Nordsee Deutsche Hochseefischerei GmbH v Reederei Mond Hochseefischerei Nordstern AG & Co KG is a case referred to the European Court of Justice (ECJ) by a German arbitrator by virtue of Article 267 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (formerly Article 234 of the Treaty establishing the European Community). This article gives the "Courts or Tribunals" of Member States the power to refer matters involving the interpretation or application of European Union law to the ECJ. It was held in this case that the ECJ could not rule on questions referred to it by an arbitrator because an arbitral body is not a court or tribunal of a Member State as defined in Article 234.

Legal principle
The decision in this case contributed to the definition of a court or tribunal as per Article 267. As the case involved a national body responsible for offering alternatives to dispute resolutions by courts, it was argued that it could be considered as a court or tribunal. The judges stated in the judgement that the body could not refer a case to the ECJ:
If the alternative procedure is, in fact and law, chosen in preference to recourse to ordinary courts; and:
If the public authorities of a Member State are not involved in the choice of recourse to the alternative method of dispute resolution, and do not intervene in the course of its procedure.

Court of Justice of the European Union case law
German case law
1982 in case law
1982 in Germany

Nordsee case


Brixham Battery and Battery Gardens are an open space on the sea shore in Brixham, Devon at . They are a traditional observation point for Brixham trawler races, both past and present.

The  site of Battery Gardens was first used as a battery in 1586 during the war between England and Spain. The Battery was not permanently armed but was certainly active throughout the American War of Independence during the 1780s and the Napoleonic War against France during the first decade of the 19th century. The Battery was also used by the Coast Guard for gunnery training during the 1870s.

All that can be seen today was built from June to September 1940 immediately following the defeat and evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force from Dunkirk after the fall of France.

Of the 116 emergency batteries built in 1940 from John O'Groats to Kent, to Lands End, and to South Wales only seven remain. Of these Brixham Battery is the most complete. English Heritage had surveyed the whole site and it is now a scheduled monument.

The Battery

A "battery" is a category of artillery weapons and the soldiers who operate them. The World War II coast and defence batteries had two main guns, anti-aircraft weapons and, in the case of Brixham, extra harbour defence guns.

A total of about one hundred officers and soldiers manned the Battery. The Battery was originally manned by soldiers from the Royal Artillery, but following the receding threat of invasion the Battery was later manned by 378 Battery – of which almost all were members of the Home Guard.

History

1776–1890

It is known that as far back as 1586 a gun platform was established in battery grounds against the threat of attack from Spain. This was maintained until 1664.

From 1776 to 1890 the battery was known variously as Furzdon, Furzeham, Furzham, Furzedown and Fishcombe point. During the end of the 18th century Brixham was the station for the western approach of the Royal Navy, and as such was a very necessary port for the Navy, especially during the American Civil War.

When France joined America in 1778 and Spain in 1779, the Board of Ordnance decided that, along with other naval stations along the south coast of England, Brixham was to be protected by gun emplacements.

Battery gardens was to be the most westerly battery covering the harbour. The militia were to prepare the positions, and the guns, 24 pounders, arrived in May 1780 at the same time as the Berry Head guns (the site of a Napoleonic fort a little along from battery gardens). The land being commandeered, compensation being paid in 1783 at the end of hostilities.

At the start of the French wars the land was purchased and the guns returned. Again the guns were removed at the end of hostilities. The battery was still a military station in a report of 2 June 1862 and was manned by the 11th Devon Artillery Volunteers, Royal Garrison Artillery.

In a naval return of 13 March 1891 there had been a 64 pounder muzzle loading rifled cannon at Furzham on 1 April 1889. This was mounted on gun racers about where number five gun had been eighty years before.

1940–1945

The role of Brixham Battery, in conjunction with a similar battery at Corbyn Head, Torquay, was to defend all the beaches against landings. Beaches such as those at Torre Abbey, Livermead, Hollicombe, Preston, Paignton, Goodrington, Broadsands and Elberry Cove would have made ideal sites for enemy landings. The Corbyn Head battery was well sited to cover targets within the bay while the Brixham Battery could also engage craft further out in Lyme Bay. In addition to the 'big guns' the batteries were equipped with anti-aircraft weaponry and a 6 pounder Hotchkiss harbour defence gun. The anti-aircraft defences at Brixham Battery consisted of a 37 mm AA gun, an Unrotated Projectile projector and 40 mm Bofors guns.

The Brixham Battery and a similar one at Corbyn Head, Torquay, were only two of many sited along the South Coast. One of the more heavily armed batteries was at Froward Point, near Kingswear, known as Brownstone Battery. This was a 'close defence' battery sited in June 1942 and armed with 'LS' (Land Service) 6 inch Mark VII guns on mark II mountings. The role of the battery was to engage enemy forces, such as landing craft and mother ships carrying landing craft, attempting landings on Slapton Sands or Blackpool Sands beaches and to destroy any beach head which had been established. Parts of the gun beds, the battery observation post, magazines, searchlights and other features can still be seen, and are now preserved by the National Trust. The battery observation post is let by the trust to the National Coastwatch Institution, known as NCI Froward Point, and manned by volunteer watchkeepers keeping a lookout for coastal dangers.

In 1940, during the Second World War, the site was manned initially by the Royal Artillery 362 Battery 18 CA GP Regiment, becoming 362 Battery 556 Regiment in 1941 and 378 Battery 556 Regiment in 1942. The Royal Artillery was strongly supported by local men transferred from 'D' Company (10th Torbay) Battalion Devonshire Home Guard. Trained in all the functions of the Battery and being able to man it on their own if the occasion arose, the crews became very efficient and were often commended by the Brigadier Royal Artillery Southern Command and Commander of Coast Artillery South West District.

The  guns were never used in earnest against enemy forces though there were occasions when alerts were ordered. German E-boats entered the bay on several occasions but were never engaged since this might have given away the location of the Battery – information deemed to valuable to an enemy landing force. In principle, engagement of enemy vessels would have been left to the Royal Navy unless orders to the contrary were given by the port commander or higher authorities.

