"Freedom" is the 13th episode of the eighth season of the American police procedural drama NCIS, and the 175th episode overall. It originally aired on CBS in the United States on February 1, 2011. The episode is written by Nicole Mirante-Matthews and directed by Craig Ross, Jr., and was seen by 22.85 million viewers.

"Freedom" was the most watched episode of NCIS at the time, surpassing the record of 21.93 million viewers reached earlier in 2011. It was later surpassed by the season ten episode "Shiva", which was watched by 22.86 million viewers.

Plot
The team investigates the murder of a marine who was beaten to death in his backyard. They find out his Marine wife Georgia Wooten (Christina Cox) was abused and that the husband had an affair. She is initially suspected and remains uncooperative throughout the investigation. At one point, Ducky suggests sending Ziva to talk to Wooten, noting that the former had "been through things you and I can't even imagine" and knew how it felt to be controlled, and was therefore the only one who could relate. Gibbs is reluctant to open Ziva's old wounds but ultimately complies. Wooten, however, denies that she was responsible for her husband's death.

The team finds numerous suspects, including the murder victim's pregnant girlfriend, but eventually narrow it down to a bar owner who was a friend of the wife. He admits to the murder because he felt the marine didn't deserve to have a wife like her.

Meanwhile, McGee becomes the victim of identity theft, as somebody starts using his credit card to buy various expensive items. Tony tracks down the identity thief, who turns out to be the son of McGee's landlady. The boy remarks that he stole McGee's identity because he felt he was too boring and didn't take time to enjoy life. Also, since the purchases were clearly the result of fraud, McGee is only liable for $50. Together, Tony and the boy manage to convince McGee to come with them to buy video games.

Production
"Freedom" is written by Nicole Mirante-Matthews and directed by Craig Ross, Jr. This is Mirante-Matthews's second episode on NCIS. "For my second episode, I wanted to tell a powerful, compelling story with an indestructible female Marine at the center. A Marine who would stop at nothing to defend her country, but had no idea how to defend herself." Ross, Jr. hasn't directed episodes on NCIS before, and this is his first and only episode on the show.

Reception
"Freedom" was seen by 22.85 million live viewers following its broadcast on February 1, 2011, with a 13.2/20 share among all households, and 4.6/12 share among adults aged 18 to 49. A rating point represents one percent of the total number of television sets in American households, and a share means the percentage of television sets in use tuned to the program. In total viewers, "Freedom" easily won NCIS and CBS the night as the episode became the most watched in the history of the series (not surpassed until "Shiva" almost 2 years later). The spin-off NCIS: Los Angeles drew second and was seen by 17.70 million viewers.

As a result of the series high in viewers, CBS renewed the show for its 9th season on February 2, 2011. "It's simply amazing that a show in its eighth season continues to perform at such an elite level", CBS Entertainment president Nina Tassler said. Also, Mark Harmon renewed his contract for two years the following day, making him the first one of the cast without contract for season 9 to do so. NCIS was the only series renewed by CBS for the next season by February 2, 2011.

Steve Marsi from TV Fanatic gave the episode 4.0 (out of 5) and stated that "As far as the murder mystery, 'Freedom' was fairly boilerplate stuff, lacking a bit of the urgency and some of the lightning-quick twists we've grown accustomed to. By accustomed, we mean spoiled of course. As they say (or at least I do), an average episode of NCIS is still better than a good installment of almost anything else...What was most intriguing about the case was not the evidence or the unfolding mystery but the fact that this powerful woman, a Marine martial arts trainer, was an abuse victim. Sounds like someone we know. Ziva opened up to Georgia about similar abuse she suffered and made some inroads, although this could have been extrapolated upon further. It seemed like a prime opportunity for Ziva's character to shine - relating to a suspect similarly strong, powerful, yet vulnerable - but the plot quickly moved in other directions. Flashes of the old Ziva are better than nothing, I guess."

References

2011 American television episodes
NCIS (season 8) episodes

Freedom (NCIS)


The Horseshoe Barn and Horseshoe Barn Annex are two exhibit buildings located at Shelburne Museum in Shelburne, Vermont. Both buildings exhibit a variety of horse-drawn vehicles, including carriages, trade wagons, stagecoaches, and sleighs.

History
Electra Havemeyer Webb's desire to provide a suitable setting for the carriage collection of her father-in-law, Dr. William Seward Webb, provided the inspiration for founding Shelburne Museum. She searched Vermont for a building to house these fine carriages and found a unique horseshoe-shaped dairy barn near the town of Georgia. When the owner declined to sell the barn, Electra Webb directed her staff to create a copy of the structure. Over a two-year period they located, moved, and assembled hand-hewn beams from twelve Vermont barns and stone from two gristmills to construct their own horseshoe barn on museum grounds.

Completed in July 1949, the massive structure, which is  long and  wide, incorporated 745 timbers, posts, and braces,  of plank and other boarding, and  of slate. Carpenters specially cut new clapboards for the exterior siding with an up-and-down saw to recreate the markings found on the original building.

In 1957, after the addition of 150 more vehicles to the transportation collection, the museum constructed the Horseshoe Barn Annex to exhibit key examples from the collection using a combination of old and new materials.

Horseshoe barns
It appears that there are very few horseshoe-shaped barns in the United States. Of the two documented horseshoe barns in Vermont, only one still stands today. The Shelburne Museum houses the only remaining horseshoe barn in Vermont; the Georgia, Vermont barn it was modeled after burned to the ground. There is still a road named Horseshoe Barn Road in St. Albans, Vermont.

Other known horseshoe-shaped barns are:
Llangollen Farm in Virginia

Carriage collection
The museum's carriage collection began with the vehicles owned by Dr. William Seward Webb and his wife Lila Vanderbilt Webb. Today it has come to include 225 horse-drawn vehicles. Since many of these vehicles came straight from their respective owners, many still retain their original upholstery and decoration.

Horsedrawn vehicles

Carriages and coaches began to be widely used in Britain during the 17th century. However, real progress in carriage building was not made until the late 18th century, when Royal Mail coach service began. For the first time, many carriages were designed for comfort and speed and were made alike, using interchangeable parts. Soon carriage driving became the fashionable way to travel, although for many years the cost of vehicles restricted their use primarily to the nobility and upper classes.

The manufacture of horse-drawn vehicles advanced more quickly in 19th-century America, where vehicles quickly became available to people of every social class. By the late 19th century, American coach builders had developed light and practical vehicles that were available to the general public at low prices through mail order houses such as Sears and Roebuck. An elegant runabout made by Brewster & Co., America's finest coach builder, cost $425 in 1900; a runabout sold by Sears was $24.95.

Shelburne Museum's collection of horse-drawn vehicles includes examples of 19th and early 20th century carriages, farm and trade wagons, stagecoaches, sleighs, early firefighting equipment, and almost every other type of vehicle used in New England in the 19th century. One of the most comprehensive collections in the country, it is particularly important because most of the vehicles retain their original upholstery, lamps, and decorative finishes.

Many of the museum's finest vehicles originally belonged to Dr. William Seward Webb, father-in-law of Electra Havemeyer Webb, including a number of elegant carriages and coaches by New York's Brewster & Co. and a remarkable pair of custom-made vehicles – a caleche and a satin-trimmed Berlin – by Million et Guiet of Paris.

Rural Americans were often too busy to travel during the warm months, when farm chores kept them close to home. Winter brought more leisure time. Snow could be packed down with horse-drawn rollers to form a far smoother surface than was available on dirt roads at other times of the year. Sleighs were much easier to build and repair than wheeled vehicles; a home craftsperson without specialized training could construct and maintain them. For these reasons, the typical northern farm family owned three sleighs for every wheeled vehicle it kept.

Sleighs echoed wheeled vehicles in form. Some wheeled vehicles, like the museum's hearse, could be converted from wheels to runners as the seasons changed. The museum's sleighs range from small and simple homemade wooden cutters to elaborate, multi-passenger surreys, caleches, and victorias. The collection also includes a stage sleigh, a school bus sleigh, a butcher's delivery sleigh and a police ambulance and paddy wagon sleigh.

Multi-passenger stagecoaches and omnibuses provided public transportation for travelers within and between cities, from train stations to hotels, and on sightseeing trips. Businesses transported goods by horse, often using wagons and sleighs that advertised their wares with decorative pictures and signage. Commercial vehicles in the museum's collection include a Concord stagecoach used to transport hotel guests in the White Mountains, a butcher's wagon complete with hanging scales and meat hooks, a Maine druggist's patent medicine wagon and a Pennsylvania Conestoga wagon, used to haul produce from rural farms to city markets.

Vehicles were also essential to firefighters, who needed to transport water and equipment quickly. A variety of early firefighting vehicles are represented in the museum's collection. The horse was a latecomer to firefighting, not pressed widely into service until the 1870s. To save precious time, horses were kept in the firehouse. Their stalls had break-away chains and, at the sound of the alarm, the horses raced to their places in front of the waiting equipment. Their collars and harnesses were suspended from the ceiling, poised like spiders in a web, ready to drop at a touch.

The steam-driven pumper, the hose wagon, and the hook-and-ladder truck became the three major horse-drawn firefighting vehicles. However, it was the steamer, usually driven with horses harnessed two or three abreast, that provided the most spectacular sight as it flew down the street with smoke pouring from the funnel of its boiler, building up a head of steam to run the pumps.

