The Lady of the Lake (, , , , ) is a name or a title used by several either fairy or fairy-like but human enchantresses in the Matter of Britain, the body of medieval literature and mythology associated with the legend of King Arthur. She plays several important roles in many stories, including providing Arthur with the sword Excalibur, eliminating Merlin, raising Lancelot after the death of his father, and helping to take the dying Arthur to Avalon. Different sorceresses known as the Lady of the Lake appear concurrently as separate characters in some versions of the legend since at least the Post-Vulgate Cycle and consequently the seminal Le Morte d'Arthur, with the latter describing them as a hierarchical group, while some texts also give this title to either Morgan or her sister.

Given name

Today, the Lady of the Lake is best known as the character called either Nimue, or several scribal variants of Ninianne and Viviane. Medieval authors and copyists produced various forms of the latter two, including: Nymenche (in addition to Ninianne / Ninienne) in the Vulgate Lancelot; Nim[i]ane and Ui[n/ui]ane (in addition to Viviane) in the Vulgate Merlin (Niniane in the version Livre d'Artus); Nin[i]eve / Nivene / Niviène / Nivienne and Vivienne in the Post-Vulgate Merlin (Niviana in the Spanish Baladro del Sage Merlin); and Nimiane / Niniame and Vivian / Vivien in Arthour and Merlin and Henry Lovelich's Merlin. Further variations of these include alternate spellings with the letter i written as y, such as in the cases of Nymanne (Nimanne as in Michel le Noir's Merlin) and Nynyane (Niniane).

According to Lucy Paton, the most primitive French form of this name might have been Niniane. The much later form Nimue, in which the letter e can be written as ë or é, was invented and popularized by Thomas Malory through his 15th-century Le Morte d'Arthur and itself has several variations: her name appears as Nymue, Nyneue, Nyneve and Nynyue in William Caxton's print edition, but it had been rather Nynyve (used predominantly) and Nenyve in Malory's original Winchester Manuscript. Even though 'Nymue' (with the m) appears only in the Caxton text, the modernized and standardized 'Nimue' is now the most common form of the name of Malory's character, as Caxton's edition was the only version of Le Morte d'Arthur published until 1947. Nimue is also sometimes rendered by modern authors and artists as either Nimüe and Nimuë, the forms introduced in the 19th century (in Tennyson's poem and a painting by Burne-Jones, respectively), or Nimueh.

Origins

Arthurian scholar A. O. H. Jarman, following suggestions first made in the 19th century, proposed that the name Viviane used in French Arthurian romances, was ultimately derived from (and a corruption of) the Welsh word chwyfleian (also spelled hwimleian and chwibleian in medieval Welsh sources), meaning "a wanderer of pallid countenance", which was originally applied as an epithet to the famous prototype of Merlin, a prophetic wild man figure Myrddin Wyllt in medieval Welsh poetry. Due to the relative obscurity of the word, it was misunderstood as "fair wanton maiden" and taken to be the name of Myrddin's female captor. Others have linked the name Nymenche with the Irish mythology's figure Niamh (an otherworldly woman from the legend of Tír na nÓg), and the name Niniane with the Welsh mythology's figure Rhiannon (another otherworldly woman of a Celtic myth), or, as a feminine form of the masculine name Ninian, with the likes of the 5th-century (male) saint Ninian and the river Ninian.

Further theories connect her to the Welsh lake fairies known as the Gwragedd Annwn (including a Lady of the Lake unrelated to the legend of Arthur), the Celtic water goddess Covianna (worshipped in the Romano-British times as Coventina), and the Irish goddess of the underworld Bé Finn (Bébinn, mother of the hero Fráech). It has been also noted how the North Caucasian goddess Satana (Satanaya) from the Nart sagas is both associated with water and helps the Scythian hero Batraz gain his magic sword. Possible literary prototypes include two characters from Geoffrey of Monmouth's Vita Merlini: Merlin's one-time wife Guendoloena and Merlin's half-sister Ganieda. Another possibility involves Diana, the Roman goddess of hunt and nature, a direct or spiritual descent from whom is actually explicitly attributed to Viviane within some French prose narratives.

The mythical Greek sea nymph Thetis, mother of the hero Achilles, similarly provides her son with magical weapons. Like the Lady of the Lake, Thetis is a water spirit who raises the greatest warrior of her time. Thetis' husband is named Peleus, while in some tales the Lady of the Lake has the knight Pelleas as her lover; Thetis also uses magic to make her son invulnerable, similar to how  Lancelot receives a ring that protects him from magic. The Greek myth may therefore have inspired or influenced the Arthurian legend, especially since The Iliad involving Thetis was well known across the former Roman Empire and among the medieval writers dealing with Celtic myths and lore. The Roman fort Aballava, known to the post-Roman Britons as Avalana and today seen by some as the location of the historical Avalon, had been also curiously dedicated the Roman water goddess Dea Latis. Laurence Gardner, who interpreted the Arthurian romances', stated Biblical origins of Lancelot's bloodline by noting the belief about Jesus' purported wife Mary Magdalene's later life in Gaul (today's France) and her death at Aquae Sextiae; he identified her descendant as the 6th-century Comtess of Avallon named Viviane del Acqs ("of the water"), whose three daughters (associated with the mothers of Lancelot, of Arthur, and of Gawain) would thus become known as the 'Ladies of the Lake'.

Chrétien de Troyes's French Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, the first known story featuring Lancelot as a prominent character, was also the first to mention his upbringing by a fairy in a lake. If it is accepted that the Franco-German Lanzelet by Ulrich von Zatzikhoven contains elements of a more primitive version of this tale than Chrétien's, the infant Lancelot was spirited away to a lake by a water fairy (merfeine in Old High German) known as the Lady of the Sea and then raised in her Land of Maidens (Meide lant). The fairy queen character and her paradise island in Lanzelet are reminiscent of Morgen (Morgan) of the Island of Avallon in Geoffrey's work. Furthermore, the fairy from Lanzelet has a son whose name Mabuz is an Anglo-Norman form of Mabon,  son of Morgan's early Welsh counterpart Modron. According to Roger Sherman Loomis, "it seems almost certain" that Morgan and the Lady of the Lake have originally began as one character in the legend. In a related hypothesis, the early Myrddyn tradition may have been merged with the popular 'fairy lover' motive, with this role later split between the 'good' fairy and the 'bad' one.

Medieval literature

Lancelot's guardian

Following the above-mentioned works of Chrétien and Ulrich, the Lady of the Lake began appearing by this title in the French chivalric romance prose by the early 13th century. As a fairy godmother-type foster mother of the hero Lancelot, she inherits the role of an unnamed aquatic fairy queen, her prototype from 12th-century poetry. While Ulrich's Lanzelet uses the changeling part of the fairy abduction lore in regards to Mabuz and Lancelot, the Lady has no offspring of her own in Chrétien's and later versions.

In the Lancelot-Grail (Vulgate) prose cycle, the Lady resides in an otherworldly enchanted realm, the entry to which is disguised as an illusion of a lake (the Post-Vulgate explains it as Merlin's work). There, she raises Lancelot from his infancy having stolen him from his mother following the death of his father, King Ban. She teaches Lancelot arts and writing, infusing him with wisdom and courage, and overseeing his training to become an unsurpassed warrior. She also rears his orphaned cousins Lionel and Bors after having her sorcerous damsel Seraide (Saraïde, later called Celise) rescue them from King Claudas. All this takes her only a few years in the human world. Afterwards, she sends off the adolescent Lancelot to King Arthur's court as the nameless White Knight, due to her own affinity with the color white.

Through much of the Prose Lancelot Propre, the Lady keeps aiding Lancelot in various ways during his early adventures to become a famed knight and discover his true identity, usually acting through her maidens serving as her agents and messengers. She gives him her magical gifts, including a magic ring of protection against enchantments in a manner similar in that to his fairy protectoress in Chrétien's version (the same of another of her magic rings also grants Lancelot's lover Queen Guinevere immunity from Morgan's power in the Prophéties de Merlin). Later she also works to actively encourage Lancelot and Guinevere's relationship and its consummation (this includes sending Guinevere a symbolically illustrated magic shield, the crack in which closes up after the queen finally spends her first night with Lancelot), and furthermore personally arrives to restore Lancelot to sanity during some of his recurring periods of madness.

Merlin's beloved and captor

The Vulgate Cycle is first to tell of either a different or the same Lady of the Lake in the Prose Merlin-derived section. It takes place before its main Vulgate Lancelot section but was written later, linking her with the disappearance of Merlin from the romance tradition of Arthurian legend. She is given the name Viviane (or similar) and a human origin, although she is still being called a fairy. In the Vulgate Merlin, Viviane refuses to give Merlin (who at this time is already old but appears to her in the guise of a handsome young man) her love until he has taught her all his secrets, after which she uses her power to seal him by making him sleep forever. The Post-Vulgate revision changes it into Viviane causing Merlin's death out of her hatred and fear of him. Though Merlin knows beforehand that this will happen due to his power of foresight, he is unable to counteract her because of the 'truth' this ability of foresight holds. He decides to do nothing for his situation other than to continue to teach her his secrets until she takes the opportunity to get rid of him.

Consequently, she entraps and entombs her unresisting mentor within a tree, in a hole underneath a large stone, or inside a cave, depending on the version of this story as it is told in the different texts. In the Prophéties de Merlin, for instance, Viviane is especially cruel in the way she disposes of Merlin and then takes Tristan's brother Meliadus the Younger as her actual lover. There she is proud of how Merlin had never taken her virginity, unlike what happened with his other female students such as Morgan. The Prose Lancelot explains this by a spell she put "on her groin which, as long as it lasted, prevented anyone from deflowering her and having relations with her." The Lancelot too has Viviane leave Merlin for another lover, in this case the evil king Brandin of the Isles, whom she teaches some magic that he then applies to his terrible castle Dolorous Gard; in the Vulgate Merlin, an incognito Viviane abortively turns King Brandegorre's son Evadeam into the deformed Dwarf Knight for refusing her love. Conversely, the Livre d'Artus, a late variant of the Prose Lancelot, shows a completely peaceful scene taking place under a blooming hawthorn tree where Merlin is lovingly put to sleep by Viviane, as it is required by his destined fate that she has learned of. He then wakes up inside an impossibly high and indestructible tower, invisible from the outside, where she will come to meet him there almost every day or night (a motif reminiscent of Ganieda's visits of Merlin's house in an earlier version of his life as described by Geoffrey in Vita Merlini). In any case, as a result of their usually final encounter Merlin almost always either dies or is never seen again by anyone else. Only in the recently found, alternative Bristol Merlin fragment, she resists his seduction with the help of a magic ring during the week they spend together; this particular text ends with him reuniting with Arthur.

