Butterscotch is a type of confectionery whose primary ingredients are brown sugar and butter. Some recipes include corn syrup, cream, vanilla, and salt. The earliest known recipes, in mid-19th century Yorkshire, used treacle (molasses) in place of, or in addition to, sugar.

Butterscotch is similar to toffee, but the sugar is boiled to the soft crack stage, not hard crack. Often credited with their invention, S. Parkinson & Sons of Doncaster made butterscotch boiled sweets and sold them in tins, which became one of the town's best-known exports. They became famous in 1851 after Queen Victoria was presented with a tin when she visited the town. Butterscotch sauce, made of butterscotch and cream, is used as a topping for ice cream (particularly sundaes).

The term "butterscotch" is also often used more specifically for the flavour of brown sugar and butter together, even if the actual confection butterscotch is not involved, such as in butterscotch pudding (a type of custard).

Etymology
Food historians have several theories regarding the name and origin of this confectionery, but none is conclusive. One explanation is the meaning "to cut or score" for the word "scotch", as the confection must be cut into pieces, or "scotched", before hardening. Another idea is that it came from the adjective Scotch, indicating association with Scotland. The "scotch" part of its name possibly was derived from the word "scorch". In 1855, F. K. Robinson's Glossary of Yorkshire Words explained Butterscotch as "a treacle ball with an amalgamation of butter in it".

History

Early mentions of butterscotch associate the confection with Doncaster in Yorkshire. An 1848 issue of the Liverpool Mercury gave a recipe for "Doncaster butterscotch" as "one pound of butter, one pound of sugar and a quarter of a pound of treacle, boiled together" ( each of butter and sugar and  treacle).

By 1851, Doncaster butterscotch was sold commercially by rival confectioners S. Parkinson & Sons (the original Parkinson recipe is still made today), Henry Hall, and Booth's via agents elsewhere in Yorkshire. Parkinson's started to use and advertise the Doncaster Church as their trademark. It was advertised as "Royal Doncaster Butterscotch", or "The Queen's Sweetmeat", and said to be "the best emollient for the chest in the winter season". Parkinson's Butterscotch was by appointment to the royal household and was presented to the Princess Elizabeth, then the Duchess of Edinburgh, in 1948 and to Anne, Princess Royal in 2007. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the British sweet became popular in the U.S.

Packaging and products

Butterscotch is often used as a flavour for items such as dessert sauce, pudding, and biscuits (cookies). To that end, it can be bought in "butterscotch chips" made with hydrogenated (solid) fats to be similar for baking use to chocolate chips.

Also, individually wrapped, translucent yellow hard candies (butterscotch disks) are made with an artificial butterscotch flavour. In addition, butterscotch-flavoured liqueur is in production.

Champion and Reeves make luxury traditional butterscotch in Shropshire, with British butter and British double cream, wrapped in individual foil wrappers.

Tastykake makes a cake known as a Krimpet. Butterscotch is a popular flavour that is offered.

Sauce
Butterscotch sauce is made of brown sugar cooked to  mixed with butter and cream.

See also
Caramel
Werther's Original

References

British confectionery
Foods featuring butter
Yorkshire cuisine
Candy

Butterscotch


Penrith and Eden Museum is a museum in Penrith, Cumbria, England. The museum aims to collect, preserve and display material reflecting the history and culture of Penrith and Eden. The museum is owned and managed by Eden District Council. The museum is based in a former school building, known as Robinson's School, which first opened in 1670.

Exhibits

Some of the museum's exhibits include a fossil dinosaur footprint from the sandstone of the Eden Valley;
objects from the Stone Age and the Roman period, including a coin hoard of over 600 bronze coins dating from about AD 320-340 found at Newby near Shap and Roman jewellery found locally; the medieval seal of Penrith and the old market toll measures; a gold posy ring found on the outskirts of Penrith and inscribed Kepe Faith Till Death; mementoes of local personalities such as Trooper William Pearson, wrestler William Jameson and Percy Toplis, the 'Monocled Mutineer'; and an elephant's tooth excavated from the bottom of the moat at Penrith Castle.

More recently, the Museum has acquired new finds from the Eden area discovered with metal detectors and declared treasure under the Treasure Act (1996) which are now on display in the Museum. These include a Charles 1st medallion from Kirkby Stephen, a medieval coin hoard from Crosby Ravensworth and a gold and amethyst gemstone ring from Waitby.  A Tobacco jar dated 1897 which appears to have been made at the nearby Wetheriggs pottery was given to Penrith and Eden Museum in January 2019.

Fine art collection
The museum's fine art collection  includes a group of Dutch and Flemish landscape and genre paintings, as well as British works including examples of the 19th century Penrith artist Jacob Thompson such as The Druids Cutting Down the Mistletoe. It also houses contemporary works by Eden artists Phil Morsman, Alan Stones, Lorna Graves, David Boyd and William S. Cowper.

In December 2019 a picture added to the museum's collection was 'A Corner of Old Time Penrith' painted by William Jackson and left to the museum in the will of Mary Laycock Newman of Christchurch. Painted in oils on canvas the subject is dated 1909 and shows shops at the corner of King Street and Market Square, Penrith – including  a butcher's, a fishmonger's and the premises of John Turner, watchmaker who also traded as a jeweller and gunsmith.

Several items, found by metal detectorists, were acquired by the museum in February 2020 through the Portable Antiquities Scheme. They were valued by the Treasure Valuation Court at the British Museum with the reward shared between the finders and landowners.  The finds include a medieval silver finger ring from Kirkby Thore (dating from around AD1150-1250), a medieval gold stirrup-shaped finger ring (dating from around the 13th century AD) which was found at Waitby near Kirkby Stephen and a medieval silver 'teardrop' brooch (made between AD 1200 and 1400).

Accreditation and awards

Penrith and Eden Museum is an accredited museum (No. 153) under the Scheme administered by the Arts Council and a member of the Cumbria Museums Consortium.

In the media
In July 2018 Penrith and Eden Museum featured on the BBC TV series, the Antiques Road Trip with the show focussing on William Jameson (1837-1888), Penrith's famous Cumberland & Westmorland wrestling champion. The Museum houses a large collection of memorabilia including championship belts and trophies relating to William Jameson.

References

External links
 Eden District Council: Penrith and Eden Museum

Museums in Cumbria
Art museums and galleries in Cumbria
Geology museums in England
Natural history museums in England
Local museums in Cumbria
Penrith, Cumbria

Penrith and Eden Museum


Giada's Weekend Getaways is a show on the Food Network that ran from 2007 to 2008. The show follows chef Giada De Laurentiis around the U.S. for "3 day weekend adventures." The show begins Friday afternoon, as Giada arrives at her destination. She may begin with a light dinner, appetizer, and a cocktail. The bulk of the show happens on Saturday, beginning with a breakfast, some sight-seeing or activity, lunch, followed by another round of activity and finishes off with dinner, in which she goes all out, dresses up and has a night on the town. The show wraps up on Sunday with brunch and one last activity.  the show was rerun on the Cooking Channel.

Season one
"Seattle": Cities and towns across the country are visited to seek out the best local food stops and activities. First up: Seattle's dining scene is explored with host Giada De Laurentiis. Included: French toast on a ferry ride; a martini happy hour; mini burgers. Aired January 12, 2007.

"Miami": The local fare of Miami's South Beach offers stone crabs and yellow tail snapper. Also: a hidden Italian restaurant. Giada also goes out for salsa lessons. Aired January 12, 2007.

"Los Angeles": Host Giada De Laurentiis lays out the perfect step-by-step three-day holiday in her own howetown, sunny Los Angeles. From a Friday cruise up the Pacific Coast Highway for the ultimate sunset sangria to a Sunday helicopter ride for fish and chips on the island of Catalina, Giada has a packed food weekend planned. Aired January 19, 2007.

"Jackson Hole": Giada De Laurentiis saddles up for the perfect food-filled weekend in the Old West, Jackson Hole, Wyoming. From a spicy Mexican hot chocolate to a real cowboy breakfast, it's a weekend of exploring the mountains and savoring great food. Aired January 26, 2007.

"New York City":  Giada discovers the charm of the boroughs outside Manhattan as she dines in some of Brooklyn's hot spots and best kept secrets on a weekend in the Big Apple. February 2, 2007

"Santa Fe": Giada pays homage to the arts on a visit to Santa Fe. Highlights from the weekend include a chocolate artist, a pottery class and a tasting of Mexican flavors. February 9, 2007

"San Francisco": Giada has a weekend of food and fun in the bay that includes a game of bocce and a trip to the famous Ferry Building Marketplace. February 16, 2007

"Austin": Giada tastes steak, barbecue and other Texan treats when she visits one of the Lone Star State's trendiest cities. February 23, 2007

"Charleston, SC": Giada samples food and dabbles in ghost hunting in Charleston, SC, purportedly one of America's most haunted cities. March 9, 2007

"Napa/Sonoma":Giada enjoys a hot air balloon ride and olive oil tasting on a visit to California's wine country.March 16, 2007

"Chicago": Giada finds that variety is the spice of life when she samples the wide range of cuisines in the Windy City. March 30, 2007

"Newport, RI": Giada goes sailing and takes a scooter ride between bites in the seaside town of Newport, Rhode Island. April 6, 2007"

"Los Cabos": Giada tastes tequila and experiences Spanish colonial architecture when she heads south of the border for a weekend of Mexican flavor. April 20, 2007Season two
New Orleans: Giada visits the Big Easy, eating crawfish, taking a swamp tour, and building houses for Katrina victims. Original air date, July 13, 2007Washington, D.C.: Giada balances fine dining and historic landmarks in a weekend tour of the U.S. capital city. Original air date, July 24, 2007Santa Barbara: Giada hits the road and takes a scenic drive up the California coast to Santa Barbara for a weekend on the beach. Original air date, July 31, 2007London: Giada pairs historic sights with modern flavors in London, England. Original air date, August 7, 2007Paris: On a weekend trip to the City of Light, Giada visits some of her favorite haunts from her days at Le Cordon Bleu, including the acclaimed culinary school itself. Original air date, August 14, 2007Las Vegas: Giada drives a race car and takes a helicopter ride over the Las Vegas Strip on a visit to Sin City. Original air date, August 31, 2007Martha's Vineyard: Giada enjoys a refreshing, seafood-filled weekend on the shores of Martha's Vineyard. Original air date, November 2, 2007Colorado Rockies: Giada tries some of the eclectic tastes of Colorado on a trip to Denver and Beaver Creek. Original air date, November 9, 2007The Hamptons: Giada tastes her way through the Long Island's upscale Hamptons communities. Original air date, November 23, 2007Boston: Giada visits a bakery, takes in a Red Sox game and dines at local restaurants during a weekend in Boston. Original air date, November 30, 2007Bermuda: Giada swims with dolphins, explores caves and dines on seafood and rum cake during a weekend excursion to Bermuda.Original air date, January 20, 2008Vancouver: Giada finds adventure and fabulous food when she visits Vancouver, Canada. Original air date, January 27, 2008Maui: Giada appreciates the sun, surf, scenery and snacks of Maui over a weekend on the Hawaiian island. Original air date, February 24, 2008''