See also
Liz Whitney Tippett (Llangollen estate)

References

 Shelburne Farms Coach Barn
 Saint Michaels College Ongoing Project on the Shelburne Museum
 Wheeling, Kenneth Edward. Horse-Drawn Vehicles at the Shelburne Museum. Shelburne: Shelburne Museum, 1974.
 Carlisle, Lilian Baker. The Carriages at Shelburne Museum. Shelburne, VT: Shelburne Museum, 1956.
 Shelburne Museum's Carriage Collection
 Visser, Thomas Durant. Field Guide to New England Barns and Farm Buildings. London: University Press of New England, 1997.
 Arthur, Eric and Dudley Witney. The Barn. Greenwich: New York Graphic Society, Ltd., 1972.
 Sloane, Eric. American Barns & Covered Bridges. New York: Wilfred Funk, Inc., 1954.

External links
 Shelburne Museum
 Horseshoe Barn

Shelburne Museum
Transportation museums in Vermont
Carriage museums in the United States
Barns in Vermont

Horseshoe Barn and Annex


Hansonville is a locality in the Greta district of Victoria, Australia. It is part of the Rural City of Wangaratta.  It had a school in 1880.  The postcode is 3675.

Roads in the place include Moyhu-Hansonville Rd, Banksdale Rd and Glenrowan-Moyhu Road.  In the south part is School Road and Banksdale Road. Factory Creek flows to the north through the area.

People growing up in Hansonville include Tim Newth, co-director of the Tracks Dance Company; Captain Austin Mahony who won a military cross at Pozières; and John Legg (born 1892) a veterinary scientist prominent in the CSIRO.

A polling place for the Division of Indi is located at Greta Complex, Greta Recreation Reserve, Greta West-Greta South Rd.  In 2004 this booth returned an 82% vote for liberal and 12% for labor for the House of Representatives.

References

Towns in Victoria (state)
Rural City of Wangaratta

Hansonville, Victoria


USS Pruitt (DD-347/DM-22/AG–101) was a Clemson-class destroyer in the United States Navy following World War I. She was named for Corporal John H. Pruitt, USMC,  World War I Medal of Honor recipient.

Pruitt was laid down on 25 June 1919 by Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine; launched on 2 August 1920; sponsored by Mrs. Belle Pruitt; and commissioned on 2 September 1920.

Service history
During the interwar period, Pruitt operated in the Western Pacific, protecting American interests in the Far East. She was converted to a light minelayer and accordingly redesignated DM-22 on 30 June 1937. LTJG Richard O'Kane, who would be awarded the Medal of Honor as the most successful U.S. submarine officer of World War II, served aboard Pruitt from 1935 through shipyard conversion to a minelayer.

A unit of Mine Division 1, she was undergoing overhaul at the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard on 7 December 1941, with future Rear Admiral George Stephen Morrison on board. At 07:53, Japanese planes flew over the base at low altitude  and within minutes some of Pruitts crew had sprinted to other ships and fired their first bullets. Others manned fire hoses and helped distribute ammunition during the attack on Pearl Harbor. At the end of January 1942, Pruitt completed overhaul and took up offshore patrol and minelaying duties with the Hawaiian Sea Frontier. Continuing operations there into June, she sailed, on the 19th, for Bremerton, Washington, from where she steamed to the Aleutian Islands for minelaying operations and escort assignments out of Kodiak. Into the fall she continued operations in the Aleutians, interrupted by regular runs back to the Hawaiian Islands, and then took up escort duties along the west coast.

With the new year, 1943, Pruitt shifted south and trained with the 4th Marine Raider Battalion off Southern California. Further escort assignments followed and on 24 April she departed San Francisco, California to return to the Aleutians. Sailing with TF 51, she steamed to Cold Bay, thence to Attu. On 11 May, she arrived off the latter, escorted landing craft into Massacre Bay, and then dispatched the boat waves. After the initial assault she took up anti-submarine and anti-aircraft patrols. Later shifting to Holtz Bay, she continued to perform patrol duties and to escort smaller craft from Amchitka and Adak until the end of the month.

On 6 June Pruitt returned to San Francisco and coastal escort duties. Through the summer she steamed along the coast from Alaska to Southern California and in September got underway for the Solomon Islands. At the end of October, she arrived at Purvis Bay, Florida Island, whence she steamed to Bougainville.

Taking on mines at Acre, New Hebrides, she planted mines along Bougainville's southern coast on the 2nd, 8th, and 24 November in support of operations on Cape Torokina, then in December shifted to escort assignments between and among the Solomons, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and the Societies.

Pruitt returned to San Francisco on 18 July 1944, underwent overhaul, and in October sailed back to Pearl Harbor where she began submarine training operations. Detached toward the end of November, she patrolled off Midway from 29 November – 15 January 1945. On 22 January she resumed operations with the Training Command, Submarine Force and for the remainder of World War II trained submarines southwest of Oahu.

Redesignated AG–101 on 5 June 1945, she was ordered inactivated three months later, and on 21 September she sailed east, arriving at Philadelphia in October.

Fate
Decommissioning on 16 November 1945, she was struck from the Navy List on 5 December 1945. She was later scrapped at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.

Awards
Pruitt earned three battle stars during World War II.

Postscript
As of 5 October 2021, no other ship has been named USS Pruitt.

References

NavSource Online: Destroyer Photo Archive: USS Pruitt (DD-347/DM-22/AG-101)

Clemson-class destroyers
World War II mine warfare vessels of the United States
World War II auxiliary ships of the United States
Ships built in Bath, Maine
1920 ships
Ships present during the attack on Pearl Harbor
Ships of the Aleutian Islands campaign

USS Pruitt


The Rebellion of the Seven States or Revolt of the Seven Kingdoms () took place in 154 BC against the rule of Emperor Jing of Han dynasty by its regional semi-autonomous kings, to resist the emperor's attempt to centralize the government further.

Background
At the beginning of the Han dynasty, Liu Bang—Emperor Gaozu of Han—created princely titles for many of his relatives in certain territories that accounted for between approximately one-third to one-half of the empire. This was an attempt to consolidate Liu family rule over the parts of China that were not ruled directly from the capital under the commandery () system.

During the reign of Emperor Wen, these princes were still setting their own laws, but in addition they were minting their own coins (albeit with Emperor Wen's approval) and collecting their own taxes. Many princes were effectively ignoring the imperial government's authority within their own principalities. When Emperor Jing became emperor in 157 BC, the rich principality of Wu was especially domineering.

Prelude

Emperor Jing already had an inimical relationship with his cousin-once-removed Liu Pi, Prince of Wu, the nephew of his grandfather, Han founder Emperor Gaozu. The principality of Wu enjoyed, among other natural resources, abundant copper and salt supplies.

Around 175–179 BC, when Emperor Jing was still Crown Prince Qi, Liu Pi's heir apparent Liu Xian () had been on an official visit to the capital Chang'an and they competed in a liubo board game. During arguments over the game, Liu Xian offended Crown Prince Qi, who beat him to death with the board. Liu Pi hated Emperor Jing for causing the death of Liu Xian.

Emperor Jing's key advisor Chao Cuo suggested using as excuses offenses that the princes had committed which had generally been ignored by Emperor Wen, that he cut down the sizes of the principalities to make them less threatening. Chao explicitly contemplated the possibility that Wu and other principalities might rebel, but justified the action by asserting that if they were going to rebel, it would be better to let them rebel earlier than later when they might be more prepared.

Emperor Jing, in 154 BC, thus ordered the following punishments:
 He carved out the commandery of Donghai from the Principality of Chu (modern northern Jiangsu and northern Anhui), based on Liu Wu, Prince of Chu, being caught drinking during the mourning period for Empress Dowager Bo.
 He carved out the commandery of Changshan from the Principality of Zhao (modern central and southern Hebei), based on an unspecified offence.
 He carved out six counties from the principality of Jiaoxi (roughly modern Weifang, Shandong), based on Liu Ang, the Prince of Jiaoxi, embezzling funds from the sales of titles intended for paying border patrol costs.
 Carving out the commanderies of Kuaiji and Zhang from the Principality of Wu, based on various offences by Liu Pi, the Prince of Wu.

Rebellion

In response to these actions, Liu Pi organized a rebellion. The seven actively participating princes were:
 Liu Pi (劉濞), Prince of Wu.
 Liu Wu (劉戊), Prince of Chu.
 Liu Ang (劉卬), Prince of Jiaoxi.
 Liu Xiongqu (劉雄渠), Prince of Jiaodong.
 Liu Xian (劉賢), Prince of Zichuan.
 Liu Piguang (劉辟光), Prince of Jinan.
 Liu Sui (劉遂), Prince of Zhao.

Two other principalities—Qi (modern central Shandong) and Jibei (modern northwestern Shandong)--agreed to join but neither actually did. Liu Jianglü (劉將閭), Prince of Qi, changed his mind at the final moment and chose to resist the rebel forces, and Liu Zhi (劉志), Prince of Jibei, was put under house arrest by the commander of his guards and prevented from joining the rebellion.

Three other princes were asked to join but either refused or merely did not join:
 Liu An (劉安), Prince of Huainan (roughly modern Lu'an, Anhui)
 Liu Ci (劉賜), Prince of Lujiang (roughly modern Chaohu, Anhui)
 Liu Bo (劉勃), Prince of Hengshan (roughly part of modern Lu'an, Anhui).

The seven princes also requested help from the southern independent kingdoms of Donghai (modern Zhejiang) and Minyue (modern Fujian), and the powerful Xiongnu in the north. Donghai and Minyue sent troops to participate in the campaign, but the Xiongnu, after initially promising to do so, did not.

The seven princes claimed that Chao Cuo was aiming to wipe out the principalities and that they would be satisfied if Chao were executed.

Rebel campaigns and strategies
The four principalities on the periphery of Qi aimed to conquer Qi and divide it.  Zhao forces headed west but stayed within the borders to wait for Wu and Chu forces, which were considered the main force in the rebellion.

