purchased the museum's two cottages, then derelict, in 1929. She then donated them to Portland as a museum which opened in 1930. Stopes was the first honorary curator and continued her association with the museum until her death in 1958.

Features

The museum has four distinct themes; the history of Portland stone, the Jurassic Coast, shipwrecks around Portland's coast and famous people linked with the island. It also displays examples of the island's archaeology from the Stone Ages onwards. The Marie Stopes Cottage features a small exhibition about Stopes and a display of items connected to Hardy. A "Victorian Corner" displays the wedding dress of a local girl and objects that would have been found in a Victorian parlour. The top-floor of the cottage contains the Maritime Room. The garden has a collection of local fossils and artifacts, including the casing of a World War II bomb found on Portland in 1995.

The management of Portland Museum was transferred from Weymouth and Portland Borough Council to the newly formed Portland Museum Trust on 1 April 2008. The trust, a registered charity, continues to operate the museum. From 2009 to present, the museum continues to have a major makeover, while the Portland Island Museum Supporters group has also been established.

See also
 Jurassica, a proposed theme park on Portland
 Grove Prison Museum, a museum based on the active HM Prison Portland

References

External links
 Portland Museum - official site

Museums established in 1930
Museums on the Isle of Portland
Geology museums in England
Local museums in Dorset
Jurassic Coast
1930 establishments in England
Paleontology in the United Kingdom

Portland Museum, Dorset


Frederick Ebenezer Baines  (10 November 1832 – 4 July 1911) was an English post office employee, known as a promoter of the post-office telegraph system.

Life
Born on 10 November 1832 and baptised at Chipping Barnet, Hertfordshire, on 19 January 1834, he was younger son of Edward May Baines, surgeon, of Hendon and Chipping Barnet, by Fanny, his wife. Educated at private schools, he constructed and manipulated telegraphic apparatus by age 14, helped by his uncle Edward Cowper, and an elder brother, G. L. Baines. Two years later, through the influence of Frederick Hill, an uncle by marriage, and Rowland Hill, he obtained an appointment under the Electric Telegraph Company. He remained with the company, seven years, in charge for the first three years of a small office set up in 1848, within the buildings of the General Post Office.

In April 1855, on the nomination of Rowland Hill, Baines was made a clerk in the general correspondence branch of the General Post Office. He was transferred after a few months, on account of his knowledge of railways, to the home mails branch.

Telegraph promoter
Baines planned the laying of a cable to the Canary Islands, across the South Atlantic to Barbados, and along the chain of West India Islands; and he also proposed a cable to connect England with Australia by way of the Canary Islands, Ascension Island, St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope. In a letter to The Times (14 September 1858) he further advocated the connection of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts by a line across Canada.

His most important scheme, which Baines drew up in 1856, was for the government acquisition of existing telegraph systems. This proposal, with the permission of the Duke of Argyll, then postmaster-general, he forwarded to the Lords of the Treasury. After a long interval, in 1865 Frank Ives Scudamore, a post-office official, was instructed by Lord Stanley, then postmaster-general, to report on the advisability of post-office control of the telegraphic systems. In his report Scudamore acknowledged Baines's responsibility for the first practical suggestion. Control of existing telegraph systems was transferred to the Post Office on 5 February 1870. All the main features of Baines's original plan came into operation.

In 1875 Baines was made surveyor-general for telegraph business, and in 1878, with a view to decreasing the danger of invasion and increasing the efficiency of the coastguard service, he proposed the establishment of telegraphic communication around the sea-coast of the British Isles, to be worked by the coastguard under the control and supervision of the Post Office. The proposal, renewed in 1881 and again in 1888, was adopted by the government in 1892.

Later life
In 1882 Baines was made inspector-general of mails and assistant secretary in the Post Office under Sir Arthur Blackwood. He organised the parcel post service, introduced by Henry Fawcett in 1883, extending the system subsequently to all British colonies and most European countries. Different views and systems of postal administration on the continent made his task difficult.

Baines became a Companion of the Bath (CB) in 1885 and retired through ill-health on 1 August 1893. He had lived for most of his life in Hampstead, has assisted in the acquisition of Parliament Hill Fields for public use, was a member of the Hampstead select vestry, and in 1890 edited Records of Hampstead. He was also a volunteer, serving both as a non-commissioned and commissioned officer.