References

External links
Giada's Weekend Getaways Food Network site

Food Network original programming
Food travelogue television series
2007 American television series debuts
2008 American television series endings
2000s American cooking television series

Giada's Weekend Getaways


Executive Suite  is a text-based business simulation game published in 1982 as a self-booting disk for IBM PC compatibles. It was developed by Armonk Corporation, a small software development company based in Newport Beach, California, and was published under their "Gray Flannel Fun" label. Unlike most other business simulations, it does not involve making actual economic decisions or managing stores of resources. Rather, the player must manage the trajectory of their character's career at a single fictional corporation, MMC (Mighty Microcomputer Corporation), by making a series of on-the-job and managerial decisions while navigating office politics, evading blame for bad outcomes, and gaining support in different roles throughout the company.

The game presents the player with situations and problems which must be solved by choosing from multiple choices. After a series of questions the game evaluates the player's performance resulting in either a career advancement option or getting fired from the company. During the course of the game, the economy can change from a boom into a recession and even into a depression. The goal of the simulation is to rise to the position of President, thus coming to occupy the titular and coveted "Executive suite", before hitting the firm's mandatory retirement age of seventy-five.

Gameplay

The game begins with an interview portion, where the applicant arrives at the office of MMC's Personnel Manager. The player is asked a series of probing demographic questions about where they went to school, what they studied, how well they did in their studies, what their personality and level of ambition is like, their favorite sport and years of work experience, as well as their age, gender, and marital status. Some of this information is used to determine the list of entry-level jobs available to the player—the high school graduate is stuck with an initial position in the mailroom or as a maintenance person while someone with an Engineering education and good grades will be able to enter at a higher position. Amusingly, background and consistency has little to no bearing beyond this point – until very senior levels, the player is encouraged to take jobs in many departments to build their ranks of named friends across the organization.

Since at MMC, workers apparently do not receive promotions but instead must every few years apply for new jobs internally, gameplay proceeds very cyclically. At application time, the player is presented with a list of available jobs which have a particular job level and are tied to a specific department (Production, Marketing, Sales, Public Relations, Administration, Engineering, Accounting). Their character's performance in their previous position (poor, good, average), their repute in individual departments, and the status of the global business cycle (the economy is a state of expansion, recession, or even depression) determines this list, down which the player can (if they are incompetent or even unlucky) fall precipitously, or get stuck in low or mid-level jobs. As the employee makes decisions, they collect reputation attributes (such as for habitually shirking work or, on the other hand, aggressively looking out for the company's interest) and cause events for which they are either "fortunately" or "unfortunately" remembered at hiring time; this determines whether they get a "thumbs-up" or a "thumbs-down" for the new post. If they get the job, a Status Change form is sent detailing the new salary and an often dubious set of perks to go along with the new position.

When not between jobs, the player is presented with short scenarios pertinent to the position which must be resolved by picking one of several solutions. The scenarios vary in terms of the seriousness of poor outcomes: sometimes the worst choice is not much different from the optimal choice (especially in social "no-win scenarios"), sometimes only the next hiring cycle is adversely affected, or an action puts off a potential executive ally or puts a permanent black mark on the personnel file. In a few rare instances, even a flawlessly performing employee can trigger a game over with a poor decision – such as by quitting the company for another job, or by sleeping with the wrong contact. Too much "poor" performance in a role also triggers a note detailing the player's termination ("Hit the road, jack") from MMC, replete with an enumeration of all the demerits registered in the personnel file, and the game ends.

Eventually, if the employee avoids termination, and reaches the highest job level before reaching the mandatory retirement age, they have the opportunity to apply for the position of President, subject to a review of their merits conducted by the Board. Upon winning the game, there is a nameplate change in the Executive Suite, a formal announcement of the hire is made, and the employee's current worth is calculated as a final score.

Themes

In general, the player benefits from making decisions that keep them out of harm's way with management, and generally avoiding unethical, illegal, unsound, or obviously inane decisions—unless they provide a clear benefit to their perceived loyalty within the firm. Suppliers, scheming coworkers, competitors, and representatives of regulatory agencies such as the IRS and OSHA are all best viewed adversarially. In keeping with the game's satirical and cynical view of corporate culture, it also pays to keep track of the caricatural personalities of officers of the company with an eye to impressing rather than disappointing them (for example, the nepotistic and doddering incumbent president values loyalty to a fault, while the VP of Administration hates extra work being made for her, and executives in Sales and Marketing are mostly concerned with receiving credit for their exploits and putting on good entertainment for clients). Consistent with the game's theme of impersonality and disposability, you are not rewarded for looking after family members in decisions, or for making money from your dealings on the side.

See also
 Wall Street Kid

References

1982 video games
North America-exclusive video games
Social simulation video games
Video games developed in the United States

Executive Suite (video game)


The tihu (提胡; pinyin: tíhú) is a two-stringed bowed vertical fiddle in the huqin family, used in Chaozhou xianshi music of the Chaozhou people. It is an adaptation of the gaohu used in Cantonese music. It has a tubular hardwood body that is covered on the playing end with python skin. It is used in the Chaozhou people's original homeland of Chaozhou and Shantou, in eastern Guangdong, as well as in regions where Chaozhou people have immigrated, such as Thailand and Singapore.

The tihu is generally held with the resonator between the knees. It is considered a supporting instrument in the Chaozhou xianshi ensemble. It is tuned lower and plays in a slower, more lyrical fashion than does the leading fiddle, called erxian.

Gallery

Bowed instruments
Continuous pitch instruments
Huqin family instruments
Chinese musical instruments
Teochew music

Tihu (instrument)


Tara Olivia Setmayer (born September 9, 1975) is a former CNN political commentator, contributor to ABC News and former GOP communications director on Capitol Hill. She has appeared on ABC's The View, ABC's Good Morning America, and on HBO's Real Time with Bill Maher. On January 9, 2020, Setmayer was named as a Harvard Institute of Politics Spring 2020 Resident Fellow. Also in January 2020, she joined The Lincoln Project as a senior advisor and hosts the live show The Breakdown alongside co-founder Rick Wilson, on the organization's streaming channel, LPTV.

Setmayer was also named a University of Virginia Center for Politics resident scholar for the 2020–21 academic year. In collaboration with the Center for Politics, she narrated the 3-part documentary, Dismantling Democracy, which aired nationally on PBS stations in September 2020 and is currently streaming on Amazon Prime.

Early life and education
Setmayer was born in 1975 in Queens, New York, but raised in Paramus, a borough of Bergen County in northern New Jersey. Her family has been longtime residents of Paramus, where her grandfather, Emil Setmayer, served 40 years with the Paramus Police Department, retiring as captain, as well as 71 years with the Paramus Company 03 Volunteer Fire Department. She was educated at Paramus High School, a public high school in Bergen County, New Jersey, from which she graduated in 1993, followed by The George Washington University in Washington, D.C., where she majored in political science with a focus on public policy and journalism.

Setmayer is of mixed heritage: Her mother is of German and Italian descent and her father is of Afro-Guatemalan descent.

Life and career
Setmayer served as a former research fellow and communications specialist for the Coalition on Urban Renewal & Education (CURE), a non-profit organization dealing with the impact of social policies on America's inner cities and the poor. She also served as a political trainer for GOPAC, a conservative organization specializing in educating, organizing and training grassroots Republicans intending to run for public office.

From 2006 to 2013, Setmayer worked in the U.S. House of Representatives as the Communications Director for Republican Representative Dana Rohrabacher of California, during which she handled immigration and federal law enforcement policy issues, and led the national effort to free Border Patrol Agents Ignacio Ramos and Jose Compean through a presidential commutation.

For over two years, Setmayer served as a community liaison advocating on a variety of issues including affordable housing and services for the chronically homeless and children in South Florida where she co-founded a faith-based homeless program. She was a regular panelist on the women's issues program To the Contrary on PBS, and was featured in several local and national publications including The Wall Street Journal, The Hill newspaper where she was included in the publication's annual 50 Most Beautiful list in 2010, and Ebony magazine, on terrestrial radio syndication and satellite, News & Notes and Tell Me More on NPR and XM Radio. As a media commentator, she has appeared on a range of television programs on CNN, CNN International, ABC, Fox News, MSNBC and HBO.

In 2017, Setmayer was named as a board director for Stand Up Republic, a non profit organization formed in the wake of the 2016 election of Donald Trump to unite Americans behind the defense of democratic norms, ideals and institutions.

Setmayer focuses her "tell it like it is" commentary and analysis on political issues that impact America's future. During the 2016 presidential election cycle, she earned the reputation of being an outspoken conservative critic of Donald Trump and challenged his surrogates on the veracity of their claims. Vulture.com recognized her as one of 2016's "Top 20 Election Coverage Stars" on TV.

Prior to joining ABC, Setmayer was a CNN political commentator from 2014 through the 2016 presidential election cycle, regularly appearing on CNN's New Day, Erin Burnett OutFront, Anderson Cooper 360° and CNN Tonight with Don Lemon news analysis shows, and through 2017 subsequently appeared on CNN political panels, where she was credited as an ABC News guest contributor. Setmayer rejoined CNN as a commentator in January 2018 through the inauguration of President Biden. She has written for Cosmopolitan, and has contributed to The Daily Beast and CNN.com. She has also guest-hosted on SiriusXM's Patriot and POTUS channels, including The Michael Smerconish Program.