Liu Pi, the Prince of Wu, had several strategies suggested to him that he considered:-
 A suggestion by Tian Lubo (田祿伯) to have two main forces—one to be led by Liu Pi himself, attacking the Principality of Liang (modern eastern Henan), and one to be led by Tian that would head west by the Yangtze River and the Han River to make a surprise attack directly on the capital Chang'an.
 A suggestion by a Gen. Huan (桓) to ignore all cities on the way and leapfrog to attack Luoyang and seize the plentiful food and weapons supply near Luoyang.
 A suggestion (probably by Liu Pi's heir apparent Liu Ju (劉駒)) to concentrate the forces to attack Liang and destroy it first.

Liu Pi accepted the final suggestion, concerned that if he gave Tian a large force he might rebel, and that Huan's plan was too dangerous. Wu and Chu forces therefore concentrated against Liang, against Emperor Jing's younger brother Liu Wu, the prince of Liang, whose forces initially suffered devastating defeats, forcing Liu Wu to withdraw to his capital of Suiyang (present-day Shangqiu in Henan), which the Wu and Chu forces then proceeded to besiege.

Emperor Jing's responses
In accordance with instructions left by Emperor Wen, Emperor Jing commissioned Zhou Yafu as the commander of his armed forces to face the main rebel force—the joint forces of Wu and Chu. He commissioned Li Ji (酈寄), the Marquess of Quzhou, to attack Zhao, and Gen. Luan Bu (欒布) to try to relieve the siege of Qi. Dou Ying (竇嬰) was put in command of Li and Luan's forces, to coordinate them at his headquarters set at Xingyang.

Main campaign
Wu and Chu forces continued to attack Liang's capital Suiyang fiercely. Zhou Yafu suggested to Emperor Jing that the proper strategy was not to engage Wu and Chu forces head on because, in particular, Chu forces were known for their ferocity and excellent mobility. Rather, his plan was to let Liang take the brunt of the attack, bypass Liang, and cut off the Wu and Chu supply lines to starve the rebel forces. Emperor Jing agreed, and Zhou set out from the capital Chang'an to join his main forces, already gathered at Yingyang. Wu and Chu prepared assassins on the way between Chang'an and Yingyang to assassinate Zhou, but Zhou, having been warned by the soldier Zhao She (趙涉), went by a circuitous route and avoided the assassins.

After taking command of his forces, Zhou headed toward Changyi (昌邑, in modern Jining, Shandong) to prepare to cut off the Wu and Chu supply routes. At this time Liang appeared to be in great danger, and Prince Liu Wu sent messenger after messenger to seek immediate assistance from Zhou, which Zhou ignored. Emperor Jing, concerned for his brother, ordered Zhou to head to Liang immediately to save it. Zhou refused, and instead sent a cavalry force to cut off the Wu and Chu supply lines. The strategy was effective. Wu and Chu, unable to capture Liang quickly due to the strong defence put up by the prince's Gen. Han Anguo (韓安國) and Gen. Zhang Yu (張羽), headed northeast to attack Zhou. Zhou refused to engage in a direct battle with Wu and Chu forces, but rather concentrated on defending his camp. After being unable to get a decisive victory over Zhou, the Wu and Chu forces began to suffer from starvation and collapsed. Liu Pi fled to Donghai; Donghai killed him and sought peace with Han. Liu Wu, the prince of Chu, committed suicide.

Other theaters

The only other theater that Wu forces engaged in was a small one.  Liu Pi's guest Zhou Qiu (周丘) was looked down on by Liu Pi, but he, with Liu Pi's approval, had some successes with a surprising plan he hatched. He headed to his home town Xiapi and, under the guise of being an imperial messenger, had the county magistrate killed and took over the county's militia. He then persuaded the people of the county to join the rebellion, and they headed north and had victories over the forces of the Principality of Chengyang (modern southeastern Shandong). However, after hearing that Liu Pi had been defeated, Zhou was so taken by anxiety that he died.

Meanwhile, four principalities were besieging the Qi capital Linzi. Liu Jianglü, the Prince of Qi, considered surrendering, but his resolve to resist was strengthened when his messenger Lu (路), who had been captured by the four princes, told him from under the walls of the capital to resist (even though he was under threat from the four princes to persuade Prince Jianglü to surrender). Eventually, Luan Bu and Cao Qi (曹奇), the Marquess of Pingyang, arrived and defeated the four principalities, but at the same time also discovered that Qi had initially been part of the conspiracy. Unable to explain himself, Prince Jianglü committed suicide, but Emperor Jing, having compassion on him, permitted his son Liu Shou (劉壽) to inherit the principality.

Not so fortunate were the princes of the four rebelling principalities. Han Tuidang (韓頹當), the Marquess of Gonggao, wrote a letter to Liu Ang, the Prince of Jiaoxi, threatening him with utter destruction if he did not surrender. Prince Ang did so and was allowed to commit suicide. The other three princes were captured and executed. The four principalities were seized by the central government.

The final principality to be destroyed was Zhao. While Li Ji was initially unable to prevail in besieging the Zhao capital of Handan (modern Handan, Hebei), Zhao's hopes were virtually lost when Xiongnu forces, realizing Zhao was about to be defeated, chose not to join in the battle. When Luan returned from Qi he attacked Handan with Li and was able to capture it by breaking a levee to flood the walls of Handan. Liu Sui, the Prince of Zhao, committed suicide.

Liu Zhi, the Prince of Jibei, who initially wished to join the rebellion, did not share their fate. His official Gongsun Huo (公孫獲) was able to persuade Liu Wu, the prince of Liang, that Liu Zhi had only pretended to join the rebellion and had in fact contributed to the rebellion's defeat. With Liu Wu's intercession, Prince Zhi was spared and he was instead given the Principality of Zaichuan.

In all, the initially ferocious rebellion lasted only three months before being defeated.

Impact
Emperor Gaozu had initially created imperial princes with independent military powers with an eye to having them protect the dynasty from outside. By the time of Emperor Jing, however, they were already creating problems by their refusal to follow the imperial government's laws and orders.  Had the seven princes prevailed in this conflict, in all likelihood the Han dynasty would have collapsed into a loose confederation of states. In the aftermath of the rebellion, while the principality system was maintained, the powers of the princes were gradually reduced and the sizes of the principalities reduced as well, under Emperor Jing and his son Emperor Wu. With the longevity of the Han dynasty, the Chinese mindset of it being normal to have a unified empire rather than divided states started to settle in.

Notes

References

See also
Zhuang Ji

150s BC conflicts
Rebellions in the Han dynasty
154 BC
2nd century BC in China

Rebellion of the Seven States


Azazeta (in Spanish Azáceta) is a village in Álava, Basque Country, Spain. The village belongs to the municipality of Arraya-Maestu. The extensive municipality of Arraia-Maeztu belongs to the Álava mountain range. Formed by several valleys around the Berrón (Arraia Valley) and Musitu (Laminoria Valley) streams, this large town is surrounded by the Iturrieta and Vitoria-Gasteiz mountains. Azaceta is located in the Sierra de Guereñu, in a small plain surrounded by high mountains.

The weather is cold, but healthy. There are abundant water sources.

Population
Currently the village comprises approximately thirty households, in which there are some sixty residents.

History

Azazeta is the village that gave name to the mountain pass leading to the village. The village is situated on both sides of the road, in a clearing in the mountains, just after beginning the descent from the port towards Maestu.

It is a small but very well maintained town both in its main square and in its buildings which are adorned with a profusion of flowers. It consists of 30 family houses. In the plaza, which adjoins the road there is a fountain which flows in what is the former washing place. Opposite, across the road, is the Social Center, which is also used as a tavern or bar.

In the first decades of the twentieth century there was a school with up to 45 children enrolled. Currently the old school has been converted into a private home.

The village is currently inhabited by three families, although on feast days and weekends many people arrive to enjoy the pleasant climate in summer and surround themselves with tranquillity.

In the year 1025, documentation in San Millán de la Cogolla include the place name Azazaheta.

Monuments
The church in Azazeta is dedicated to the Nativity of Our Lady, and retains many remnants of its original construction. Under its rustic porch in the shape of a large arch, there is a beautiful sixteenth century portal. The present eighteenth-century altarpiece includes various pieces from the sixteenth century, among which is the seated image of Mary.

It is rectangular, narrowing at the head and has gothic vaults and a masonry factory. The altar has a typical Baroque altarpiece. To the left is the altar dedicated to Our Lady of the Rosary. On the right, the altar of Santiago. Both altars are baroque. The porch has a round arch. The square tower was built in 1822 by Master Mason Vicente Nanclares.

Celebrations
Patron feast day was previously celebrated on 16 April in honour of Saint Turibius. However, from 1939 celebrations on 25 July in honour of Saint James, patron saint of Spain, were honoured instead. The major feasts of Azaceta are celebrated during Santiago (Saint James), usually between the 24th and 26 July, during which they perform various types of activities: round parades, crafts and games for children, a grand chocolatada, bouncy castles, fellowship dinners and many more.

Photo gallery

Populated places in Álava

Azazeta


Canna 'Trinacria' is a tall 'Italian Group' Canna cultivar; with light green foliage, large, oval shaped, branching habit; clusters of flowers are open, sulphur-yellow with faint red spots in the throat, staminodes are large, throat pearl base; labellum is sulphur-yellow, throat pearl; stamen is sulphur-yellow, style is sulphur-yellow, petals green, fully self-cleaning, good bloomer; seed is sterile, pollen is low fertile; rhizomes are long and thin, coloured white; tillering is prolific. Introduced by C. Sprenger, Dammann & Co., Naples, Italy, EU.

The flowers show their Canna flaccida heritage and fade very quickly, but while they are young they are an absolute delight.