Baines died on 4 July 1911 at Hampstead, and was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium.

Works
Baines wrote Forty Years at the Post Office (2 vols. 1895), reminiscences with details of reforms in the Post Office. He also published On the Track of the Mail Coach (1896), and contributed an article on the post-office to James Samuelson's The Civilisation of Our Day (1896).

Family
Baines married in 1887 Laura, eldest daughter of Walter Baily, M.A., of Hampstead.

Notes

Attribution

1832 births
1911 deaths
Civil servants in the General Post Office
Companions of the Order of the Bath
English male writers

Frederick Ebenezer Baines


South is a book by Ernest Shackleton describing the second expedition to Antarctica led by him, the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914 to 1917. It was published in London by William Heinemann in 1919.

Background
The book of Shackleton's earlier Nimrod Expedition of 1907–1909 was written, based on Shackleton's dictation, by Edward Saunders, a reporter on the Lyttelton Times in Christchurch, New Zealand. Saunders was recommended to Shackleton by the Prime Minister of New Zealand, Sir Joseph Ward; he accompanied Shackleton to Britain to work on The Heart of the Antarctic, which appeared in November 1909. Saunders was again involved in South, Shackleton working with Saunders in New Zealand and Australia early in 1917. Saunders later wrote, "If I said that any chapter was entirely mine, I should be telling an untruth. My work was complementary to his. I could say that Shackleton had a remarkable gift of literary suggestion...."

Leonard Hussey, a member of the expedition, was with Shackleton during the north Russian campaign, and did the final editing without payment.

The rights of the book were assigned to the heirs of Sir Robert Lucas-Tooth, a benefactor of the expedition, who died in 1915. Shackleton was unable to repay money borrowed for the expedition. Lucas-Tooth's heirs required repayment of the loan; other benefactors had written off their loans.

The book is dedicated to "my comrades who fell in the White Warfare of the South and on the red fields of France and Flanders".

Summary
In the preface, Shackleton wrote "... I think that though failure in the actual accomplishment must be recorded, there are chapters in this book of high adventure, strenuous days, lonely nights, unique experiences, and above all, records of unflinching determination, supreme loyalty and generous self-sacrifice on the part of my men which ... still will be of interest to readers who now turn gladly from the red horror of war ... to read ... the tale of the White Warfare of the South."

The preface includes the programme published before the expedition. The Endurance would take the Transcontinental party to the Weddell Sea; the Transcontinental party would cross the Antarctic continent, about , from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea via the South Pole. It would be the first such journey; it was hoped it would be completed in about five months. On the other side of the pole, the Aurora would take out the Ross Sea party, which would lay down depots on the route of the Transcontinental party and go south to assist that party. The Transcontinental party would take magnetic and meteorological observations during the journey. Other parties of the expedition would be engaged in scientific work, studying the geology and meteorological conditions; the ships would be equipped for hydrographic work.

The book describes the progress of the Endurance through pack ice in the Weddell Sea; the ship was eventually held in pack ice and drifted with it. The ship was crushed and sank. The party camped on the ice which drifted north; when the ice no longer supported them they took to the three boats from the ship and made for Elephant Island. Shackleton and five others, in one of the boats, the James Caird, made the sea journey to South Georgia, where Shackleton and two others crossed the mountainous interior of the island to reach the whaling station and summon help. The men still on Elephant Island were rescued by Captain Luis Pardo, commanding the Chilean Navy's  Yelcho, a small steamer lent to Shackleton by the Chilean government.

The experiences of the Ross Sea party are then described. Ernest Joyce's diary is quoted for the description of laying depots, during which Arnold Spencer-Smith died from exhaustion; after depot-laying was done, Aeneas Mackintosh and Victor Hayward died, falling through ice attempting to walk to their base at Cape Evans. The log of Joseph Stenhouse, first officer of the Aurora, is quoted for the description of the drift of the ship for several months in pack ice, unable to manoeuvre, after it broke away from moorings at Cape Evans.

The last chapter describes the subsequent involvement of the expedition members in the First World War; three were killed and five wounded.

