The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the first wide-area packet-switched network with distributed control and one of the first computer networks to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite. Both technologies became the technical foundation of the Internet. The ARPANET was established by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United States Department of Defense.

Building on the ideas of J. C. R. Licklider, Bob Taylor initiated the ARPANET project in 1966 to enable resource sharing between remote computers. Taylor appointed Larry Roberts as program manager. Roberts made the key decisions about the request for proposal to build the network. He incorporated Donald Davies' concepts and designs for packet switching, and sought input from Paul Baran. ARPA awarded the contract to build the network to Bolt Beranek & Newman. The design was led by Bob Kahn who developed the first protocol for the network. Roberts engaged Leonard Kleinrock at UCLA to develop mathematical methods for analyzing the packet network technology.

The first computers were connected in 1969 and the Network Control Protocol was implemented in 1970, development of which was led by Steve Crocker at UCLA and other graduate students, including Vint Cerf. The network was declared operational in 1971. Further software development enabled remote login and file transfer, which was used to provide an early form of email. The network expanded rapidly and operational control passed to the Defense Communications Agency in 1975.

Stephen J. Lukasik directed DARPA to focus on internetworking research in the early 1970s. Bob Kahn moved to DARPA and, together with Vint Cerf at Stanford University formulated the Transmission Control Program, which incorporated concepts from the French CYCLADES project directed by Louis Pouzin. As this work progressed, a protocol was developed by which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks. Version 4 of TCP/IP was installed in the ARPANET for production use in January 1983 after the Department of Defense made it standard for all military computer networking.

Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In the early 1980s, the NSF funded the establishment of national supercomputing centers at several universities and provided network access and network interconnectivity with the NSFNET project in 1986. The ARPANET was formally decommissioned in 1990, after partnerships with the telecommunication and computer industry had assured private sector expansion and future commercialization of an expanded worldwide network, known as the Internet.

History

Inspiration
Historically, voice and data communications were based on methods of circuit switching, as exemplified in the traditional telephone network, wherein each telephone call is allocated a dedicated end-to-end electronic connection between the two communicating stations. The connection is established by switching systems that connected multiple intermediate call legs between these systems for the duration of the call.

The traditional model of the circuit-switched telecommunication network was challenged in the early 1960s by Paul Baran at the RAND Corporation, who had been researching systems that could sustain operation during partial destruction, such as by nuclear war. He developed the theoretical model of distributed adaptive message block switching. However, the telecommunication establishment rejected the development in favor of existing models. Donald Davies at the United Kingdom's National Physical Laboratory (NPL) independently arrived at a similar concept in 1965.

The earliest ideas for a computer network intended to allow general communications among computer users were formulated by computer scientist J. C. R. Licklider of Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN), in April 1963, in memoranda discussing the concept of the "Intergalactic Computer Network". Those ideas encompassed many of the features of the contemporary Internet. In October 1963, Licklider was appointed head of the Behavioral Sciences and Command and Control programs at the Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). He convinced Ivan Sutherland and Bob Taylor that this network concept was very important and merited development, although Licklider left ARPA before any contracts were assigned for development.

Sutherland and Taylor continued their interest in creating the network, in part, to allow ARPA-sponsored researchers at various corporate and academic locales to utilize computers provided by ARPA, and, in part, to quickly distribute new software and other computer science results. Taylor had three computer terminals in his office, each connected to separate computers, which ARPA was funding: one for the System Development Corporation (SDC) Q-32 in Santa Monica, one for Project Genie at the University of California, Berkeley, and another for Multics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Taylor recalls the circumstance: "For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So, if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C., and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley, or M.I.T., about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. I said, 'Oh Man!', it's obvious what to do: If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go. That idea is the ARPANET".

Donald Davies' work caught the attention of ARPANET developers at Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in October 1967. He gave the first public presentation, having coined the term packet switching, in August 1968 and incorporated it into the NPL network in England. The NPL network and ARPANET were the first two networks in the world to use packet switching. Roberts said the ARPANET and other packet switching networks built in the 1970s were similar "in nearly all respects" to Davies' original 1965 design.

Creation
In February 1966, Bob Taylor successfully lobbied ARPA's Director Charles M. Herzfeld to fund a network project. Herzfeld redirected funds in the amount of one million dollars from a ballistic missile defense program to Taylor's budget. Taylor hired Larry Roberts as a program manager in the ARPA Information Processing Techniques Office in January 1967 to work on the ARPANET.

Roberts asked Frank Westervelt to explore the initial design questions for a network. In April 1967, ARPA held a design session on technical standards. The initial standards for identification and authentication of users, transmission of characters, and error checking and retransmission procedures were discussed. Roberts' proposal was that all mainframe computers would connect to one another directly. The other investigators were reluctant to dedicate these computing resources to network administration. Wesley Clark proposed minicomputers should be used as an interface to create a message switching network. Roberts modified the ARPANET plan to incorporate Clark's suggestion and named the minicomputers Interface Message Processors (IMPs).

The plan was presented at the inaugural Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in October 1967. Donald Davies' work on packet switching and the NPL network, presented by a colleague (Roger Scantlebury), came to the attention of the ARPA investigators at this conference. Roberts applied Davies' concept of packet switching for the ARPANET, and sought input from Paul Baran. The NPL network was using line speeds of 768 kbit/s, and the proposed line speed for the ARPANET was upgraded from 2.4 kbit/s to 50 kbit/s.

By mid-1968, Roberts and Barry Wessler wrote a final version of the IMP specification based on a Stanford Research Institute (SRI) report that ARPA commissioned to write detailed specifications describing the ARPANET communications network. Roberts gave a report to Taylor on 3 June, who approved it on 21 June. After approval by ARPA, a Request for Quotation (RFQ) was issued for 140 potential bidders. Most computer science companies regarded the ARPA proposal as outlandish, and only twelve submitted bids to build a network; of the twelve, ARPA regarded only four as top-rank contractors. At year's end, ARPA considered only two contractors and awarded the contract to build the network to BBN in January 1969.

The initial, seven-person BBN team were much aided by the technical specificity of their response to the ARPA RFQ, and thus quickly produced the first working system. The "IMP guys" were led by Frank Heart and the theoretical design of the network was led by Bob Kahn; the team included Dave Walden, Severo Omstein, William Crowther and several others. The BBN-proposed network closely followed Roberts' ARPA plan: a network composed of small computers, the IMPs (similar to the later concept of routers), that functioned as gateways interconnecting local resources. Routing, flow control, software design and network control were developed by the BBN IMP team. At each site, the IMPs performed store-and-forward packet switching functions and were interconnected with leased lines via telecommunication data sets (modems), with initial data rates of . The host computers were connected to the IMPs via custom serial communication interfaces. The system, including the hardware and the packet switching software, was designed and installed in nine months. The BBN team continued to interact with the NPL team with meetings between them taking place in the U.S. and the U.K.