There were, however, many occasions on which the anti-aircraft defences at the battery were in action against the hit-and-run raiders attacking Brixham harbour and shipping in the Bay. These included Messerschmitt 109s carrying a single  bomb, and later the Focke-Wulf 190s which carried a formidable  bomb.

The Heritage Centre Group

Created in 1999, the Heritage Centre Group is committed to the promotion of the history of the Brixham Battery as well as the environment, flora and fauna and is currently expanding its on-site education centre within the grounds of the gardens, known as Brixham Battery Heritage Centre.

Notes

External links

 Annotated Google map
 Brixham Battery Heritage Centre Group
 Brixham Heritage Museum

Scheduled monuments in Devon
Brixham
Coastal artillery
Museums in Devon
Military and war museums in England
World War II museums in the United Kingdom
Artillery batteries

Brixham Battery


Svante Elis Strömgren (31 May 1870 – 5 April 1947) was a Swedish–Danish astronomer.

Strömgren was born in 1870 in Helsingborg, in the Scania province of Sweden. He received his doctorate at Lund University in 1898, becoming docent there the same year. He worked at the University of Kiel from 1901, and assisted in the publication of Astronomische Nachrichten from 1901 to 1904. He became Professor of Astronomy and director of the Copenhagen Observatory of the University of Copenhagen in 1907. He died in Copenhagen in 1947. The minor planet 1422 Strömgrenia was named in his honour.

Strömgren worked in a variety of fields but was particularly interested in theoretical astronomy and celestial mechanics, publishing works on the origin and orbits of comets. He also worked on the calculations for Jens Olsen's World Clock after 1928.

His spouse, the dentist and writer Hedvig Lidforss (1877–1967), was daughter of the philologist Edvard Lidforss in Lund, and sister of the publicist and botanist Bengt Lidforss. Elis Strömgren's sons were the astronomer Bengt Strömgren, who succeeded his father in Copenhagen in 1940 and Erik Strömgren notable danish psychiatrist.

References

External links

Biography of Elis Strömgren
Biography in Nordisk familjebok

1870 births
1947 deaths
19th-century Swedish astronomers
20th-century Danish astronomers
Swedish emigrants to Denmark
People from Helsingborg

Elis Strömgren


Police-General Said Soekanto Tjokrodiatmodjo (7 June 1908 – 24 August 1993) was the first Chief of the Indonesian National Police (Kapolri) and National Hero of Indonesia.

Early life
Raden Said Soekanto Tjokrodiatmodjo was born in Bogor, West Java, the eldest of six siblings, of R. Martomihardjo, a civil servant from Ketangi Daleman, Purworejo, Central Java and Kasmirah from Ciawi, Bogor, West Java. At a few months old, Soekanto and his parents left Bogor and moved to Balaraja, Serang, after Martomihardjo was appointed as a wedana. In 1910, his family moved to Tangerang. His father's position as civil servant and wedana, had a great influence on Soekanto's life because his father had authority in the local community.

Education

Soekanto was one of the few indigenous people who received a Dutch education. During his time at Europeesche Lagere School Bogor, Soekanto refused to be given a Dutch name, This refusal was based on an advice given by his father not to change Soekanto's name to a Dutch nickname.

While studying at Rechtshoogeschool te Batavia in 1928, Soekanto became acquainted with Jong Java and nationalists figures, Sartono and Iwa Kusumasumantri, discussing about the struggle for Indonesian independence. He was forced to leave Rechtshoogeschool te Batavia because his father had retired from the position of Wedana Tangerang.

In 1930, Soekanto was accepted as a student of Aspirant Commisaris van Politie, graduating in 1933 receiving the rank of Police Commissioner class III.

Career

On 29 September 1945, R.S.  Soekanto was appointed by President Sukarno as the Chief of the Indonesian National Police, taking over responsibility from the Hoofd van de Dienst der Algemene Politie. Soekanto consolidated the police force to form the Indonesian National Police.

On 15 December 1959 he was replaced by Soekarno Djojonagoro, as Chief of the Indonesian National Police.

On 8 August 1973, During the New Order government he was appointed by President Suharto to the Supreme Advisory Council as Head of the People's Welfare Section until he was honourably discharged on 23 March 1978.

Personal life

He married Bua Hadjijah Lena Mokoginta, his schoolmate from Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs on 12 April 1932. They had one daughter.

Soekanto died at Police Hospital on 25 August 1993. He was buried in the same grave with his wife at the Tanah Kusir TPU, Jakarta.

On 10 November 2020, Soekanto received the title of National Hero of Indonesia by President Joko Widodo.

References

1909 births
1993 deaths
People from Bogor
Indonesian police officers
Chiefs of police

Said Soekanto Tjokrodiatmodjo


José Octavio Ruiz Arenas (born 21 December 1944) is a Colombian prelate of the Roman Catholic Church, who has served as secretary of the Pontifical Council for the Promotion of the New Evangelisation.

Biography
José Ruiz Arenas was born in Bogotá, and ordained to the priesthood by Archbishop Aníbal Muñoz Duque on 29 November 1969.

He worked in the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith with the future Benedict XVI until 8 March 1996, when he was appointed auxiliary bishop of Bogotá and titular bishop of Troyna by Pope John Paul II. He received his episcopal consecration on the following 13 April from then-Archbishop Pedro Rubiano Sáenz, with Archbishops Paolo Romeo and Tarcisio Bertone, SDB, serving as co-consecrators. Ruiz Arenas was later named Bishop of Villavicencio on 16 July 2002, and was promoted to the rank of Archbishop when his see was elevated to an archdiocese on 3 July 2004.

On 31 May 2007, he entered the service of the Roman Curia upon his appointment as vice president of the Pontifical Commission for Latin America by Pope Benedict XVI.

On 13 May 2011 he was appointed the first secretary of Pontifical Council for the Promotion of the New Evangelisation by Pope Benedict.

On 5 March 2012 he was appointed a member of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples by Pope Benedict.

On Tuesday, 18 September 2012, Archbishop Ruiz Arenas was named by Pope Benedict XVI to serve as one of the papally-appointed Synod Fathers of the upcoming October 2012 13th Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops on the New Evangelization, presumably because of his position as Secretary of the Pontifical Council for the New Evangelization.