References

External links
 Tara Setmayer — CNN profile

Living people
1975 births
African-American women in politics
American people of Guatemalan descent
American people of German descent
American people of Italian descent
American broadcast news analysts
American political consultants
American political commentators
Black conservatism in the United States
CNN people
Columbian College of Arts and Sciences alumni
Criticism of Donald Trump
Hispanic and Latino American women in politics
Latino conservatism in the United States
New York (state) Independents
New York (state) Republicans

Tara Setmayer


Katrina Kaif (; born Katrina Turquotte, 16 July 1983) is a British actress who works in Hindi-language films. One of the highest-paid actresses in India, she has received accolades, including four Screen Awards and four Zee Cine Awards, in addition to three Filmfare nominations. Though reception to her acting has varied, she is noted for her dancing ability in various successful item numbers.

Born in Hong Kong, Kaif lived in several countries before she moved to London for three years. She received her first modelling assignment as a teenager and later pursued a career as a fashion model. At a fashion show in London, Indian filmmaker Kaizad Gustad cast her in Boom (2003), a critical and commercial failure. While Kaif established a successful modelling career in India, she initially had difficulty finding film roles due to her poor command of Hindi. After appearing in the Telugu film Malliswari (2004), Kaif earned commercial success in Bollywood with the romantic comedies Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya? (2005) and Namastey London (2007). Further success followed with a series of box-office hits, but she was criticised for her acting, repetitive roles, and inclination to male-dominated films.

Kaif's performances in the thriller New York (2009) and the romantic comedy Mere Brother Ki Dulhan (2011) were better received, earning her nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress. She starred in Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani (2009), Raajneeti (2010), and Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara (2011) during this period, and found major commercial success in the action thrillers Ek Tha Tiger (2012), Dhoom 3 (2013), and Bang Bang! (2014), all of which rank among the highest-grossing Indian films. Commercial success has since varied, with the action films Tiger Zinda Hai (2017) and Sooryavanshi (2021) and the drama Bharat (2019) emerging as box-office hits. Kaif's portrayal of an alcoholic actress in the romantic drama Zero (2018) earned her the Zee Cine Award for Best Supporting Actress.

In the media, Kaif frequently features in listings of India's most popular and attractive celebrities. A regular brand endorser, she launched her cosmetic line Kay Beauty in 2019. She participates in stage shows and is involved with her mother's charity Relief Projects India, which works to help underprivileged children. Kaif is married to actor Vicky Kaushal.

Early life and family
Katrina Kaif was born in British Hong Kong with her mother's surname Turquotte (also spelt Turcotte), on 16 July 1983. Her father, Mohammed Kaif, is a British businessman of Kashmiri descent and her mother (Suzanne, also spelt Susanna) is an English lawyer and charity worker. She has seven siblings; one sister, Isabel, is also a model and actress. Kaif's parents divorced when she was a child, and her father moved to the United States. She said her father had no influence on her or her siblings while they were growing up, and that they were raised by their mother. In a 2009 interview with The Indian Express, she said she was not in touch with her father.

Kaif's paternal parentage has been questioned by some members of the film industry. In a 2011 interview with Mumbai Mirror, Boom producer Ayesha Shroff accused Kaif of fabricating her history: "We created an identity for her. She was this pretty young English girl, and we gave her the Kashmiri father and thought of calling her Katrina Kazi. We thought we'd give her some kind of Indian ancestry, to connect with the audience ... But then we thought that Kazi sounded too ... religious? ... Mohammad Kaif was at the top, and so we said, Katrina Kaif sounds really great". Kaif denied this, calling Shroff's comments "hurtful".

As Kaif's mother is a social activist, the family relocated to a number of countries for varying lengths of time. Therefore, Kaif and her siblings were home-schooled by a series of tutors. She said:Our transitions in growing up were—from Hong Kong where I was born, to China, then to Japan, and from Japan by boat to France ... After France, Switzerland—and I'm cutting out many East European countries where we were for only a few months each—then Poland in Kraków ... After that we went to Belgium, then to Hawaii, which was a short time, and then came to London.
Kaif lived in London for three years before moving to India. At age14, Kaif won a beauty contest in Hawaii, and received her first modelling assignment in a jewellery campaign. She subsequently modelled professionally in London, working for freelance agencies and appearing regularly at the London Fashion Week. During this period, she visited India for the first time after an Asian friend suggested they take a trip there.

Career

Acting beginnings (2003–2005)
At a fashion show Kaif attracted the attention of London-based filmmaker Kaizad Gustad. She made her acting debut in Gustad's Hindi-English heist film Boom starring Amitabh Bachchan, Gulshan Grover, Jackie Shroff, Madhu Sapre and Padma Lakshmi. While filming in India, Kaif received other offers and decided to stay in the country; she then changed her surname to her father's because she thought it would be easier to pronounce. She was noticed as a model after walking the ramp for Rohit Bal at the India Fashion Week and appeared in the first Kingfisher Calendar. After endorsing such brands as Coca-Cola, LG, Fevicol and Samsung, Kaif soon established a successful modelling career in India.

Boom (2003) had its first screening at the Cannes Film Festival, where it was heavily promoted, but emerged as a commercial and critical failure. Kaif's portrayal of a supermodel ensnared in the Mumbai underworld was poorly received; Ziya Us Salam of The Hindu wrote of the weak performances by Kaif and the other female stars, criticising their inexpressiveness. She later dismissed Boom as an unimportant part of her career, ascribing her choice to her unawareness of Indian audiences' film taste then.  Hindustan Times reported that after Boom's release, Kaif was written off due to her poor Hindi and thick British accent; as a result, filmmakers were hesitant in casting her in their films. Kaif soon began working on her diction through Hindi classes. In 2003, director Mahesh Bhatt replaced Kaif with Tara Sharma in Saaya as he found Kaif's acting on set subpar compared to her audition for the role.

After the failure of her first Bollywood project, Kaif appeared in the Telugu film Malliswari (2004), in which she played the title role of a princess forced to flee from her murderous caretaker. Kaif received a reported salary of  for the film, the highest for a female lead at the time in South Indian cinema; Sify attributed this achievement to her looks and figure. Despite negative reviews for her acting, she was nominated for a Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu and received several film offers afterwards. Malliswari was a profitable venture. In 2005, Kaif appeared briefly as Abhishek Bachchan's girlfriend in Ram Gopal Varma's political thriller Sarkar. She next featured alongside Salman Khan, Sushmita Sen and Sohail Khan in Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya?, a film she considered her "first real step into Bollywood". Directed by David Dhawan, the film was a successful remake of the romantic comedy Cactus Flower. For her role as a suicidal model, Kaif received the Stardust Award for Breakthrough Performance – Female. According to Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com, "Katrina's Disney princess-like charm adds to her adorable screen presence". Kaif followed with her second Telugu film, Allari Pidugu, in which she had "very little role to play and shake a leg or two with the hero", according to a critic from The Hindu.

Breakthrough (2006–2008)
In 2006, she appeared in Raj Kanwar's unsuccessful Humko Deewana Kar Gaye, which marked the first of her frequent collaborations with costar Akshay Kumar. It tells the story of two like-minded strangers who fall in love despite being engaged to others. A Sify critic wrote that Kaif was "passably competent in a tailor-made role, giving a mild emotional spin to a couple of scenes" but was overshadowed by her supporting actresses. The same year, Kaif played an actress with Mammootty in the Malayalam crime thriller Balram vs. Tharadas.

Kaif's career prospects improved in 2007, when she appeared in four Bollywood hits. In an interview with The Indian Express, she called Vipul Amrutlal Shah's romantic comedy Namastey London her first dominating role. Kaif used her life in London as a reference for her role of Jasmeet Malhotra, a spoilt British Indian girl intent on marrying her self-centred British boyfriend despite her parents' disapproval. Although critics expressed mixed views on the film, Sukanya Verma wrote that Kaif "suits the role to the T" and "brings the zingy mix of her character alive with style and substance". Kaif's chemistry with co-star Akshay Kumar was particularly well received, with Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India calling their casting "refreshing". Taran Adarsh from Bollywood Hungama found Kaif confident in Humko Deewana Kar Gaye and Namastey London and "a revelation" in the latter, praising her for being convincing in the complex scenes. In the book Indian Film Stars: New Critical Perspectives, author Michael Lawrence wrote that filmmakers' decision to cast Kaif as a non-resident Indian in several films, including Namastey London, was to capitalise on her foreign looks. Lawrence considered Kaif's Hindi with an English accent part of her appeal.

Kaif had a supporting role as a doctor in the sports drama Apne, a highly anticipated release as it marked the first appearance of Dharmendra with his sons, Sunny Deol and Bobby Deol. After Apne she rejoined director David Dhawan and Salman Khan for the comedy Partner, a remake of Hitch which co-starred Govinda and Lara Dutta. With a worldwide revenue of , the film was a major financial success. Kaif's final film of the year was Anees Bazmee's comedy Welcome, alongside Akshay Kumar, Nana Patekar, Mallika Sherawat and Anil Kapoor. Although the film generated mostly negative reviews, it proved to be the second highest-grossing Bollywood film of 2007. The similarity of Kaif's roles was noted by Shoma Chaudhury of Tehelka, who called her "unabashed eye-candy", adding that she was "a pretty prop in Welcome" and "more of the same in Partner and Apne".

In 2008, Kaif had three releases, the first of which was Abbas–Mustan's action thriller Race, a story about two stepbrothers-turned-rivals who are in contention for their father's insurance money. Kaif played Saif Ali Khan's secretary, who is his stepbrother's (Akshaye Khanna) lover. Nikhat Kazmi was appreciative of the film's look and action but found Kaif unimpressive in her role. Kaif rejoined Akshay Kumar in Anees Bazmee's action comedy Singh Is Kinng, which earned  worldwide to become her sixth consecutive box-office success. However, she received mixed reviews for her performance. Rajeev Masand of News18 found Kaif "an eyesore in every sense of the word" and her acting weak. Kaif's final film of the year—Subhash Ghai's drama Yuvvraaj—was a major box-office failure. In preparation for her role as a cellist she practised with orchestra members. Her portrayal of a girl forbidden by her father from marrying her poor lover was well received by Sify's Sonia Chopra: "Katrina is wonderful, plays the cello convincingly, and looks ethereal." Despite the film's mixed critical reception, its screenplay was added to the library of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for its artistic merit.