Appendix I, "Scientific Work", consists of articles by members of the expedition who were scientists: "Sea-ice nomenclature" by James Wordie, "Meteorology" by Leonard Hussey, "Physics" by Reginald W. James and "South Atlantic Whales and Whaling" by Robert Selbie Clark. Appendix II, "The expedition huts at McMurdo Sound", by Shackleton, describes the huts known to him, for the benefit of future Antarctic explorers: (1) The National Antarctic Expedition's hut at Hut Point; (2) Cape Royds Hut; (3) Cape Evans Hut; (4) Depots south of Hut Point.

See also
 Endurance: Shackleton's Incredible Voyage

References

Cited sources

External links

Ernest Shackleton
Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition
Books about Antarctica
1919 non-fiction books
British autobiographies
Heinemann (publisher) books

South (book)


On 2 April 1979, spores of Bacillus anthracis (the causative agent of anthrax) were accidentally released from a Soviet military research facility in the city of Sverdlovsk, Soviet Union (now Yekaterinburg, Russia). The ensuing outbreak of the disease resulted in the deaths of at least 68 people, although the exact number of victims remains unknown. The cause of the outbreak was denied for years by the Soviet authorities, which blamed the deaths on consumption of tainted meat from the area, and subcutaneous exposure due to butchers handling the tainted meat. The accident was the first major indication in the Western world that the Soviet Union had embarked upon an offensive programme aimed at the development and large-scale production of biological weapons.

Background
Sverdlovsk had been a major production center of the Soviet military-industrial complex since World War II. By the 1970s, 87 per cent of the city's industrial production was military; only 13 per cent for public consumption. It produced tanks, ballistic missiles, rockets and other armaments. The city has at times been referred to as Russia's Pittsburgh because of its large steelmaking industry. During the Cold War, Sverdlovsk became a Soviet "closed city" to which travel was restricted for foreigners.

The biological warfare (BW) facility in Sverdlovsk was built during the period 1947 to 1949 and was a spin-off of the Soviet Union's main military BW facility in Kirov. It was allocated the former site of the Cherkassk-Sverdlovsk Infantry Academy in Sverdlovsk on Ulitsa Zvezdnaya, 1, and abutted the southern industrialised sector of the city. The new facility, known as the USSR Ministry of Defence's Scientific-Research Institute of Hygiene, became operational on 19 July 1949. Alibek suggests that the construction of the institute incorporated technical knowledge which had been extracted from captured Japanese scientists who had participated in the Japanese biological warfare programme. Research was initiated at Sverdlovsk on bacterial pathogens including Bacillus anthracis. In 1951 a programme was launched which focussed on botulinum toxin. Later in the 1970s, interest in the latter ceased and there was a major shift in focus to B. anthracis. In 1974, the facility was re-named as the Scientific-Research Institute of Bacterial Vaccine Preparations.

The BW facility at Sverdlovsk was located within a military base known as Compound 19 (19th gorodok, Russian:19-й городок) which itself was created between 1947 and 1949. Compound 19 abutted the southern industrialised sector of the city in the Chkalovskii district. It was located immediately adjacent to the Vtorchermet housing estate. A meat-processing plant was located nearby with a view to supplying components of bacterial nutrient media. There was a high decree of autonomy with regard to the secret base. As well as the military institute, Compound 19 embraced its own 75-bed military hospital, a postal service, a range of shops, a kindergarten, schools, a social club, a sports stadium, parks and walkways, a civil registry office and its own special prosecutor's office. Sentries and construction workers at the site required special security clearance. A Russian television crew visited the site shortly after the collapse of the USSR. It is likely that much of what they observed may not have been greatly different from the situation in 1979. They reported that Compound 19 comprised around 200 hectares and was sub-divided into three main zones. The first, residential zone, housed the scientists and their families, around 7,000 inhabitants, along with the ancillary services described above. Nestled within the outer zone there was a check-point which provided restricted access to a so-called industrial zone. At the very heart of Compound 19, guarded by a final check-point and barbed wire, was the most secret special working zone which housed the main administration building together with secret laboratories and production units housed underground.

During the 1960s, Compound 32, an army base with barracks and apartments for Soviet soldiers serving in armoured and artillery units, and with no connection to BW, was added to the southern edge of Compound 19.