The first-generation IMPs were built by BBN Technologies using a rugged computer version of the Honeywell DDP-516 computer, configured with  of expandable magnetic-core memory, and a 16-channel Direct Multiplex Control (DMC) direct memory access unit. The DMC established custom interfaces with each of the host computers and modems. In addition to the front-panel lamps, the DDP-516 computer also features a special set of 24 indicator lamps showing the status of the IMP communication channels. Each IMP could support up to four local hosts and could communicate with up to six remote IMPs via early Digital Signal 0 leased telephone lines. The network connected one computer in Utah with three in California. Later, the Department of Defense allowed the universities to join the network for sharing hardware and software resources.

Debate on design goals

According to Charles Herzfeld, ARPA Director (1965–1967):

Nonetheless, according to Stephen J. Lukasik, who as deputy director (1967–1970) and Director of DARPA (1970–1975) was "the person who signed most of the checks for Arpanet's development":

The ARPANET incorporated distributed computation, and frequent re-computation, of routing tables. This increased the survivability of the network in the face of significant interruption. Automatic routing was technically challenging at the time. The ARPANET was designed to survive subordinate-network losses, since the principal reason was that the switching nodes and network links were unreliable, even without any nuclear attacks.

The Internet Society agrees with Herzfeld in a footnote in their online article, A Brief History of the Internet:

Paul Baran, the first to put forward a theoretical model for communication using packet switching, conducted the RAND study referenced above. Though the ARPANET did not exactly share Baran's project's goal, he said his work did contribute to the development of the ARPANET. Minutes taken by Elmer Shapiro of Stanford Research Institute at the ARPANET design meeting of 9–10 October 1967 indicate that a version of Baran's routing method ("hot potato") may be used, consistent with the NPL team's proposal at the Symposium on Operating System Principles in Gatlinburg.

Implementation
The first four nodes were designated as a testbed for developing and debugging the 1822 protocol, which was a major undertaking. While they were connected electronically in 1969, network applications were not possible until the Network Control Protocol was implemented in 1970 enabling the first two host-host protocols, remote login (Telnet) and file transfer (FTP) which were specified and implemented between 1969 and 1973. The network was declared operational in 1971. Network traffic began to grow once email was established at the majority of sites by around 1973.

Initial four hosts
The first four IMPs were:

University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where Leonard Kleinrock had established a Network Measurement Center, with an SDS Sigma 7 being the first computer attached to it;
 The Augmentation Research Center at Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International), where Douglas Engelbart had created the new NLS system, an early hypertext system, and would run the Network Information Center (NIC), with the SDS 940 that ran NLS, named "Genie", being the first host attached;
University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), with the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center's IBM 360/75, running OS/MVT being the machine attached;
 The University of Utah School of Computing, where Ivan Sutherland had moved, running a DEC PDP-10 operating on TENEX.

The first successful host-to-host connection on the ARPANET was made between Stanford Research Institute (SRI) and UCLA, by SRI programmer Bill Duvall and UCLA student programmer Charley Kline, at 10:30 pm PST on 29 October 1969 (6:30 UTC on 30 October 1969). Kline connected from UCLA's SDS Sigma 7 Host computer (in Boelter Hall room 3420) to the Stanford Research Institute's SDS 940 Host computer. Kline typed the command "login," but initially the SDS 940 crashed after he typed two characters. About an hour later, after Duvall adjusted parameters on the machine, Kline tried again and successfully logged in. Hence, the first two characters successfully transmitted over the ARPANET were "lo". The first permanent ARPANET link was established on 21 November 1969, between the IMP at UCLA and the IMP at the Stanford Research Institute. By 5 December 1969, the initial four-node network was established.

Elizabeth Feinler created the first Resource Handbook for ARPANET in 1969 which led to the development of the ARPANET directory. The directory, built by Feinler and a team made it possible to navigate the ARPANET.

Growth and evolution
Roberts engaged Howard Frank to consult on the topological design of the network. Frank made recommendations to increase throughput and reduce costs in a scaled-up network. By March 1970, the ARPANET reached the East Coast of the United States, when an IMP at BBN in Cambridge, Massachusetts was connected to the network. Thereafter, the ARPANET grew: 9 IMPs by June 1970 and 13 IMPs by December 1970, then 18 by September 1971 (when the network included 23 university and government hosts); 29 IMPs by August 1972, and 40 by September 1973. By June 1974, there were 46 IMPs, and in July 1975, the network numbered 57 IMPs. By 1981, the number was 213 host computers, with another host connecting approximately every twenty days.

Support for inter-IMP circuits of up to 230.4 kbit/s was added in 1970, although considerations of cost and IMP processing power meant this capability was not actively used.

Larry Roberts saw the ARPANET and NPL projects as complementary and sought in 1970 to connect them via a satellite link. Peter Kirstein's research group at University College London (UCL) was subsequently chosen in 1971 in place of NPL for the UK connection. In June 1973, a transatlantic satellite link connected ARPANET to the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR), via the Tanum Earth Station in Sweden, and onward via a terrestrial circuit to a TIP at UCL. UCL provided a gateway for interconnection of the ARPANET with British academic networks, the first international resource sharing network, and carried out some of the earliest experimental research work on internetworking.

1971 saw the start of the use of the non-ruggedized (and therefore significantly lighter) Honeywell 316 as an IMP.
It could also be configured as a Terminal Interface Processor (TIP), which provided terminal server support for up to 63 ASCII serial terminals through a multi-line controller in place of one of the hosts. The 316 featured a greater degree of integration than the 516, which made it less expensive and easier to maintain. The 316 was configured with 40 kB of core memory for a TIP. The size of core memory was later increased, to 32 kB for the IMPs, and 56 kB for TIPs, in 1973.

The ARPANET was demonstrated at the International Conference on Computer Communications in October 1972.

In 1975, BBN introduced IMP software running on the Pluribus multi-processor. These appeared in a few sites. In 1981, BBN introduced IMP software running on its own C/30 processor product.

Network performance
In 1968, Roberts contracted with Kleinrock to measure the performance of the network and find areas for improvement. Building on his earlier work on queueing theory, Kleinrock specified mathematical models of the performance of packet-switched networks, which underpinned the development of the ARPANET as it expanded rapidly in the early 1970s.

Operation
ARPA was intended to fund advanced research. The ARPANET was a research project that was communications-oriented, rather than user-oriented in design. Nonetheless, in the summer of 1975, operational control of the ARPANET passed to the Defense Communications Agency. At about this time, the first ARPANET encryption devices were deployed to support classified traffic.

The ARPANET Completion Report,  published in 1981 jointly by BBN and DARPA, concludes that:

CSNET, expansion
Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET).

Adoption of TCP/IP
The transatlantic connectivity with NORSAR and UCL later evolved into the SATNET. The ARPANET, SATNET and PRNET were interconnected in 1977.

The DoD made TCP/IP the standard communication protocol for all military computer networking in 1980. NORSAR and University College London left the ARPANET and began using TCP/IP over SATNET in early 1982.

On January 1, 1983, known as flag day, TCP/IP protocols became the standard for the ARPANET, replacing the earlier Network Control Protocol.