References

 RHS Journal of 1908-9.
 Árpád Mühle, 1909. Das Geschlecht der Canna

External links
 Canna 'Trinacria' in the Claines Canna Collection

Cannaceae
Ornamental plant cultivars

Canna 'Trinacria'


Heinrich Julius Christian Otto Friedrich Franz Anton Günter (born 29 April 1961) is a historian and publisher in Göttingen with publishing firm MatrixMedia.

Early life
Prince Heinrich is the youngest child of Ernest Augustus, Hereditary Prince of Brunswick, and his first wife Princess Ortrud of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. He was born in Hanover, Lower Saxony, Germany. His eldest brother, Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover, is the present head of the House of Hanover.

His father, a direct male descendant of the Hanoverian kings of Great Britain from George I to George III was born a British prince, confirmed by George V in 1914, but as a child lost the title due to the Titles Deprivation Act (1917). The House of Hanover refuses to recognise this letter and continues to bear the title of Prince (or Princess) of Great Britain and Ireland with the style of Royal Highness as titles of pretense. As it was entered into their German passports in 1914, the title still continues to be part of their official family name in Germany.

Professional life
Heinrich founded, owns and manages the publishing company MatrixMedia Verlag in Göttingen. The focal point of the house is history, namely local history of the state of Lower Saxony, of which the predecessor states were the Kingdom of Hanover and the Duchy of Brunswick, furthermore the history of the House of Welf, but also general historical items. The company publishes books, monographs, historiographies, memoirs, illustrated books and films. Furthermore, he is responsible for a website on the House of Welf called Welfen.de

Personal life
Heinrich was in a relationship with cabaret artist Désirée Nick (born 30 September 1956 in Berlin). They have a son:

Oscar Julius Heinrich Ferdinand Prinz von Hannover (29 September 1996 in Berlin).

On 30 April 1999, Heinrich married Thyra von Westernhagen at Teistungen estate, owned by the von Westernhagen family since 1283.

They have three children:
Prince Albert Thilo Ludwig Arndt of Hanover (14 December 1999)
Princess Eugenia Friederike of Hanover (19 July 2001)
Prince Julius Eduard Emanuel of Hanover (22 February 2006)

Literary works
Heinrich has authored the following books under the name Heinrich von Hannover:
 Georg II. König und Kurfürst. .
 Macht Intrigen und Verbannung – Welfen und Romanows am Zarenhof. .
 Welfisches Hannover. .
 Frauen vom Hof der Welfen. .
 Elisabeth Herzogin von Calenberg. .
 Nicht im Auftrag Ihrer Majestät. .
 Hannover zwischen den Mächten Europas. .
 Welfenbericht. .

References

External links

 www.Welfen.de – Official site of the House of Hanover

1961 births
Living people
Nobility from Hanover
Hanoverian princes
20th-century German historians
German male non-fiction writers
Businesspeople from Hanover
21st-century German historians

Heinrich Prinz von Hannover


A trolleybus (also known as trolley bus, trolley coach, trackless trolley, trackless tramin the 1910s and 1920sor trolley) is an electric bus that draws power from dual overhead wires (generally suspended from roadside posts) using spring-loaded trolley poles. Two wires, and two trolley poles, are required to complete the electrical circuit. This differs from a tram or streetcar, which normally uses the track as the return path, needing only one wire and one pole (or pantograph). They are also distinct from other kinds of electric buses, which usually rely on batteries. Power is most commonly supplied as 600-volt direct current, but there are exceptions.

Currently, around 300 trolleybus systems are in operation, in cities and towns in 43 countries. Altogether, more than 800 trolleybus systems have existed, but not more than about 400 concurrently.

History

The trolleybus dates back to 29 April 1882, when Dr. Ernst Werner Siemens demonstrated his "Elektromote" in a Berlin suburb. This experiment continued until 13 June 1882, after which there were few developments in Europe, although separate experiments were conducted in the United States. In 1899, another vehicle which could run either on or off rails was demonstrated in Berlin. The next development was when Louis Lombard-Gérin operated an experimental line at the Paris Exhibition of 1900 after four years of trials, with a circular route around Lake Daumesnil that carried passengers. Routes followed in six places including Eberswalde and Fontainebleau. Max Schiemann on 10 July 1901 opened the world's fourth passenger-carrying trolleybus system, which operated at Bielatal (Biela Valley, near Dresden), Germany. Schiemann built and operated the Bielatal system, and is credited with developing the under-running trolley current collection system, with two horizontally parallel overhead wires and rigid trolleypoles spring-loaded to hold them up to the wires. Although this system operated only until 1904, Schiemann had developed what is now the standard trolleybus current collection system. In the early days there were many other methods of current collection. The Cédès-Stoll (Mercédès-Électrique-Stoll) system was first operated near Dresden between 1902 and 1904, and 18 systems followed. The Lloyd-Köhler or Bremen system was tried out in Bremen with 5 further installations, and the Cantono Frigerio system was used in Italy.

Throughout this period, trackless freight systems and electric canal boats were also built.

Leeds and Bradford became the first cities to put trolleybuses into service in Great Britain, on 20 June 1911. Supposedly, though it was opened on 20 June, the public was not admitted to the Bradford route until the 24th. Bradford was also the last city to operate trolleybuses in the UK; the system closed on 26 March 1972. The last rear-entrance trolleybus in service in Britain was also in Bradford and is now owned by the Bradford Trolleybus Association. Birmingham was the first UK city to replace a tram route with trolleybuses, while Wolverhampton, under the direction of Charles Owen Silvers, became world-famous for its trolleybus designs. There were 50 trolleybus systems in the UK, London's being the largest. By the time trolleybuses arrived in Britain in 1911, the Schiemann system was well established and was the most common, although the Cédès-Stoll (Mercédès-Électrique-Stoll) system was tried in West Ham (in 1912) and in Keighley (in 1913).

Smaller trackless trolley systems were built in the US early as well. The first non-experimental system was a seasonal municipal line installed near Nantasket Beach in 1904; the first year-round commercial line was built to open a hilly property to development just outside Los Angeles in 1910. The trackless trolley was often seen as an interim step, leading to streetcars. In the US, some systems subscribed to the all-four concept of using buses, trolleybuses, streetcars (trams, trolleys), and rapid transit subway and/or elevated lines (metros), as appropriate, for routes ranging from the lightly used to the heaviest trunk line. Buses and trolleybuses in particular were seen as entry systems that could later be upgraded to rail as appropriate. In a similar fashion, many cities in Britain originally viewed trolleybus routes as extensions to tram (streetcar) routes where the cost of constructing or restoring track could not be justified at the time, though this attitude changed markedly (to viewing them as outright replacements for tram routes) in the years after 1918. Trackless trolleys were the dominant form of new post-World War I electric traction, with extensive systems in among others, Los Angeles, Chicago, Rhode Island, and Atlanta; Boston, San Francisco, and Philadelphia still maintain an "all-four" fleet.
Some trolleybus lines in the United States (and in Britain, as noted above) came into existence when a trolley or tram route did not have sufficient ridership to warrant track maintenance or reconstruction. In a similar manner, a proposed tram scheme in Leeds, United Kingdom, was changed to a trolleybus scheme to cut costs.

Trolleybuses are uncommon today in North America, but their use is widespread in Europe and Russia. They remain common in many countries which were part of the Soviet Union. Generally trolleybuses occupy a position in usage between street railways (trams) and motorbuses. Worldwide, around 300 cities or metropolitan areas on 5 continents are served by trolleybuses (further detail under Use and preservation, below).

This mode of transport operates in large cities, including Athens, Belgrade, Bratislava, Bucharest, Budapest, Chisinau, Geneva, Kyiv, Lyon, Minsk, Pyongyang, Riga, Rome, San Francisco, São Paulo, Sofia, St. Petersburg, Sarajevo, Tallinn, Vilnius, and Zurich, as well as in smaller ones such as Arnhem, Bergen, Bern, Coimbra, Dayton, Gdynia, Kaunas, Lausanne, Limoges, Lucerne, Modena, Plzeň, Prešov, Salzburg, Solingen, St. Gallen, Szeged, Winterthur and Yalta. As of 2020 Kyiv has, due to its history in the former Soviet Union, the largest trolleybus system in the world in terms of route length while another formerly Soviet city, Minsk, has the largest system in terms of number of routes (which also date back to the Soviet era). Landskrona has the smallest system in terms of route length while Mariánské Lázně is the smallest city to be served by trolleybuses. Opened in 1914, Shanghai's trolleybus system is the oldest operating system in the world. With a length of 86 km, route #52 of Crimean Trolleybus is the longest trolleybus line in the world. See also Trolleybus usage by country.

Transit authorities in some cities have reduced or discontinued the use of trolleybuses in recent years, while others, wanting to add or expand use of zero-emission vehicles in an urban environment, have opened new systems or are planning new systems. For example, new systems opened in Lecce, Italy, in 2012; in Malatya, Turkey, in 2015; and in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2017. Beijing and Shanghai have been expanding their respective systems, with Beijing expanding to a 31-line system operated with a fleet of over 1,250 trolleybuses. Trolleybuses have been long encouraged in North Korea with the newest city to have a network being Manpo in December 2019. Since the year 2022, the city of Prague is constructing a new trolleybus system. Meanwhile, in 2023, plans for a trolleybus line in Berlin were scrapped in favour of a solution with battery powered vehicles.