External links
Catholic-Hierarchy

1944 births
Living people
Clergy from Bogotá
Pontifical Commission for Latin America
21st-century Roman Catholic archbishops in Colombia
Members of the Pontifical Council for the Promotion of the New Evangelisation
Members of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples
Roman Catholic bishops of Bogotá

José Ruiz Arenas


Happy Holidays from Drive-Thru Records is a compilation album, released on December 14, 2004, of Christmas-themed songs by Drive-Thru Records and Rushmore Records artists. All the recordings were previously unreleased, though five of the eight songs were cover versions of famous Christmas tunes. In December 2004, the album was available exclusively at Drive-Thru Records' website for online purchase. The limited print run of 1,200 copies sold out before the end of the year. It was then sold digitally at online music stores, such as Sony Connect.

Hidden in Plain View's "Christmas Song" (which both musically and lyrically pays homage to Jimmy Eat World's "Goodbye Sky Harbor") was on the original soundtrack to The Ice Harvest the following year.

Track listing
 "Feliz Navidad" (Jose Feliciano) performed by Home Grown – 2:59
 "Here Lies Our Holiday" (Day at the Fair) performed by Day at the Fair – 3:14
 "Alone on Christmas" (Steven van Zandt) performed by Self Against City – 3:47
 "Winter Wonderland" (Felix Bernard, Richard B. Smith) performed by Hellogoodbye – 1:54
 "War Is Over" (John Lennon) performed by An Angle – 3:51
 "Christmas Song" (Hidden in Plain View) performed by Hidden in Plain View – 3:08
 "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" (Ralph Blane, Hugh Martin) performed by The Track Record – 2:55
 "Rites of Winter" (Jenoah) performed by Jenoah – 4:11

Record label compilation albums
Christmas compilation albums
2004 Christmas albums
2004 compilation albums
Drive-Thru Records compilation albums

Happy Holidays from Drive-Thru Records


Many parts of the  Hebrew Bible are written as poetry.  One of the main features of the Hebrew poetry is parallelism of thought. The Book of Psalms and the Book of Proverbs are almost all poetry.  Some of the Prophetic books also have poetic sections. Even the Book of Genesis includes some poems, or songs and they are sometimes called.

Parallellism
Unlike English poetry, and that of many cultures, Hebrew poetry does not rhyme words.  Neither is rhythm or meter often used.  Instead alternate lines of the poem have a related thought. This is called parallelism.  One advantage of this type of poetry is that it is easy to make a translation that keeps the idea or teaching of the original language. That is much more difficult to do if the translation has to make words rhyme or follow a metrical pattern.  Several types of  parallelism can be found in Biblical poetry.These include:

 Synonymous parallelism; in this form, the second half line of each verse says much the same thing as the first one, with variations.  An example appears in Amos (Amos 5:24)

But let judgment run down as waters,
and righteousness as a mighty stream.

Another example of synonymous parallelism comes in Isaiah (Isaiah 2:4) or Book of Micah (Micah 4:3)

"They will beat their swords into plowsharesand their spears into pruning hooks. Antithesis is also found; here, the second unit directly contrasts with the first, often making the same point from the opposite perspective.  From Book of Proverbs (Proverbs 10:1)A wise son maketh a glad father,but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. Emblematic parallelism occurs where one unit renders figuratively the literal meaning of another.
 Synthetic parallelism occurs where the units balance, clause for clause, with one unit building upon or adding to the first.  From Psalm 14:2The LORD looked down from heaven upon the children of men,to see if there were any that did understand and seek God. Climactic parallelism occurs where the second unit partially balances the first, but also sums up the thought or completes the series.  From Psalm 29:1:Give unto the LORD, O ye mighty,give unto the LORD glory and strength.''
Poetry
Jewish literature

Hebrew Poetry


Armand Jean du Plessis, 1st Duke of Richelieu (; 9 September 1585 – 4 December 1642), known as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French statesman and clergyman. He became known as l'Éminence rouge, or "the Red Eminence", a term derived from the title "Eminence" applied to  cardinals and from the red robes that they customarily wear.

Consecrated a  bishop in 1607, Richelieu was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616. He continued to rise through the hierarchy of both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622 and chief minister to King  Louis XIII of France in 1624. He retained that office until his death in 1642, when he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, whose career he had fostered. Richelieu became engaged in a bitter dispute with Marie de Médici, the king's mother, and formerly his close ally.

Richelieu sought to consolidate royal power and restrained the power of the nobility in order to transform France into a strong centralized state. In foreign policy, his primary objectives were to check the power of the  Habsburg dynasty (reigning notably in  Spain and Austria) and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648 after that conflict engulfed Europe. Despite suppressing the Huguenot rebellions of the 1620s, he made alliances with Protestant states like the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic to help him achieve his goals. However, although he was a powerful political figure in his own right, events such as the Day of the Dupes () in 1630 showed that Richelieu's power still depended on the king's confidence.

An alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the College of Sorbonne, Richelieu renovated and extended the institution. He became famous for his patronage of the arts and founded the , the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language. As an advocate for Samuel de Champlain and New France, he founded (1627) the ; he also negotiated the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye under which Quebec City returned to French rule after English privateers took it in 1629. He was created Duke of Richelieu in 1629.

Richelieu is known as the inventor of the table knife. Annoyed by the bad manners that were commonly displayed at the dining table by users of sharp knives (who would often use them to pick their teeth), in 1637 Richelieu ordered that all of the knives on his dining table have their blades dulled and their tips rounded. The design quickly became popular throughout France and later spread to other countries.

Richelieu has frequently been depicted in popular fiction, notably as the lead villain in Alexandre Dumas's 1844 novel The Three Musketeers and its  numerous film adaptations.

Early life
Born in Paris on 9 September 1585, Armand du Plessis was the fourth of five children and the last of three sons: he was delicate from childhood, and suffered frequent bouts of ill-health throughout his life. His family belonged to the lesser nobility of Poitou: his father, François du Plessis, seigneur de Richelieu, was a soldier and courtier who served as the Grand Provost of France, and his mother, Susanne de La Porte, was the daughter of a famous jurist.