Accident
In their authoritative account, Leitenberg and Zilinskas with Kuhn report that, at some point during the period 2–3 April 1979, a mass of B. anthracis spores were released from a four-storey building located in Compound 19's special zone. The building housed a production unit which produced dry B. anthracis spores for weapons use. The unit was manned by 40 personnel and commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Nikolai Chernyshov. The spores created a plume which the wind carried over parts of Sverdlovsk itself as well as a number of rural villages. Russian sources indicate that the release occurred as a result of a defect in an air-handling system which carried exhaust from a spray dryer. The release, according to one Russian source took place during the evening or night of 2–3 April. Based on interviews with friends and families of victims, together with a study of wind data, Meselson and his investigative team conclude that the release probably took place during the day of 2 April.

The precise number of fatalities associated with the military leakage of anthrax spores is not known. Meselson's group report that the incident led directly to the deaths of at least 68 people in Sverdlovsk itself and to cases of animal anthrax in nearby villages (Rudnii, Bol'shoe Sedelnikovo, Maloe Sedelnikovo, Pervomaiskii, Kashino and Abramovo) to the south-east of the city. Leitenberg and Zilinskas with Kuhn quote a Russian source which indicates that "According to the official data, 95 people were infected, 68 (71.5 per cent) died [but] actually the number of the dead and infected was larger". The leakage of anthrax hit the ceramics factory, south of Compound 19, the hardest. The factory, which employed 2,180 personnel, was in possession of a ventilation system which sucked air from the outside, directing some to the furnaces with the remainder being directed to the workforce. In the coming weeks at least 18 workers at the factory died.

In response to the incident, the Soviet authorities acted to mobilise medical teams in the affected district. Tetracycline was administered to affected households, sick rooms were disinfected and potentially contaminated sheets and clothing were collected. Checks for illness in family members were made. Individuals who had fevers were directed to polyclinics and those who were very ill were transferred to the local Hospital 40. A Moscow-controlled Extraordinary Commission was eventually established to manage the response and on the 22 April firemen and factory workers began hosing down buildings with solutions of chlorine. The large-scale vaccination of the population in the affected Chkalovskii district was also undertaken by the authorities. In all, some 80 per cent of around 59,000 eligible individuals were injected with the Soviet STI anthrax vaccine. The latter had been manufactured by the Scientific-Research Institute of Vaccines and Sera based in Tbilisi, Georgia. The first indication in the West of the accident in Sverdlovsk was a story which appeared in January 1980 in an obscure Frankfurt-based magazine named Possev which was published by a group of Russian emigres. It claimed that there had been an outbreak of anthrax in April 1979 in Sverdlovsk after an explosion at a military settlement south-west of the city.

In 1986, Matthew Meselson of Harvard University was granted approval by Soviet authorities for a four-day trip to Moscow where he interviewed several senior Soviet health officials about the outbreak. He later issued a report which agreed with the Soviet assessment that the outbreak was caused by a contaminated meat processing plant, concluding the Soviets' official explanation was completely "plausible and consistent with what is known from medical literature and recorded human experiences with anthrax". However, the Soviet version of events was fatally undermined when, in October 1991, the Wall Street Journal, sent its Moscow Bureau Chief, Peter Gumbel, to Sverdlovsk to investigate the outbreak. After interviewing numerous families, hospital workers and doctors, he is reported to have found the Soviet version of events "riddled with inconsistencies, half-truths and plain falsehoods".

This was followed by an admission in May 1992 by President Boris Yeltsin, who had been Sverdlovsk's Communist Party chief at the time of the accident, that the KGB had revealed to him that "our military development was the cause". Based on these reports a team of Western scientists led by Meselson gained access to the region in June 1992. Before they arrived they had been provided by the authorities with a list of 68 known incident victims in Sverdlovsk. By visiting and questioning in their homes surviving relatives of those who had died, the investigating researchers ascertained both where the victims had been living and where they had been during daylight hours at the time during which hospital admission records indicated a possible release into the atmosphere of anthrax dust. When the locations were plotted on maps, the places where the victims lived did not form a clear geographical pattern. However, there was a very precise indication from their reported locations during working hours, that all of the victims had been directly downwind at the time of the release of the spores via aerosol.
Livestock in the area were also affected. Had the winds been blowing in the direction of the city at that time, it could have resulted in the pathogen being spread to hundreds of thousands of people. Meselson's original contention for many years had been that the outbreak was a natural one and that the Soviet authorities were not lying when they disclaimed having an active offensive bio-warfare program, but the information uncovered in the investigation left no room for doubt.