Vehicle design

Modern design vehicles

Advantages

Comparison to trams
Cheaper infrastructureThe initial start up cost of trams is much higher, due to rail, signals, and other infrastructure. Trolleybuses can pull over to the kerb like other buses, eliminating the need for special boarding stations or boarding islands in the middle of the street, thus stations can be moved as needed.
Better hill climbingTrolleybuses' rubber tyres have better adhesion than trams' steel wheels on steel rails, giving them better hill-climbing capability and braking.
Easier traffic avoidanceUnlike trams (where side tracks are often unavailable), an out-of-service vehicle can be moved to the side of the road and its trolley poles lowered. The ability to drive a substantial distance from the power wires allows trackless vehicles to avoid obstacles, although it also means a possibility that the vehicle may steer or skid far enough that the trolley pole can no longer reach the wire, stranding the vehicle. Trackless trolleys also are able to avoid collisions by manoeuvring around obstacles, similar to motor buses and other road vehicles, while streetcars can only change speed.
QuietnessTrolleybuses are generally quieter than trams.
Easier trainingThe control of trolleybuses is relatively similar to motorbuses; the potential operator pool for all buses is much larger than for trams.

Comparison to motorbuses

Disadvantages

Comparison to trams
Note: As there are numerous variations of tram and light-rail technology, the disadvantages listed may be applicable only with a specific technology or design.

Like any bus, much less capacity than trams.
More control requiredTrolleybuses must be driven like motorbuses, requiring directional control by the driver.
Higher rolling resistanceRubber-tired vehicles generally have more rolling resistance than steel wheels, which decreases energy efficiency.
Less efficient use of right-of-wayLanes must be wider for unguided buses than for streetcars, since unguided buses can drift side-to-side. The use of guidance rail allows trams running in parallel lanes to pass closer together than drivers could safely steer.
Difficulties with platform loadingImplementation of level platform loading with minimal gap, either at design stage or afterwards, is easier and cheaper to implement with rail vehicles.

Comparison to motorbuses
Difficult to re-routeWhen compared to motorbuses, trolleybuses have greater difficulties with temporary or permanent re-routings, wiring for which is not usually readily available outside of downtown areas where the buses may be re-routed via adjacent business area streets where other trolleybus routes operate. This problem was highlighted in Vancouver in July 2008, when an explosion closed several roads in the city's downtown core. Because of the closure, trolleys were forced to detour several miles off their route in order to stay on the wires, leaving major portions of their routes not in service and off-schedule.
AestheticsThe jumble of overhead wires may be seen as unsightly. Intersections often have a "webbed ceiling" appearance, due to multiple crossing and converging sets of trolley wires.
DewirementsTrolley poles sometimes come off the wire. Dewirements are relatively rare in modern systems with well-maintained overhead wires, hangers, fittings and contact shoes. Trolleybuses are equipped with special insulated pole ropes which drivers use to reconnect the trolley poles with the overhead wires. When approaching switches, trolleybuses usually must decelerate in order to avoid dewiring, and this deceleration can potentially add slightly to traffic congestion. In 1998, a dewirement in Shenyang on poorly maintained infrastructure killed 5 people and ultimately led to the destruction of the trolleybus network.
Unable to overtake other trolleybusesTrolleybuses cannot overtake one another in regular service unless two separate sets of wires with a switch are provided or the vehicles are equipped with off-wire capability, with the latter an increasingly common feature of new trolleybuses.
Higher capital cost of equipmentTrolleybuses are often long-lived equipment, with limited market demand. This generally leads to higher prices relative to internal combustion buses. The long equipment life may also complicate upgrades.
More training requiredDrivers must learn how to prevent dewiring, slowing down at turns and through switches in the overhead wire system, for example.
Overhead wires create obstructionTrolleybus systems employ overhead wires above the roads, often shared with other vehicles. The wires can restrict tall motor vehicles such as delivery trucks ("lorries") and double decker buses from using or crossing roads fitted with overhead wires, as such vehicles would hit the wires or pass dangerously close to them, risking damage and dangerous electrical faults. The wires also may impede positioning of overhead signage and create a hazard to activities such as road repairs using tall excavators or piling rigs, use of scaffolding, etc.

Off-wire power developments

With the re-introduction of hybrid designs, trolleybuses are no longer tied to overhead wires. The Public Service Company of New Jersey, with Yellow Coach, developed "All Service Vehicles"; trackless trolleys capable of operating as gas-electric buses when off wire, and used them successfully between 1935 and 1948. Since the 1980s, systems such as Muni in San Francisco, TransLink in Vancouver, and Beijing, among others, have bought trolleybuses equipped with batteries to allow them to operate fairly long distances away from the wires. Supercapacitors can be also used to move buses short distances.

Trolleybuses can optionally be equipped either with limited off-wire capability—a small diesel engine or battery pack—for auxiliary or emergency use only, or full dual-mode capability. A simple auxiliary power unit can allow a trolleybus to get around a route blockage or can reduce the amount (or complexity) of overhead wiring needed at operating garages (depots). This capability has become increasingly common in newer trolleybuses, particularly in China, North America and Europe, where the vast majority of new trolleybuses delivered since the 1990s are fitted with at least limited off-wire capability. These have gradually replaced older trolleybuses which lacked such capability. In Philadelphia, new trackless trolleys equipped with small hybrid diesel-electric power units for operating short distances off-wire were placed in service by SEPTA in 2008. This is instead of the trolleys using a conventional diesel drive train or battery-only system for their off-wire movement.

King County Metro in Seattle, Washington and the MBTA in Boston's Silver Line have used dual-mode buses that run on electric power from overhead wires on a fixed right-of-way and on diesel power on city streets. Metro used special-order articulated Breda buses, introduced in 1990, and most were retired in 2005. A limited number of the Breda dual-mode buses had their diesel engines removed, and operated exclusively as trolleybuses until 2016. Since 2004, the MBTA has used dual-mode buses on its Silver Line (Waterfront) route. These are due to be replaced by diesel hybrid and battery-electric buses by 2023.

With the development of battery technology in recent years, trolleybuses with extended off-wire capability through on-board batteries are becoming popular. The on-board battery is charged while the vehicle is in motion under the overhead wires and then allows off-wire travel for significant distances, often in excess of 15 km. Such trolleybuses are called, among others, trolleybuses with In-Motion Charging, hybrid trolleybuses, battery trolleybuses and electric buses with dynamic charging. The main advantages of this technology over conventional battery electric buses are reduced cost and weight of the battery due to its smaller size, no delays for charging at end stops as the vehicle charges while in motion and reduced need for dedicated charging stations that take up public space. This new development allows the extension of trolleybus routes or the electrification of bus routes without the need to build overhead wires along the whole length of the route. Cities that utilize such trolleybuses include Beijing, Ostrava, Shanghai, Mexico City, Saint Petersburg, and Bergen. The new trolleybus systems in Marrakesh, Baoding and Prague are based exclusively on battery trolleybuses. In 2020, the city of Berlin, Germany announced plans to build a new trolleybus system with 15 routes and 190 battery trolleybuses. However, in early 2023 it was announced that the planned lines would use battery powered electric buses instead.

Other considerations

With increasing diesel fuel costs and problems caused by particulate matter and NOx emissions in cities, trolleybuses can be an attractive alternative, either as the primary transit mode or as a supplement to rapid transit and commuter rail networks.

Trolleybuses are quieter than internal combustion engine vehicles. Mainly a benefit, it also provides much less warning of a trolleybus's approach. A speaker attached to the front of the vehicle can raise the noise to a desired "safe" level. This noise can be directed to pedestrians in front of the vehicle, as opposed to motor noise which typically comes from the rear of a bus and is more noticeable to bystanders than to pedestrians.

Trolleybuses can share overhead wires and other electrical infrastructure (such as substations) with tramways. This can result in cost savings when trolleybuses are added to a transport system that already has trams, though this refers only to potential savings over the cost of installing and operating trolleybuses alone.

The two parallel wires
The wires are attached to poles next to the street and carefully stretched and mounted so that they are the same width apart and same height over the road (usually about 18 to 20 feet (~5.7m)). The pair of wires is insulated from the poles and provides about 500 to 600 volts to the bus below.

Wire switches

Trolleybus wire switches (called "frogs" in the UK) are used where a trolleybus line branches into two or where two lines join. A switch may be either in a "straight through" or "turnout" position; it normally remains in the "straight through" position unless it has been triggered, and reverts to it after a few seconds or after the pole shoe passes through and strikes a release lever (in Boston, the resting or "default" position is the "leftmost" position). Triggering is typically accomplished by a pair of contacts, one on each wire close to and before the switch assembly, which power a pair of electromagnets, one in each frog with diverging wires ("frog" generally refers to one fitting that guides one trolley wheel/shoe onto a desired wire or across one wire. Occasionally, "frog" has been used to refer to the entire switch assembly).

Multiple branches may be handled by installing more than one switch assembly. For example, to provide straight-through, left-turn or right-turn branches at an intersection, one switch is installed some distance from the intersection to choose the wires over the left-turn lane, and another switch is mounted closer to or in the intersection to choose between straight through and a right turn (this would be the arrangement in countries such as the United States, where traffic directionality is right-handed; in left-handed traffic countries such as the United Kingdom and New Zealand, the first switch (before the intersection) would be used to access the right-turn lanes, and the second switch (usually in the intersection) would be for the left-turn).

Three common types of switches exist: power-on/power-off (the picture of a switch above is of this type), Selectric, and Fahslabend.

A power-on/power-off switch is triggered if the trolleybus is drawing considerable power from the overhead wires, usually by accelerating, at the moment the poles pass over the contacts (the contacts are lined up on the wires in this case). If the trolleybus "coasts" through the switch, the switch will not activate. Some trolleybuses, such as those in Philadelphia and Vancouver, have a manual "power-coast" toggle switch that turns the power on or off. This allows a switch to be triggered in situations that would otherwise be impossible, such as activating a switch while braking or accelerating through a switch without activating it. One variation of the toggle switch will simulate accelerating by causing a larger power draw (through a resistance grid), but will not simulate coasting and prevent activation of the switch by cutting the power.