When he was five years old, Richelieu's father died of fever in the French Wars of Religion, leaving the family in debt; with the aid of royal grants, however, the family was able to avoid financial difficulties. At the age of 9, young Richelieu was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris to study philosophy. Thereafter, he began to train for a military career. His private life seems to have been typical for a young officer of the era, or for French officers of any era : in 1605, aged twenty, he was treated by Théodore de Mayerne for gonorrhea.

Henry III had rewarded Richelieu's father for his participation in the Wars of Religion by granting his family the Bishopric of Luçon. The family appropriated most of the revenues of the bishopric for private use; they were, however, challenged by clergymen who desired the funds for ecclesiastical purposes. To protect the important source of revenue, Richelieu's mother proposed to make her second son, Alphonse, the bishop of Luçon. Alphonse, who had no desire to become a bishop, became instead a Carthusian monk. Thus, it became necessary that the younger Richelieu join the clergy. He had strong academic interests and threw himself into studying for his new post.

In 1606, Henry IV nominated Richelieu to become Bishop of Luçon. As Richelieu had not yet reached the canonical minimum age, it was necessary that he journey to Rome for a special dispensation from Pope Paul V. This secured, Richelieu was consecrated bishop in April 1607. Soon after he returned to his diocese in 1608, Richelieu was heralded as a reformer. He became the first bishop in France to implement the institutional reforms prescribed by the Council of Trent between 1545 and 1563.

At about this time, Richelieu became a friend of François Leclerc du Tremblay (better known as "Père Joseph or "Father Joseph"), a Capuchin friar, who would later become a close confidant. Because of his closeness to Richelieu, and the grey colour of his robes, Father Joseph was also nicknamed L'éminence grise (). Later, Richelieu often used him as an agent during diplomatic negotiations.

Rise to power

In 1614, the clergymen of Poitou asked Richelieu to be one of their representatives to the Estates-General. There, he was a vigorous advocate of the Catholic Church, arguing that it should be exempt from taxes and that bishops should have more political power. He was the most prominent clergyman to support the adoption of the decrees of the Council of Trent throughout France; the Third Estate (commoners) was his chief opponent in this endeavour. At the end of the assembly, the First Estate (the clergy) chose him to deliver the address enumerating its petitions and decisions. Soon after the dissolution of the Estates-General, Richelieu entered the service of King Louis XIII's wife, Anne of Austria, as her almoner.

Richelieu advanced politically by faithfully serving the queen-mother's favourite, Concino Concini, the most powerful minister in the kingdom. In 1616, Richelieu was made Secretary of State, and was given responsibility for foreign affairs. Like Concini, the Bishop was one of the closest advisors of Louis XIII's mother, Marie de Médicis. The queen had become Regent of France when the nine-year-old Louis ascended the throne; although her son reached the legal age of majority in 1614, she remained the effective ruler of the realm. However, her policies, and those of Concini, proved unpopular with many in France. As a result, both Marie and Concini became the targets of intrigues at court; their most powerful enemy was Charles de Luynes. In April 1617, in a plot arranged by Luynes, Louis XIII ordered that Concini be arrested, and killed should he resist; Concini was consequently assassinated, and Marie de Médicis overthrown. His patron having died, Richelieu also lost power; he was dismissed as Secretary of State, and was removed from the court. In 1618, the king, still suspicious of the Bishop of Luçon, banished him to Avignon. There, Richelieu spent most of his time writing; he composed a catechism titled L'Instruction du chrétien.

In 1619, Marie de Médicis escaped from her confinement in the Château de Blois, becoming the titular leader of an aristocratic rebellion. The king and the duc de Luynes recalled Richelieu, believing that he would be able to reason with the queen. Richelieu was successful in this endeavour, mediating between her and her son. Complex negotiations bore fruit when the Treaty of Angoulême was ratified; Marie de Médicis was given complete freedom, but would remain at peace with the king. The queen-mother was restored to the royal council.

After the death of the king's favourite, the duc de Luynes, in 1621, Richelieu rose to power quickly. The year after, the king nominated Richelieu for a cardinalate, which Pope Gregory XV accordingly granted in September 1622. Crises in France, including a rebellion of the Huguenots, rendered Richelieu a nearly indispensable advisor to the king. After he was appointed to the royal council of ministers on 29 April 1624, he intrigued against the chief minister Charles, duc de La Vieuville. On 12 August of the same year, La Vieuville was arrested on charges of corruption, and Cardinal Richelieu took his place as the king's principal minister the following day, but the Cardinal de la Rochefoucauld nominally remained president of the council (Richelieu was officially appointed president in November 1629).

Chief minister

Cardinal Richelieu's policy involved two primary goals: centralization of power in France and opposition to the Habsburg dynasty (which ruled in both Austria and Spain). He saw the reestablishment of the Catholic orthodoxy as a political maneuver of the Habsburg and Austrian states which was detrimental to the French national interests.

Shortly after he became Louis' principal minister, he was faced with a crisis in Valtellina, a valley in Lombardy (northern Italy). To counter Spanish designs on the territory, Richelieu supported the Protestant Swiss canton of Grisons, which also claimed the strategically important valley. The cardinal deployed troops to Valtellina, from which the pope's garrisons were driven out. Richelieu's early decision to support a Protestant canton against the pope was a foretaste of the purely diplomatic power politics he espoused in his foreign policy.

To further consolidate power in France, Richelieu sought to suppress the influence of the feudal nobility. In 1626, he abolished the position of Constable of France and ordered all fortified castles razed, with the exception only of those needed to defend against invaders. Thus he stripped the princes, dukes, and lesser aristocrats of important defences that could have been used against the king's armies during rebellions. As a result, Richelieu was hated by most of the nobility.

Another obstacle to the centralization of power was religious division in France. The Huguenots, one of the largest political and religious factions in the country, controlled a significant military force, and were in rebellion. Moreover, Charles I, the king of England, declared war on France in an attempt to aid the Huguenot faction. In 1627, Richelieu ordered the army to besiege the Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle; the cardinal personally commanded the besieging troops. English troops under the Duke of Buckingham led an expedition to help the citizens of La Rochelle, but failed abysmally. The city, however, remained firm for over a year before capitulating in 1628.