Aftermath
In April 1992, President Boris Yeltsin issued a decree On ensuring the implementation of international pledges in the sphere of biological weapons. Under the reforming president, there was a desire, over time, to shift the Ministry of Defence's BW institutes from military jurisdiction to work for the civil economy. It was against this background, that at some point between 1992 and 1994, a representative from the US investment bank and stock brokerage firm Paine Webber Incorporated, held a meeting with members of Russia's Committee on Convention Problems of Chemical and Biological Weapons which was specifically focused on the potential for cooperation with Compound No. 19 (Ekaterinburg) in the areas of infectious diseases in animals and production of veterinary vaccines. The project eventually floundered because of the Russian military's desire to maintain the "closed" (highly restricted access) status of its biological facilities.

Medical anthropologist Jeanne Guillemin, member of the 1992 expedition team and wife of Meselson, published a comprehensive book about the investigation in 1999, titled Anthrax – The Investigation of a Deadly Outbreak.

In August 2016, the journal Science reported that anthrax scientist Paul Keim of Northern Arizona University (Flagstaff) and colleagues had attempted to sequence the B. anthracis genome from two samples taken from victims of the Sverdlovsk anthrax leak. The samples had been preserved by local Russian pathologists who investigated the outbreak as it was occurring. Later, they shared the material with Professor Meselson during his investigative trip in 1992 (see above). The samples had been fixed in formalin and embedded in paraffin and the DNA was, as a result, badly degraded. Nevertheless, the US researchers were able to isolate the pathogen's DNA and piece together its entire genome, comparing it with hundreds of other anthrax isolates. Keim and his team reported that they had not found any genomic evidence that the Soviet military had attempted to grow an antibiotic- or vaccine-resistant strain or genetically engineered the strain in any way. Meselson commented that although this was a perfectly ordinary strain, "that doesn't mean it wasn't nasty. It was extracted from people who were killed by it."

Zilinskas and Mauger in 2018 provided the most up-to-date information regarding the current status of the Sverdlovsk military facility. Under the National System of Chemical and Biological Safety/Security of the Russian Federation, funding has been provided to the Sverdlovsk institute for the renovation of two facilities for the production of antibiotics. Such products could be used in the civil medical sector. Major reconstruction work has also been carried out with regard to a building that used to produce B. anthracis spores. A building used for media and substrate production has also been extensively renovated. Refurbishment has also been underway in recent years of an open-air test site—the so-called Pyshma field test base—for the Sverdlovsk institute. Once complete, it was intended to be used to "assess the effectiveness of means and methods of biological prospecting and the elimination of the consequences of emergency situations". , this refurbishment project remained incomplete.

In August 2020, the US Commerce Department's Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) imposed "blacklist" restrictions on three Russian military biological institutes for their alleged involvement with the Russian biological weapons programme. One of these was the Sverdlovsk institute (now operating under the name 48th Central Scientific Research Institute, Yekaterinburg). On 2 March 2021, additional US sanctions were imposed on the 48 Central Scientific Research Institute Yekaterinburg (aka 48th TsNII Yekaterinburg) along with its associated military BW institutes in Kirov and Sergiev Posad.

In popular culture

 Robin Cook used the Sverdlovsk anthrax leak as a plot device in his novel Vector. In the novel, a Russian immigrant named Yuri Davydov works with a neo-Nazi group to plan an anthrax attack on New York City. Yuri learned to develop anthrax while he was working at a fictional Biopreparat facility in Sverdlovsk. The Yuri character was present when the leak happened and his mother was one of the victims.
 Greg Bear makes reference to the Sverdlovsk anthrax leak in Quantico, a novel about genetically-engineered pathogens and FBI agents trying to stop their release.
 Richard Preston tells the story of Sverdlovsk in the chapter "Invisible History (II)" from his book The Cobra Event.
 The second season of the American National Geographic series The Hot Zone: Anthrax begins with a depiction of the event.