Up until this point, Kaif's voice was dubbed over by voice artists in most of her films due to her lack of fluency in Hindi and other Indian languages. Although her films during this period were financially successful, critics noted that she played unimportant roles in them as they were generally male-dominated, whereas her performances were largely criticised. She justified choosing these glamorous roles as part of learning without any goal for a certain kind of film. When criticised for her reluctance to appear in smaller scale films to garner credibility as an actress, she responded: "I do not believe that you have to take off your make-up and look simple to prove you're an actress ... I'm not going to make a morose film, which no one will watch just so people take me seriously as an actress." Kaif participated in Shah Rukh Khan's "Temptations Reloaded" world concert tour in 2008. Also featuring Kareena Kapoor and Arjun Rampal, the tour began in Amsterdam in June and ended four months later in Dubai's Festival City Arena before an audience of 15,000.

Mainstream success (2009–2013)
After a string of films in which she was cast in glamorous, "arm candy" roles, Kaif began looking for more substantial parts. One such opportunity arose with Kabir Khan's terrorism drama New York (2009). Costarring John Abraham and Neil Nitin Mukesh, the film follows the lives of three friends when one of them is wrongly detained after 9/11. Kaif played Maya, a college student who unknowingly marries a terrorist. Having faced racial discrimination when she was in London, Kaif identified with the character's experiences. New York performed well at the box office and received favourable reviews. According to Subhash K. Jha, Kaif was successful as an actress in a substantial role and convincingly portrayed her character's transition from a carefree student to a tormented wife. A reviewer for The Times of India considered it to be her career's best performance. New York brought Kaif her first Filmfare Award nomination for Best Actress. She then appeared in a cameo for India's first underwater thriller Blue. Kaif starred with Ranbir Kapoor in Rajkumar Santoshi's hit comedy, Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani (2009), as an orphan forced to marry a rich man. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama praised the actors' energetic pairing and found that Kaif performed well in both emotional and light scenes. Her final film of the year was Priyadarshan's comedy De Dana Dan. She performed with Akon at the closing ceremony of the 2009 Indian Premier League at the Wanderers Stadium in Johannesburg,

In 2010, Kaif appeared in Prakash Jha's political thriller Raajneeti as part of an ensemble cast which included Ranbir Kapoor, Ajay Devgan, Arjun Rampal, Nana Patekar, Manoj Bajpai and Sarah Thompson. The film took inspiration from The Mahabharata and Mario Puzo's 1969 novel The Godfather. Set in Bhopal, the film described a fiercely fought election campaign by two parties attempting to seize power with manipulation, corruption, and treachery. Kaif rejected the media's speculation that her character was based on Sonia Gandhi. In preparation for her role as Indu, a politician loosely based on Draupadi, she watched Priyanka Gandhi's election campaign videos to study the body language and interaction of politicians. The film received mainly positive reviews from critics. Rajeev Masand found Raajneeti "thrilling and gripping", though Namrata Joshi was critical of the film's depiction of women. Nikhat Kazmi considered Kaif's performance to be "carefree and camera-unconscious" and wrote that she "seems to slip into the high-powered shoes easily". The film was highly successful at the box office, receiving a total collection of .

Kaif collaborated with Akshay Kumar for the sixth time in the slapstick comedy Tees Maar Khan (2010), in which she played an aspiring actress, the girlfriend of a criminal (Kumar). In the film, Kaif performed a popular item number titled "Sheila Ki Jawani". The song was choreographed by the film's director Farah Khan and for the belly dancing portion, Kaif was trained by expert Veronica D'Souza. In contrast to the song's popularity, Tees Maar Khan was panned by critics and its box-office performance was poor. Kaif's portrayal was not well received; Renuka Rao of Daily News and Analysis found her "drama queen act" poor but noted that she was exceptional in the item number.

The following year, Kaif was paired with Hrithik Roshan in Zoya Akhtar's coming-of-age dramedy Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara. The film narrates the story of three friends on a bachelor trip and features Kaif as Laila, a diving instructor who becomes romantically involved with Roshan's character and inspires him overcome his workaholism. She had difficulty filming her scuba diving scene due to her inexperience; she was so scared she dug her nails into costar Roshan. The film was a critical and commercial success. Richard Kuipers of Variety commented that she is "delightful" in the role of a cordial young woman who encourages others to confront their weaknesses. Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara received numerous Best Film accolades. The romantic comedy Mere Brother Ki Dulhan (2011), produced by Yash Raj Films, starred Kaif alongside Imran Khan and Ali Zafar. She found herself challenged by the role of Dimple Dixit, whose loquacious and unpredictable nature strongly contrasted with Kaif's personality. The film opened to mixed reviews, but Kaif was generally praised for her portrayal. The book Mother Maiden Mistress calls Dimple one of the more interesting female characters of the year. According to Gaurav Malani of The Economic Times, the film is mainly watchable for "Katrina's live-wire energy wherein she never goes overboard and keeps bustling with vivacity through the runtime." For this performance, Kaif received her second Filmfare nomination in the Best Actress category.

In 2012, Kaif appeared in "Chikni Chameli", an item number in Agneepath that incorporated dance steps from the Lavani genre (a Maharashtrian folk dance). Filming the music video, which finished in ten days, proved challenging for Kaif, as its style was new to her. Rachit Gupta of Filmfare attributed the song's success partly to her "infectious energy", noting her "gyrations and belly movements were an onslaught of attraction for the fans". Kaif appeared next in Kabir Khan's espionage thriller Ek Tha Tiger as a Pakistani ISI agent who falls in love with an Indian RAW agent. The film received predominantly positive reviews, with Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis calling it "smart and stylish". Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express wrote about her performance: "Katrina is an able, animated foil to Salman, her long legs making her leaps and kicks credible". With worldwide earnings of , Ek Tha Tiger was the highest-grossing Bollywood film of the year.

Later in the year, Kaif was paired with Shah Rukh Khan in Yash Chopra's swan song, the romance Jab Tak Hai Jaan. She expressed her excitement at working with Chopra, saying he "undoubtedly is the king of romance and I have always admired the way he presents his heroines. It was always a dream to work with him and the reality is even better." She played Meera, a woman who vows to end her affair with her comatose lover if he survives. Although the film received mostly positive reviews, Kaif's performance had a mixed reception. News18 deemed Kaif inexpressive in her part and found her struggling in emotional and complex scenes. Commercially, the film proved a box-office hit with revenues of  worldwide. Kaif later participated and walked the ramp in a fashion show that was held in memory of Chopra.

Kaif rejoined Shah Rukh Khan for his 2013 "Temptations Reloaded" concert in Muscat, performing to an audience of over 18,000, and joined Shah Rukh Khan, Deepika Padukone and Pitbull in Kolkata for the opening ceremony of the 2013 IPL season. In 2013, she appeared briefly with Aamir Khan in Vijay Krishna Acharya's action thriller Dhoom 3. To prepare for her role as a circus performer, she undertook a year-long regimen of Pilates, functional training and aerial straps. The film received ambivalent reviews and Kaif was criticised for taking on an insubstantial part, though Taran Adarsh found her to be "ethereal" and "moving with incredible grace in dance numbers". Earning  in box-office receipts, Dhoom 3 became the highest-grossing Bollywood film of all time until it was surpassed by PK in 2014.

Career fluctuations (2014–2018)
Kaif's next appearance was in Siddharth Anand's Bang Bang! (2014), a remake of the 2010 action comedy Knight and Day. She played a bank receptionist who is unwittingly caught up with a secret agent (Hrithik Roshan). Raja Sen of Rediff.com disliked her performance, describing it as "insufferable". The film was commercially successful, though financial analysts observed that it had failed to meet box-office expectations. Kaif's sole appearance of 2015 was with Saif Ali Khan in Kabir Khan's Mumbai-based post 26/11 counter-terrorism drama Phantom. To prepare for the role of former RAW agent Nawaz Mistry, Kaif learned some Arabic. Phantom and Kaif's two releases the following year—Fitoor and Baar Baar Dekho—were commercial failures. Abhishek Kapoor's Fitoor is an adaptation of Charles Dickens' Great Expectations in which Kaif played a role based on Estella Havisham along with Tabu and Aditya Roy Kapur. Namrata Joshi found Kaif good in scenes where she dances, smiles or flirts, but inadequate in dramatic parts. She was paired with Sidharth Malhotra in Nitya Mehra's science-fiction romance Baar Baar Dekho. Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express found Kaif expressionless but praised her and Malhotra's energetic dance number in "Kala Chashma", which amassed over one billion views on YouTube. Also in 2016, she joined other Indian celebrities for the "Dream Team Tour", where they performed in various American cities.

Kaif next acted opposite Ranbir Kapoor in Anurag Basu's comedy-adventure Jagga Jasoos. The film was released in 2017 after delays caused by changes in the script and multiple reshoots. The film opened to a mixed critical response and was a commercial disappointment. Mayank Shekhar from Mid-Day praised Kaif and Kapoor for being confident before the camera, but Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV noted Kaif's failed attempt to hold her own against Kapoor. In the same year, Kaif reteamed with Salman Khan, reprising the role of Zoya in Ali Abbas Zafar's action thriller Tiger Zinda Hai, a sequel to the 2012 film Ek Tha Tiger. The film premiered on the Christmas weekend to strong box office collections, grossing over ₹1.1 billion within three days of release. Rachit Gupta wrote that Kaif compensated for her limited dialogue by convincingly performing the scenes with hand-to-hand combat and gun fights, calling it "invigorating to see a lady kick-ass with so much élan and pull all the punches like they're real". A BBC article by Shubhra Gupta on Bollywood's objectification of female characters found Kaif's status as an action heroine refreshing.