MILNET, phasing out
In September 1984 work was completed on restructuring the ARPANET giving U.S. military sites their own Military Network (MILNET) for unclassified defense department communications. Both networks carried unclassified information and were connected at a small number of controlled gateways which would allow total separation in the event of an emergency. MILNET was part of the Defense Data Network (DDN).

Separating the civil and military networks reduced the 113-node ARPANET by 68 nodes. After MILNET was split away, the ARPANET would continue to be used as an Internet backbone for researchers, but be slowly phased out.

Decommissioning
In 1985, the NSF funded the establishment of national supercomputing centers at several universities and provided network access and network interconnectivity with the NSFNET project in 1986. NSFNET became the Internet backbone for government agencies and universities.

The ARPANET project was formally decommissioned in 1990. The original IMPs and TIPs were phased out as the ARPANET was shut down after the introduction of the NSFNet, but some IMPs remained in service as late as July 1990.

In the wake of the decommissioning of the ARPANET on 28 February 1990, Vinton Cerf wrote the following lamentation, entitled "Requiem of the ARPANET":

Legacy

The technological advancements and practical applications achieved through the ARPANET were instrumental in shaping modern computer networking including the Internet. Development and implementation of the concepts of packet switching, decentralized communication, and the development of protocols like TCP/IP laid the foundation for a global network that revolutionized communication, information sharing and collaborative research across the world.

The ARPANET was related to many other research projects, which either influenced the ARPANET design, or which were ancillary projects or spun out of the ARPANET.

Senator Al Gore authored the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, commonly referred to as "The Gore Bill", after hearing the 1988 concept for a National Research Network submitted to Congress by a group chaired by Leonard Kleinrock. The bill was passed on 9 December 1991 and led to the National Information Infrastructure (NII) which Gore called the information superhighway.

The ARPANET project was honored with two IEEE Milestones, both dedicated in 2009.

Software and protocols

IMP functionality
Because it was never a goal for the ARPANET to support IMPs from vendors other than BBN, the IMP-to-IMP protocol and message format were not standardized. However, the IMPs did nonetheless communicate amongst themselves to perform link-state routing, to do reliable forwarding of messages, and to provide remote monitoring and management functions to ARPANET's Network Control Center. Initially, each IMP had a 6-bit identifier and supported up to 4 hosts, which were identified with a 2-bit index. An ARPANET host address, therefore, consisted of both the port index on its IMP and the identifier of the IMP, which was written with either port/IMP notation or as a single byte; for example, the address of MIT-DMG (notable for hosting development of Zork) could be written as either 1/6 or 70. An upgrade in early 1976 extended the host and IMP numbering to 8-bit and 16-bit, respectively.

In addition to primary routing and forwarding responsibilities, the IMP ran several background programs, titled TTY, DEBUG, PARAMETER-CHANGE, DISCARD, TRACE, and STATISTICS. These were given host numbers in order to be addressed directly and provided functions independently of any connected host. For example, "TTY" allowed an on-site operator to send ARPANET packets manually via the teletype connected directly to the IMP.

1822 protocol
The starting point for host-to-host communication on the ARPANET in 1969 was the 1822 protocol, which defined the transmission of messages to an IMP. The message format was designed to work unambiguously with a broad range of computer architectures. An 1822 message essentially consisted of a message type, a numeric host address, and a data field. To send a data message to another host, the transmitting host formatted a data message containing the destination host's address and the data message being sent, and then transmitted the message through the 1822 hardware interface. The IMP then delivered the message to its destination address, either by delivering it to a locally connected host, or by delivering it to another IMP. When the message was ultimately delivered to the destination host, the receiving IMP would transmit a Ready for Next Message (RFNM) acknowledgment to the sending, host IMP.

Network Control Protocol
Unlike modern Internet datagrams, the ARPANET was designed to reliably transmit 1822 messages, and to inform the host computer when it loses a message; the contemporary IP is unreliable, whereas the TCP is reliable. Nonetheless, the 1822 protocol proved inadequate for handling multiple connections among different applications residing in a host computer. This problem was addressed with the Network Control Protocol (NCP), which provided a standard method to establish reliable, flow-controlled, bidirectional communications links among different processes in different host computers. The NCP interface allowed application software to connect across the ARPANET by implementing higher-level communication protocols, an early example of the protocol layering concept later incorporated in the OSI model.

NCP was developed under the leadership of Steve Crocker, then a graduate student at UCLA. Crocker created and led the Network Working Group (NWG) which was made up of a collection of graduate students at universities and research laboratories, including Jon Postel and Vint Cerf at UCLA. They were sponsored by ARPA to carry out the development of the ARPANET and the software for the host computers that supported applications.

Network applications
NCP provided a standard set of network services that could be shared by several applications running on a single host computer. This led to the evolution of application protocols that operated, more or less, independently of the underlying network service, and permitted independent advances in the underlying protocols.

The various application protocols such as TELNET for remote time-sharing access and File Transfer Protocol (FTP), the latter used to enable rudimentary electronic mail, were developed and eventually ported to run over the TCP/IP protocol suite. In the 1980s, FTP for email was replaced by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and, later, POP and IMAP.

Telnet was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC 855.

The original specification for the File Transfer Protocol was written by Abhay Bhushan and published as  on 16 April 1971. By 1973, the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) specification had been defined () and implemented, enabling file transfers over the ARPANET.

In 1971, Ray Tomlinson, of BBN sent the first network e-mail (, ). Within a few years, e-mail came to represent a very large part of the overall ARPANET traffic.

The Network Voice Protocol (NVP) specifications were defined in 1977 (), and implemented. But, because of technical shortcomings, conference calls over the ARPANET never worked well; the contemporary Voice over Internet Protocol (packet voice) was decades away.

TCP/IP
Stephen J. Lukasik directed DARPA to focus on internetworking research in the early 1970s. Bob Kahn moved from BBN to DARPA in 1972, first as program manager for the ARPANET, under Larry Roberts, then as director of the IPTO when Roberts left to found Telenet. Kahn worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. Vint Cerf joined the International Networking Working Group in 1972 and became its Chair. This group considered how to interconnect packet switching networks with different specifications, that is, internetworking. Research led by Bob Kahn at DARPA and Vint Cerf at Stanford University resulted in the formulation of the Transmission Control Program, which incorporated concepts from the French CYCLADES project directed by Louis Pouzin. Its specification was written by Cerf with Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine at Stanford in December 1974 (). The following year, testing began through concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN and University College London. At first a monolithic design, the software was redesigned as a modular protocol stack in version 3 in 1978. Version 4 was installed in the ARPANET for production use in January 1983, replacing NCP.  The development of the complete Internet protocol suite by 1989, as outlined in  and , and partnerships with the telecommunication and computer industry laid the foundation for the adoption of TCP/IP as a comprehensive protocol suite as the core component of the emerging Internet.

Password protection
The Purdy Polynomial hash algorithm was developed for the ARPANET to protect passwords in 1971 at the request of Larry Roberts, head of ARPA at that time. It computed a polynomial of degree 224 + 17 modulo the 64-bit prime p = 264 − 59. The algorithm was later used by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) to hash passwords in the VMS operating system and is still being used for this purpose.