Although the Huguenots suffered a major defeat at La Rochelle, they continued to fight, led by Henri, duc de Rohan. Protestant forces, however, were defeated in 1629; Rohan submitted to the terms of the Peace of Alais. As a result, religious toleration for Protestants, which had first been granted by the Edict of Nantes in 1598, was permitted to continue, but the cardinal abolished their political rights and protections. Rohan was not executed (as were leaders of rebellions later in Richelieu's tenure); in fact, he later became a commanding officer in the French army.

Habsburg Spain exploited the French conflict with the Huguenots to extend its influence in northern Italy. It funded the Huguenot rebels to keep the French army occupied, meanwhile expanding its Italian dominions. Richelieu, however, responded aggressively; after La Rochelle capitulated, he personally led the French army to northern Italy to restrain Spain. On 26 November 1629, he was created duc de Richelieu and a Peer of France.
In the next year, Richelieu's position was seriously threatened by his former patron, Marie de Médicis. Marie believed that the cardinal had robbed her of her political influence; thus, she demanded that her son dismiss the chief minister. Louis XIII was not, at first, averse to such a course of action, as he personally disliked Richelieu. Despite this, the persuasive statesman was able to secure the king as an ally against his own mother. On 11 November 1630, Marie de Médicis and the king's brother, Gaston, duc d'Orléans, secured the king's agreement for the dismissal. Richelieu, however, was aware of the plan, and quickly convinced the king to repent. This day, known as the Day of the Dupes, was the only one on which Louis XIII took a step toward dismissing his minister. Thereafter, the king was unwavering in his political support for him.

Meanwhile, Marie de Médicis was exiled to Compiègne. Both Marie and the duc d'Orléans continued to conspire against Richelieu, but their schemes came to nothing. The nobility also remained powerless. The only important rising was that of Henri, duc de Montmorency in 1632; Richelieu, ruthless in suppressing opposition, ordered the duke's execution. In 1634, the cardinal had one of his outspoken critics, Urbain Grandier, burned at the stake in the Loudun affair. These and other harsh measures were orchestrated by Richelieu to intimidate his enemies. He also ensured his political security by establishing a large network of spies in France and in other European countries.

Thirty Years' War

Before Richelieu's ascent to power, most of Europe had become enmeshed in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). France was not openly at war with the Habsburgs, who ruled Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, so subsidies and aid were provided secretly to their adversaries. Richelieu however, believed that war against Spain would be unavoidable. He considered the Dutch Republic as one of France's most important allies, for it bordered directly with the Spanish Netherlands and was right in the middle of the Eighty Years' War with Spain at that time. Luckily for him, Richelieu was a bon français, just like the king, who had already decided to subsidize the Dutch to fight against the Spanish via the Treaty of Compiègne in June 1624, prior to Richelieu's appointment to First Minister in August. That same year, a military expedition, secretly financed by France and commanded by Marquis de Coeuvres, started an action with the intention of liberating the Valtelline from Spanish occupation. In 1625, Richelieu also sent money to Ernst von Mansfeld, a famous mercenary general operating in Germany in English service. However, in May 1626, when war costs had almost ruined France, king and cardinal made peace with Spain via the Treaty of Monçon. This peace quickly ended after tensions due to the War of the Mantuan Succession.

In 1629, Emperor Ferdinand II subjugated many of his Protestant opponents in Germany. Richelieu, alarmed by Ferdinand's growing influence, incited Sweden to intervene, providing money. In the meantime, France and Spain remained hostile due to Spain's ambitions in northern Italy. At that time northern Italy was a major strategic region in Europe's balance of power, serving as a link between the Habsburgs in the Empire and in Spain. Had the imperial armies dominated this region, France would have been threatened by Habsburg encirclement. Spain was meanwhile seeking papal approval for a universal monarchy. When in 1630 French diplomats in Regensburg agreed to make peace with Spain, Richelieu refused to support them. The agreement would have prohibited French interference in Germany. Therefore, Richelieu advised Louis XIII to refuse to ratify the treaty. In 1631, he allied France to Sweden, which had just invaded the empire, in the Treaty of Bärwalde.

Military expenses placed a considerable strain on royal revenues. In response, Richelieu raised the gabelle (salt tax) and the taille (land tax). The taille was enforced to provide funds to raise armies and wage war. The clergy, nobility, and high bourgeoisie either were exempt or could easily avoid payment, so the burden fell on the poorest segment of the nation. To collect taxes more efficiently, and to keep corruption to a minimum, Richelieu bypassed local tax officials, replacing them with intendants (officials in the direct service of the Crown). Richelieu's financial scheme, however, caused unrest among the peasants; there were several uprisings in 1636 to 1639. Richelieu crushed the revolts violently, and dealt with the rebels harshly.

Because he openly aligned France with Protestant powers, Richelieu was denounced by many as a traitor to the Roman Catholic Church. Military action, at first, was disastrous for the French, with many victories going to Spain and the Empire. Neither side, however, could obtain a decisive advantage, and the conflict lingered on after Richelieu's death. Richelieu was instrumental in redirecting the Thirty Years' War from the conflict of Protestantism versus Catholicism to that of nationalism versus Habsburg hegemony.  In this conflict France effectively drained the already overstretched resources of the Habsburg empire and drove it inexorably towards bankruptcy. The defeat of Habsburg forces at the Battle of Lens in 1648, coupled with their failure to prevent a French invasion of Catalonia, effectively spelled the end for Habsburg domination of the continent, and for the personal career of Spanish prime minister Olivares. Indeed, in the subsequent years it would be France, under the leadership of Louis XIV, who would attempt to fill the vacuum left by the Habsburgs in the Spanish Netherlands and supplant Spain as the dominant European power.

New World
When Richelieu came to power, New France, where the French had a foothold since Jacques Cartier, had no more than 100 permanent European inhabitants. Richelieu encouraged Louis XIII to colonize the Americas by the foundation of the Compagnie de la Nouvelle France in imitation of the Dutch West India Company. Unlike the other colonial powers, France encouraged a peaceful coexistence in New France between natives and colonists and sought the integration of Indians into colonial society. Samuel de Champlain, governor of New France at the time of Richelieu, saw intermarriage between French and Indians as a solution to increase population in its colony. Under the guidance of Richelieu, Louis XIII issued the Ordonnance of 1627 by which the Indians, converted to Catholicism, were considered as "natural Frenchmen":

The 1666 census of New France, conducted some 20 years after the death of Cardinal Richelieu, showed a population of 3,215 habitants in New France, many more than there had been only a few decades earlier, but also a great difference in the number of men (2,034) and women (1,181).