See also
 List of anthrax outbreaks
 List of laboratory biosecurity incidents
 Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services
 Biological warfare

References

External links
 Anthrax at Sverdlovsk at the National Security Archive

1979 disasters in the Soviet Union
1979 in the Soviet Union
1979 industrial disasters
1979 disease outbreaks
Anthrax
April 1979 events in Asia
Biological warfare
Health disasters in Russia
Soviet biological weapons program
Soviet cover-ups
History of Yekaterinburg

Sverdlovsk anthrax leak


Florentino Ameghino (born Giovanni Battista Fiorino Giuseppe Ameghino; September 19, 1853 –  August 6, 1911) was an Argentine naturalist, paleontologist, anthropologist and zoologist, whose fossil discoveries on the Argentine Pampas, especially on Patagonia, rank with those made in the western United States during the late 19th century. Along with his two brothers – Carlos and Juan – Florentino Ameghino was one of the most important founding figures in South American paleontology.

From 1887 until his death, Ameghino was passionately devoted to the study of fossil mammals from Patagonia, with the valuable support of his brother Carlos Ameghino (1865–1936) who, between 1887 and 1902, made 14 trips to that region, where he discovered and collected numerous fossil faunas and made important stratigraphic observations which helped to support his journal Ameghiniana.

Biography
Ameghino was born on September 19, 1853, in Tessi, an hamlet of Moneglia, a municipality of Liguria in Italy, in what was then the Kingdom of Sardinia and moved to Argentina with his parents when he was 18 months old. Ameghino was a self-taught naturalist, and focused his study on the lands of the southern Pampas. He formed one of the largest collections of fossils of the world at the time, which served him as base for numerous geological and paleontological studies.  Ameghino was a leading pioneer in the development of phylogenetics and of the paleontological approach of evolutionary biology. He also investigated the possible presence of prehistoric man in the Pampas and made several controversial claims about human origins in South America. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, president of Argentina 1868–1874, described Ameghino as "a countryman from Mercedes that nobody knows of here, but that is admired by scholars worldwide."

The Antiquity of Man in the Río de la Plata, later translated into French, was published in 1878. Phylogeny, published in 1884, was a theoretical work on developing an evolutionary concept in the Lamarckian vein, and led to the establishment of zoological taxonomy as a discipline with mathematical foundations. He later directed the Department of Zoology at the National University of Córdoba, which awarded him with an honorary doctorate, and was inducted into the National Academy of Sciences of Argentina.

Ameghino worked with Francisco P. Moreno, founder and director of the La Plata Museum, as deputy director, secretary, and director of the Paleontology Department upon its establishment in 1888. Ameghino enriched his department with his own collection, which he sold to the provincial government for the purpose. But it was little time in which these two scientists worked together. A year later his magnum opus appeared in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Mammalian Fossils in the Argentine Republic, comprising 1028 pages and an atlas.  This latter contribution to the knowledge of the fossil mammals of Argentina won the bronze medal at the Exposition Universelle of 1889 in Paris.

He later served as director of the Bernardino Rivadavia Natural Sciences Museum, in Buenos Aires, and in 1906 published Sedimentary Formations of the Cretaceous and Tertiary Eras in Patagonia, a work of synthesis is not limited to descriptions, but it raises hypotheses about the evolution of various mammals and analyzes the different layers of the crust and their possible ages. Ameghino returned between 1907 and 1911 to his earlier dedication: anthropology, the descriptions of the first inhabitants, industries and cultures. He theorized about the coexistence between human beings and the extinct megafauna in the Pampas, including the possible origin of humans and subsequent evolution in America. As an autodidact, he studied the lands of the Pampa, collecting numerous fossils, on which he based himself to carry out numerous geology and paleontology investigations. He also investigated Quaternary man at the Chelles archaeological site.

Florentino Ameghino died in La Plata, at the age of 57, on August 6, 1911, after falling ill with diabetes and resisting surgery.

Oeuvre
His published works include 24 volumes of between 700 and 800 pages each, containing classifications, studies, comparisons and descriptions of more than 9000 extinct animals, many discovered by him. This was an important contribution to the known catalog of extinct mammals, and would, along with the Ameghino collection, be consulted by scientists from America and Europe in subsequent years. He died from the symptoms of diabetes in La Plata in 1911.

Honors
The Ameghino Crater on the Moon is named in his honor. The Florentino Ameghino Partido and its county seat of Ameghino, situated in the north-west of Buenos Aires Province, are also named after him, as is the palaeontology journal Ameghiniana.