According to her backstory in the chronologically later (but happening earlier plotwise) Vulgate Merlin, Viviane was a daughter of the knight Dionas (Dyonas) and a niece of the Duke of Burgundy. She was born in Dionas' domain that included the fairy forests of Briosque (Brocéliande) and Darnantes, and it was an enchantment of her fairy godmother, Diana the Huntress Goddess, that caused Viviane to be so alluring to Merlin when she first met him there as a young teenager. The Vulgate Lancelot informs the reader that, back "in the time of Virgil", Diana had been a Queen of Sicily that was considered a goddess by her subjects. The Post-Vulgate Suite de Merlin describes how Viviane was born and lived in a magnificent castle at the foot of a mountain in Brittany as a daughter of the King of Northumbria. She is initially known as the beautiful 12-year-old Damsel Huntress (Damoiselle Cacheresse) in her introductory episode, in which she serves the role of a damsel in distress in the adventure of the three knights separately sent by Merlin to rescue her from kidnapping; the quest is soon completed by King Pellinore who tracks down and kills her abductor. The Post-Vulgate rewrite also describes how Diana had killed her partner Faunus to be with a man named Felix, but then she was herself killed by her lover at that lake, which came to be called the Lake of Diana (Lac Diane). This is presumably the place where Lancelot du Lac ("of the Lake") is later raised, at first not knowing his real parentage, by Viviane. Nevertheless, in the French romances only the narration of the Vulgate Lancelot actually makes it clear that its Lady of the Lake and Viviane  are in fact the one and same character. There, she also uses other names, including Elaine.

Giver of Excalibur

Another, unnamed Lady of the Lake appears in the Post-Vulgate tradition to bestow the magic sword Excalibur from Avalon to Arthur in a now iconic scene. She is presented as a mysterious early benefactor of the young King Arthur, who is directed and led to her by Merlin. Appearing in her lake, she grants him Excalibur and its special scabbard after his original (also unnamed) sword breaks in the duel against King Pellinore. She is a mysterious character who is evidently neither Morgan nor the Damsel Huntress, but may possibly have a connection to the Lady of Avalon (Dame d'Avalon) from the Propheties de Merlin. Later in the Post-Vulgate Suite du Merlin, this Lady of the Lake is suddenly attacked and beheaded at King Arthur's court by Sir Balin as a result of a kin feud between them (she blames Balin for the death of variably either her brother or her lover, while he blames her for the death of his mother, who had been burned at the stake) and a dispute over another enchanted sword from Avalon; her body later vanishes.

All this takes place during the time when Merlin is still at Arthur's side and prior to the introduction of the young Viviane in the same branch of the Post-Vulgate Cycle. Modern retellings, however, usually omit the episode of her apparent killing by Balin and at the same time often make her the same character as Viviane.

Other identities and relations

In some cases, it is uncertain whether Morgan and the Lady of the Lake are identical or separate characters. According to Anne Berthelot, Morgan herself should be considered "the Lady of the Lake", as compared to the "upstart magician" Viviane, in the French prose cycles. The 13th/14th-century English poem Of Arthour and of Merlin explicitly gives the role of Lady of the Lake to Morgan, explaining her association with the name "Nimiane" by just having her residing near a town called Nimiane (Ninniane). Morgan is also depicted as a fairy from a lake (with an underwater and invisible castle that can be accessed only with a guide water dragon) in the Italian tale Cantari del Falso Scudo, and as a former student of her fellow fairy Viviana in the French romance Claris et Laris.

The 15th-century Italian prose La Tavola Ritonda (The Round Table) makes the Lady a daughter of Uther Pendragon and thus a sister to both Morgan (Fata Morgana) and Arthur. Here she is a character mischievous to the extent that her own brother Arthur swears to burn her at the stake (as he also threatens to do with Morgan). This version of her briefly kidnaps Lancelot when he is an adult (along with Guinevere and Tristan and Isolde), a motif usually associated with Morgan; here it is also Morgan herself who sends the shield to Guinevere in an act recast as having malicious intent. The Lady is also described as Morgan's sister in some other Italian texts, such as the 13th-century poem Pulzella Gaia. Mike Ashley identified Viviane with one of Arthur's other sisters, the otherwise obscure Elaine.

In the 14th-century French prose romance Perceforest, a lengthy romance prequel to the Arthurian legend, the figures of the Lady of the Lake and of the enchantress Sebile have been merged to create the character of Sebile [the Lady] of the Lake (Sébil[l]e [la Dame] du Lac, named as such due to her residence of the Castle of the Lake later known as the Red Castle), who is depicted as an ancestor of Arthur himself from her romance with King Alexander (Alexander the Great). The Lady of the Lake who raises Lancelot is also mentioned in Perceforest, where both hers and Merlin's ancestry lines are derived from the ancient Fairy Morgane (Morg[u]ane la Faee / la Fée, living in a castle on the Isle of Zeeland). Here, their shared ancestors have been born from an illicit love between her beautiful daughter Morg[u]anette and Passelion, an amorous young human protégé of the spirit Zephir, hundreds years earlier when Morgane cursed them so that one of their descendants would one day kill the other.

Le Morte d'Arthur

In Thomas Malory's 15th-century compilation of Arthurian stories, the first Lady of the Lake remains unnamed besides this epithet. When the young King Arthur, accompanied by his mentor Merlin, comes to her lake, she holds the replacement Excalibur (the original sword-from-the-stone having been recently broken in battle) out of the water and offers it to Arthur if he promises to fulfill any request from her later, to which he agrees. Later, when the Lady comes to Camelot to receive her end of the bargain, she asks for the head of Sir Balin the Savage, whom she blames for her brother's death. However, Arthur refuses this request. Instead it is Balin, claiming that "by enchantment and sorcery she has been the destroyer of many good knights", who swiftly decapitates her with his own magic sword (a cursed blade that had been stolen by him from a mysterious lady from Avalon just a moment earlier) in front of Arthur and then sends off his squire with her severed head, much to the distress and shame of the king under whose protection she should have been there. Arthur gives the Lady a rich burial, has her slayer banished despite Merlin telling him Balin would become Arthur's greatest knight, and gives his permission for Sir Launcenor of Ireland (an Irish prince similarly named but entirely unrelated to Malory's "Launcelot" Lancelot) to go after Balin to avenge this disgrace by killing him.

Nimue (Nyneve)

The second Lady of the Lake is sometimes referred to by her title and sometimes referred to by name, today best known as Nimue (rendered Nynyve in Malory's original Winchester Manuscript). Nimue, whom Malory describes as the "chief Lady of the Lake", plays a pivotal role in the Arthurian court throughout his story. The first time the character named Nimue appears is at the wedding of Arthur and Guinevere, as the young huntress rescued by Pellinore. She then proceeds to perform some of the same actions as the Lady of the Lake of his sources but is different in some ways. For instance, in the Post-Vulgate Suite du Merlin, Malory's source for the earlier parts of Le Morte d'Arthur, the Lady of the Lake traps Merlin in a tomb, which results in his death. She does this out of cruelty and a hatred of Merlin. In Le Morte d'Arthur, on the other hand, Nimue is still the one to trap Merlin, but Malory gives her a sympathetic reason: Merlin falls in love with her and will not leave her alone; Malory gives no indication that Nimue loves him back. Eventually, since she cannot free herself of him otherwise, she decides to trap him under rock and makes sure he cannot escape. She is tired of his sexual advances, and afraid of his power as "a devil's son", so she does not have much of a choice but to ultimately get rid of him.

After enchanting Merlin, Malory's Nimue replaces him as Arthur's magician aide and trusted adviser. When Arthur himself is in need in Malory's text, some incarnation of the Lady of the Lake, or her magic, or her agent, reaches out to help him. For instance, she saves Arthur from a magical attempt on his life made by his sister Morgan le Fay and from the death at the hands of Morgan's lover Accolon as in the Post-Vulgate, and together with Tristan frees Arthur from the lustful sorceress Annowre in a motif taken from the Prose Tristan. In Malory's version, Brandin of the Isles, renamed Brian (Bryan), is Nimue's evil cousin rather than her paramour. Nimue instead becomes the lover and eventually wife of Pelleas, a gentle young knight whom she then also puts under her protection so "that he was never slain by her days."

In an analysis by Kenneth Hodges, Nimue appears through the story as the chivalric code changes, hinting to the reader that something new will happen in order to help the author achieve the wanted interpretation of the Arthurian legend: each time the Lady reappears in Le Morte d'Arthur, it is at a pivotal moment of the episode, establishing the importance of her character within Arthurian literature, as she transcends any notoriety attached to her character by aiding Arthur and other knights to succeed in their endeavors, subtly helping sway the court in the right direction. According to Hodges, when Malory was looking at other texts to find inspiration, he chose the best aspects of all the other Lady of the Lake characters, making her pragmatic, compassionate, clever, and strong-willed. However, Nimue's character is often seen as still very ambiguous by other scholars. As summarized by Amy S. Kaufman,

Malory does not use Nimue's name for the Lady of the Lake associated with Lancelot, who remains unnamed as well and may be considered a third one (it is possible that Malory had only access to the Suite du Merlin part of the Post-Vulgate Cycle as a relevant source). In the end, a female hand emerging from a lake reclaims Excalibur in a miraculous scene when the sword is thrown into the water by Sir Bedivere just after Arthur's final battle. The narration then counts Nimue among the magical queens who arrive in a black boat with Morgan. Together, they bear the mortally wounded Arthur away to Avalon. (In the original account in the Vulgate Cycle's Mort Artu, the chief lady in the boat, seen holding hands with Morgan and calling for Arthur, is not recognised by Girflet who here is this scene's witness instead of Bedivere.)

Her lake

A number of locations are traditionally associated with the Lady of the Lake's abode. Such places within Great Britain include the lakes Dozmary Pool and The Loe in Cornwall, the lakes Llyn Llydaw and Llyn Ogwen in Snowdonia, River Brue's area of Pomparles Bridge in Somerset, and the lake Loch Arthur in Scotland.