Rules and etiquette
Because of its government funding, certain forms of traffic were discouraged or prohibited.

Leonard Kleinrock claims to have committed the first illegal act on the Internet, having sent a request for return of his electric razor after a meeting in England in 1973. At the time, use of the ARPANET for personal reasons was unlawful.

In 1978, against the rules of the network, Gary Thuerk of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) sent out the first mass email to approximately 400 potential clients via the ARPANET. He claims that this resulted in $13 million worth of sales in DEC products, and highlighted the potential of email marketing.

A 1982 handbook on computing at MIT's AI Lab stated regarding network etiquette:

In popular culture
 Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing, a 30-minute documentary film featuring Fernando J. Corbató, J. C. R. Licklider, Lawrence G. Roberts, Robert Kahn, Frank Heart, William R. Sutherland, Richard W. Watson, John R. Pasta, Donald W. Davies, and economist, George W. Mitchell.
 "Scenario", an episode of the U.S. television sitcom Benson (season 6, episode 20—dated February 1985), was the first incidence of a popular TV show directly referencing the Internet or its progenitors. The show includes a scene in which the ARPANET is accessed.
 There is an electronic music artist known as "Arpanet", Gerald Donald, one of the members of Drexciya. The artist's 2002 album Wireless Internet features commentary on the expansion of the internet via wireless communication, with songs such as NTT DoCoMo, dedicated to the mobile communications giant based in Japan.
 Thomas Pynchon mentions the ARPANET in his 2009 novel Inherent Vice, which is set in Los Angeles in 1970, and in his 2013 novel Bleeding Edge.
 The 1993 television series The X-Files featured the ARPANET in a season 5 episode, titled "Unusual Suspects". John Fitzgerald Byers offers to help Susan Modeski (known as Holly ... "just like the sugar") by hacking into the ARPANET to obtain sensitive information.
 In the spy-drama television series The Americans, a Russian scientist defector offers access to ARPANET to the Russians in a plea to not be repatriated (Season 2 Episode 5 "The Deal"). Episode 7 of Season 2 is named 'ARPANET' and features Russian infiltration to bug the network.
 In the television series Person of Interest, main character Harold Finch hacked the ARPANET in 1980 using a homemade computer during his first efforts to build a prototype of the Machine. This corresponds with the real life virus that occurred in October of that year that temporarily halted ARPANET functions. The ARPANET hack was first discussed in the episode 2PiR (stylised 2R) where a computer science teacher called it the most famous hack in history and one that was never solved. Finch later mentioned it to Person of Interest Caleb Phipps and his role was first indicated when he showed knowledge that it was done by "a kid with a homemade computer" which Phipps, who had researched the hack, had never heard before.
 In the third season of the television series Halt and Catch Fire, the character Joe MacMillan explores the potential commercialization of the ARPANET.

See also

 .arpa – top-level domain used exclusively for technical infrastructure purposes

 Plan 55-A
 Protocol Wars
 , "A Poor Man's ARPAnet"

References

Sources

Further reading

Oral histories
   Focuses on Kahn's role in the development of computer networking from 1967 through the early 1980s. Beginning with his work at BBN, Kahn discusses his involvement as the ARPANET proposal was being written and then implemented, and his role in the public demonstration of the ARPANET. The interview continues into Kahn's involvement with networking when he moves to IPTO in 1972, where he was responsible for the administrative and technical evolution of the ARPANET, including programs in packet radio, the development of a new network protocol (TCP/IP), and the switch to TCP/IP to connect multiple networks.
  Cerf describes his involvement with the ARPA network, and his relationships with Bolt Beranek and Newman, Robert Kahn, Lawrence Roberts, and the Network Working Group.
  Baran describes his work at RAND, and discusses his interaction with the group at ARPA who were responsible for the later development of the ARPANET.
   Kleinrock discusses his work on the ARPANET.

  Lukasik discusses his tenure at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the development of computer networks and the ARPANET.
 Frank describes his work on the ARPANET, including his interaction with Roberts and the IPT Office.

Detailed technical reference works

 NTIS documents may be available from

External links

  Timeline.

  Personal anecdote of the first message ever sent over the ARPANET

American inventions
History of the Internet
Computer-related introductions in 1969
Internet properties established in 1969
Internet properties disestablished in 1990
1969 establishments in the United States
Internet in the United States
1990 disestablishments in the United States
History of the University of California, Los Angeles

ARPANET


The pound (later dollar) was the currency of Maryland from 1733 until its gradual replacement with the Continental currency and later the United States dollar between the American Revolution and the early 1800s. Initially, sterling coin circulated along with foreign coins. From 1733, this was supplemented by paper money, known as "Proclamation Money", denominated in £sd, but worth less than sterling, with 1 Maryland shilling (12 pence) = 9 pence sterling. A second "New" issue of notes was introduced in 1751, replacing the earlier notes at a rate of 1 New shilling = 1¼ Proclamation shillings.

The first issues of Continental currency in Maryland were denominated in £sd and Spanish dollars at a rate of 1 dollar = 4 shillings 6 pence. In 1780 two types of continental currency were issued, one valuing the Spanish dollar at 4 shillings 6 pence (printed in red ink and known as "Red Money"), the other (printed in black ink and known as "Black Money") valuing the Spanish dollar at 7 shillings 6 pence.

References

Historical currencies of the United States
1793 disestablishments in Maryland
Province of Maryland
Economy of Maryland

Maryland pound


Crooked Streets is a 1920 American silent drama spy film directed by Paul Powell and produced by Famous Players–Lasky and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It is one of star Ethel Clayton's rare surviving silent films with a copy at the Library of Congress. The film is based on a short story, "Dinner at Eight", by Samuel Merwin.

Plot
As described in a film magazine, Gail Ellis (Clayton) is employed as a secretary by Professor Lawrence Griswold (Fillmore) prior to his departure from San Francisco for Shanghai, ostensibly in that city to purchase some rare vases. In the city she meets with adventures while trying to find the headquarters of the pottery merchants and is saved from molestation by Englishman Rupert O'Dare (Holt), who has to battle a drunken sailor in a boxing ring before the latter will leave her alone. As the Griswolds are about to depart for America, having purchased several cases of vases that contain opium, Rupert causes them to be arrested. They overpower him and are about to escape when Gail arrives with officers and apprehends them. Rupert then confesses that he is a member of the British secret service and Gail says that she is Ellis of the U.S. Secret Service, and that Rupert had forced her hand as she had intended to arrest the Griswolds in San Francisco. They find happiness in each other's company, and later sail to England as Mr. and Mrs. O'Dare.