Several Argentine cities are named Florentino Ameghino as well as various educational institutions across the country, libraries and museums, squares, schools, parks and other locations. Among others, these include:
The square Parque Florentino Ameghino, located in Buenos Aires
The Florentino Ameghino Department, administrative division of the Province of Chubut
The judicial district Florentino Ameghino Partido, legal jurisdiction of the Province of Buenos Aires; Florentino Ameghino, Buenos Aires, a city in the Province of Buenos Aires
Florentino Ameghino, a town in the Province of Misiones
The Florentino Ameghino Dam, forming an artificial lake in the Province of Chubut
 The Villa Dique Florentino Ameghino, a small town in the Province of Chubut
Florentino Ameghino, a town in the Province of Chubut; the petrified forest "Bosque Petrificado Florentino Ameghino" in the province of Chubut
The "Colegio Nacional Florentino Ameghino", located in the city of Mercedes, Buenos Aires Province
Ameghino Gully and Florentino Ameghino Refuge in Antarctica
The municipal garden in the city of Miramar, Buenos Aires Province has the name "Vivero Dunícola Florentino Ameghino"
A club from the city of Necochea in the province of Buenos Aires.

Selected publications

 "La Antigüedad del Hombre en el Plata". París, 1880  (2nd edition in 2 volumes, Editorial Intermundo, Buenos Aires, 1947)
 "Los monos fósiles de la República Argentina". 1891
 "Énumeration synoptique des espèces de mammifères fossiles des formations éocènes de Patagonie". 1894, in which 440 species are catalogued
 "Sur les oiseaux fossiles de la Patagonie". 1895
 "Las sequías e inundaciones en la provincia de Buenos Aires". online text
 "L'Âge des formations sédimentaires de Patagonie". 1900–1903
 "Línea filogenética de los proboscídeos". 1902
 "On the primitive type of the Plagiodont molars of Mammalia". 1902
 "Los Diprotodontes del orden de los plagiaulacoides y el origen de los roedores y de los Polimastodontes". 1903
 Paleontologia argentina. 1904
 "Recherches de morphologie phylogénétique sur les molaires supérieures des ongulés". 1904

Notes

References
 Bosque Petrificado Florentino Ameghino Official Web of the petrified forest – Trelew, Chubut, Patagonia, Argentina.
 Doctor Florentino Ameghino, 1854–1911
 Florentino Ameghino: su vida y sus obras
 Los hermanos Ameguino  macn.secyt.gov.ar, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales

External links

Ameghiana
Florentino Ameghino (Google Scholar)

1853 births
1911 deaths
People from Moneglia
Emigrants from the Kingdom of Sardinia to Argentina
Argentine people of Ligurian descent
People from Luján, Buenos Aires
Argentine anthropologists
Argentine mammalogists
Argentine paleontologists
Argentine zoologists
Argentine naturalists

National University of La Plata alumni
Deaths from diabetes
Burials at La Plata Cemetery

Florentino Ameghino


The Bonnot Gang was a group of French anarchists known for robbing banks. They were credited with being the first to use the getaway car. They also used repeating rifles, which not even the police had. Their crimes were violent—murder, bank robbery and auto theft. They were known for their belief in illegalism, a school of anarchism that promotes crime. The reasoning was the state had no legitimate authority so they could break any laws they wished. The gang was named after its leader, Jules Bonnot. They were very famous at the time (1911-1912) and have been made into legends through books, television, movies, etc. throughout France and other countries.

References

Anarchists

Bonnot Gang


Wave power means the use of ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work—including electricity generation, desalination, and the pumping of water (into reservoirs). It makes use of the kinetic energy of the waves that are driven by the wind.

Power from ocean surface wave motion might produce much more energy than tides. Tests have shown that it is possible to produce energy from waves, particularly in Scotland in the UK. But the technology is not as well developed as other renewable energy such as wind power or solar power.

Other websites
 Practical Ocean Energy Management Systems Inc Links and discussion
 An Ocean Wave Energy Converter Using Rotors
 Oceanography: waves
 "Waves" by Tim Lovett  -- Tables and trivia on waves
 Wave Energy  -- World Energy Council
 Corvallis Gazette Times -- Oregon State University wants to host a national wave research center

Hydropower

Wave power