In France, Viviane is also connected with Brittany's Paimpont forest, often identified as the Arthurian enchanted forest of Brocéliande, where her lake (that is, the Lake of Diana) is said to be located at the castle Château de Comper. The oldest localization of the Lake is in the Lancelot en prose, written around 1230: the place where Lancelot is raised is described there as to the north of Trèves-Cunault, on the Loire, in the middle of the (now extinct) forest of Beaufort-en-Vallée (the "Bois en Val" of the book).

Modern culture

Walter Scott wrote an influential poem, The Lady of the Lake, in 1810, drawing on the romance of the legend, but with an entirely different story set around Loch Katrine in the Trossachs of Scotland. Scott's material furnished subject matter for La donna del lago, an 1819 opera by Gioachino Rossini. Franz Schubert set seven songs from Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake, including the three "Ellen songs" ("Ellens Gesang I", "Ellens Gesang II", and "Ellens Gesang III"), although Schubert's music to Ellen's third song has become far more famous in its later adaptation, known as "Ave Maria".

William Wordsworth's 1831 poem, The Egyptian Maid or The Romance of the Water-Lily features the Lady of the Lake Nina, who, inverting Nimue's role in Malory, brings Merlin out of his cave and back to Arthur's court. Alfred, Lord Tennyson adapted several stories of the Lady of the Lake for his 1859–1885 poetic cycle Idylls of the King. He splits her into two characters: Viviane is a Circe-like deceitful villain and an associate of King Mark and Mordred who ensnares Merlin, while the Lady of the Lake is a guardian angel style benevolent figure who raises Lancelot and gives Arthur his sword.

The full French name of the University of Notre Dame, founded in 1842, is Notre Dame du Lac. This is translated as "Our Lady of the Lake", making reference to Mary, mother of Jesus as the Lady of the Lake in a fusion between Arthurian legend and French Catholicism.

Popular culture

20th- and 21st-century authors of Arthurian fiction adapt the legend of the Lady of the Lake in various ways, sometimes using two or more bearers of this title while others choose to emphasize a single character. Typically influenced by Thomas Malory's telling of the story, fantasy writers tend to give their version of Merlin a sorcerous female enemy, usually either Nimue, Morgan (often perceived as more plausible in this role due to her established enmity with Arthur in much of the legend), or Morgan's sister Morgause. Various characters of the Lady (or Ladies) of the Lake appear in many works, including poems, novels, films, television series, stage productions, comics, and games. Though her identity may change, her role as a significant figure in the lives of Arthur and Merlin usually remains consistent. Some examples of such works are listed below.

Nimue appears in T. H. White's book series The Once and Future King as a water nymph and Merlin's enchantress. True to the legend she traps Merlin in a cave, but White's Merlyn does not convey it as negative, and even refers to it as a holiday. They thus disappear together near the beginning of The Ill-Made Knight (1940), however Merlyn later returns in The Book of Merlyn.
Nineue ferch Afallach, "Tennyson's Vivien", is a fairy enchantress in John Cowper Powys's novel Porius: A Romance of the Dark Ages (1951). In Welsh mythology, Modron ("divine mother") was a daughter of Avallach; she was derived from the Gaulish goddess Matrona and may have been the prototype of Morgan. The novel ends with the protagonist Porius saving the wizard Myrddin (the story's Merlin figure) from his entombment by Nineue on the summit of Snowdon, Wales' highest mountain.
The 1960 musical Camelot includes the character Nimue who has a song called "Follow Me" performed in Act I. In the play, Nimue, a beautiful water nymph, has come to draw Merlyn into her cave for an eternal sleep. He begs Nimue for answers, as he has forgotten if he has warned Arthur about Lancelot and Mordred, before his memories fade permanently and he is led away. She does not appear in the film adaptation, but "Follow Me" is echoed in the notably similar "Come with Me" sung by the Lady of the Lake for Galahad in the later musical Spamalot (2005).
The Lady of the Lake is satirized off-screen in the 1975 comedy film Monty Python and the Holy Grail, in which late 20th century notions are inserted into a mythic tale for comical effect. In a famous scene, a peasant named Dennis says, "Strange women lying in ponds distributing swords is no basis for a system of government. Supreme executive power derives from a mandate from the masses, not from some farcical aquatic ceremony." Arthurian scholar N. J. Higham described this iconic dialogue line as ever "immortal" in 2005.
In the DC Comics Universe, Vivienne is the Lady of the Lake. Nimue is the good Madame Xanadu (introduced in 1978), her youngest sister, and their middle sister is the evil Morgaine le Fey (given name Morgana); their surname is Inwudu. The Lady of the Lake has appeared in Hellblazer, Aquaman, and her sister's own series. In the 1983 DC Comics series Camelot 3000, an unrelated Lady of the Lake is referred to as Nyneve, depicted as a woman with a beautiful body but wearing a mask, who is sent to confront the heroes of Camelot. When Nyneve removes the mask, Merlin, upon seeing her face, is unable to resist her and departs, thus removing him from Morgan's path. Later, when he escapes her control, it is revealed that her only facial feature is a gigantic mouth with a long serpentine tongue, vagina dentata style, which Merlin turns against her.
Mary Stewart's 1979 novel The Last Enchantment in her Arthurian Saga series radically recasts the story of Merlin and Niniane (Nimue), completely removing the aspect of malicious seduction and treachery dominant in the traditional version; it is the witch Morgause, the mother of Mordred (with Mordred notably undergoing a similarly revisionist treatment as Nimue), who takes Nimue's traditional role and then continues as the chief villain. In this depiction, after she saves him from being poisoned by Morgause, Merlin takes Niniane on as an apprentice, with her at first disguised as a boy named Ninian, and willingly teaches her his magic, which he had refused to Morgause. When her identity as a woman is discovered, they fall in love despite their age difference. Their love is peaceful and idyllic; even when Nimue marries Pelleas, this is not a betrayal of Merlin. As Merlin gives her the secrets of his power and how to control it, he seems to lose them himself, which he does not mind. In a depleted, weakened condition, he falls into a coma, and is believed to be dead. Nimue has him buried within his "crystal cave", from which he escapes after a few weeks, through a combination of chance luck and ingenious planning, and travels incognito to let Arthur know he is still alive and can help him against Morgause and Morgan. Nimue takes Merlin's place as the court enchanter, while Merlin retires to the crystal cave and lives a quiet and happy life as a hermit. Niniane takes his place and role to the degree she even proclaims "I am Merlin", thus creating a 'Nimue-Merlin' character.
In John Boorman's 1981 film Excalibur, an uncredited actress plays the Lady of Lake, twice holding up the fabled sword, once for Merlin to give to Uther Pendragon, and once to return to Arthur. Separately, the film's Morgana (Helen Mirren) takes on other parts of the traditional Lady of the Lake story, learning the occult arts from Merlin and ultimately trapping him with his own powerful "Charm of Making", the magic of shapeshifting.
Marion Zimmer Bradley's 1983 novel The Mists of Avalon, a feminist retelling of the legend, expands on the tradition of multiple Ladies, with Viviane, Niniane and Nimue all being separate characters. Furthermore, in Bradley's works, both the 'Lady of the Lake' and the 'Merlin' are names of offices in the Celtic pagan hierarchy: the Lady of the Lake is the title of the ruling priestess of Avalon, and the Merlin is a druid who has pledged his life to the protection of Britain. Various tragic characters assume the title of the Lady of the Lake, including Viviane, the initial High Priestess of Avalon, Arthur's aunt, and Lancelot's mother who ends up killed by Balin (here as her other son Balan's foster-brother); Niniane, Taliesin's daughter and yet another of Arthur's half-sisters who reluctantly becomes the Lady of the Lake after Viviane is slain and becomes Mordred's lover until he kills her; the main protagonist and narrator Morgaine (Morgan), portrayed similar as in the medieval romances but more sympathetically; and Nimue, a sympathetic and tragic young priestess who falls in love with the Merlin but is duty bound by Morgaine to seduce and lure him to his death – following which she drowns herself. Their ancestors (the previous priestesses of Avalon and, before that, of Atlantis) are subjects of Bradley's extended Avalon universe novels, among them the direct prequel Lady of Avalon (1997), the third part of which follows the young Viviane. A 2001 television adaptation of The Mists of Avalon starred Anjelica Huston as Viviane, and Julianna Margulies and Tamsin Egerton as Morgaine.
In his Christian-themed 1987–1999 book series The Pendragon Cycle, Stephen Lawhead takes up the figure of the Lady of the Lake under a different name: the Faery princess Charis, daughter of Avallach, the king of Atlantis and later of Avalon. Married to the Breton prince Taliesin, she gives birth to Merlin. After Taliesin's death, Charis takes care of Merlin at Lake Logres, hence her name "Lady of the Lake". She is the protagonist and narrator of the first book in the cycle, Taliesin. The traditional figure of Nimue belongs to Charis' shapeshifting evil sister Morgian (Morgan), the main antagonist through the entire series, including the modern-day-set Avalon: The Return of King Arthur.
In Bernard Cornwell's 1995–1997 novel series The Warlord Chronicles, more historically grounded and realistic than usual treatments of Arthurian legend, Nimue is an Irish orphan adopted by the British druid Merlin. She is a prominent character in the books, being a childhood friend of, a major love interest for, and finally an adversary to the series' main protagonist, Arthur's warrior Derfel Cadarn. She begins as Merlin's most adept priestess and lover, but as she grows ever more brutal and fanatical, by the time of the final novel she turns against him and imprisons him, torturing him to reveal the last of his magical secrets in her desperate obsession to bring back the Old Gods of Britain at any price. Eventually, she brings Merlin to total madness before ultimately sacrificing him to their lost gods, whose return she believes would rid the island of the Saxons and the Christians alike. As Nimue believes the key to her goal is to sacrifice Gwydre, Arthur's son with Guinevere using Excalibur (as she already did with Gawain), Derfel's final act of casting the sword away is not to return it to her but to hide it from her forever. Stephen Thomas Knight, commenting on Cornwell's vicious Nimue, with her tunnel-vision ruthlessness, vindicativeness, and frequent use of prolonged torture, opined the "pro-Celtic quasi-historian" author "links her to the Saxons as part of her hostility to decent people, including Merlin." Symbolically, both Nimue and the hypocritical Bishop Sansum, representing the Christian side of the books' major theme of the danger of religious extremism, remain still alive as the story comes to the end. Nimue is due to be portrayed by Ellie James in the upcoming television adaptation The Winter King.
In the 1995–1996 animated series Princess Gwenevere and the Jewel Riders, the name of the first season's antagonist Lady Kale (voiced by Corinne Orr), an evil twin sister of the Queen of Avalon and a former student of Merlin who magically imprisons him, was created as an anagram of Lady of the Lake. Lady Kale seeks to steal Merlin's magic so she can rule Avalon forever, later working together with the also evil Morgana. However, a good character of the Lady of the Lake (called the Spirit of Avalon in an alternate version Starla and the Jewel Riders) herself briefly appears during the second seasons's finale in the eponymous episode "Lady of the Lake" ("Spirit of Avalon") to help Princess Gwenevere and Merlin defeat Lady Kale and Morgana.
In the 1998 television miniseries Merlin, the characters of the Lady of the Lake (Miranda Richardson) and Nimue (Isabella Rossellini) are separated, with the former being a goddess-like beneficent fae who is the twin sister of the evil Queen Mab, and the latter being a noblewoman damsel in distress with no supernatural powers who is the object of Merlin's affections. In the motif evoking Edwin Arlington Robinson's 1917 poem Merlin, Nimue and Merlin live together in another world until he leaves in order to help Arthur; in the end, however, Merlin returns to her and makes them both young again with the last of his magic. In the 2006 pseudo-sequel Merlin's Apprentice, Miranda Richardson reprises her role as the Lady of the Lake, as the only returning cast member aside of Merlin's Sam Neill, though she portrays a much different characterization: the Lady is the main antagonist seeking to destroy Camelot. It also depicts Merlin's sleep in the cave; as he slept, the Lady used her magic to conceive a son with Merlin and then enchanted him to sleep for 50 years.
In the 2005–2009 television series Kaamelott, the Lady of the Lake (Audrey Fleurot) is an angel sent to help King Arthur progress in the quest for the Grail. Upending the established connections, the series' Lancelot not only never interacts with the Lady but cannot even see her.
The 2008–2012 television series Merlin also features two characters based on the Lady of the Lake. Nimueh (Michelle Ryan) serves as the primary antagonist of the show's first season, which includes the episode titled "The Mark of Nimueh". The character has no connection to Merlin beyond his opposition to her plans, and her only connection to a lake is her use of a location called the Isle of the Blessed (Thomas Wentworth Higginson's 19th-century name for Avalon). She ends up killed by Merlin in a showdown on her Isle of Nimueh in the season's last episode, "Le Morte d'Arthur". The ninth episode of the second season is titled "The Lady of the Lake", wherein a sorceress named Freya (Laura Donnelly) dies and vows to repay Merlin for his kindness to her. In the third season finale, Freya, now a water spirit, returns Excalibur to Merlin so that he can give it to Prince Arthur Pendragon.
Nimue, the Blood Queen, appears as one of the primary antagonists in the Hellboy comic book series by Mike Mignola, influenced by the classic comics series Prince Valiant. Here she was introduced in 2008 as a witch who driven mad after the powers she acquired from Merlin, gave her knowledge of the Ogdru Jahad, prompting the witches of Britain to dismember her and seal her away underground. Resurrected in the present day by King Arthur's last descendant, Hellboy, she assumes the mantle of the Irish triple war goddess the Morrígan and assembles an army of legendary and folkloric beings to eradicate mankind, only to stopped by Hellboy at the cost of his own life. Although having been turned into an evil creature trying to destroy the word, Nimue still had a human part "that hated and feared what she had become." She is portrayed by Milla Jovovich in the 2019 film adaptation Hellboy.
Nimue is featured in the 2010s television series Once Upon a Time in which Arthurian characters live in the land inhabited by other fairy tale characters. She appears as a secondary antagonist in the first half of Season 5, portrayed by Caroline Ford. She is introduced in the eponymous episode "Nimue" when, fleeing from Vortigan who sacked and burned her village, she meets Merlin and they fall in love; with Merlin being immortal, Nimue drinks from the Holy Grail so they can be together forever. Afterwards, she kills Vortigan, which darkens her magic and turns her into the very first Dark One. Nimue breaks Excalibur but Merlin cannot bring himself to kill her and ends up being trapped in a tree. At some point, Nimue dies but she manages to live on in all of the following Dark Ones, appearing to them as a vision. She forms an alliance with Captain Hook, manipulating him into casting the Dark Curse and reviving her and the Dark Ones, and then leads a Dark One invasion in Storybrooke, which ultimately leads to her demise at the hands of Hook, who betrays her to redeem himself and destroy her and the Dark Ones forever using Excalibur. The separate character of the Lady of the Lake is referenced as Lancelot's mother, but she never appears; even the episode titled "The Lady of the Lake" does not feature her and its title instead refers to Prince Charming's mother.
The 2017 film King Arthur: Legend of the Sword features the Lady of the Lake (Jacqui Ainsley) bound Excalibur to the Pendragon bloodline after Merlin used it to destroy the Mage Tower and appears to catch the sword underwater after Arthur throws it into the lake in shame at his failures; she pulls Arthur underwater and motivates him to fight Vortigern before returning the sword to him. This good Lady of the Lake has her mirror image in the film's monstrous character "Syren" that replaces the two dragons in the film's revision of the legend of Vortigern's Tower.
In the 2020 television series Cursed, a feminist re-imagining of the Arthurian legend based on an illustrated novel of the same title, Nimue is the protagonist, portrayed by Katherine Langford in the adaptation. Writer and showrunner Tom Wheeler said he was inspired by "this really evocative image of this young woman's hand reaching out of this lake and offering the sword to Arthur, so that image is what captivated us. And it's a really mysterious, magical, sad image, and it begged all of these questions: Why is she giving the sword to Arthur? What was their relationship? Why him? Why does she have the sword?" (Contrary to Wheeler's stated belief, it is not Nimue who gives the sword in Malory's unrevised telling.) In Cursed, before becoming the Lady of the Lake, Nimue, also known as the "Wolf-Blood Witch", is a young woman coming into her Fey abilities, but whilst her home was ravaged by the Christian fanatics called the Red Paladins she is sent on a mission by her dying mother to deliver "The Sword of Power" (Excalibur but never named) to Merlin. Taking great liberties from the source materials, Cursed'''s Lancelot (known until the finale as only "The Weeping Monk") is already adult when Nimue first meets him and is for most part just one of her enemies, Merlin is revealed to be her father, and she is instead Arthur's love interest. The story of Cursed'' ends abruptly when Nimue is shot with arrows by a nun named Iris (an original character with no counterpart in the legend) and falls with the sword into a body of water, where she (or her spirit, as her exact fate is left unexplained) will guard the sword until "a true king rises to claim it." Albeit the TV series adapted the entire original book, it was supposed to continue in the canceled second season.