Cast
Ethel Clayton as Gail Ellis
Jack Holt as Rupert O'Dare
Clyde Fillmore as Lawrence Griswold (*Clyde Fillmore)
Clarence Geldart as Silas Griswold
Josephine Crowell as Mrs. Griswold
Fred Starr as Sailor Hugh

References

External links

Period advert (Wayback Machine)

1920 films
American silent feature films
Films based on short fiction
Films directed by Paul Powell (director)
Paramount Pictures films
1920 drama films
American drama films
American black-and-white films
1920s American films
Silent American drama films

Crooked Streets


Erika Julia Hedwig Mann (9 November 1905 – 27 August 1969) was a German actress and writer, daughter of the novelist Thomas Mann.

Erika lived a bohemian lifestyle in Berlin and became a critic of National Socialism. After Hitler came to power in 1933, she moved to Switzerland, and married the poet W. H. Auden, purely to obtain a British passport and so avoid becoming stateless when the Germans cancelled her citizenship. She continued to attack Nazism, most notably with her 1938 book School for Barbarians, a critique of the Nazi education system.

During World War II, Mann worked for the BBC and became a war correspondent attached to the Allied forces after D-Day. She attended the Nuremberg trials before moving to America to support her exiled parents. Her criticisms of American foreign policy led to her being considered for deportation. After her parents moved to Switzerland in 1952, she also settled there. She wrote a biography of her father and died in Zurich in 1969.

Biography

Early life
Erika Mann was born in Munich, the first-born daughter of writer and later Nobel Prize winner Thomas Mann and his wife, Katia (née Pringsheim), the daughter of an intellectual German family of Jewish heritage. Due to her being the granddaughter of Júlia da Silva Bruhns, she was also of Portuguese-Indigenous Brazilian partial descent. She was named after Katia Mann's brother Erik, who died early, Thomas Mann's sister , and her great-grandmother Hedwig Dohm. She was baptized Protestant, just as her mother had been. Thomas Mann expressed in a letter to his brother Heinrich Mann his disappointment about the birth of his first child:

It is a girl; a disappointment for me, as I want to admit between us, because I had greatly desired a son and will not stop doing so. [...] I feel a son is much more full of poetry [poesievoller], more than a sequel and restart for myself under new circumstances.

Nevertheless, he later candidly confessed in the notes of his diary, that he "preferred, of the six, the two oldest [Erika and Klaus] and little Elisabeth with a strange decisiveness".

In Erika he had a particular trust, which later showed itself in that she exercised a great influence on the important decisions of her father. Her particular role was also known by her siblings, as her brother Golo Mann remembered: "Little Erika must salt the soup". This reference to the twelve-year-old Erika from the year 1917 was an often-used phrase in the Mann family.

After Erika's birth came that of her brother Klaus, with whom she was personally close her entire life. They went about "like twins", and Klaus described their closeness as follows: "our solidarity was absolute and without reservation". Eventually there were four more children in total, including Golo, Monika, Elisabeth, and Michael. The children grew up in Munich. On their mother's side the family belonged to the influential urban upper class, and their father came from a commercial family from Lübeck and already had published the successful novel Buddenbrooks in 1901. The Mann home was a gathering-place for intellectuals and artists, and Erika was hired for her first theater engagement before finishing her Abitur at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin.

Education and early theatrical work
In 1914, the Mann family obtained a villa on 1 Poschingerstraße in Bogenhausen, which in the family would come to be known as "Poschi." From 1912 to 1914, Erika Mann attended a private school with her brother, joining for a year the Bogenhausener Volksschule, and from 1915 to 1920 she attended the Höhere Mädchenschule am St. Annaplatz. In May 1921, she transferred to the Munich-based Luisengymnasium. Together with her brother Klaus, she befriended children in the neighborhood, including Bruno Walter's daughters, Gretel and Lotte Walter, as well as Ricki Hallgarten, the son of a Jewish intellectual family.

Erika Mann founded an ambitious theater troupe, the Laienbund Deutscher Mimiker. While still a student at the Munich Luisengymnasium, Max Reinhardt engaged her to appear on the stage of the Deutsches Theater in Berlin for the first time. The partially mischievous pranks that she undertook in the so-called "Herzogpark-Bande" ("Herzogpark gang") with Klaus and her friends prompted her parents to send both her and Klaus to a progressive residential school, the Bergschule Hochwaldhausen, located in Vogelsberg in Oberhessen. This period in Erika Mann's schooling lasted from April to July 1922; subsequently she returned to the Luisengymnasium. In 1924 she passed the Abitur, albeit with poor marks, and began her theatrical studies in Berlin that were again interrupted, because of her numerous engagements in Hamburg, Munich, Berlin and elsewhere.

1920s and 1930s
In 1924, Erika Mann began theater studies in Berlin and acted there and in Bremen. In 1925, she played in the première of her brother Klaus's play Anja und Esther. The play, about a group of four friends who were in love with each other, opened in October 1925 to considerable publicity. In 1924 the actor Gustaf Gründgens had offered to direct the production and play one of the lead male roles, alongside Klaus, with Erika and Pamela Wedekind as the female leads. During the year they worked on the play together, Klaus was engaged to Wedekind and Erika became engaged to Gründgens. Erika and Pamela were also in a relationship together, as were, for a time, Klaus and Gustaf. For their honeymoon, in July 1926, Erika and Gründgens stayed in a hotel that Erika and Wedekind had used as a couple shortly before, with the latter checking in dressed as a man. Erika's marriage to Gründgens was short-lived and they were soon living apart before divorcing in 1929.

Erika Mann would later have relationships with Therese Giehse, Annemarie Schwarzenbach and Betty Knox, with whom she served as a war correspondent during World War II.

In 1927, Erika and Klaus undertook a trip around the world, which they documented in their book Rundherum; Das Abenteuer einer Weltreise. The following year, she became active in journalism and politics. She was involved as an actor in the 1931 film about lesbianism, Mädchen in Uniform, directed by Leontine Sagan, but left the production before its completion. In 1932 she published Stoffel fliegt übers Meer, the first of seven children's books.

In 1932, Erika Mann was denounced by the Brownshirts after she read a pacifist poem to an anti-war meeting. She was fired from an acting role after the theatre concerned was threatened with a boycott by the Nazis. Mann successfully sued both the theatre and also a Nazi-run newspaper. Also in 1932 Mann had a role, alongside Therese Giehse, in the film Peter Voss, Thief of Millions.

In January 1933, Erika, Klaus and Therese Giehse founded a cabaret in Munich called Die Pfeffermühle, for which Erika wrote most of the material, much of which was anti-Fascist. The cabaret lasted two months before the Nazis forced it to close and Mann left Germany. She was the last member of the Mann family to leave Germany after the Nazi regime was elected. She saved many of Thomas Mann's papers from their Munich home when she escaped to Zurich. In 1936, Die Pfeffermühle opened again in Zurich and became a rallying point for German exiles.