Kaif's two releases in 2018—the period action-adventure film Thugs of Hindostan and the romantic comedy-drama Zero—were made on lucrative budgets. Despite being among the most anticipated releases that year, both films were unsuccessful at the box office. With respect to the failure of the former, Kaif admitted to have not invested much in the project due to her limited screen time. In Aanand L Rai's Zero, she reunited with Shah Rukh Khan and Anushka Sharma after Jab Tak Hai Jaan. Kaif was initially hesitant about accepting the part of a second female lead but eventually agreed after Khan and Rai insisted. Though Zero received mixed reviews from critics, Kaif's portrayal of an alcoholic actress earned her critical praise; Udita Jhunjhunwala of Mint credited her for delivering "what could be considered her most authentic performance". Calling her one of Bollywood's "scene stealers" in 2018, Sukanya Verma thought Kaif was a "revelation" and her "constantly crying eyes, poker-faced cynicism and wholehearted submission to demeaning impulses underscore the fragility under the furore". For Zero, she received a Zee Cine Award for Best Supporting Actress and a Filmfare nomination in the same category.

2019–present
In 2019, Kaif once again collaborated with Salman Khan and Ali Abbas Zafar in the drama Bharat, an adaptation of the South Korean film Ode to My Father (2014). Kaif replaced Priyanka Chopra in the role of an engineer who falls in love with Khan's character. Kaif rejected media speculation that she accepted the part as a favour for her friend Khan and cited her appreciation of the script. Bharat became one of the highest-grossing Hindi films of 2019. While reviews of the film were varied, Mike McCahil of The Guardian noted the "well-tended chemistry" between Kaif and Khan and thought "the sincerity in her gaze" helped the audience ignore her character's questionable choices. Kaif's only 2020 film would have been Rohit Shetty's Sooryavanshi alongside Akshay Kumar, but the COVID-19 pandemic in India caused it several delays until its final November2021 release. An admirer of Shetty's larger-than-life directing style, Kaif played the wife of Kumar's character. Sooryavanshi was a box-office success, briefly becoming India's highest-grossing film of the year. Kaif next played a ghost in the comedy horror film Phone Bhoot (2022), opposite Siddhant Chaturvedi and Ishaan Khatter. Reviewers from The Indian Express and The Week were unimpressed with her comedic timing.

Kaif will next reprise her role as Zoya in Tiger 3, as part of the YRF Spy Universe, and will star with Vijay Sethupathi in Sriram Raghavan's bilingual thriller Merry Christmas.

Personal life

Kaif has a close relationship with her family, and the lack of a father figure in her life has given her a sense of responsibility towards them. While Kaif's mother is Christian and her father is Muslim, Kaif says she was allowed to practise a faith of her choice and is a "firm believer in God". The Times of India reported in 2009 that she visits Siddhivinayak Temple, Mount Mary Church, and Sufi shrine Ajmer Sharif Dargah before her films are released.

Kaif is reluctant to discuss her personal life, which has been the subject of media attention in India. "I have always believed that there is life before marriage and after marriage. Before marriage...you are termed a single woman and I choose to conduct that part of my life with absolute dignity and discretion."

Although rumours of a relationship with actor Salman Khan emerged in 2003, it was not until years after their break-up that Kaif spoke of it, calling it her first serious relationship. They have remained friends, and she credits Khan for giving her confidence and guidance. Kaif was linked to actor Ranbir Kapoor during the filming of Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani. In August2013, photographs of Kapoor and Kaif on holidays were leaked by Stardust which were interpreted as confirmation of a romantic relationship. After the appearance of the photos, Kaif published an open letter stating that she was "upset, distressed and invaded" by the breach of privacy. They broke up in 2016. Kaif married actor Vicky Kaushal on 9December2021 at Six Senses Resort, Fort Barwara in Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan. Their wedding was the subject of wide media coverage in India.

Off-screen work
Kaif supports various causes and charitable organisations. She has garnered praise from The Times of India for maintaining a low-profile about her philanthropic work. Kaif is actively involved with Relief Projects India, a charitable trust run by her mother which works in furthering the cause of underprivileged children, including providing quality education, rehabilitating and educating orphans and working to prevent female infanticide. She donates a sum of her earnings annually to the fund and her winnings from the game shows 10 Ka Dum and Kaun Banega Crorepati were donated to her mother's Mercy Home orphanage. To raise funds for a new school built by her mother's charity in Madurai, she recorded Rhyme Skool (2010), an album of nursery rhymes composed by A. R. Rahman. Kaif has also donated clothes and personal belongings to raise funds for a prenatal care unit in the Claretian Mercy Home in Madurai.

Kaif has been vocal about gender equality, domestic violence and women's empowerment. She has emphasised the role of education in the fight against gender inequality and violence against women. Discussing gender pay gap, she has spoken in favour of more big-budget, female-dominated films in Hindi cinema. In 2010, Kaif was one of several celebrities who created promotional messages for Pearls Wave Trust, which campaigns against violence and abuse of women and girls. She was invited as one of the speakers at the 2016 WeUnite conference, an event organized by UN Women as part of their Orange the World initiative for gender equality and women's empowerment.

Kaif has voiced her support for LGBT rights, and causes associated with cancer and children's education. She visited the Cancer Patients Aid Association to gift cancer survivors and increase public awareness of breast and cervical cancer in 2012. The following year, she appeared alongside other celebrities in a commercial, produced by the National Film Development Corporation of India, to create awareness about children's education. Having been active with Being Human Foundation to help rehabilitate children living on the streets, Kaif walked the ramp for charity as part of "Being Human" fashion show in 2009 and 2010. In 2018, Kaif was named ambassador of Educate Girls, a non-profit organisation that promotes and supports girls' education in the remotest and educationally challenged parts of India.  As part of her role as an ambassador, she visited a remote village in Madhya Pradesh.

In 2019, she launched the #Kare initiatives, a charitable program under her cosmetics' brand Kay Beauty in support of various social causes including employment of rural women. In 2007, Kaif joined the efforts of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) to curb human trafficking in India. Kaif visited sepoys in Jammu as part of NDTV's reality program Jai Jawan (2011). She also walked the ramp for designer Manish Malhotra and the Sachachari Foundation's annual charity fashion show in 2016. During the COVID-19 pandemic in India in 2020, she donated an undisclosed amount of money to PM CARES Fund and Maharashtra Chief Minister's Relief Fund, a relief effort against the outbreak, and funded small businesses of 100 dancers from the Hindi film industry.

Media image
Kaif is considered among the most popular and high-profile celebrities in India. Her Bollywood success has sparked an influx of foreign talents hoping to establish themselves in the industry. According to an India Today article, despite her dissimilarity to a conventional Bollywood heroine, Kaif "turned every adversity into opportunity and climbed the slippery pole of stardom". Alia Waheed of The Guardian wrote that Kaif "fitted the new trend for a more modern image of the Bollywood heroine" through her Western style. As part of a career analysis, Nivedita Mishra of Hindustan Times noted that despite her initial poor command of the Hindi language and an unsuccessful acting debut, Kaif later took on roles in films that highlighted her "charming and jovial" screen presence. Mishra further said Kaif established herself as one of India's highest-paid actresses by accepting her limitations, emphasising strengths as an artist and making smart choices. In response to being stereotyped, Kaif spoke of believing in herself and using it as a motivation to do what she likes.

Despite being a commercially successful film star, Kaif has received mixed reviews for her acting prowess. Writing for Firstpost, Anuya Jakatdar suggested that Kaif should accept challenging parts instead of "coasting on her co-star's box office appeal" and criticised her inclination towards glamorous roles. Khalid Mohamed of Khaleej Times similarly found her unwillingness to take risks by acting in independent films a weakness. Asked if she has a dream role, Kaif said she chooses scripts intuitively and does not have a preference for a particular genre. Kaif's dancing ability has received better reviews; she was described as one of Bollywood's best dancers by The Times of India and The Indian Express. Rachit Gupta hails her "the undisputed Queen of dance numbers in Bollywood". Initially reluctant to dance in films, Kaif has developed a love for dancing and later described it a joyful and relaxing experience. In 2010, she said she spent several hours a day practising traditional dance.

Kaif is cited in the media as one of India's most beautiful celebrities, and has ranked highly in polls choosing the most attractive Indian celebrities. She was named the "World's Sexiest Woman" by FHM India five times from 2008 to 2013, and appeared on Verves list of most powerful women in 2009 and 2010. The UK magazine Eastern Eye called her the "Sexiest Asian Woman" from 2008 to 2010, and again in 2013. Kaif was named The Times of Indias "Most Desirable Woman" in 2010, and was later ranked second from 2011 to 2013. In 2010 and 2011, Mattel released two sets of Barbie dolls modelled on Kaif.  The Indian edition of People described her as "India's Most Beautiful Woman" in 2011 and three years later she topped Maxim Indias "Hot 100" poll. A life-size, wax figure of her was installed in London's Madame Tussauds in March2015, making her the eighth Bollywood actor to have been replicated as a wax statue there. Shikha Talwar of GQ India commented on Kaif's "enviable physique", which she attributed to her workout routines and healthy diet. Journalists from The Hindu and Hindustan Times respectively took note of her "trademark elegance and simplistic style" and the "sense of originality and immense grace" in her fashion.

In 2019, Kaif launched her cosmetic brand Kay Beauty in partnership with the Indian e-commerce company Nykaa. It included an array of products including lipsticks, foundations, highlighters, blush compacts. Speaking to Cosmopolitan, she said her brand aims to defy society's exclusive beauty standards and promote inclusivity and comfort in one's skin.  The brand which was India's first celebrity makeup brand at the time, has been praised for its inclusivity and diversity. Kaif is a celebrity spokesperson for a number of brands including Slice, Nakshatra, Lux, Panasonic, Lakmé and L'Oréal. The Economic Times ranked Kaif India's second most prominent endorser in 2012. Hindustan Times reported in 2014 that she received  to  for each endorsement, making her one of India's highest-paid celebrity endorsers. Kaif was included on Forbes list of India's best-known entertainers from 2012 to 2019, peaking at the ninth position in 2013 with an estimated annual income of . According to a 2021 Forbes India estimate, her net worth is . As of 2022, she is one of the most followed Bollywood actresses on Instagram.

Acting credits and awards

For her work in the 2009 drama thriller New York, she received her first Filmfare Award for Best Actress nomination followed by the 2012 comedy drama Mere Brother Ki Dulhan. Kaif earned the Best Actress (Popular Choice) at the Screen Awards for the 2012 films Ek Tha Tiger & Jab Tak Hai Jaan. She received widespread critical praise for her role in the 2018 romance drama Zero, earning her a Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Female and a third Filmfare Award nomination in the same category.