See also
Grendel's mother
Llyn y Fan Fach
Yeshe Tsogyal

References

External links
The Lady of the Lake and Vivien at The Camelot Project

Arthurian characters
British poems
Fairies
Female characters in literature
Female characters in television
Female legendary creatures
Fictional lords and ladies
Fictional characters who use magic
Mythological queens
Supernatural legends
Diana (mythology)
Thetis
Mary Magdalene

Lady of the Lake


A Bulgarian umbrella is an umbrella with a hidden pneumatic mechanism which injects a small poisonous pellet containing ricin. It has a hollowed stalk in which the pellet neatly sits.

Recorded usage
Such an umbrella was used in and named for the assassination of the Bulgarian dissident writer Georgi Markov on 7 September 1978 (the birthday of the Bulgarian State Council chairman Todor Zhivkov, who had often been the target of Georgi Markov's criticism) on Waterloo Bridge in London. Markov died four days later.

It was also allegedly used in the failed assassination attempt against the Bulgarian dissident journalist Vladimir Kostov the same year in the Paris Métro. The poison used in both cases was ricin. Both assassination attempts are believed to have been organized by the Bulgarian Secret Service of the time of the Cold War with the assistance of the KGB.

Such an umbrella was intended to be used in the assassination of Pallo Jordan and Ronnie Kasrils by the South African Civil Cooperation Bureau death squad.

Cultural influence
These two cases inspired:
 The episode "Hot Ice" of Quincy, M.E. (1978)
 The Markov case was referenced directly, and a similar assassination method used, in the 1979 novel The Green Ripper by John D. MacDonald.
 The French film Le Coup du parapluie (The Umbrella Coup) directed by Gérard Oury and starring Pierre Richard (1980)
 The episode "At All Costs" of The Sandbaggers (1980)
 Two episodes of the British political comedy series Yes, Minister / Yes, Prime Minister, where in "The Death List" (1981) the titular Minister Jim Hacker is told of various risks by methods of assassination, and in "A Diplomatic Incident" (1987) a Bulgarian Umbrella is suggested as a way to kill a French puppy that was intended as gift to the Queen, to prevent a diplomatic incident caused by quarantine regulations
 Bulgarian writer Stefan Kisyov's novel The Executioner (2003)
 The episode "Seven Thirty-Seven" of the American crime drama Breaking Bad (2009), which features a plan by protagonists Walter White and Jesse Pinkman to kill a drug lord with ricin. During the introduction of the substance, White highlights the assassination of Markov as a successful case of ricin poisoning.
 The episode "I, Murdoch" of Murdoch Mysteries (2009)
 The episode "Obsession" of NCIS (2010)
 The episode Marionette of Fringe (2010)
 The episode "The Clock" of The Americans (2013)
 The 2022 Steven Soderbergh thriller Kimi features a public injection of an unknown sedative using the tip of an umbrella.
 The 96th episode "A x Lawless x Home" of Hunter x Hunter (2011) features a character Feitan whose umbrella could shoot a projectile.

See also
 Francesco Gullino, alleged Bulgarian umbrella murderer
 MythBusters "Exploding Toilet" – the feasibility of this type of assassination was confirmed in the first episode of MythBusters.