Final years

Toward the end of his life, Richelieu alienated many people, including Pope Urban VIII. Richelieu was displeased by the pope's refusal to name him the papal legate in France; in turn, the pope did not approve of the administration of the French church, or of French foreign policy. However, the conflict was largely resolved when the pope granted a cardinalate to Jules Mazarin, one of Richelieu's main political allies, in 1641. Despite troubled relations with the Roman Catholic Church, Richelieu did not support the complete repudiation of papal authority in France, as was advocated by the Gallicanists.

As he neared death, Richelieu faced a plot that threatened to remove him from power. The cardinal had introduced a young man named Henri Coiffier de Ruzé, marquis de Cinq-Mars to Louis XIII's court. The cardinal had been a friend of Cinq-Mars's father. More importantly, Richelieu hoped that Cinq-Mars would become Louis's favourite, so that he could indirectly exercise greater influence over the monarch's decisions. Cinq-Mars had become the royal favourite by 1639, but, contrary to Cardinal Richelieu's belief, he was not easy to control. The young marquis realized that Richelieu would not permit him to gain political power. In 1641, he participated in the comte de Soissons's failed conspiracy against Richelieu, but was not discovered. Then, the following year, he schemed with leading nobles (including the king's brother, the duc d'Orléans) to raise a rebellion; he also signed a secret agreement with the king of Spain, who promised to aid the rebels. Richelieu's spy service, however, discovered the plot, and the cardinal received a copy of the treaty. Cinq-Mars was promptly arrested and executed; although Louis approved the use of capital punishment, he grew more distant from Richelieu as a result.

However, Richelieu was now dying. For many years he had suffered from recurrent fevers (possibly malaria), strangury, intestinal tuberculosis with fistula, and migraine. Now his right arm was suppurating with tubercular osteitis, and he coughed blood (after his death, his lungs were found to have extensive cavities and caseous necrosis). His doctors continued to bleed him frequently, further weakening him. As he felt his death approaching, he named Mazarin, one of his most faithful followers, to succeed him as chief minister to the king.

Richelieu died on 4 December 1642, aged 57. His body was embalmed and interred at the church of the Sorbonne. By that time, the populace detested him. In many provinces of the kingdom, bonfires were kindled to celebrate his death. During the French Revolution, the corpse was removed from its tomb, and the mummified front of his head, having been removed and replaced during the original embalming process, was stolen. It ended up in the possession of Nicholas Armez of Brittany by 1796, and he occasionally exhibited the well-preserved face. His nephew, Louis-Philippe Armez, inherited it and also occasionally exhibited it and lent it out for study. In 1866, Napoleon III persuaded Armez to return the face to the government for re-interment with the rest of Richelieu's body. An investigation of subsidence of the church floor enabled the head to be photographed in 1895.

Arts and culture
Richelieu was a famous patron of the arts. An author of various religious and political works (most notably his Political Testament), he sent his agents abroad in search of books and manuscripts for his unrivaled library, which he specified in his will – leaving it to Armand Jean de Vignerot du Plessis, his great-nephew, fully funded – should serve not merely his family but to be open at fixed hours to scholars. The manuscripts alone numbered some 900, bound as codices in red Morocco with the cardinal's arms. The library was transferred to the Sorbonne in 1660. He funded the literary careers of many writers. He was a lover of the theatre, which was not considered a respectable art form during that era; a private theatre, the Grande Salle, was a feature of his Paris residence, the Palais-Cardinal. Among the individuals he patronized was the famous playwright Pierre Corneille. Richelieu was also the founder and patron of the , the pre-eminent French literary society. The institution had previously been in informal existence; in 1635, however, Cardinal Richelieu obtained official letters patent for the body. The  includes 40 members, promotes French literature, and remains the official authority on the French language. Richelieu served as the Académie's protector. Since 1672, that role has been fulfilled by the French head of state.

In 1622, Richelieu was elected the proviseur or principal of the Sorbonne. He presided over the renovation of the college's buildings and over the construction of its famous chapel, where he is now entombed. As he was Bishop of Luçon, his statue stands outside the Luçon cathedral.

Richelieu oversaw the construction of his own palace in Paris, the Palais-Cardinal. The palace, renamed the Palais-Royal after Richelieu's death, now houses the French Constitutional Council, the Ministry of Culture, and the Conseil d'État. The Galerie de l'avant-cour had ceiling paintings by Philippe de Champaigne, the cardinal's chief portraitist, celebrating the major events of the cardinal's career; the Galerie des hommes illustres had twenty-six historicizing portraits of great men, larger than life, from Abbot Suger to Louis XIII; some were by Simon Vouet, others were careful copies by Philippe de Champaigne from known portraits; with them were busts of Roman emperors. Another series of portraits of authors complemented the library. The architect of the Palais-Cardinal, Jacques Lemercier, also received a commission to build a château and a surrounding town in Indre-et-Loire; the project culminated in the construction of the Château Richelieu and the town of Richelieu. To the château, he added one of the largest art collections in Europe and the largest collection of ancient Roman sculpture in France. The heavily resurfaced and restored Richelieu Bacchus continued to be admired by neoclassical artists. Among his 300 paintings by moderns, most notably, he owned Leonardo's Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, The Family of the Virgin by Andrea del Sarto, the two famous Bacchanales of Nicolas Poussin, as well as paintings by Veronese and Titian, and Diana at the Bath by Rubens, for which he was so glad to pay the artist's heirs 3,000 écus, that he made a gift to Rubens' widow of a diamond-encrusted watch. His marble portrait bust by Bernini was not considered a good likeness and was banished to a passageway.