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

1983 births
Living people
British film actresses
British female models
British people of Indian descent
English people of Kashmiri descent
Age controversies
Hong Kong film actresses
Hong Kong people of Indian descent
Hong Kong people of English descent
English expatriates in India
Actresses in Hindi cinema
Actresses in Malayalam cinema
Actresses in Telugu cinema
Screen Awards winners
Zee Cine Awards winners
British expatriate actresses in India
European actresses in India
Actresses of European descent in Indian films
21st-century Hong Kong actresses
21st-century British women
21st-century British actresses
British actresses of Asian descent

Katrina Kaif


A motorcycle tyre (spelt tire in American English) is the outer part of motorcycle wheel, attached to the rim, providing traction, resisting wear, absorbing surface irregularities, and allowing the motorcycle to turn via countersteering. The two tyres' contact patches are the motorcycle's connection to the ground, and so are fundamental to the motorcycle's suspension behaviour, and critically affect safety, braking, fuel economy, noise, and rider comfort.

History
The history of motorcycle tyres is a clear progression of steady improvement in grip, allowing better acceleration, braking, and turning, along with improved comfort, safety, durability, and reliability. This progression has generally meant a steady increase in tyre width, so much so that Kevin Cameron noted the assumption among riders that "bigger must be better in every way", leading to, "the temptation to overwhelm motorcycles with the biggest tyres the owner can find." While many advances in tyre materials and construction have yielded unalloyed benefits, at a given level of technological sophistication, every design choice, such as tyre width, diameter, cross-section curvature, and the geometry of the motorcycle the tyres are intended for is a trade-off and a compromise.

Pneumatic tyres were invented by John Boyd Dunlop in 1888, and were in widespread use on bicycles and some early motorcycle prototypes by 1895. They were used on the first production motorcycle, the 1894–1897 Hildebrand & Wolfmüller, and have been on nearly all production and special motorcycles ever since. During this period tyre sizes were usually  diameter and  wide.

The early wheels were spoked, made of all metal, or wood and metal, and used inner tubes to hold air. Flats were a constant problem; largely the fault of poor roads and not necessarily tyres. For easier repair, butt-ended or open ended inner tubes were used on some models, and some brands made rear wheels easier to detach. Spoked wheels with tubes remained standard until the 1970s, when solid, usually alloy, wheels began to appear and eventually dominate street motorcycles, making lighter tubeless tyres practical.

As the early motorcycle industry progressed, larger tyre sizes accompanied larger engine displacements, so that by 1909–1914,  section,  diameter tyres were used on  motorcycles, and  section tyres appeared on motorcycles with displacements over 350 cc. Indian tyres reached , giving even greater rider comfort but with a taller seat height.

From 1915 to 1929, tyre quality continued to increase, and beaded edge tyres began to be replaced by wired-on beads, which used steel loops embedded in the tyre's edge to prevent it from expanding under pressure, so the bead no longer needed a grooved rim to hold it in place. Banded-edge tyre were obsolete and replaced entirely by the wired-on type by 1930. In the period 1956–1964, typical tyre grip increased by 40%, resulting in better cornering, shorter stopping distance and overall improved safety. This was the result of a greater range of tyre sizes appearing on the market, from small  scooter tyres through  heavyweight motorcycle tyres. A variety of rubber compounds and tread patterns further expanded the options, specialized for wet roads, smooth dry roads, racing, off-road use, and sidecars. Both natural and synthetic rubber were used, and tyres included fibres of cotton, nylon, and rayon for various structural benefits.

During the 1970s, the increasing widths of tyres led to major changes in road racing cornering technique, leading to riders hanging off or knee dragging, in which the rider moves their body far off centre for the purpose of changing the combined centre of gravity of the rider plus bike, in order to turn at a given radius and speed at less of a lean angle. Racer John Surtees had been hanging off his MV Agusta as far back as the 1950s, in spite of resistance to the practice at that time from other riders, saying, "The idea is to keep the machine as upright as possible for maximum traction." Tyres of the 1960s and early 1970s had a rounder profile, but as they grew in width from the mid-1970s, the cross section became more oval, and the greater width of the tyre meant the contact patch was further off centre, increasing either steering effort or turn radius, at a given lean angle and speed, than it would have been with a rounder profile. To compensate, riders leaned out, moving their body's centre of gravity away from the motorcycle, eventually leaning out so far that their knee would skid along the pavement. Ablative knee pucks or knee sliders were then added to the riders' racing leathers to allow their knees to scrape smoothly along the tarmac through turns.

The first radial tyres for cars appeared in 1943, but motorcyclists waited forty more years for this technology to come to motorcycles. These were the 1983 Pirelli MP7 radials, introduced on the European version of the 1984 Honda VF1000R, a limited edition exotic motorcycle that showcased a number of new technologies including carbon fibre reinforced bodywork and air-adjustable anti-dive front forks. The new radial tyres had to provide race-replica handling for the very heavy  dry weight chassis, up to a top speed of , making it the fastest production motorcycle of its day. The MP7 radials came to the US market in 1985. Radial construction uses textile or steel belts arranged at 90 degrees to the direction of travel, along with a layer of belts running around the tyre's circumference, with motorcycle radials deviating from the true radial design by adding belts running at angles to the radial belts, in the manner of bias-ply tyres, allowing the grip, durability, feel, and other characteristics to be adjusted to suit the tyre's design. The benefit of radial tyres is that the tyres run cooler yet maintain great flexibility, allowing engineers to coax significant increases in both grip and tread life, without compromise, under a broader range of conditions than bias-ply tyres.

Changing tyre technology continued to influence riding style in 2013 in MotoGP, when rider Marc Márquez adjusted the knee-down cornering style begun by Mike Hailwood to a more extreme knee-and-elbow down turning, with much of his upper body off center. Márquez was working to use to best advantage the characteristics of the spec Bridgestone tyres all teams had been assigned since 2011, moving off center to keep the bike as upright as possible in the corner apex, and off the relatively flexible edge of tread area. To keep pace, other riders had to learn this physically demanding maneuver, requiring practice to change body position smoothly without upsetting the bike, a properly set up suspension keyed for this style of riding, and targeted muscle development to hold body position.

Types

Motorcycle tyres are available for many different applications, including: Sport, Sport Touring, Touring, Cruiser, Scooter, On/Off Road, Dual-Sport, Enduro, Motocross and Racing. There are tyres designed for dirtbikes, touring, sport and cruiser bikes.
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Sport/performance tyres provide excellent grip but may last  or less. Cruiser and "sport touring" tyres try to find the best compromise between grip and durability. There is also a type of tyre developed specifically for racing. These tyres offer the highest of levels of grip for cornering. Because of the high temperatures at which these tyres typically operate, use on the street is unsafe as the tyres will typically not reach optimum temperature before a rider arrives at the destination, thus providing almost no grip en route. In racing situations, racing tyres would normally be brought up to temperature in advance by the use of tyre warmers.

Sport Touring tyres are generally not used for high cornering loads, but for long straights, good for riding across the country.

Sport Street tyres are for aggressive street riders that spend most of their time carving corners on public roadways.  These tyres do not have a long life, but in turn have better traction in high speed cornering. Street and sport street tyres have good traction even when cold, but when warmed too much, can actually lose traction as their internal temperature increases.

Track or Slick tyres are for track days or races.  They may have more of a triangular profile, which in turn gives a larger contact patch while leaned over. These tyres are not recommended for the street by manufactures, and are known to have a shorter life on the street. Due to the triangulation of the tyre, there will be less contact patch in the centre, causing the tyre to develop a flat spot quicker when used to ride on straightaways for long periods of time and have no tread so they lose almost all grip in the wet. Racing slicks are always made of a softer rubber compound and do not provide as much traction as street tyres until warmed to a higher internal temperature than street tyres normally operate at. Most street riding will not put a sufficient amount of friction on the tyre to maintain the slick's optimal tyre temperature, especially in colder climates and in spring and fall.

Cruiser tyres are relatively new. Until recently other tires would be used for cruisers, resulting in a tyre that wasn't quite right for cruising.  Sport tyres for example, were often used to enhance the appearance of the bike, even if the bike doesn't have the power to use the tyres to their full extent. Cruiser tyres are often thinner and fatter than sports tyres, meant for a good grip and smooth ride. They are often decorated with custom rims, whitewalls, or tire stickers.

Off road tyres have knobby, deep treads for maximum grip on loose dirt, mud, sand, or gravel; such tyres tend to be less stable on paved surfaces.

Touring tyres are usually made of harder rubber for greater durability. They may last longer, but they tend to provide less outright grip than sports tyres at optimal operating temperatures. The tradeoff is that touring tyres typically offer more grip at lower temperatures, meaning they can be more suitable for riding in cold or winter conditions whereas a sport tyre may never reach the optimal operating temperature.

Properties
There are several properties of motorcycle tyres that influence the performance, handling, and stability of a motorcycle.
Rolling resistance is the resistance that occurs when a tyre rolls on a flat surface. The rolling resistance coefficients of motorcycle tyres are about 0.02. It tends to increase with forward speed and decrease as inflation pressures increase.
Cornering force is the lateral (i.e. parallel to the road surface) force produced by a vehicle tyre during cornering. Cornering force coefficients of motorcycle tyres tends to decrease with increased vertical load, increased inflation pressure, and increased temperature.
Camber thrust is the force generated perpendicular to the direction of travel of a rolling tyre due to its camber angle and finite contact patch.
Pneumatic trail is a trail-like effect generated by compliant tyres rolling on a hard surface and subject to side loads, as in a turn. It is the distance that the resultant cornering force of side-slip occurs behind the geometric centre of the contact patch.
Relaxation length describes the delay between when a slip angle is introduced and when the cornering force reaches its steady-state value.

Dual-compound tyres
Since about 2005 many manufacturers are producing rear tyres with the centre made of harder, long lasting rubber and the edges made from softer material, often high in silica. Most  road bike manufacturers now specify these dual compound tyres as standard equipment due to their proven performance advantage. Single-compound tyres tend to wear down the centre strip well before the sides are worn out. The superior grip of the softer side material allows better grip at more extreme angles in dual compound construction.