Further reading
The Bulgarian Umbrella: The Soviet Direction and Operations of the Bulgarian Secret Service in Europe by Vladimir Kostov, Harvester Press (1988)
 The Global Investigative Journalism Casebook ed by Mark Hunter for UNESCO (2012)
 A Spy's London by  Roy Berkeley and Rupert Allason, Pen & Sword Books (1994)
 Communication in Eastern Europe: The Role of History, Culture, and Media in Contemporary Conflicts ed by Fred L. Casimir, pub by Lawrence Erlbaum (1995)

References

Projectile weapons
Weapons of the Cold War
Umbrellas

Bulgarian umbrella


Mirror Pond is an impoundment of the Deschutes River in Bend, in the U.S. state of Oregon. It is between Pacific Power's Bend Hydro dam and the Colorado dam, between RM 166 and 167. The pond is flanked by Drake, Harmon, Pageant, Brooks, Columbia, Miller's Landing, and McKay parks, as well as a number of buildings such as Pine Tavern and private homes. Some people mistakenly consider the Galveston (Tumalo) bridge the upper boundary of Mirror Pond; others call the portion of the lake between Galveston bridge and the Colorado dam "upper Mirror Pond".

History
Mirror Pond was created in 1910 by the construction of the Bend Water, Light & Power Company dam which provided the city with its initial source of electricity. The dam has been owned by Pacific Power since 1926 and produces electricity for approximately 200 Bend households.

Siltation
Since the construction of the dam, the flow of the Deschutes River deposits sediment from the approximately  Upper Deschutes River watershed into Mirror Pond. As a result, sediment has settled behind the dam, creating shallow mudflats along the margins. Mirror Pond is the only impoundment of the upper Deschutes River for electricity.

In 1984, the community supported a $312,000 dredging project (equivalent to $ today) to repair the Pond's features, but the result was not lasting.  The work included removal of some  of material to achieve a minimum depth of .

The sedimentation in Mirror Pond has again become a concern for the Bend community because the mudflats interfere with the flow of the river, recreational uses, and have altered the aesthetics of Mirror Pond in relation to Drake Park and downtown Bend tourism and commerce.

Related
There is also an impoundment downstream created by the North Canal Dam which is a diversion for Pilot Butte Canal, now part of the Central Oregon Irrigation District.

See also
List of lakes in Oregon

References

Bend, Oregon
Reservoirs in Oregon
Lakes of Deschutes County, Oregon
Buildings and structures in Deschutes County, Oregon
1910 establishments in Oregon

Mirror Pond


The Church of the Holy Cross in Middlezoy, Somerset, England dates from the 13th century and has been designated as a grade I listed building.

William of Bitton II was the rector by 20 April 1263. From the 13th to early 16th century, when it became a separate parish, Middlezoy was a chapelry of Sowy parish. The church was originally dedicated to St. Lawrence and later to St. Mary before adopting the current dedication in 1754.

The church has a chancel and a nave with a south aisle and south porch, and a north chapel or vestry. The 3-stage west tower was built around 1483, similar to that at Lyng. The tower contains six bells, including one of 1608, probably by George Purdue of Closworth. The upper part of the tower was restored by Sall Strachey Historic Conservation. The work included replacing the pinnacles and sections of the pierced parapet. On the stonework are hunky punks which have been severely damaged by the weather.

The whole church has been renovated many times with a major restoration being undertaken in the 1860s to plans by Charles Knowles, with further repairs in 1908.

The parish is part of the benefice of Middlezoy and Othery and Moorlinch with Stawell and Sutton Mallet, within the Glastonbury deanery.

See also

 List of Grade I listed buildings in Sedgemoor
 List of towers in Somerset
 List of ecclesiastical parishes in the Diocese of Bath and Wells

References

13th-century church buildings in England
Church of England church buildings in Sedgemoor
Grade I listed churches in Somerset
Grade I listed buildings in Sedgemoor

Church of the Holy Cross, Middlezoy


The Battle of Kostiuchnówka was a World War I battle that took place July 4–6, 1916, near the village of Kostiuchnówka (Kostyukhnivka) and the Styr River in the Volhynia region of modern Ukraine, then part of the Russian Empire. It was a major clash between the Russian Army and the Polish Legions (part of the Austro-Hungarian Army) during the opening phase of the Brusilov Offensive.

Polish forces, numbering 5,500–7,300, faced Russian forces numbering over half of the 46th Corps of 26,000. The Polish forces were eventually forced to retreat, but delayed the Russians long enough for the other Austro-Hungarian units in the area to retreat in an organized manner. Polish casualties were approximately 2,000 fatalities and wounded. The battle is considered one of the largest and most vicious of those involving the Polish Legions in World War I.

Background
In World War I, the partitioners of Poland fought each other, with the German Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire aligned against the Russian Empire. The Polish Legions were created in Austro-Hungary in order to exploit these divisions, serving as one of Józef Piłsudski's primary tools for restoring Polish independence.

The Polish Legions first arrived in the vicinity of Kostiuchnówka during the advance of the Central Powers in the summer and autumn of 1915, taking Kostiuchnówka on September 27, 1915. That autumn they experienced heavy fighting, with each side trying to take control of the region; a less known battle of Kostiuchnówka took place from November 3 to 10; the Russians managed to make some advances, taking the Polish Hill, but were expelled by the Polish forces on September 10. Polish forces held Kostiuchnówka, and due to their successes in defending their positions, several landmarks in the Kostiuchnówka region became known as "Polish" (called such by Polish as well as by allied German-speaking troops): a key hill overlooking the area became the Polish Hill (Polish: Polska Góra), a nearby forest – the Polish Forest (Polski Lasek), a nearby bridge over the Garbach – the Polish Bridge (Polski Mostek), and the key fortified trench line – Piłsudski's Redoubt (Reduta Piłsudskiego). Polish soldiers built several large wooden camps; the larger of which was known as Legionowo (where the Polish HQ was located). During the preceding late autumn, winter and spring there were no major moves by either side, but this changed drastically with the launching of the Brusilov Offensive in June 1916. It would be a major Russian victory, and the greatest of Austro-Hungarian defeats.

Opposing forces
Facing the major Russian offensive, the II Brigade of the Polish Legions was deployed out of Kostiuchnówka, at Gruziatyn and Hołzula. The I Brigade held the lines advancing down the Polish Hill, Kostiuchnówka village; the III Brigade, positioned to its left, held the lines near the Optowa village; the Piłsudski's Redoubt was the most advanced Polish position, just about  facing head on the most advanced Russian redoubt, called the "Eagle's Nest". Further down the Polish Hill the Hungarian 128th Honvédség Brigade took positions opposite the Polish right flank, the Hungarian 11th Cavalry Division opposite the left flank. Two Polish fall-back lines were drawn beyond the first line of defense: one drawn through the Polish Forest and the Engineer's Forest, and the second one through the villages of Nowe Kukle, Nowy Jastków, the camp of Legionowo and Nowa Rarańcza. The Polish Legions at Kostiuchnówka numbered from 5,500 to 7,300 (6,500 infantry and 800 cavalry), with forty-nine machine guns, fifteen mortars and twenty-six artillery units. The Russian forces, composed of the most part of the 46th Corps (primarily the 110th and 77nd Infantry Division), numbered 23,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry and were backed up by a larger artillery force consisting of 120 units.

The battle

Starting on June 6, a major Russian push was directed against the 40 km line between Kołki and Kostiuchnówka, with the aim of taking the position and then advancing towards Kovel. With Polish legionnaires staying put and holding the ground, more Russian reinforcements were thrown in, while the battle of Kostiuchnówka had become one of the major struggles in the area during World War I. Polish forces launched a counterattack, pushing back the Russians – who had not expected such a bold move – on the night of June 8 and 9.

The major Russian push came on July 4, after a major artillery pre-emptive assault. The advancing Russian infantry, numbering around 10,000, faced about 1,000 Polish troops in the front lines (the rest were held in reserve), but the Russians were stopped by heavy machine gun fire and forced to retreat. The Hungarian forces at Polish Hill were pushed back, however, and the Russians advancing on the Poles' right flank, threatened to take the high ground in the area. A counterattack by the Poles was not successful; as the Hungarian units were retreating, the Polish forces sustained very heavy losses and had to fall back either to the remaining part of the first defense line or, in the area of Polish Hill, to the second line. Another Polish counterattack, launched during the night of July 4/5, was also beaten back. Throughout the day, the Russian offensive managed to push the Polish forces further back; although the Poles managed to temporarily retake Polish Hill, a lack of support from the Hungarian forces once again tipped the battle towards the Russians, and even German reinforcements – deployed after Piłsudski sent a report to the army's headquarters about the possibility of a Russian breakthrough – failed to turn the tide away. Eventually, on July 6, the Russian offensive forced the Central Powers' armies to retreat along the entire frontline; Polish forces were among the last to retreat, having sustained approximately 2,000 casualties during the battle.

Aftermath
Brusilov's offensive was stopped only in August 1916, with reinforcements from the Western Front. Despite being forced to retreat, the performance of the Polish forces impressed Austro-Hungarian and German commanders, and contributed to their decision to recreate some form of Polish statehood in order to boost the recruitment of Polish troops. Their limited concessions, however, did not satisfy Piłsudski; in the aftermath of the Oath Crisis he was arrested and the Legions disbanded.

The presence of Piłsudski, who would later become the dictator of Poland, during the battle, became a subject of several patriotic Polish paintings, including one by Leopold Gottlieb, then also a soldier of the Legions, as well as of another painting by Stefan Garwatowski. Wincenty Wodzinowski created a series of drawings and sketches on the dead and wounded from the battle. During the Second Polish Republic, several monuments and a mound were raised nearby to commemorate the battle. A 16 m mound with a stone obelisk and a museum with two additional obelisks were raised during the years 1928–1933; a military cemetery was also built. They fell into disrepair during the rule of the Soviet Union (which often purposefully tried to erase traces of Polish history – the mound was for example lowered by 10 m). In recent years restoration work has taken place through various Polish-Ukrainian projects, with notable projects carried out by Polish boy scouts.

The battle is considered one of the largest and most vicious of those involving the Polish Legions in World War I. Piłsudski in his order of July 11, 1916 wrote that "the heaviest of our current fights took place in the recent days."

According to Prit Buttar, "Nevertheless, the engagement raised the profile of the Polish Legion – already highly regarded by the Central Powers – still further. This would ultimately lead to greater pressure for greater independence to be granted to the Poles in exchange for their support in fighting the Russians."