A Selectric switch has a similar design, but the contacts on the wires are skewed, often at a 45-degree angle, rather than being lined up. This skew means that a trolleybus going straight through will not trigger the switch, but a trolleybus making a turn will have its poles match the contacts in a matching skew (with one pole shoe ahead of the other), which will trigger the switch regardless of power draw (accelerating versus coasting).

For a Fahslabend switch, the trolleybus' turn indicator control (or a separate driver-controlled switch) causes a coded radio signal to be sent from a transmitter, often attached to a trolley pole. The receiver is attached to the switch and causes it to trigger if the correct code is received. This has the advantage that the driver does not need to be accelerating the bus (as with a power-on/power-off switch) or trying to make a sharp turn (as with a Selectric switch).

Trailing switches (where two sets of wires merge) do not require action by the operator. The frog runners are pushed into the desired position by the trolley shoe, or the frog is shaped so the shoe is guided onto the exit wire without any moving parts.

Manufacturing

Well over 200 different trolleybus makers have existed – mostly commercial manufacturers, but in some cases (particularly in communist countries), built by the publicly owned operating companies or authorities. Of the defunct or former trolleybus manufacturers, the largest producers in North America and Western Europe – ones whose production totalled more than 1,000 units each – included the U.S. companies Brill (approx. 3,250 total), Pullman-Standard (2,007), and Marmon-Herrington (1,624); the English companies AEC (approx. 1,750), British United Traction (BUT) (1,573), Leyland (1,420) and Sunbeam (1,379); France's Vétra (more than 1,750); and the Italian builders Alfa Romeo (2,044) and Fiat (approx. 1,700). The largest former trolleybus manufacture is Trolza (formerly Uritsky, or ZiU) since 1951, until they declared their bankruptcy in 2017, building over 65000 trolleybuses. Also, Canadian Car and Foundry built 1,114 trolleybuses based on designs by Brill.

As of the 2010s, at least 30 trolleybus manufacturers exist. They include companies that have been building trolleybuses for several decades, such as Škoda since 1936 and New Flyer, among others, along with several younger companies. Current trolleybus manufacturers in western and central Europe include Solaris, Van Hool, and Hess, among others. In Russia ZiU/Trolza has historically been the world's largest trolleybus manufacturer, producing over 65,000 since 1951, mostly for Russia/CIS countries, but after its bankruptcy, its facilities were partially loaned out to PC Transport Systems. Škoda is Western and Central Europe's largest and the second largest in the world, having produced over 14,000 trolleybuses since 1936, mostly for export, and it also supplies trolleybus electrical equipment for other bus builders such as Solaris, SOR and Breda. In Mexico, trolleybus production ended when MASA, which had built more than 860 trolleybuses since 1979, was acquired in 1998 by Volvo. However, Dina, which is now that country's largest bus and truck manufacturer, began building trolleybuses in 2013.

Transition to low-floor designs
A significant change to trolleybus designs starting in the early 1990s was the introduction of low-floor models, which began only a few years after the first such models were introduced for motorbuses. These have gradually replaced high-floor designs, and by 2012, every existing trolleybus system in Western Europe had purchased low-floor trolleybuses, with the La Spezia (Italy) system being the last one to do so, and several systems in other parts of the world have purchased low-floor vehicles.

In the United States, some transit agencies had already begun to accommodate persons in wheelchairs by purchasing buses with wheelchair lifts, and early examples of fleets of lift-equipped trolleybuses included 109 AM General trolleybuses built for the Seattle trolleybus system in 1979 and the retrofitting of lifts in 1983 to 64 Flyer E800s in the Dayton system's fleet. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 required that all new transit vehicles placed into service after 1 July 1993 be accessible to such passengers.

Trolleybuses in other countries also began to introduce better access for the disabled in the 1990s, when the first two low-floor trolleybus models were introduced in Europe, both built in 1991, a "Swisstrolley" demonstrator built by Switzerland's NAW/Hess and an N6020 demonstrator built by Neoplan. The first production-series low-floor trolleybuses were built in 1992: 13 by NAW for the Geneva system and 10 Gräf & Stift for the . By 1995, such vehicles were also being made by several other European manufacturers, including Skoda, Breda, Ikarus, and Van Hool. The first Solaris "Trollino" made its debut in early 2001. In the former Soviet Union countries, Belarus' Belkommunmash built its first low-floor trolleybus (model AKSM-333) in 1999, and other manufacturers in the former Soviet countries joined the trend in the early 2000s.

However, because the lifespan of a trolleybus is typically longer than that of a motorbus, the budget allocation and purchase typically factored in the longevity; the introduction of low-floor vehicles applied pressures on operators to retire high-floor trolleybuses that were only a few years old and replace them with low-floor trolleybuses. Responses varied, with some systems keeping their high-floor fleets, and others retiring them early but, in many instances, selling them second-hand for continued use in countries where there was a demand for low-cost second-hand trolleybuses, in particular in Romania and Bulgaria. The Lausanne system dealt with this dilemma in the 1990s by purchasing new low-floor passenger trailers to be towed by its high-floor trolleybuses, a choice later also made by Lucerne.

Outside Europe, 14 vehicles built by, and for, the Shanghai trolleybus system in mid-1999 were the first reported low-floor trolleybuses in Southeast Asia. Wellington, New Zealand, took delivery of its first low-floor trolleybus in March 2003, and by the end of 2009 had renewed its entire fleet with such vehicles. Unlike Europe, where low floor means "100%" low floor from front to back, most "low floor" buses on other continents are actually only low-entry or part-low floor.

In the Americas, the first low-floor trolleybus was a Busscar vehicle supplied to the São Paulo EMTU system in 2001. In North America, wheelchair lifts were again chosen for disabled access in new trolleybuses delivered to San Francisco in 1992–94, to Dayton in 1996–1999, and to Seattle in 2001–2002, but the first low-floor trolleybus was built in 2003, with the first of 28 Neoplan vehicles for the Boston system. Subsequently, the Vancouver system and the Philadelphia system have converted entirely to low-floor vehicles, and in 2013 the Seattle and Dayton systems both placed orders for their first low-floor trolleybuses. Outside São Paulo, almost all trolleybuses currently in service in Latin America are high-floor models built before 2000. However, in 2013, the first domestically manufactured low-floor trolleybuses were introduced in both Argentina and Mexico.

With regard to non-passenger aspects of vehicle design, the transition from high-floor to low-floor has meant that some equipment previously placed under the floor has been moved to the roof. Some transit operators have needed to modify their maintenance facilities to accommodate this change, a one-time expense.

Double-decker trolleybuses

Since the end of 1997, no double-decker trolleybuses have been in service anywhere in the world, but, in the past, several manufacturers made such vehicles. Most builders of double-deck trolleybuses were in the United Kingdom, but there were a few, usually solitary, instances of such trolleybuses being built in other countries, including in Germany by Henschel (for Hamburg); in Italy, by Lancia (for Porto, Portugal); in Russia, by the Yaroslavl motor plant (for Moscow) and in Spain, by Maquitrans (for Barcelona). British manufacturers of double-deck trolleybuses included AEC, BUT, Crossley, Guy, Leyland, Karrier, Sunbeam and others.

In 2001, Citybus (Hong Kong) converted a Dennis Dragon (#701) into a double-decker trolleybus, and it was tested on a 300-metre track in Wong Chuk Hang in that year. Hong Kong decided not to build a trolleybus system, and the testing of this prototype did not lead to any further production of vehicles.

Use and preservation

There are currently 300 cities or metropolitan areas where trolleybuses are operated, and more than 500 additional trolleybus systems have existed in the past. For an overview, by country, see Trolleybus usage by country, and for complete lists of trolleybus systems by location, with dates of opening and (where applicable) closure, see List of trolleybus systems and the related lists indexed there.

Of the systems existing as of 2012, the majority are located in Europe and Asia, including 85 in Russia and 43 in Ukraine. However, there are eight systems existing in North America and nine in South America.

Trolleybuses have been preserved in most of the countries where they have operated. The United Kingdom has the largest number of preserved trolleybuses with more than 110, while the United States has around 70. Most preserved vehicles are on static display only, but a few museums are equipped with a trolleybus line, allowing trolleybuses to operate for visitors. Museums with operational trolleybus routes include three in the UK – the Trolleybus Museum at Sandtoft, the East Anglia Transport Museum, and the Black Country Living Museum – and three in the United States – the Illinois Railway Museum, the Seashore Trolley Museum, and the Shore Line Trolley Museum – but operation of trolleybuses does not necessarily occur on a regular schedule of dates at these museums.

See also

 Battery electric bus
Bus rapid transit
Dual-mode bus
Electric bus
 Electric-vehicle battery
 Electromote
Guided bus
 Gyrobus
List of trolleybus manufacturers
List of trolleybus systems
 Parallel overhead lines
Traction substation
Trolleytruck

Notes

Further reading
 Bruce, Ashley R. Lombard-Gerin and Inventing the Trolleybus. (2017) Trolleybooks (UK).
 Cheape, Charles W. Moving the masses: urban public transit in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, 1880-1912 (Harvard University Press, 1980)
 Dunbar, Charles S. (1967). Buses, Trolleys & Trams. Paul Hamlyn Ltd. (UK) [republished 2004 with  or 9780753709702]
 McKay, John P. Tramways and Trolleys: The Rise of Urban Mass Transport in Europe (1976)
 Murray, Alan (2000). World Trolleybus Encyclopaedia. Trolleybooks (UK).
 Porter, Harry; and Worris, Stanley F.X. (1979). Trolleybus Bulletin No. 109: Databook II. North American Trackless Trolley Association (defunct)
 Sebree, Mac; and Ward, Paul (1973). Transit's Stepchild, The Trolley Coach (Interurbans Special 58). Los Angeles: Interurbans. LCCN 73-84356
 Sebree, Mac; and Ward, Paul (1974). The Trolley Coach in North America (Interurbans Special 59). Los Angeles: Interurbans. LCCN 74-20367

Periodicals
 Trolleybus Magazine (). National Trolleybus Association (UK), bi-monthly
 Trackless, Bradford Trolleybus Association, quarterly
 Trolleybus, British Trolleybus Society (UK), monthly

External links

(in German) TrolleyMotionan international action group to promote modern trolleybus systems, and database of systems in the world
British Trolleybuses
Trolleybuses in Latin America
North American trolleybus pictures
Trolleybuses in Europe
Urban Electric Transit - Database/Photo gallery

Buses by type

Electric buses
Sustainable transport
Articles containing video clips

Trolleybus


Solace of Requiem is an extreme metal band originally from Virginia Beach, Virginia. The group formed in 2001 with traditional death metal roots but began combining elements of technical death metal and black metal by the time of their 2010 release. Their 2014 album, Casting Ruin, is often referred to as part of the subgenre known as technical blackened death metal.