Speed and construction
As with four-wheeled vehicles, tyres for motorcycle have a tyre code, which describes a tyre's width, height/width aspect ratio, wheel diameter, load index and speed rating.
The most common are:
 3 digit number: The "nominal section width" of the tyre in millimetres; the widest point from both outer edges.
 /: Slash character for character separation.
 2 or 3 digit number: The "aspect ratio" of the sidewall height to the total width of the tyre, as a percentage.
 An optional letter indicating construction of the fabric carcass of the tyre:
 B: bias belt (where the sidewalls are the same material as the tread, leading to a rigid ride)
 D: diagonal
 R: radial
 if omitted, then it is a cross ply tyre
 2 digit number: Diameter in inches of the wheel that the tyre is designed to fit.
 2 or 3 digit number: Load index; see table below
 1 or 2 digit/letter combo: Speed rating; see table below

See also
 Bicycle tyre
 Inner tube
 Outline of motorcycles and motorcycling
 Outline of tires
 Tyre manufacturing

References

External links
Motorcycle tyre measurement

Tires

Motorcycle tyre


Direct motion is the motion of a planetary body in a direction similar to that of other bodies within its system, and is sometimes called prograde motion.

Retrograde motion is motion in the opposite direction. In the case of celestial bodies such as the retrograde Carme group of moons, such motion may be real, defined by the natural rotation or orbit of the body.

Every so often a planet seems to change direction and go the other way for a short period of time (in relation to the fixed stars). It makes a "retrograde loop" or squiggle in its track before carrying on as normal. This apparent retrograde motion, however, is only seen because the Earth is moving. It is only seen when outer planets are near opposition.

Prograde motion in planetary systems
Prograde or direct motion is usually the case. That is because both the star and its planets formed out of the same disk of gas. By definition the disk rotates all in the sane direction because gravity links all the objects which are formed by the shrinking of the primordial disk of gas.

All eight planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in the direction of the Sun's rotation, which is counterclockwise when viewed from above the Sun's north pole. Six of the planets also rotate about their axis in this same direction.

The exceptions – the planets with retrograde rotation – are Venus and Uranus. Venus's axial tilt is 177°, which means it is rotating almost exactly in the opposite direction to its orbit.

Uranus has an axial tilt of 97.77°, so its axis of rotation is approximately parallel with the plane of the Solar System. The reason for Uranus's unusual axial tilt is not known with certainty. During the formation of the Solar System, it is thought an Earth-sized protoplanet collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation. But see also Grand tack hypothesis.

References

Orbits
Planets

Retrograde and direct motion


John Hampton "Papa John" Schnatter (born November 22 or 23, 1961) is an American entrepreneur who founded the Papa John's pizza restaurant chain in 1984. Schnatter started the business in the back of his father's tavern after selling his car and using the proceeds to purchase used restaurant equipment. As of 2017, his net worth was more than $1 billion.

Schnatter stepped down as CEO on January 1, 2018, after controversy around his comments that the National Football League (NFL), who had a business affiliation with Papa John's, had not done enough to stop national anthem protests by NFL players, and that the protests had hurt his business. Before he stepped down, his comments had resulted in the NFL cancelling its association with Papa John's.

After stepping down as CEO, Schnatter remained chairman of the board of directors until July 2018, when it was revealed that, during an internal sensitivity-training May 2018 conference call, he claimed without evidence that Colonel Sanders had used the word "nigger" without backlash. Schnatter resigned when the comment became public, but has since maintained that the board conspired against him and unfairly forced him out of his position.

Early life and education
Schnatter was born in Jeffersonville, Indiana, in 1961, to Mary and Robert Schnatter. His mother was a real estate agent and his father was a judge in Jeffersonville. He has German ancestry. He graduated from Jeffersonville High School in 1980 and received a business degree from Ball State University in 1983.

In the 1980s, Robert Schnatter co-owned Mick's Lounge, a Jeffersonville tavern.

Career

Founding and growth of Papa John's Pizza
Schnatter founded Papa John's Pizza in 1984, when he converted a broom closet in the back of his father's tavern. Schnatter sold his 1971 Z28 Camaro to purchase $1,600 worth of used pizza equipment and began selling pizzas to the tavern's customers. His pizzas proved sufficiently popular that a year later he moved into an adjoining space. The company went public in 1993. A year later it had 500 stores, and by 1997 it had opened 1,500 stores. In 2009, Schnatter reacquired the Camaro after offering a reward of $250,000 for it.

Schnatter moved his company to Louisville, Kentucky, in the late 1990s.

In early 2005, Schnatter stepped down as president and CEO of Papa John's, but remained chairman of the board. He returned as CEO in 2008 and briefly had a co-CEO in 2010.

Ousting from Papa John's Pizza

In October 2017, in a conference call with investors, Schnatter blamed the National Football League for poor financial performance, saying, "The NFL has hurt us ... We are disappointed the NFL and its leadership did not resolve this", referring to the U.S. national anthem protests by football players. Papa John's Pizza had a marketing agreement to be the NFL's "official pizza company" and also had marketing deals with 23 of its 32 teams, and Schnatter said the protests were hurting the company's sales. Later that day, Papa John's announced that the NFL shield or "official sponsor" designation on Papa John's commercials and advertising would be removed.

On December 21, 2017, Schnatter announced that he would step down as CEO of Papa John's amid controversy over his comments. He was replaced as Chief Executive Officer by Chief Operating Officer Steve Richie, effective January 1, 2018. The company said Schnatter would still appear in the chain's commercials and on its pizza boxes, and was the company's biggest shareholder with approximately 9.5 million shares. He remained chairman of the company's board of directors at the time.

In July 2018, Schnatter participated in an internal training conference call with marketing consultants in which there was a role-playing exercise to help Schnatter avoid making remarks that could cause public controversy and damage the company's reputation. During the conference call, Schnatter said, "Colonel Sanders called blacks niggers and Sanders never faced public outcry". Schnatter also said that people in his home state of Indiana used to drag African Americans from trucks until they died. After the call, the owner of the marketing agency moved to end its contract with Papa John's. Schnatter resigned as chairman of the board the same day the incident was reported. Later that day, he also stepped down from the University of Louisville board of trustees.

On July 26, 2018, Schnatter filed a lawsuit in Delaware against Papa John's Pizza to give him access to the company's books and records; the company did not allow him to access its business records after he resigned in the wake of the teleconference call scandal. He described the company's procedures as an "unexplained and heavy-handed way" to cut ties between him and the company. In addition to preventing him from accessing information, the corporation also implemented a "poison pill" strategy to limit Schnatter's chances of buying back a majority stake in the company. Schnatter also filed a lawsuit against the company in Kentucky in a dispute over property ownership.

In January 2019, a judge ordered the company to give Schnatter access to its records relating to his ouster. A settlement of the lawsuits was announced on March 5, 2019. Under the agreement, the company agreed to share all of its records with Schnatter and to remove a part of its "poison pill" plan that restricted his communication with other shareholders, and Schnatter agreed that he would not seek to stay on the company's board of directors after his term expired on April 30, 2019, and that if a mutually agreeable independent director was chosen to replace him, he would step down before the end of his term. Schnatter retained the right to sue if the records show wrongdoing by the company. The company also agreed to remove a requirement that the activist hedge fund Starboard Value, which owns about 10% of the company, must vote in favor of the incumbent board. As of March 2019, Schnatter remained the owner of 31% of the company's shares, but by May 23, he had sold 3.8 million shares and reduced his stake in the company to 19%. By November 2019, his stake was under 17%.

In June 2019, the company was the fourth-largest take-out and pizza delivery restaurant chain in the world, with headquarters in Jeffersontown, Kentucky, part of the Louisville metropolitan area.

In November 2019, Schnatter made his first public comments after leaving Papa John's to Louisville Fox affiliate WDRB. In the interview, he admitted he had used the word "nigger" during an internal conference call on diversity training, but said he did so to convey his hatred of racism and was quoting Colonel Sanders. Schnatter said, "I've had over 40 pizzas in the last 30 days, and it's not the same pizza. It's not the same product. It just doesn't taste as good." He warned that "the day of reckoning will come". The interview subsequently went viral, with numerous parodies appearing online.

In an interview three months later, Schnatter said he had not actually eaten over 40 pizzas in 30 days. Instead, he had tasted over 40 pizzas during that time, as a quality inspection activity. Schnatter also criticized the way the company had been run immediately after his departure by Steve Ritchie, who was described as his former protégé. Ritchie had replaced him as CEO, but had been dismissed after less than a year, and Schnatter said he saw more common ground with Jeff Smith, who became chairman of the board in February 2019. "The one thing he and I agree on is that Steve Ritchie is not a CEO," Schnatter said.

Other ventures
In 1996, Schnatter started a Louisville-based real estate company called Evergreen Real Estate. The company owns a number of historic properties in Schnatter's home community of Anchorage, Kentucky.

Schnatter launched a business called Calistoga Artisan Sandwiches in 2007. In 2008, he made a million-dollar contribution to the Louisville Zoo's Glacier Run expansion in exchange for Calistoga having naming rights to an adjacent water park. The Calistoga business was mostly shut down in 2012, although three locations continued to operate in Naples, Florida.

In response to the unhealthiness of processed foods and the rise of commercial farms, Schnatter announced the creation of Papa Farms at the Conservative Political Action Conference in 2022. The farm plans to grow crops without GMOs, pesticides and fertilizer.

Personal life
In 1983, Schnatter sold his 1971 Chevrolet Camaro to help his father's struggling business. He used the leftover funds to start Papa John's. Decades later, he offered a reward of $250,000 for the car, and on August 26, 2009, he bought it back for $250,000. The family he sold it to had sold it, but he still paid them a $25,000 finders' fee. In celebration, Papa John's offered a free pizza to anyone who owned a Camaro. Schnatter's original Camaro has been on display in the company's headquarters in Louisville. The company owns several replicas that are used on tours and for public and TV appearances. On August 15, 2015, Schnatter's original Camaro was stolen along with two other classic cars in Detroit, where they were slated to appear in the city's annual Woodward Dream Cruise. The Camaro was recovered two days later on the city's west side with minimal damage.