In 1935, it became apparent that the Nazis were intending to strip Mann of her German citizenship; her uncle, Heinrich Mann, was the first person to be stripped of German citizenship when the Nazis took office. She asked Christopher Isherwood if he would marry her so she could become a British citizen. He declined but suggested she approach the gay poet W. H. Auden, who readily agreed to a marriage of convenience in 1935. Mann and Auden never lived together, but remained on good terms throughout their lives and were still married when Mann died; she left him a small bequest in her will. In 1936, Auden introduced Therese Giehse, Mann's lover, to the writer John Hampson and they too married so that Giehse could leave Germany. In 1937, Mann moved to New York, where Die Pfeffermühle (as The Peppermill) opened its doors again. There Erika Mann lived with Therese Giehse, her brother Klaus and Annemarie Schwarzenbach, amid a large group of artists in exile that included Kurt Weill, Ernst Toller and Sonia Sekula.

In 1938, Mann and Klaus reported on the Spanish Civil War, and her book School for Barbarians, a critique of Nazi Germany's educational system, was published. The following year, they published Escape to Life, a book about famous German exiles.

World War II

During World War II, Mann worked as a journalist in London, making radio broadcasts, in German, for the BBC throughout the Blitz and the Battle of Britain. After D-Day, she became a war correspondent attached to the Allied forces advancing across Europe. She reported from recent battlefields in France, Belgium and the Netherlands. She entered Germany in June 1945 and was among the first Allied personnel to enter Aachen.

As soon as it was possible, she went to Munich to register a claim for the return of the Mann family home. When she arrived in Berlin on 3 July 1945, Mann was shocked at the level of destruction, describing the city as "a sea of devastation, shoreless and infinite". She was equally angry at the complete lack of guilt displayed by some of the German civilians and officials that she met. During this period, as well as wearing an American uniform, Mann adopted an Anglo-American accent.

Mann attended the Nuremberg trial each day from the opening session, on 20 November 1945, until the court adjourned a month later for Christmas. She was present on 26 November when the first film evidence from an extermination camp was shown in the court room. She interviewed the defense lawyers and ridiculed their arguments in her reports and made clear that she thought the court was indulging the behaviour of the defendants, in particular Hermann Göring.

When the court adjourned for Christmas, Mann went to Zurich to spend time with her brother, Betty Knox and Therese Giehse. Mann's health was poor and on 1 January 1946, she collapsed and was hospitalised. Eventually, she was diagnosed with pleurisy. After a spell recovering at a spa in Arosa, Mann returned to Nuremberg in March 1946 to continue covering the war crimes trial. In May 1946, Mann left Germany for California to help look after her father who was being treated for lung cancer.

Later life

From America, Mann continued to comment on, and write about, the situation in Germany. She considered it a scandal that Göring had managed to commit suicide and was furious at the slow pace of the denazification process. In particular, Mann objected to what she considered the lenient treatment of cultural figures, such as the conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler, who had stayed in Germany throughout the Nazi period. Her views on Russia and on the Berlin Airlift led to her being branded a Communist in America. Both Klaus and Erika came under an FBI investigation into their political views and rumored homosexuality. In 1949, becoming increasingly depressed and disillusioned over postwar Germany's occupation, Klaus Mann died by suicide. This event devastated and enraged Erika Mann. In 1952, due to the anti-communist red scare and the numerous accusations from the House Committee on Un-American Activities, the Mann family left the US, and she moved back to Switzerland with her parents. She had begun to help her father with his writing and had become one of his closest confidantes. After the deaths of her father and her brother Klaus, Erika Mann became responsible for their works.

Mann died in Zürich on 27 August 1969 from a brain tumour and is buried at Friedhof Kilchberg in Zürich, also the site of her parents' graves. She was 63.

Biographical films
Escape to Life: The Erika & Klaus Mann Story (2000)

Published works
All the Way Round: A Light-hearted Travel Book (with Klaus Mann, 1929)
The Book of the Riviera: Things You Won't Find in Baedekers (with Klaus Mann, 1931)
School for Barbarians: Education Under the Nazis (1938)
Escape to Life (1939)
The Lights go Down (1940)
The Other Germany (with Klaus Mann, 1940)
A Gang of Ten (1942)
The Last Year of Thomas Mann. A Revealing Memoir by His Daughter, Erika Mann (1958)

See also
Dohm–Mann family tree
Exilliteratur

References

Further reading
 Martin Mauthner: German Writers in French Exile, 1933-1940, Vallentine Mitchell, London, 2007, ().

External links

1905 births
1969 deaths

20th-century essayists
20th-century German actresses
20th-century German novelists
20th-century German screenwriters
20th-century German women writers
20th-century German LGBT people
Actresses from Munich
Denaturalized citizens of Germany
Exilliteratur writers
German autobiographers
German essayists
German people of Brazilian descent
German people of Jewish descent
German people of Portuguese descent
German travel writers
German women essayists
German women novelists
German women screenwriters
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
Jewish German actresses
Jewish women writers
Bisexual actresses
Bisexual novelists
Bisexual Jews
Bisexual screenwriters
German bisexual people
German LGBT novelists
German LGBT screenwriters
Erika
Women autobiographers
War correspondents of World War II
Women travel writers
Women war correspondents

Erika Mann


Tom Hanlin (28 August 1907 – 7 April 1953) was a Scottish fiction writer, known for writing a number of novels which were influential and sold widely.

Life

Hanlin was born in Armadale, West Lothian on 28 August 1907. At the age of 14 he left school and worked on a farm for a year, then got a job at a mine where he worked for the next twenty years. While working as a miner he began to study at a journalism school in Glasgow. After a workplace accident in 1945, he spent three months in the Royal Infirmary, and he began to write stories and sell them, thus realising his childhood dream.

Hanlin died at home on 7 April 1953, after developing heart and breathing problems.

Writing

During his lifetime, Hanlin wrote over thirty short stories, several novels and essays, and eight radio plays, two of which were broadcast. Once in Every Lifetime, published in 1945, was his most popular novel, selling 250,000 copies in the United Kingdom in the first three weeks of publication. It also won the £500 first prize in the Big Ben Books Competition, and was translated into more than a dozen languages.

Once in Every Lifetime was serialised in Woman's Home Companion, and a radio version was later broadcast on BBC Radio. Norman Collins, writing in the Observer, wrote that "his novel is an idyll of young love that somehow became sour and unlovely amid the grim landscape of the pitheads.  It is brief, moving in places, almost unbearably so, and often beautiful.  In short Mr. Hanlin is a remarkable fellow." John Steinbeck also spoke enthusiastically of the author, declaring the book "excellent."

In his writing Hanlin draws on the themes of love and religion, but always in the context of the gritty realism and poverty of life in a small mining town.  The Scotsman review of The Miracle at Cardenrigg notes "Tom Hanlin uses a miraculously averted pit disaster to bring into sharp focus the life of a Scottish mining community and to present his Catholic and predominantly tragic view of earthly life."