Sound

Considered a mix of technical death metal, black metal, and brutal death metal with most caveats the genre normally has to offer, including extreme vocals, the normal barrage of blast beats and abundant double bass drumming, as well as guitar-work with sweep picking and arpeggios. However, the band has also integrated the study of binaural audio into the structures of their songs, which gives them an augmented sound and odd compositional structure. This is not to say that they have changed the frequencies of their music, rather that they have applied this knowledge to compose highly poly-rhythmic structures within their songs. Both guitars are being hard panned to their own speaker respectively, so listening to only one speaker gives the impression of a different song as opposed to listening to the piece as a whole. The band also structures their music similarly to the way classical music was written, lending a neoclassical feel to their sound. They blend together technical instrumentation with a mix of things including classical passages, doom riffs, midi instruments, and an overall dark ambiance.

Lyrics
The lyrics have their basic roots in philosophy, typically very dark in essence. Themes include expressions of hatred, brutality, psychology, hopelessness, and secular minded philosophy based on scientific principles. The style is often poetic, and presented with rotating perspectives.

History

Formation and self-titled album (2001–2005)

The initial lineup of Solace of Requiem (Jeff Sumrell, Chris Young, and Luke Downing) began under the moniker Sarcophagus when they were just teenagers in 1990. They took hiatus in 1993, and it wasn't until 2001 that they reunited under the name Solace of Requiem. In 2004 they recorded their first full length (self-titled) album which featured the cover song "I Need You" by Grave (from their Soulless album), after permissions were granted by Century Media Records. The self titled album was recorded at Master Sound Studio in Virginia Beach, VA. The album attained international distribution in 2004 and a video was eventually produced for the song "Beyond Grace". It was at this time that the band stopped playing exclusively in Virginia, and started booking tours which took them to other parts of the US.

Utopia Reborn (2005–2006)

Following the release of the self titled album, Solace of Requiem had plans to record new material which they had been working on all year. Considering their budget was limited, they decided to mail their self-titled album out to try and secure a record deal. This eventually lead to the band singing with German record label Ruptured Silence Records later in 2005. Luke Downing, the drummer at the time, decided he wanted to pursue another line of work full time, leaving Solace of Requiem to recruit a new drummer. They then hired session drummer Joe Walmer from Pennsylvania's Aletheian so they could begin working on their new album. Jeff, Chris, and Joe recorded Solace of Requiem's second full length album, Utopia Reborn at Worlds End Studio in January 2006 in Kall, Germany. Also appearing on Utopia Reborn (as a guest vocalist) would be Brett Hoffman most commonly known for his work with Malevolent Creation. Utopia Reborn would then be released later that year, garnering nonlocal and even international attention, as well as features in prominent magazines of the time Metal Maniacs and Decibel.

The Great Awakening (2006–2010)

Soon after the release of Utopia Reborn, Solace of Requiem decided it was best to part ways with Ruptured Silence Records. During this period, Chris Young felt he could no longer continue on with the band. Joe Walmer's band Aletheian also received a record deal which led him to pursue that project full time. Jeff Sumrell decided to continue on and planned an American tour, a video shoot for the song "Red Sea", and a European tour. At this point drummer Dave Tedesco (NJ) was recruited, as well as guitarist Aaron Lott (MN). Lott only ended up doing the first tour and was then replaced by guitarist Jesse Bartlett (NY) for the video and the European tour. After the tour though, Bartlett left the band and Sumrell was forced to yet again find a guitarist, this time one who would be willing to record the new album he had been writing for some time. So in 2007, Chris Armijo (CA) joined Solace of Requiem and they began as a unit preparing for the studio. The Great Awakening would be recorded later in 2007 with producer Andy Classen at Stage One Studio in Germany, and the band did a three-week tour following its recording. They spent approximately two years looking for a proper label to release the album, but after not receiving any adequate offers, they released The Great Awakening on their own in 2010. This album was a big changing point for the sound of the band. They transitioned from more of a mid-paced, melodic yet heavy sound, to a strictly tech-death sound performing at very high BPMs with a bit of a black metal influence. Though not receiving any help from a label, the band still managed to use its new sound and past resources to gain publicity and reach out to a new audience who met The Great Awakening with some high-quality reviews.

Touring and lineup changes (2008–2012)
For the next few years the band would not record an album, though this did not stop them from touring every year. At this time period (2008), due to the new music being much more polyrhythmic, they hired a second guitar player named George Arguello (CA). Upon hiring George they travelled out to the midwest for a tour, and prepared for the winter when they would tour Europe again with their full lineup. In January the band then began the Only Death is For Nothing tour with Austria's Lost Dreams and Moshquito from Germany. In 2010, accompanying the release of The Great Awakening they toured with veteran Florida death metal act Resurrection, known as the Resurrected in Europe tour. As 2011 came, George Arguello would quit performing live guitarist duties, leading Solace of Requiem to hire Richard Gulczynski (PA). Gulczynski was known as the touring bass player for Decapitated and is also currently a guitarist for Single Bullet Theory. The band then embarked on a 24 date European tour named the No End to Suffering tour, opening for Vomitory and Prostitute Disfigurement. They also toured for one week beforehand with German group Disbelief on the Believe in Nothing tour.

Casting Ruin (2012–present)
In 2012 Solace of Requiem stayed fairly stagnant, playing only a few shows. At this point they had been writing music and decided it was time to get back to the studio to record their fourth full length album, however Chris Armijo decided he would no longer be a part of the band. This left Jeff, Dave, and Richard alone to prepare heavily for the session that was to come and to focus on the sound they wanted to achieve. They decided to use Erik Rutan's Mana Recording Studio in St. Petersburg, Florida and hired Brian Elliott as the producer in February 2013. They titled the album Casting Ruin and allowed Brian to do the recording, mixing, and mastering. Later that year they embarked on a smaller European tour, which marked the arrival of touring guitarist Kevin Heiderich to the lineup. After the tour they signed a record deal with ViciSolum Productions for the release of Casting Ruin. It was released publicly on August 29, 2014. The band also self-produced a music video for their track "Soiling The Fields of Putridity" which was released around the same time as the album. Critics familiar with the band considered Casting Ruin the bands finest work. It was reviewed by the prominent metal webzine Metalsucks as well as featured in Zero Tolerance and Terrorizer magazines. Further down the road in 2014, the band embarked on a European tour as direct support of Ulcerate and Wormed.

Members

Current members
 Jeff Sumrell – vocals, bass guitar, main composer (2001–present)
 Dave Tedesco – drums (2006–present)
 Richard Gulczynski – lead, rhythm guitars (2011–present)

Former members

Guitar
 Chris Young (2001–2006)
 Chris Armijo (2007–2011)

Drums
 Luke Downing (2001–2005)
 Joe Walmer (2005–2006)

Live members

Guitar
 Jesse Bartlett (2006)
 Aaron Lott (2006)
 George Arguello (2008–2011)
 Kevin Heiderich (2013–2014)

Timeline

Discography

References

External links

 Solace of Requiem Discography at Metal-Archives

American death metal musical groups
American technical death metal musical groups
American blackened death metal musical groups
Musical groups established in 2001
American musical trios

Solace of Requiem


A disposable (also called disposable product) is a product designed to be used only once, and then it would be recycled or is thrown away as solid waste. The word often implies cheapness and short-term convenience instead of something that will last for a long time. The term is also sometimes used for products that may last several months (e.g. disposable air filters) to distinguish from similar things that last forever (e.g. washable air filters).

Word meaning
"Disposable" is an adjective meaning "something not reuseable but is disposed of after use". Many people now use the word as a noun or substantive (i.e. "a disposable") but it is still an adjective. This is because the noun (product, nappy, etc.) is implied.

Other websites

 How disposable chopsticks are made (video).

Pollution

Disposable product


The Northern Provinces of South Africa is a biogeographical area used in the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions (WGSRPD). It is part of the WGSRPD region 27 Southern Africa. The area has the code "TVL". It includes the South African provinces of Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Limpopo (Northern Province) and North West, together making up an area slightly larger than the former Transvaal Province.

See also

 Cape Provinces

References

Bibliography

Biogeography

Northern Provinces


Thomas Cadell (1742–1802), often referred to as Thomas Cadell the elder, was a successful 18th-century English bookseller who published works by some of the most famous writers of the 18th century.

The business was continued by his son, Thomas Cadell (1773–1836), often referred to as Thomas Cadell the younger,  who went into business with William Davies as Cadell & Davies until Davies death in 1819. Cadell continued in business until his own death in 1836.