Schnatter married Annette Cox in 1987. The couple lived in Anchorage, Kentucky, and had three children. Cox filed for divorce on December 5, 2019, and said they had been separated for eight months.

Allegations of stalking and sexual misconduct
In 1999, Schnatter was accused of stalking and groping a woman. He claimed the woman was trying to extort him for $5 million. The situation ended with a confidential settlement.

In 2009, Schnatter was accused of sexual misconduct involving a 24-year-old female marketing employee, resulting in a confidential settlement.

Politics
In 2012, Papa John's and Schnatter received media attention after he made critical comments about the Affordable Care Act to a class on entrepreneurship. In a shareholder conference call, Schnatter said that he opposed the ACA because "our best estimate is that the Obamacare will cost 11 to 14 cents per pizza".

Schnatter hosted a fundraiser at his home for Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney in May 2012. Schnatter also contributed to Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign and made supportive comments about his administration in January 2017.

Schnatter spoke at the Conservative Political Action Conference in 2022, attacking cancel culture and President Joe Biden's small business policies. He also pushed a conspiracy theory that Biden created the 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis to serve as "a great distraction from all the real issues here that affect Americans."

Charitable contributions
In December 2015, Schnatter's charitable foundation donated $8 million to the University of Kentucky's Gatton College of Business and Economics to establish a research and teaching institute.

On September 4, 2019, Schnatter's foundation donated $1 million to Simmons College, a historically black college in Kentucky. Simmons College President Kevin Cosby expressed the opinion in a press conference that Schnatter's actions should speak louder than his words, saying "The Black community has heard far too many false words, but today this action—his generosity specifically for Black education and uplift—speaks louder." There was some criticism of the donation offer. Gerome Sutton, a Simmons graduate and member of its board of trustees, said, "It doesn't take a rocket scientist to figure out what's going on. [Schnatter] is trying to pay off the black community with 30 pieces of silver."

In October 2019, the foundation also donated $500,000 to Jeffersonville High School, for renovation of its baseball field, where he had played on the team while a student there. The baseball field was renamed the John H. Schnatter Stadium.

Awards and honors

 Named 1998 National Ernst & Young Retail/Consumer Entrepreneur of The Year.
 Named one of the Ten Outstanding Young Americans in 2000 by the National Jaycees Organization.
 Inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 2007.
 In May 2009 Schnatter was named honorary chair of the Ride to Conquer Cancer benefiting Louisville's Norton Cancer Institute.
 Inducted into the Kentucky Entrepreneur Hall of Fame in 2010.
 In 2012, he became an honorary initiate of Alpha Tau Omega.

References

External links

1961 births
2019 controversies in the United States
American billionaires
American chief executives of food industry companies
American food company founders
American people of German descent
Ball State University alumni
Businesspeople from Louisville, Kentucky
Kentucky Republicans
Living people
Members of the Christian churches and churches of Christ
People from Jeffersonville, Indiana
Pizza chain founders
Spokespersons

John Schnatter


The Yezo sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis, , Ainu: ユク yuk) is one of the many subspecies of the sika deer. The sika that inhabit the island of Hokkaido are indigenous, although it is not known whether they originated there or migrated from the main island of Japan. It is thought that they may have traveled across the strait between the islands. Genetic study has shown that the separation of the sika population occurred less than half a million years ago. It is possible that northern sika deer may be more closely related to yezo sika deer than to other sika deer. The indigenous Ainu people of Hokkaido have hunted them for centuries and relied on them as a major food source.

The Hokkaido sika is one of the largest of the sika species with large stags approaching and sometimes exceeding 200 kg in the fall. They also sport the largest antlers with lengths often over 35 inches with the longest recorded specimen being 44 inches. By SCI measurement the Hokkaido sika produces the highest scores, although very few have been listed.

References

Mammals of Asia

Yezo sika deer


In the process of photosynthesis, the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP using the energy of sunlight is called photophosphorylation. Cyclic photophosphorylation occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, driven by the main primary source of energy available to living organisms, which is sunlight. All organisms produce a phosphate compound, ATP, which is the universal energy currency of life. In photophosphorylation, light energy is used to pump protons across a biological membrane, mediated by flow of electrons through an electron transport chain. This stores energy in a proton gradient. As the protons flow back through an enzyme called ATP synthase, ATP is generated from ADP and inorganic phosphate. ATP is essential in the Calvin cycle to assist in the synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and NADPH.

ATP and reactions
Both the structure of ATP synthase and its underlying gene are remarkably similar in all known forms of life. ATP synthase is powered by a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient, usually in the form of a proton gradient. In all living organisms, a series of redox reactions is used to produce a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient, or a so-called proton motive force (pmf).

Redox reactions are chemical reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants relative to the products. If donor and acceptor (the reactants) are of higher free energy than the reaction products, the electron transfer may occur spontaneously. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work.  Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system will proceed spontaneously (given that the system is isobaric and also at constant temperature), although the reaction may proceed slowly if it is kinetically inhibited.

The fact that a reaction is thermodynamically possible does not mean that it will actually occur.  A mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas does not spontaneously ignite. It is necessary either to supply an activation energy or to lower the intrinsic activation energy of the system, in order to make most biochemical reactions proceed at a useful rate.  Living systems use complex macromolecular structures to lower the activation energies of biochemical reactions.

It is possible to couple a thermodynamically favorable reaction (a transition from a high-energy state to a lower-energy state) to a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction (such as a separation of charges, or the creation of an osmotic gradient), in such a way that the overall free energy of the system decreases (making it thermodynamically possible), while useful work is done at the same time. The principle that biological macromolecules catalyze a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction if and only if a thermodynamically favorable reaction occurs simultaneously, underlies all known forms of life.

The transfer of electrons from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule can be spatially separated into a series of intermediate redox reactions. This is an electron transport chain (ETC). Electron transport chains often produce energy in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient. The gradient can be used to transport molecules across membranes. Its energy can be used to produce ATP or to do useful work, for instance mechanical work of a rotating bacterial flagella.

Cyclic photophosphorylation
This form of photophosphorylation occurs on the stroma lamella, or fret channels. In cyclic photophosphorylation, the high-energy electron released from P700, a pigment in a complex called photosystem I, flows in a cyclic pathway. The electron starts in photosystem I, passes from the primary electron acceptor to ferredoxin and then to plastoquinone, next to cytochrome bf (a similar complex to that found in mitochondria), and finally to plastocyanin before returning to photosystem I. This transport chain produces a proton-motive force, pumping H ions across the membrane and producing a concentration gradient that can be used to power ATP synthase during chemiosmosis. This pathway is known as cyclic photophosphorylation, and it produces neither O nor NADPH. Unlike non-cyclic photophosphorylation, NADP does not accept the electrons; they are instead sent back to the cytochrome bf complex.

In bacterial photosynthesis, a single photosystem is used, and therefore is involved in cyclic photophosphorylation.
It is favored in anaerobic conditions and conditions of high irradiance and CO compensation points.

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
The other pathway, non-cyclic photophosphorylation, is a two-stage process involving two different chlorophyll photosystems in the thylakoid membrane. First, a photon is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments surrounding the reaction core center of photosystem II. The light excites an electron in the pigment P680 at the core of photosystem II, which is transferred to the primary electron acceptor, pheophytin, leaving behind P680. The energy of P680 is used in two steps to split a water molecule into 2H + 1/2 O + 2e (photolysis or light-splitting). An electron from the water molecule reduces P680 back to P680, while the H and oxygen are released. The electron transfers from pheophytin to plastoquinone (PQ), which takes 2e (in two steps) from pheophytin, and two H Ions from the stroma to form PQH. This plastoquinol is later oxidized back to PQ, releasing the 2e to the cytochrome bf complex and the two H ions into the thylakoid lumen. The electrons then pass through Cyt b and Cyt f to plastocyanin, using energy from photosystem I to pump hydrogen ions (H) into the thylakoid space. This creates a H gradient, making H ions flow back into the stroma of the chloroplast, providing the energy for the (re)generation of ATP.

The photosystem II complex replaced its lost electrons from HO, so electrons are not returned to photosystem II as they would in the analogous cyclic pathway. Instead, they are transferred to the photosystem I complex, which boosts their energy to a higher level using a second solar photon. The excited electrons are transferred to a series of acceptor molecules, but this time are passed on to an enzyme called ferredoxin-NADP reductase, which uses them to catalyze the reaction

NADP + 2H + 2e → NADPH + H

This consumes the H ions produced by the splitting of water, leading to a net production of 1/2O, ATP, and NADPH + H with the consumption of solar photons and water.

The concentration of NADPH in the chloroplast may help regulate which pathway electrons take through the light reactions. When the chloroplast runs low on ATP for the Calvin cycle, NADPH will accumulate and the plant may shift from noncyclic to cyclic electron flow.

Early history of research
In 1950, first experimental evidence for the existence of photophosphorylation in vivo was presented by Otto Kandler using intact Chlorella cells and interpreting his findings as light-dependent ATP formation.
In 1954, Daniel I. Arnon et.al. discovered photophosphorylation in vitro in isolated chloroplasts with the help of P32.
His first review on the early research of photophosphorylation was published in 1956.

References

Professor Luis Gordillo
Fenchel T, King GM, Blackburn TH.  Bacterial Biogeochemistry: The Ecophysiology of Mineral Cycling.  2nd ed.  Elsevier; 1998.
Lengeler JW, Drews G, Schlegel HG, editors.  Biology of the Prokaryotes.  Blackwell Sci; 1999.
Nelson DL, Cox MM.  Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry.  4th ed.  Freeman; 2005.

Stumm W, Morgan JJ.  Aquatic Chemistry.  3rd ed.  Wiley; 1996.
Thauer RK, Jungermann K, Decker K.  Energy Conservation in Chemotrophic Anaerobic Bacteria.  Bacteriol. Rev. 41:100–180; 1977.
White D.  The Physiology and Biochemistry of Prokaryotes.  2nd ed.  Oxford University Press; 2000.
Voet D, Voet JG.  Biochemistry.  3rd ed.  Wiley; 2004.
Cj C. Enverg
Photosynthesis
Light reactions

Photophosphorylation