Short stories and articles
 "Temper the Wind", Virginia Quarterly, Autumn 1945
 "Bright and Cheerful is the Day", Virginia Quarterly, Autumn 1945
 "My Shadow on the Side of the Tunnel", Lilliput, May 1945, Vol. 16
 "And Always will be", Lilliput, May 1945, Vol. 16
 "Strange the Way", Lilliput, May 1945, Vol. 16
 "The Fair" Lilliput, May 1945, Vol. 16
 "The Road isn't Always Broad", Story Magazine, 1946, Jul–Aug., Vol. 29
 "Over a Lifetime you may", Good Housekeeping, 1947
 "One More Chance, a story", Modern Reading 16, edited by Reginald Moore, Phoenix House Limited
 "The Novel is Doomed"
 "Tension-Snap-Relief"
 "Sunday in the Village"

Novels
 Once in Every Lifetime, Nicholson & Watson, 1945 (serialised in Woman's Home Companion, Nov 1945)
 Yesterday will Return, Nicholson & Watson, 1946 (republished as Mima, Bantam Books, New York 1952)
 The Miracle at Cardenrigg, 1949
 Nor is the Night Starless

Plays
 One More Chance
 Beneath the Surface

Awards
 Arthur Markham Memorial Prize awarded by Sheffield University, for the essay Sunday in the Village in April 1944
 Big Ben Book Competition, first prize of £500, for Once in Every Lifetime

Further reading
 National Library of Scotland: MSS.27417 – 27425
 Scottish Writers: Tom Hanlin by Hugh Macpherson in the Scottish Book Collector, First Series, No.10, (Edinburgh, Feb. 1989), pp19–20
 Pithead Metaphysics: Tom Hanlin's Once in Every Lifetime by Manfred Malzahn in ScotLit No 8 (Aberdeen: Association for Scottish Literary Studies, Autumn 1992), pp. 3–4.
 Once in Every Lifetime reviewed by Carlos Baker (Virginia Quarterly Review, 1946, published by University of Virginia)
 Review of Tom Hanlin's writing in Annals of Scotland, 1895–1955, ("An Essay on the Twentieth-century Scottish Novel", Related to a Series of Programmes with the Same Title to be Broadcast by the BBC for Winter Listening, 1956–57) by George Blake, pub 1956 by BBC
 West Lothian Heritage, Newsletter of West Lothian Heritage Services. Article about Hanlin on page 5
 The Scotsman book review of The Miracle at Cardenrigg
 The Scotsman book review of Once in Every Lifetime
 The Guardian book review of Once in Every Lifetime
 The Guardian book review of The Miracle at Cardenrigg
 The Observer book review of Once in Every Lifetime
 The Observer book review of The Miracle at Cardenrigg
 The Times Literary Supplement book review of The Miracle at Cardenrigg
 The New York Times book review of The Miracle at Cardenrigg
 The Toronto Daily Star book review of Once in Every Lifetime
 Contention in a Bitter World Nathan L Rothman reviewing Yesterday Will Return in The Saturday Review, 9 November 1946
 Hunger for Life. Slaten Bray reviewing Once in Every Lifetime in The New Masses, 26 March 1946
 Drowning Underground John Cournos reviewing Miracle at Cardenrigg in The Saturday Review 27 August 1949
 Conversations with John Steinbeck John Steinbeck, Thomas Fensch, Univ. Press of Mississippi 1988

References

External links
 Tom Hanlin's Yesterday Will Return from the Hathi Trust Digital Library
 Armadale Community Website Tom Hanlin Page
 West Lothian Council's Heritage Newsletter

1907 births
1953 deaths
Scottish novelists
Scottish essayists
Scottish dramatists and playwrights
Scottish short story writers
Scottish radio writers
People from West Lothian
Scottish miners
Scottish Roman Catholics
People from Armadale, West Lothian
20th-century British novelists
20th-century British dramatists and playwrights
20th-century British short story writers
20th-century British essayists

Tom Hanlin


Jeffrey Frank Allam (born 19 December 1954 in Epsom, England), is a former British racing driver who made his name in Saloon Car racing. He now works as Head of Business for Allam Motor Services in Epsom which are a Skoda sales and service and Vauxhall servicing dealership.

Racing career

Starting in kart racing he soon progressed to saloon car racing winning regularly in Vauxhalls. He first entered the British Saloon Car Championship in 1978 driving a Ford Capri 3.0, finishing 2nd in class. In 1979 he repeated this with another 2nd place in class. In 1981 he drove a TWR Rover Vitesse, taking Rover's first overall win in the championship. Allam continued to drive for TWR Rover again in 1982, this time winning the class title. He was paired with Frank Sytner for the 1982 season, but Sytner left the team partway through the year. The following year saw Allam partnering Steve Soper and Pete Lovett in the Rover team, and the three drivers dominated the year, easily winning the manufacturers championship and Soper winning the drivers' title. However, the success was short-lived, as the Rovers were found to be in breach of the regulations regarding the engine installation, and TWR was thrown out of the championship, handing victory to Andy Rouse.

His success continued afterwards, winning the new Group A class at the 1984 Bathurst 1000 in Australia driving a TWR Rover partnered by regular ETCC co-driver Armin Hahne from Germany. This was followed in 1986 when he won the prestigious ETCC Tourist Trophy at Silverstone in a TWR prepared Rover along with co-driver, former Formula One World Champion Denny Hulme. He was then champion in the TVR Tuscan Challenge in 1989.

Allam continued to be a regular at the Bathurst 1000 after his 1984 class win. In 1985 he was lead driver in the 2nd TWR Jaguar XJS with Aussie Ron Dickson, qualifying a fine second behind team boss Walkinshaw, but was out on lap 3 after broken headlight glass found its way into the Jaguar's V12 engine causing enough damage to stop the car. TWR itself dominated the 1985 race with the team's 3rd car (driven by Hahne and Aussie John Goss) winning with Walkinshaw and Win Percy finishing 3rd in the lead car after late race problems which saw a split oil line. He missed both 1986 and 1987, before returning in 1988 with Walkinshaw to drive the new Fuel injected Holden VL Commodore SS Group A SV. The race ended early for the duo when the suspension collapsed under the Boss after just 5 laps. After driving a Rover, Jaguar and a Holden in Australia's Great Race, Allam drove a Ford Sierra RS500 in 1989 for Dick Johnson Racing. He finished 8th in 1989 (team boss Dick Johnson and regular team driver John Bowe won the race), before recording his best finish in 1990, again in a Johnson Sierra, when he partnered Kiwi racer Paul Radisich to second place. Ironically, the winner of the 1990 Bathurst 1000 was the Holden Racing Team VL Commodore SS Group A SV driven by Allan Grice and Allam's long time TWR teammate Win Percy. The Winning Commodore was in fact the same car (rebuilt) that Allam was to drive with Walkinshaw in the 1988 race.

In 1990 Allam returned to the British Touring Car Championship (formerly the British Saloon Car Championship) driving a BMW M3 in the 2.0l class for Vic Lee Motorsport, placing 6th in the series. In 1991 he drove for the works Vauxhall team in a Vauxhall Cavalier finishing sixth. He stayed with the Vauxhall team a further three years, partnering John Cleland, finishing in 4th place with two race wins in 1992 and a 9th-place finishing in 1993. In 1994 he placed 10th overall and was replaced the following year by James Thompson.  He made a one-off comeback to the BTCC in 1995 replacing the injured Thompson at Knockhill.