History
Thomas Cadell was born in Bristol to William and Mary Cadell and baptized on 12 November 1742. On 7 March 1758, Cadell's father apprenticed him for a fee of £105 to London bookseller and publisher Andrew Millar. Cadell became Millar's partner in April 1765, having just finished his seven-year apprenticeship, and took over the business with the help of Millar's assistant, Robert Lawless, upon Millar's death in 1768. Now a successful bookseller, Cadell married the daughter of Reverend Thomas Jones on 1 April 1769.

Cadell ran his business out of 141 Strand for over 25 years, sometimes partnering with William Strahan and later Andrew Strahan. He published works by notable authors, whom he paid well. For example, Cadell and Strahan published Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–88), Henry Mackenzie's The Man of Feeling (1771) and the poetry of Robert Burns. Cadell wrote to Gibbon in 1787: "I had rather risk my fortune with a few such Authors as Mr Gibbon, Dr Robertson, D Hume … than be the publisher of a hundred insipid publications". He also published works by the jurist William Blackstone, the philosopher David Hume, the author and critic Samuel Johnson, the philosopher and economist Adam Smith, the novelist Tobias Smollett, the novelist Frances Burney, the poet and French Revolution supporter Helen Maria Williams, the historian Catharine Macaulay, and the moralist Hannah More. He also published the novels of Charlotte Smith until her works became too radical, refusing to publish Desmond in 1792.

Cadell had a strong relationship with Samuel Johnson. Cadell was part of the group of booksellers who convinced the famous critic to write Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets (1779–81). He also published Johnson's political tracts of the 1770s and, together with Strahan, his A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland (1775). After Johnson died, Cadell published Hester Thrale Piozzi's Letters and Anecdotes about Johnson.

Cadell was well liked by other booksellers and he helped establish the booksellers' dining club which met each month at the Shakespeare tavern in Wych Street. Together, they prosecuted infringements on their copyrights from Scottish and Irish printers.

In January 1786, Cadell's wife died. The couple had two children. His daughter married Dr. Charles Lucas Eldridge, chaplain to George III. His son, Thomas Cadell the younger, took over the family business when his father retired in 1793.

After his retirement, Cadell served on the boards of several philanthropic institutions, such as the Foundling Hospital. In March 1798, he was elected alderman of Walbrook and served as sheriff from 1800 to 1801. He was also master of the Stationers' Company from 1798 to 1799 and stock-keeper in 1800.

Cadell died at his home on 27 December 1802 from an asthma attack.

Notes

Bibliography
Dille, Catherine. "Thomas Cadell, the elder (1742-1802)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. January 2008. Retrieved 16 February 2009.

External links

 "www.millar-project.ed.ac.uk." University of Edinburgh.

English booksellers
Publishers (people) from London
1742 births
1802 deaths

Thomas Cadell (publisher)


Dilaram Acharya is a Nepalese politician. He was elected to the Pratinidhi Sabha in the 1999 election, as a candidate of Rashtriya Jana Morcha (the electoral front of the Communist Party of Nepal (Masal) (2006)) in the constituency of Argakhanchi-1 with 23,452 votes.

When Janamorcha Nepal was formed in 2002 through the merger of RJM and Samyukta Janamorcha Nepal, Acharya became a member of JMN. When JMN split in 2006, Acharya sided with Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre-Masal) (the parent party of JMN) general secretary Mohan Bikram Singh and Chitra Bahadur K.C. in rejecting participation the Seven Party Alliance government. Effectively JMN was split. A conference of the JMN led by Chitra Bahadur K.C. was held in Butwal May 25–26, 2006, in which Acharya was elected General Secretary of this JMN faction. The Chitra Bahadur K.C./Dilaram Acharya-led JMN was renamed as the Rashtriya Jana Morcha in 2007.

References

Rastriya Janamorcha politicians
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Nepal MPs 1999–2002
Khas people

Dilaram Acharya


Thomas Trail Fenton (born 8 April 1930) is a former television correspondent who retired in 2004 after a 34-year career with CBS News.

Fenton graduated from Dartmouth College in 1952 with a B.A. in English and was an officer in the United States Navy from 1952 to 1961, serving on destroyers in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. His Navy service placed him in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba in 1952, and in the Mediterranean Sea during the 1958 Lebanon Crisis.

Career in journalism
After leaving the navy, Fenton began his career in journalism as a domestic and foreign correspondent for the Baltimore Sun, where he worked from 1961 to 1969. While with the Sun, he reported on affairs in the Middle East and Europe, including the 1967 Six-Day War and the 1968 "Days of May" in Paris. His 1968 reporting earned Fenton an award from the Overseas Press Club.

Fenton joined CBS News as a Rome-based correspondent in 1970, and conducted the first interview with hostages taken that year by the Palestine Liberation Organization. He later reported on the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the 1973 Yom Kippur War, and the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus. When Ayatollah Khomeini overthrew the Shah of Iran in 1979, Fenton was the first western journalist to interview Iran's new leader. He later returned to Tehran to report on the Iran hostage crisis.

In 1991, Fenton was in Israel during the first Gulf War to report on the effects of Scud missile attacks from Iraq. Later that year, he was in Moscow to cover the fall of the Soviet Union. During the 1990s, Fenton reported on the wars in the Balkans, and violence in the Middle East and Africa.

During his CBS career, Fenton served as the network's Bureau Chief in Rome, Italy, (1970-1973), Tel Aviv, Israel, (1973-1977), Paris, France, (1977-1979), London, United Kingdom, (1979-1994), Moscow, Russia, (1994-1996), and London again (1996-2004).

After retiring, Fenton wrote the book, Bad News: The Decline of Reporting, the Business of News, and the Danger to Us All, published in 2005. ()

External links
 "CBS News' Thomas Fenton Retires" from CBS News
 Mad as Hell from the Urbanite Magazine
 Video interview for The Real News

1930 births
American male journalists
American newspaper reporters and correspondents
American television reporters and correspondents
American war correspondents
Dartmouth College alumni
Living people
Mass media people from Baltimore
United States Navy officers

Tom Fenton


Javier Guerrero García (born 20 October 1958) is a Mexican politician affiliated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party. He currently represents Coahuila and the second electoral region as a deputy in the LXIII Legislature of the Mexican Congress.

Life
Guerrero García's lengthy political career began when he joined the PRI in 1979, after he graduated from the Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila with a degree in political science and public administration. After obtaining a master's degree from the National Public Administration Institute (INAP) in 1981, he briefly served as the institution's president in 1982 before beginning a lengthy public service and party career. He worked on the PRI's 1982 presidential campaign in regional get-out-the-vote efforts and then bounced around different government agencies: he worked briefly in the Secretariat of the Interior, then in the Secretariat of Agricultural Reform as a technical secretary and program coordinator, and between 1985 and 1987, he worked in the General Comptroller of the Federation. Additionally, he was a professor at schools including the Universidad Iberoamericana, UNAM, INAP and the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México.

1988 marked a watershed for Guerrero García, as he became the municipal president of San Pedro de las Colonias, his birthplace. His term ended in 1990, and after a brief stint in the National Solidarity Program, the PRI sent him to a legislature for the first time. In the LV Legislature of the Mexican Congress, which met between 1991 and 1994, Guerrero sat on a finance oversight commission, as well as those dealing with the budget and agricultural reform. Simultaneously, he also served on the advisory council of the National Solidarity Program.

After a three-year stretch as the deputy director general of operations of the DIF, Guerrero returned to San Lázaro for the LVII Legislature of the Mexican Congress. In his second tour as a deputy, he sat on commissions dealing with Science and Technology; Bicameral for Peace and Reconciliation; Municipal Strengthening; and Programming, Budget and Public Accounts. In 1999, Guerrero was tapped as the state finance secretary of Coahuila and remained in that position for almost all of the six-year term of Governor Enrique Martínez y Martínez.

Throughout all of this, Guerrero rose through the ranks in the PRI and its affiliated . He served as a deputy national secretary and as an alternate to the secretary of organization in the CNC; assisted in PRI gubernatorial campaigns; and ran as a candidate for secretary general of the PRI in 2000. In 2005, he made a run for Governor of Coahuila, but the PRI opted to select Humberto Moreira as its candidate instead.

In 2006, Guerrero returned once more to the federal legislature as a deputy to the LX Legislature of the Mexican Congress. He was a secretary on the Committee for the Center for the Study of Public Finances and on the Budget and Public Accounts Commission. He also sat on commissions dealing with civil service, finances, auditing, and the special commission formed to investigate the Pasta de Conchos mine disaster. In 2008, while still in the legislature, he became the PRI's national secretary of social management for a three-year term.

With his term as a PRI secretary completed, in 2011, Guerrero García made a brief return to the Coahuila state cabinet as the secretary of economic development; a year later, he moved to the Secretariat of Social Development (SEDESOL), where he was a deputy secretary of community development and social participation.

For the fourth time, the PRI sent Guerrero to the Chamber of Deputies in 2015, this time as a proportional representation deputy instead of from the Second Federal Electoral District of Coahuila. As has been the case in prior legislatures, his commission assignments are largely financial and budgetary; for instance, yet again, Guerrero sits on the Budget and Public Accounts Commission, as well as the oversight commission for the Superior Auditor of the Federation and the Committee for the Center for the Study of Public Finances. However, owing to his recent post in the SEDESOL, he is the president of the Social Development Commission. He is also considered a potential contender for the PRI candidacy in the 2017 gubernatorial election in Coahuila.

References

1958 births
Living people
Politicians from Coahuila
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico) for Coahuila
Institutional Revolutionary Party politicians
21st-century Mexican politicians
Autonomous University of Coahuila alumni
Academic staff of Universidad Iberoamericana
Academic staff of the National Autonomous University of Mexico
Academic staff of the Autonomous University of Mexico State
20th-century Mexican politicians
Deputies of the LXIII Legislature of Mexico

Javier Guerrero García