Notes

References
 Bitwa pod Kostiuchnówką, Zwycięstwa Oręża Polskiego Nr 16. Rzeczpospolita and Mówią Wieki. Various authors and editors, primarily Tomasz Matuszak. June 17, 2006
 90. rocznica bitwy pod Kostiuchnówką 90th anniversary of the battle on the pages of Polish Ministry of Defence
 Grzegorz Rąkowski, Wołyń: przewodnik krajoznawczo-historyczny po Ukrainie Zachodniej, Oficyna Wydawnicza "Rewasz", 2005, , Google Print, p.109
 Jerzy Sobczak, Kopce na ziemiach kresowych, Magazyn Wileński 2003/3
 Bohdan Urbankowski – Józef Piłsudski: marzyciel i strateg, Wydawnictwo ALFA, Warsaw, 1997, , p. 155–165 (rozdział IV Legiony, podrozdział I 'Dzieje idei')

Further reading
 Stanisław Czerep, Kostiuchnówka 1916, Bellona, Warszawa, 1994,
 Szlakiem Józefa Piłsudskiego 1914–1939, Warszawa, nakł. Spółki Wydawniczej "Ra", 1939 (reported to have several photos from the battle of Kostiuchnówka)
 Michał Klimecki, Pod rozkazami Piłsudskiego : bitwa pod Kostiuchnówką 4–6 lipca 1916 r., z serii "Bitwy Polskie", Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Związków Zawodowych, 1990,
 Włodzimierz Kozłowski, Artyleria polskich formacji wojskowych podczas I wojny światowej, Uniwersytet Łódzki, Łódź, 1993,

External links
Map of the battle
 Uroczystości w Kostiuchnówce na Ukrainie
 Dariusz Nowiński, Kostiuchnówka 1916. Największa polska bitwa I wojny światowej, Komendant, Naczelnik, Marszałek. Józef Piłsudski i jego czasy

Kostiuchnowka
Kostiuchnowka
Kostiuchnowka
Kostiuchnowka
Kostiuchnowka
Polish Legions in World War I
1916 in the Russian Empire
Volhynian Governorate
Ukraine in World War I

Battle of Kostiuchnówka


The 1998 Football League Trophy Final (known as the Auto Windscreens Shields Trophy for sponsorship reasons) was the 15th final of the domestic football cup competition for teams from the Second and Third Division of the Football League. The match was played at Wembley on 19 April 1998, and was contested by Bournemouth and Grimsby Town. The match was won by Grimsby Town, with Wayne Burnett scoring the winning golden goal in the 2–1 victory during extra-time. The attendance was the largest for a sporting event in England that weekend.

Grimsby's victory was the first of a Wembley double that season as later they went on to triumph in the 1998 Football League Second Division play-off final.

Background
Bournemouth and Grimsby entered the fixture in a similar positions with both clubs fighting for promotion from the Football League Second Division. Grimsby were 3rd trailing Watford and Bristol City where Bournemouth were outside the play-offs in 8th. Bournemouth were competing in their second Football League Trophy final having won the first ever tournament in 1984, Grimsby were competing in their first final and were playing at Wembley for the very first time.

Match details

Route to the final

Bournemouth

Grimsby Town

External links
Official website
Match result & lineups at Soccerbase

EFL Trophy finals
Football League Trophy Final 1998
Football League Trophy Final 1998
Football League Trophy Final
April 1998 sports events in the United Kingdom
1998 sports events in London
Events at Wembley Stadium

1998 Football League Trophy final


Pavlína Němcová (born 18 February 1972 in Děčín, Czechoslovak Socialist Republic) is a Czech model, actress and producer.

Biography
Němcová enrolled into the Actors Studio in New York, taking Jack Waltzer's classes for one year. After acting in a few American independent film projects, such as Salome's Kiss and Damaged, and playing small parts in European films like Colditz and Modern Love, Němcová obtained the role of the American journalist who interviews Edith Piaf/Marion Cotillard in La Vie en Rose.  She was then cast as Olga in La Guerre des Miss  – The War of the Beauty Queens, released in France in January 2009. An Italian drama from Roberto Faenza filmed in English immediately followed: The Case of Unfaithfull Klara.

Filmography

References

External links
Pavlína Němcová Website

Living people
1973 births
Czech film actresses
People from Děčín
Czech female models
21st-century Czech actresses

Pavlína Němcová


Manassas National Battlefield Park is a unit of the National Park Service located in Prince William County, Virginia, north of Manassas that preserves the site of two major American Civil War battles: the First Battle of Bull Run, also called the Battle of First Manassas, and the Second Battle of Bull Run or Battle of Second Manassas.  It was also where Confederate General Thomas J. Jackson acquired his nickname "Stonewall". The park was established in 1936 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.

More than 700,000 people visit the battlefield each year. The Henry Hill Visitor Center, on Sudley Road by the south entrance to the park, offers exhibits and interpretation regarding the First Battle of Bull Run, including Civil War-era uniforms, weapons, field gear and an electronic battle map. The center offers the orientation film Manassas: End of Innocence, as well as a bookstore.

A recent find in 2014 unearthed bone fragments that led to the discovery of the skeletal remains of two Union soldiers in what is now thought to be a Surgeon's Pit. The remains were found among the bones of several other limbs in the pit. Carbon dating shows that the pair died during the Battle of Second Manassas, also known as Second Bull Run, in August 1862. The remains were moved on Tuesday, June 19, 2018, and transferred from the National Park Service to the US Army who will be burying them in Arlington National Cemetery.

Historic sites

Stone House – used as a hospital during both battles. It is near the intersection of Sudley Road and Lee Highway (Warrenton Turnpike).
Stone Bridge – which the Union retreated across after Second Bull Run. It crosses just north of Lee Highway (Warrenton Turnpike) at the Fairfax-Prince William Co. line.
Brawner's Farm – the opening phase of the second battle. The parking lot is off of Pageland Lane at the western edge of the battlefield. It has recently been renovated to become a museum dedicated to the Second Battle of Bull Run.
Battery Heights – where Confederate batteries were deployed to fire on the attacking Union troops at nearby Brawner's Farm. It is off of Lee Highway (Warrenton Turnpike).
Matthews Hill – the opening phase of the first battle. It is off of Sudley Road.
The Unfinished Railroad Grade – where Jackson deployed his men before the second battle after capturing Pope's supply depot. Off of Featherbed Lane.
The Deep Cut – where Pope launched the bulk of his attacks against the Grade. It is off of Featherbed Lane, before you reach the Railroad Grade.
Groveton – an extinct Civil War era village. All that remains is the small frame house that Lucinda Dogan lived in. A Confederate Cemetery is nearby. Both are off Lee Highway (Warrenton Turnpike).
New York Monuments – two monuments dedicated to the 5th and 10th New York Regiments. These mark where the 5th New York Zouaves lost 123 men in 5 minutes in the advance of Hood's men; off of Lee Highway (Warrenton Turnpike), near Young's Branch on 5th New York Avenue and cross from the Confederate cemetery at Groveton.
Hazel Plain – the plantation of the Chinn family. It now sits in ruins, and only the foundation remains. Directly across from the Henry Hill Visitors Center.
Chinn Ridge – across from Hazel Plain. General James Longstreet's massive counterattack during the second battle took place here. A trail leads to a boulder for Union Colonel Fletcher Webster, the son of the famous orator Daniel Webster, who was killed leading a failed attempt at repulsing the Confederate Counterattack.
Portici – the plantation of Francis Lewis, now in ruins. This served as the Confederate Headquarters during the first battle, and minor skirmishes between companies occurred on the surrounding plains.

Robinson House – now in ruins (lost to arson in 1993), was the home of free black man James Robinson. It is on the Henry Hill Loop Trail, walking only. It is not accessible by car.
Stonewall Jackson Monument – bronze monument erected on Henry Hill. Commemorates General Thomas J. Jackson and contains the origin of his moniker.

See also

 Manassas Peace Jubilee (1911)

References
 The National Parks: Index 2001–2003. Washington: U.S. Department of the Interior.
 Survey No. HABS VA-144.  Historic American Buildings Survey.

Notes

External links

 National Park Service: Manassas National Battlefield Park
 First Battle of Manassas: An End to Innocence, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
 Manassas Battlefield burial pit discovered

Battlefields of the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War
Parks in Virginia
National Battlefields and Military Parks of the United States
Prince William County in the American Civil War
National Register of Historic Places in Prince William County, Virginia
National Park Service areas in Virginia
Museums in Prince William County, Virginia
Protected areas established in 1940
American Civil War museums in Virginia
Parks in Prince William County, Virginia
Journey Through Hallowed Ground National Heritage Area
National Register of Historic Places in Fairfax County, Virginia
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
Conflict sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
American Civil War on the National Register of Historic Places
Parks on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia

Manassas National Battlefield Park


A volumetric pipette is a kind of pipette which allows you to find the volume of a solution very accurately. It is also known as a bulb pipette or a belly pipette.

Usage

This kind of pipette has a large bulb on the top end, with a long narrow tube on the other end. It is used to accurately measure small amounts of liquids. You use it by placing the long, narrow end in the desired liquid, then squeeze the top end, the part with the bulb. Pipettes function on suction, sort of like sucking the air out of a water bottle. It gets harder and harder to suck the air out of the water bottle as the inside gets closer to a perfect vacuum. When the apparatus is removed, a small "sucking" sound may be audible. This is the air again reaching equilibrium with the outside air, as outside air rushes in. The same thing goes for a pipette. When you press down on the flexible bulb-like part of the pipette, you create an absence of air in the pipette. When you remove the pressure, the long part of the pipette sucks in the liquid that the end of the pipette is immersed in. A volumetric pipette uses measurements to suck up the exact amount needed of the liquid it is immersed in.

Analytical chemistry
Laboratory equipment

Volumetric pipette


Repton is a Defender-inspired game written by Dan Thompson and Andy Kaluzniacki for the Apple II and published by Sirius Software in 1983. It was ported to the Atari 8-bit family, and Commodore 64.

Gameplay
The player controls a fighter ship sent to stop a fleet of invading aliens from building an attack base on the planet Repton. The ship is equipped with lasers and a limited number of nukes that can destroy all enemies on the screen. The player can use an invulnerable shield for defense, but cannot steer or fire while it is up. If the player puts the shield up while moving, the ship will coast to a stop. In addition, a radar screen indicates the location of enemies on the planet surface.