In 2004 he was selected to drive in the BTCC Masters event at Donington Park. a race which was set up by the director of TOCA Alan J. Gow featuring former champions and legends. Driving the same SEAT Leon Cupras, he finished 8th out of a field of sixteen drivers.

In May 2011 Jeff Allam was appointed as Driving Standards Advisor to the BTCC, assisting the Clerk of the Course in investigating on-track incidents between competitors. He previously held this role in the mid-late Nineties.

Racing record

Complete British Saloon / Touring Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position – 1973–1990 in class) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap – 1 point awarded ?–1989 in class)

 – Race was stopped due to heavy rain. No points were awarded.

† Events with 2 races staged for the different classes.

‡ Endurance driver.

Complete European Touring Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete World Touring Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

† Not eligible for series points

Complete Asia-Pacific Touring Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete Australian Super Touring Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete Bathurst 1000 results

Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results

References

1954 births
Living people
British Touring Car Championship drivers
English racing drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
World Sportscar Championship drivers
Sportspeople from Epsom
European Touring Car Championship drivers
Australian Endurance Championship drivers
Dick Johnson Racing drivers
24 Hours of Spa drivers

Jeff Allam


John Christopher Schulte (born 1959) is an American writer, director, and producer of animation, toys and entertainment properties. He has developed many iconic intellectual properties from the 1980s, 1990s and on into the 21st-century. Working as a developer and writer, he served on the development team for the wildly popular Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, which became a multibillion-dollar franchise internationally and has enjoyed several resurgences since its original inception by the comic book duo, Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird. He provided seminal development for licensee, Playmates Toys, and contributed stories to the animated series, helmed by veteran satirist, Jack Mendelsohn.

He developed the short-lived but treasured original toy and animation property, B.C. Bikers, about a rogue band of "chrome age" dinosaurs who ride motorcycles through their prehistoric end times. He worked on interpolating the Troma feature film, The Toxic Avenger into an animated program for kids, called Toxic Crusaders. In 2006, he worked with creator/producer, Rick Ungar, to develop Zorro: Generation Z. He penned a script for an introductory animated series called Gormiti: The Invincible Lords of Nature, based on the Italian toy phenomenon from Giochi Preziosi, which made its way to the United States via Playmates Toys, and debuted on Cartoon Network in 2009.

Creating story content for digital products has resulted in Schulte's co-development of a number of noteworthy projects, including smart toys for Bandai America (Tamagotchi) and Playmates Toys (Nano).

Schulte collaborates with his longtime writing partners, John C. Besmehn, Fred Fox Jr., and his wife, Cheryl Ann Wong. Their business is Pangea Corporation where he serves as president.

Biography

Early years
John Schulte was born in 1959 in Dayton, Ohio, the birthplace of aviation. His father, Ralph W. Schulte Jr. (b. 1928) was a former Marine, Libertarian candidate, and entrepreneur; his mother Pauline (1929–2007) was an executive secretary and homemaker, and his grandmother Alice Barnett (1907–1977) was a composer and pianist for silent films. Schulte's brother, Lee (b. 1951), is a German scholar, teacher, composer, and writer. His sister, Betty (born 1955), is a pharmaceutical technician. Schulte married Cheryl Ann Wong (b. 1960) in 1989 and they have one daughter, Blythe Abigail Su-Ren Schulte (born 1997), an actress, singer, conductress, and innovator, who has performed with Carol Channing and is a graduate of Musical Theatre University and a Professional Music graduate of the Berklee College of Music. Blythe also appeared as a finalist in several episodes of ABC's The Toy Box, placing her toy concept with Mattel.

Education
Schulte moved from Ohio to Oklahoma City, whereupon he attended the University of Oklahoma in Norman, Oklahoma. He studied film writing with his mentor, Arnost Lustig, and Dwight Swain, poetry with Pulitzer Prize winner Maya Angelou, Madison Morrison, and Larry Griffin, fiction writing with Clayton Lewis and Jack Bickham, author of The Apple Dumpling Gang, playwriting with Theodore Herstand and film making with Ned Hockman. In 1985, Schulte won a CAN Festival Award for a video documentary he produced with Hollywood sound supervisor, Tim Boggs. He was the editor-in-chief of Imbroglios, a literary magazine for the University of Oklahoma. Following his university days, he moved and settled in Southern California, attending the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute and the Hollywood Scriptwriting Institute. He wrote dialogue for Days of Our Lives and got his start writing for the toy and animation industry thanks to actor, screenwriter, Elliott Apstein, whose father, Ted Apstein, coincidentally wrote soap operas and television shows and taught at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute.

Career
Schulte worked as a camera operator for sundry American Film Institute (AFI) projects, then focused on writing and producing videos with actor and soap opera writer, Elliott Apstein for clients such as Tomy Toys. Following Schulte's work on Kathryn Nesmith's AFI project, An All Consuming Passion, he co-wrote and produced a television pilot for Garry Marshall, called Four Stars. Schulte went on to develop and write episodes for the mixed live action and animated kids show, Gina D, for Sullivan Entertainment. He worked on entertainment projects with producer Claudia Mokarow, manager of world chess champion, Bobby Fischer. He retains the rights to the Bobby Fischer book, I Was Tortured in the Pasadena Jailhouse, and collaborated with Miloš Forman and Peter Falk on the entertainment project.

He co-produced a teenage novel trilogy with his brother, Lee, called Time Capsule Murders. The first book of the series, Why Begins With W, was published in late 2009 under the pseudonyms Hamish De'Lamet and Chandral Ramon, by Potocki Press, an imprint of WingSpan. Schulte also completed work editing a self-help martial arts book, The 7 C's of Success, written by actor/director/martial artist, Shaunt Benjamin and a new book, Diary of a Little Devil, by Edgar Award-winning author, Barbara Brooks Wallace. He also edits and agents the oeuvre of Barbara Brooks Wallace. One of his original intellectual properties, The Brotherhood, was included in Miriam Van Scott's The Encyclopedia of Hell. He is a member of The Academy of American Poets and The Authors Guild.

Schulte collaborated with songwriter, singer and record producer Ron Dante on a new musical, which had a reading in 2010; and he is writing with Barbara Brooks Wallace a television show based on her Miss Switch book series. In early 2011 he wrote, designed and developed two new series based on secondary characters from the anime series, Speed Racer. He has developed a YA novel series with Besmehn and Fox based on Zorro. The first book in the series is titled, Zorro: Resurrection. In 2014, in collaboration with author, Judith Furedi, Schulte edited, contributed, and released an homage to legendary musician/composer/performer, John Lennon, entitled, A Lennon Pastiche. A collection of Schulte's poetry, Blue Muse Rising, was published in 2016 in concert with National Poetry Month.

In 2019, Schulte was featured on Netflix's popular series, The Toys That Made Us, along with his writing and business partner, John Besmehn, on the segment discussing their writing involvement with the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.

References

External links

 PANGEA Corporation
 Maya Angelou – The Official Website

Living people
1959 births
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American male screenwriters
American directors
American film producers
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American screenwriters

John C. Schulte