The fittings of his chapel in the Palais-Cardinal, for which Simon Vouet executed the paintings, were of solid gold – crucifix, chalice, paten, ciborium, candlesticks – set with 180 rubies and 9,000 diamonds. His taste also ran to massive silver, small bronzes and works of vertu, enamels and rock crystal mounted in gold, Chinese porcelains, tapestries and Persian carpets, cabinets from Italy, and Antwerp and the heart-shaped diamond bought from Alphonse Lopez that he willed to the king. When the Palais-Cardinal was complete, he donated it to the Crown, in 1636. With the queen in residence, the paintings of the Grand Cabinet were transferred to Fontainebleau and replaced by copies, and the interiors were subjected to much rearrangement.

Michelangelo's two Slaves were among the rich appointments of the château Richelieu, where there were the Nativity triptych by Dürer, and paintings by Mantegna, Lorenzo Costa and Perugino, lifted from the Gonzaga collection at Mantua by French military forces in 1630, as well as numerous antiquities.

Legacy

Richelieu's tenure was a crucial period of reform for France. Earlier, the nation's political structure was largely feudal, with powerful nobles and a wide variety of laws in different regions. Parts of the nobility periodically conspired against the king, raised private armies, and allied themselves with foreign powers. This system gave way to centralized power under Richelieu. Local and even religious interests were subordinated to those of the whole nation, and of the embodiment of the nation – the king. Equally critical for France was Richelieu's foreign policy, which helped restrain Habsburg influence in Europe. Richelieu did not survive to the end of the Thirty Years' War. However, the conflict ended in 1648, with France emerging in a far better position than any other power, and the Holy Roman Empire entering a period of decline.

Richelieu's successes were extremely important to Louis XIII's successor, King Louis XIV. He continued Richelieu's work of creating an absolute monarchy; in the same vein as the cardinal, he enacted policies that further suppressed the once-mighty aristocracy, and utterly destroyed all remnants of Huguenot political power with the Edict of Fontainebleau. Moreover, Louis took advantage of his nation's success during the Thirty Years' War to establish French hegemony in continental Europe. Thus, Richelieu's policies were the requisite prelude to Louis XIV becoming the most powerful monarch, and France the most powerful nation, in all of Europe during the late seventeenth century.

Richelieu is also notable for the authoritarian measures he employed to maintain power. He censored the press, established a large network of internal spies, forbade the discussion of political matters in public assemblies such as the Parlement de Paris (a court of justice), and had those who dared to conspire against him prosecuted and executed. The Canadian historian and philosopher John Ralston Saul has referred to Richelieu as the "father of the modern nation-state, modern centralised power [and] the modern secret service."

Richelieu's motives are the focus of much debate among historians: some see him as a patriotic supporter of the monarchy, while others view him as a power-hungry cynic. The latter image gained further currency due to Alexandre Dumas' The Three Musketeers, which depicts Richelieu as a self-serving and ruthless de facto ruler of France.

Despite such arguments, Richelieu remains an honoured personality in France. He has given his name to a battleship and a battleship class.

His legacy is also important for the world at large; his ideas of a strong nation-state and aggressive foreign policy helped create the modern system of international politics. The notions of national sovereignty and international law can be traced, at least in part, to Richelieu's policies and theories, especially as enunciated in the Treaty of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years' War.

His pioneering approach to French diplomatic relations using raison d'etat vis-a-vis the power relationship at play were first frowned upon but later emulated by other European nation-states to add to their diplomatic strategic arsenal.

A less renowned aspect of his legacy is his involvement with Samuel de Champlain and the fledgling colony along the St. Lawrence River. The retention and promotion of Canada under Richelieu allowed it – and through the settlement's strategic location, the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes gateway into the North American interior – to develop into a French empire in North America, parts of which eventually became modern Canada and Louisiana.

As a statesman and churchman, Richelieu played an important role in shaping France's prominence in the 17th century and influencing the secularization of international policies during the Thirty Years' War.

Portrayals in fiction

As of April 2013, the Internet Movie Database listed 94 films and television programs in which Cardinal Richelieu is a character. Richelieu is one of the clergymen more frequently portrayed in film, notably in the many versions of Alexandre Dumas's The Three Musketeers. He is usually portrayed as a sinister character, but the 1950 Cyrano de Bergerac shows Richelieu (played by Edgar Barrier in a scene not from Rostand's original verse drama) as compassionate to Cyrano's financial plight, and playfully having enjoyed the duel at the theatre. Actors who have portrayed Cardinal Richelieu on film and television include Nigel De Brulier, George Arliss, Miles Mander, Vincent Price, Charlton Heston, Aleksandr Trofimov, Tcheky Karyo, Stephen Rea, Tim Curry, Christoph Waltz and Peter Capaldi.

Richelieu is indirectly mentioned in a famous line of Alessandro Manzoni's novel The Betrothed (1827–1840), set in 1628, as a Lombard peasant expresses his own conspiracy theories about the bread riots happening in Milan.

The 1839 play Richelieu; Or the Conspiracy by Edward Bulwer-Lytton portrayed Richelieu uttering the now famous line "The pen is mightier than the sword." The play was adapted into the 1935 film Cardinal Richelieu.

The Monty Python's Flying Circus episode "How to Recognise Different Types of Trees from Quite a Long Way Away", first released in 1969, features the sketch "Court Scene with Cardinal Richelieu", in which Richelieu (played by Michael Palin) is seen to be doing wildly absurd acts.

In the 1632/Ring of Fire series by Eric Flint, he is one of the primary antagonists to the nascent United States of Europe.

Richelieu and Louis XIII are depicted in Ken Russell's 1971 film The Devils.

Richelieu is a minor and eventually a major character in the Fortune de France novel series by Robert Merle.

Literary works
 Political Testament
 The principal points of the faith of the Catholic Church defended (1635)

Honours

Many sites and landmarks were named to honor Cardinal Richelieu. They include:

 Richelieu, Indre et Loire, a town founded by the cardinal
 Avenue Richelieu, located in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada
 The provincial electoral district of Richelieu, Quebec
 Richelieu River, in Montérégie, Quebec
 Richelieu Squadron, a squadron of Officer Cadets from the Royal Military College Saint-Jean.
 A wing of the Louvre Museum, Paris, France
 Rue de Richelieu, a Parisian street named in the cardinal's honor, and places located in this street, as the Paris Métro station Richelieu-Drouot, or the historical site of the Bibliothèque nationale de France
 French ship Richelieu, four warships of the French Navy

There is also an ornate style of lace, Richelieu lace, named in honor of the cardinal.