Each level of the game is played in two parts. During the surface attack, the player fights enemies in order to delay the construction of the base. "Warning" messages indicate that a fresh wave of enemies is arriving, while an "Alert" tells of an attempt to siphon energy from the planet. If the player can fly through the enemy's energy beam in time, then pass through a charging station, the energy will be returned to the planet; otherwise, it will go into building the base.

Once the base is completed, the planet's defenses trigger a bomb that destroys the entire surface and the action shifts to the caverns, where the radar does not function. Here, the player must dodge enemy attacks and eventually destroy the base's power core, after which the next level begins with increased difficulty.

Reception
Softline in 1983 called Repton "the latest in ultra-fast action arcade games", praising its "faultless animation". Video reviewed the Apple II version of the game in its "Arcade Alley" column where it was described as "pure excitement from start to finish–an involving and satisfying battle game loaded with extra features to enhance gaming pleasure." Reviewers praised the game's "finely detailed graphics" and noted that "action is [its] hallmark". Ahoy! in 1984 gave Repton grades of B for graphics and C+ for gameplay. The magazine stated that the game "offered nothing new", and to only buy it if looking for "a definitive Defender-like shoot-em-up". Jerry Pournelle wrote in BYTE that despite disliking the Apple version of Repton, "I find myself wasting more time than I should on the Atari version".  The Commodore 64 Home Companion stated that the game had "excellent visuals". Repton received a Certificate of Merit in the "1984 Computer Game of the Year" category at the 5th annual Arkie Awards.

Legacy
In 2011, Kaluzniacki released a version of Repton for the iPhone. It uses high-resolution visuals instead of pixel art, which Jeff Minter criticized for losing the flavor of the original.

References

External links
 Repton at Atari Mania

1983 video games
Apple II games
Atari 8-bit family games
Commodore 64 games
Horizontally scrolling shooters
Sirius Software games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set on fictional planets
Single-player video games

Repton (1983 video game)


The Blue Lias is a formation of rocks mostly in south west England and parts of south Wales. It is part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site.

It is part of the Lias Group. The Blue Lias consists of a sequence of limestone and shale layers. It was laid down in late Triassic and early Jurassic times, between 195 and 200 million years ago. The Blue Lias is famous for its fossils, especially ammonites. Also found were remains of a number of dinosaurs, and the pterosaur Dimorphodon.

The Blue Lias alternates between limestone, (with some clay), and mudstone. These alternations are caused by short-term climatic variations, thought to be caused by Milankovitch cycles. The blue/grey colour is given by iron pyrite.

A bit higher, these limestone-mudstone alternations change into a clay member. The deposition of a clay-rich mudstone member shows it was laid down in a deeper marine environment.

Related pages
Lower Jurassic

References

Sedimentary rocks

Geography of England
Jurassic
Geological formations

Blue Lias


The Good Guys, Inc., was an American chain of consumer electronics retail stores with 71 stores in California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington. The company was headquartered in Brisbane, California in the Dakin Building in the early 1990s and subsequently in Alameda, California until it was bought in late 2003 by CompUSA. The Good Guys was founded in 1973 by Ron Unkefer on Chestnut Street, San Francisco. By 2006, all of the company's stores had closed.

WOW! Stores
In 1995, The Good Guys teamed up with Tower Records to create one "WOW!" Store in Las Vegas, NV featuring a mixture of Tower and Good Guys inventory & a coffee shop, and included the world's largest promotional slot machine.  Tower's founder Russell Solomon reportedly liked the end result and
two more WOW! Multimedia Superstores were opened, one in Long Beach, CA, where Neil Diamond played at the grand opening and others opened in Laguna Hills, and San Mateo CA. By 2006, Tower was bankrupt and Good Guys was being consolidated into CompUSA and thus all of these stores closed.

Re-launch
After all The Good Guys stores closed, CompUSA began marketing all California and Hawaii stores as "CompUSA with The Good Guys Inside" in response to Best Buy's new marketing campaign "with Magnolia Inside". However, this marketing campaign was dropped in an attempt to further separate CompUSA from the Good Guys name, and assist in launching its new Home Entertainment sections in select locations. The Good Guys name once again ceased to exist in 2008 when CompUSA closed its remaining stores. Extended warranties on televisions purchased through The Good Guys or CompUSA can still be accessed through General Electric Extended Warranties.

Hostage crisis

In 1991, one of the stores in the chain located in Sacramento was taken over by four gunmen. This event became the largest hostage rescue operation on home soil in U.S. history to date, with about 50 hostages being held at gunpoint.

See also
The Good Guys (Australian company), a chain of electronics stores that are not associated with the American operations.

References

"Good Guys lose suit to block competition," The Sacramento Bee, December 2, 1987.
"Market Place; Electronics Chain On Roller Coaster," The New York Times, July 6, 1992.
"Good Guys bets that the customer is always right," San Jose Mercury News, November 23, 1992.
"Good Guys horror still vivid to ex-hostages 4 years later," The Sacramento Bee, April 3, 1995.
"Good Guys CEO Discloses Master Plan," San Francisco Chronicle, July 27, 1999.
"Good Guys Inc. will drop computers, office products," Seattle Post-Intelligencer, August 2, 1999.
"Good Guys to spin off web store," CNET, January 5, 2000.
"The Good Guys Laying Off 450 Employees", San Francisco Chronicle, March 2, 2001.
"CompUSA to purchase Good Guys: $58 million deal expected to benefit both companies", San Francisco Chronicle, September 30, 2003.
"Good Guys quarterly sales fall, sees wider loss," Forbes, June 10, 2003.
"Ex-Good Guys director settles SEC charges," MSNBC, April 26, 2005.
"Good Guys to close stores: Stand-alone outlets in California and Hawaii to get the ax," San Francisco Chronicle, October 6, 2005.
"Tower Records Welcome Video, 1999.," Specific Marker mentions WOW! Stores and how it was formed, this info was used in the WOW! Section.

External links

The Good Guys, Inc. History at FundingUniverse

Defunct consumer electronics retailers in the United States
Defunct retail companies of the United States
Retail companies based in California
Companies based in San Mateo County, California
Brisbane, California
Retail companies established in 1973
Retail companies disestablished in 2005
1973 establishments in California
2005 disestablishments in California
Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area

Good Guys (American company)


The  Battle of Pima Butte, or the Battle of Maricopa Wells, was fought on September 1, 1857 at Pima Butte, Arizona near Maricopa Wells in the Sierra Estrella. Yuma, Mohave, Apache and Yavapai warriors attacked a Maricopa village named Secate in one of the largest battles in Arizona's history.  It was also the last major battle fought by the Yumas and the last major battle fought solely between Native Americans in North America.

Battle

For hundreds of years prior to 1857, the Yumas and the Maricopas were enemies. On many occasions the two tribes would gather their warriors together at the peak of Berdache Mountain. There the two sides would shout insults at each other before fighting a battle. Chief Francisco of the Yuma led the combined army which numbered at least 300 men and they arrived near Secate on August 31, 1857. Francisco began his attack the following morning and captured the Maricopa village and began burning the structures. The Yumas and their allies had just walked 160 miles over the course of eight days so Francisco's men were tired and hungry. As a result, the Yumas and their allies made the deadly mistake of remaining in the burning village to rest and eat the captured Maricopa food.

When Francisco's army attacked, the surviving women and children fled for protection to Pima Butte, which was just to the south of the village. The warriors gathered as well and sent a distress call to the nearby Pima villages. The Pima sent all of their warriors in the area and a counterattack was then launched. But before the Maricopa and Pima arrived, all of the Apaches, Yavapais and most of the Mohaves fled, leaving the remaining Yumas and Mohaves outnumbered. The Maricopa and Pima forces, some mounted on horses, surrounded the attackers before annihilating them. Most of the Yumas and Mohaves were killed, including Chief Francisco. On or about September 11, traveler John B. Hilton visited the battlefield and later wrote that he observed ninety bodies in one spot, lying on the ground in every kind of position.

The San Diego Herald mistakenly reported on September 12 that the battle was a three-sided engagement between the Pima, Yuma and the Maricopa all against each other. At the same time the Daily Alta California reported that the battle was

....seldom equaled in Indian warfare. It is reported that 150 to 160 allied Indians, being nearly of quite the entire party, were left dead in the field.

The allies referred to the Yuma who after the Yuma War became good neighbors with the Americans on the California side of the Colorado River. In a later article, the San Diego Herald stated the following;

....from all accounts it would appear that this battle, in which the Maricopas and their allies the Pima so bravely defended their homes, destroying nearly the whole force which came into battle against them, is the largest Indian fight in this region for years.

See also
Second Battle of Fort Defiance

References

History of Arizona
Battles involving the United States
Quechan
Lower Colorado River Valley
Native American history of Arizona
Battles involving the Apache
1857 in New Mexico Territory
September 1857 events

Battle of Pima Butte


Samuel Davis (1760–1819) was an English soldier turned diplomat who later became a director of the East India Company (EIC). He was the father of John Francis Davis, one time Chief Superintendent of British Trade in China and second governor of Hong Kong.

Early life
Samuel was born in the West Indies the younger son of soldier John Davis, whose appointment as Commissary general there had been signed by King George II in 1759 and countersigned by William Pitt. After his father died, Davis returned to England with his mother (who was of Welsh descent, née Phillips) and his two sisters. He became a cadet of the EIC under the aegis of director Laurence Sulivan in 1788, and sailed for India aboard the Earl of Oxford, which also brought the artist William Hodges to India, arriving in Madras in early 1780.

Bhutan
In 1783, Warren Hastings, the Governor of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal) assigned Davis "Draftsman and Surveyor" on Samuel Turner's forthcoming mission to Bhutan and Tibet. Unfortunately, the Tibetans (or more probably the Chinese ambans, the de facto authority in Tibet) viewed his "scientific" profession with suspicion and he was forced to remain in Bhutan until Turner and the others returned. Whilst in Bhutan he turned his attention to recording the buildings and landscape of the country in a series of drawings. These were published some 200 years later as Views of Medieval Bhutan: the diary and drawings of Samuel Davis, 1783.

Bhagalpur
On his return from Bhutan, in around 1784 he became Assistant to the Collector of Bhagalpur and Registrar of its Adalat Court. In Bhagalpur he met lawyer and orientalist William Jones who had recently founded The Asiatic Society of which Davis subsequently became a member. The two became firm friends based on their shared love of mathematics while along with another member of The Asiatic Society, Reuben Burrow, Davis studied astronomical tables obtained by the French astronomer Guillaume Le Gentil, French Resident at the Faizabad court of Shuja-ud-Daula who in turn had obtained them from Tiruvallur Brahmins on the Coromandel Coast. The tables showed accurate Indian scientific knowledge of astronomy dating back to the third century BCE. As part of his research, Davis also learned Sanskrit and Hindi. For the next ten years, Jones and Davis carried on a running correspondence on the topic of jyotisha or Hindu astronomy. While in Bhagalpur, Davis also met landscape artist Thomas Daniell and his nephew William whom he encouraged to visit the Himalayas. In 1792 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.

Burdwan and Benares

Davis' next appointment was as Collector of Burdwan, a town in the Bengal Presidency. He then spent 1795–1800 in Benares (now Varanasi), this time as Magistrate of the district and city court. Benares was also home to former ruler of Oudh State, Wazir Ali Khan, who had been forcibly deposed by the British in 1797. In 1799, the British authorities decided to remove Ali Khan further from his former realm and as a result rioting broke out. Davis singlehandly defended his family by shepherding them to the roof of his residence and defending the single access point with a pike. The incident was the subject of a book by his son, John F. Davis, entitled Vizier Ali Khan or The Massacre of Benares, A Chapter in British Indian History published in london in 1871.

Later career
During the remainder of his stay in India, Davis held a succession of more senior positions including Superintendent-General of Police and Justice of the Peace at Calcutta, member of the Board of Revenue and Accountant-General of India. He resigned from the civil service in February 1806 and after a stop at St. Helena to engage in his love for painting, arrived back in England in July the same year.
He was elected a director of the EIC in October at the instigation of President of the Board of Control, Henry Dundas and to the latter's disgust, acted independently thereafter until his death in 1819."At the time of the renewal of the [company's] Charter in 1814, the Committee of the House of Commons entrusted him [Davis] with the task of drawing up, in their name, the memorable "Fifth Report on the Revenues of Bengal", which remains a monument of his intimate acquaintance with the internal administration of India"

Personal life
While in Burdwan, Davis married Henrietta Boileau, who was from a refugee French noble family who had come to England in the early eighteenth century from Languedoc in the South of France. She was the first cousin of John Boileau, 1st Baronet of Tacolnestone Hall in Norfolk. The couple went on to have four sons and seven daughters. Their eldest son John Francis Davis, became second Governor of Hong Kong followed by Lestock-Francis and Sullivan, both of whom died in India in 1820 and 1821 respectively. Their daughters were as follows:
Henrietta-Anne, who married Henry Baynes Ward in 1821.
Anne, who married Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Dundas Campbell in 1827
Maria–Jane, who married Lieutenant Colonel John Rivett-Carnac, RN in 1826.
Elizabeth, who married Sir Henry Willock, KLS.
Frances, who died in 1828.
Alicia, who married the Reverend John Lockwood, rector of Kingham in 1832.
Julia, who in 1839 married John Edwardes Lyall, Advocate-General of Bengal, who died in 1845 of cholera.

Death
Davis died on 16June 1819 at Birdhurst Lodge near Croydon in Surrey, which is believed to have been his country home.

References

Bibliography

External links

1760 births
1819 deaths
British East India Company civil servants

Samuel Davis (orientalist)


Dynamic frequency scaling (also known as CPU throttling) is a power management technique in computer architecture whereby the frequency of a microprocessor can be automatically adjusted "on the fly" depending on the actual needs, to conserve power and reduce the amount of heat generated by the chip. Dynamic frequency scaling helps preserve battery on mobile devices and decrease cooling cost and noise on quiet computing settings, or can be useful as a security measure for overheated systems (e.g. after poor overclocking).

Dynamic frequency scaling almost always appear in conjunction with dynamic voltage scaling, since higher frequencies require higher supply voltages for the digital circuit to yield correct results. The combined topic is known as dynamic voltage and frequency scaling (DVFS).

Processor throttling is also known as "automatic underclocking". Automatic overclocking (boosting) is also technically a form of dynamic frequency scaling, but it's relatively new and usually not discussed with throttling.

Operation

The dynamic power (switching power) dissipated by a chip is C·V2·A·f, where C is the capacitance being switched per clock cycle, V is voltage, A is the Activity Factor indicating the average number of switching events per clock cycle by the transistors in the chip (as a unitless quantity) and f is the clock frequency.

Voltage is therefore the main determinant of power usage and heating. The voltage required for stable operation is determined by the frequency at which the circuit is clocked, and can be reduced if the frequency is also reduced. Dynamic power alone does not account for the total power of the chip, however, as there is also static power, which is primarily because of various leakage currents. Due to static power consumption and asymptotic execution time it has been shown that the energy consumption of software shows convex energy behavior, i.e., there exists an optimal CPU frequency at which energy consumption is minimized.
Leakage current has become more and more important as transistor sizes have become smaller and threshold voltage levels are reduced. A decade ago, dynamic power accounted for approximately two-thirds of the total chip power. The power loss due to leakage currents in contemporary CPUs and SoCs tend to dominate the total power consumption. In the attempt to control the leakage power, high-k metal-gates and power gating have been common methods.

Dynamic voltage scaling is another related power conservation technique that is often used in conjunction with frequency scaling, as the frequency that a chip may run at is related to the operating voltage.

The efficiency of some electrical components, such as voltage regulators, decreases with increasing temperature, so the power usage may increase with temperature.  Since increasing power use may increase the temperature, increases in voltage or frequency may increase system power demands even further than the CMOS formula indicates, and vice versa.

Standard interface
ACPI 1.0 (1996) defines a way for a CPU to go to idle "C states", but defines no frequency-scaling system.

ACPI 2.0 (2000) introduces a system of P states (power-performance states) that a processor can use to communicate its possible frequency–power settings to the OS. The operating system then sets the speed as needed by switching between these states. SpeedStep, PowerNow!/Cool'n'Quiet, and PowerSaver all work through P states. There is a limit of 16 states maximum.

ACPI 5.0 (2011) introduces collaborative processor performance control (CPPC), exposing hundreds of performance levels to the OS for selection in the form of a "performance level" abstracted away from the frequency. This abstraction provides some leeway for the processor to adjust its workings in ways other than just the frequency.

Autonomous frequency scaling

A number of modern CPUs can perform frequency scaling autonomously, using a performance level range and a "efficiency/performance preference" hint from the OS.

 Intel CPUs starting with Skylake support hardware-managed P-states, using a model-specific register as the control channel.
 AMD CPUs starting with Zen 2 supports a similar feature. Unlike the Intel feature, it depends on CPPC being enabled. The preferred communication channel is a MSR (different from the Intel one) introduced in Zen 3; Zen 2 units use the ACPI AML method.

Performance impact
Dynamic frequency scaling reduces the number of instructions a processor can issue in a given amount of time, thus reducing performance. Hence, it is generally used when the workload is not CPU-bound.

Dynamic frequency scaling by itself is rarely worthwhile as a way to conserve switching power.  Saving the highest possible amount of power requires dynamic voltage scaling too, because of the V2 component and the fact that modern CPUs are strongly optimized for low power idle states.  In most constant-voltage cases, it is more efficient to run briefly at peak speed and stay in a deep idle state for longer time (called "race to idle" or computational sprinting), than it is to run at a reduced clock rate for a long time and only stay briefly in a light idle state.  However, reducing voltage along with clock rate can change those trade-offs.

A related-but-opposite technique is overclocking, whereby processor performance is increased by ramping the processor's (dynamic) frequency beyond the manufacturer's design specifications.

One major difference between the two is that in modern PC systems overclocking is mostly done over the Front Side Bus (mainly because the multiplier is normally locked), but dynamic frequency scaling is done with the multiplier.  Moreover, overclocking is often static, while dynamic frequency scaling is always dynamic.  Software can often incorporate overclocked frequencies into the frequency scaling algorithm, if the chip degradation risks are allowable.

Support across vendors

Intel
Intel's CPU throttling technology, SpeedStep, is used in its mobile and desktop CPU lines.

AMD
AMD employs two different CPU throttling technologies. AMD's Cool'n'Quiet technology is used on its desktop and server processor lines.  The aim of Cool'n'Quiet is not to save battery life, as it is not used in AMD's mobile processor line, but instead with the purpose of producing less heat, which in turn allows the system fan to spin down to slower speeds, resulting in cooler and quieter operation, hence the name of the technology.  AMD's PowerNow! CPU throttling technology is used in its mobile processor line, though some supporting CPUs like the AMD K6-2+ can be found in desktops as well.

AMD PowerTune and AMD ZeroCore Power are dynamic frequency scaling technologies for GPUs.

VIA Technologies
VIA Technologies processors use a technology named LongHaul (PowerSaver), while Transmeta's version was called LongRun.

The 36-processor AsAP 1 chip is among the first multi-core processor chips to support completely unconstrained clock operation (requiring only that frequencies are below the maximum allowed) including arbitrary changes in frequency, starts, and stops.  The 167-processor AsAP 2 chip is the first multi-core processor chip which enables individual processors to make fully unconstrained changes to their own clock frequencies.

According to the ACPI Specs, the C0 working state of a modern-day CPU can be divided into the so-called "P"-states (performance states) which allow clock rate reduction and "T"-states (throttling states) which will further throttle down a CPU (but not the actual clock rate) by inserting STPCLK (stop clock) signals and thus omitting duty cycles.

ARM
Different ARM-based systems on chip provide CPU and GPU throttling.

See also
 Dynamic voltage scaling
 Clock gating
 HLT (x86 instruction)
Power Saving Technologies:
 AMD Cool'n'Quiet (desktop CPUs)
 AMD PowerNow! (laptop CPUs)
 AMD PowerTune/AMD PowerPlay (graphics)
 Intel SpeedStep (CPUs)
Performance Boosting Technologies:
 AMD Turbo Core (CPUs)
 Intel Turbo Boost (CPUs)

References

Clock signal
Energy conservation
Central processing unit
Computer hardware tuning

Dynamic frequency scaling