See also

 Nicolas Fouquet

Notes

References

Bibliography

 Alexander, Edward Porter. Museums in Motion: an introduction to the history and functions of museums. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. (1996)
 Auchincloss, Louis. Richelieu. Viking Press. (1972)
 Bergin, Joseph. The Rise of Richelieu. Manchester: Manchester University Press. (1997)
 Blanchard, Jean-Vincent. Eminence: Cardinal Richelieu and the Rise of France (Walker & Company; 2011) 309 pages; a biography
 Bonnaffé, Edmond. Recherches sur les collections des Richelieu. Plon. (1883) (French)
 Cabanès, Augustin. "Le Médecin de Richelieu – La Maladie du Cardinal" and "L'Odyssée d'un Crane – La Tête du Cardinal", [https://archive.org/details/lecabinetsecretd04cabauoft Le Cabinet Secret de l'Histoire, 4e serie]. Paris: Dorbon Ainé. (1905) (French)
 Collins, James B. The State in Early Modern France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1995)
 Dyer, Thomas Henry. The history of modern Europe from the fall of Constantinople: in 1453, to the war in the Crimea, in 1857. J. Murray. (1861)
 Elliott, J. H. Richelieu and Olivares. Cambridge: Canto Press. (1991)
 Fontaine de Resbecq, Eugène de. Les Tombeaux des Richelieu à la Sorbonne, par un membre de la Société d'archéologie de Seine-et-Marne. Paris: Ernest Thorin. (1867) (French)
 Lodge, Sir Richard, and Ketcham, Henry. The life of Cardinal Richelieu . A.L. Burt. (1903)
 Munck, Thomas. Seventeenth Century Europe, 1598–1700. London: Macmillan. (1990)
 Pardoe, Julia. The Life of Marie , volume 3. Colburn (1852); BiblioBazaar reprint (2006)
 Parker, Geoffrey. Europe in Crisis, 1598–1648. London: Fontana. (1984)
 Perkins, James Breck. Richelieu and the Growth of French Power. Ayer Publishing. (1971)
 Phillips, Henry. Church and Culture in Seventeenth Century France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1997)
 Pitte, Jean-Robert. La Sorbonne au service des humanités: 750 ans de création et de transmission du savoir, 1257–2007. Paris: Presses Paris Sorbonne. (2007) (French)
 Treasure, Geoffrey. Richelieu and Mazarin. London: Routledge. (1998)
 Trevor-Roper, Hugh Redwald. Europe's physician: the various life of Sir Theodore de Mayerne. Yale: Yale University Press. (2006)
 Wedgwood, C. V. The Thirty Years' War. London: Methuen. (1981)
 Zagorin, Perez. Rebels and Rulers, 1500–1660. Volume II: Provincial rebellion: Revolutionary civil wars, 1560–1660. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1992)

Further reading

Rehman, Iskander. 2019. "Raison d'Etat: Richelieu's Grand Strategy During the Thirty Years' War." Texas National Security Review.

External links

Damayanov, Orlin. (1996). "The Political Career and Personal Qualities of Richelieu."
Goyau, Georges. (1912). "Armand-Jean du Plessis, Duke de Richelieu." The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIII. New York: Robert Appleton Company
Schiller, Friedrich von. (1793). The History of the Thirty Years' War. Translated by A. J. W. Morrison.

|-

17th-century French cardinals
French Foreign Ministers
Prime Ministers of France
1585 births
1642 deaths
Alexandre Dumas characters
Bishops of Luçon
Counter-Reformation
Cistercian abbots general
Armand
Peers created by Louis XIII
French art collectors
French people of the Thirty Years' War
Court of Louis XIII
Politicians from Paris
University of Paris alumni
17th-century deaths from tuberculosis
17th-century French politicians
Tuberculosis deaths in France
17th-century French diplomats

Cardinal Richelieu


James Rider (March 5, 1797 Springfield, Queens County, New York – April 30, 1876 Jamaica, Queens Co., NY) was an American politician from New York.

Life
He was the son of John Rider (ca. 1766–1846) and Antje (Van Nostrand) Rider (b. 1765). On November 17, 1818, he married Margaret Rhodes.

He was Treasurer of the Merrick and Jamaica Plank Road Company from 1852 to 1854.

He was a member of the New York State Assembly (Queens Co.) in 1855.

He was a Republican member of the New York State Senate (1st D.) in 1856 and 1857.

He was buried at the Prospect Cemetery in Jamaica, Queens.

Sources
The New York Civil List compiled by Franklin Benjamin Hough (pages 137, 144, 249 and 299; Weed, Parsons and Co., 1858)
OBITUARY; JAMES RIDER in NYT on May 1, 1876
"James Ryder" at Long Island Surnames
Merrick and Jamaica Plank Road Collection at Stony Brook University

External links

1797 births
1876 deaths
Republican Party members of the New York State Assembly
Republican Party New York (state) state senators
People from Jamaica, Queens
19th-century American politicians

James Rider


Sydney Cove (Eora: ) is a bay on the southern shore of Sydney Harbour, one of several harbours in Port Jackson, on the coast of Sydney, New South Wales. Sydney Cove is a focal point for community celebrations, due to its central Sydney location between the Sydney Opera House and the Sydney Harbour Bridge.

Sydney Cove was the site of the First Fleet's landing on 26 January 1788 and the subsequent raising of the Union Jack, a seminal date in Australian history now marked as Australia Day.

History

The Eora name for Sydney Cove was recorded by several early settlers of the First Fleet variously spelt as Warrane, War-ran, Warrang and Wee-rong. The spot is of great significance, as the first meeting place between Eora people and Europeans. Before colonisation of the area, Eora men speared fish from the shoreline, and women line-fished from their  (canoes).

Sydney Cove was named after the British Home Secretary, the 1st Baron Sydney (who was later created 1st Viscount Sydney in 1789). It was the site chosen by Captain Arthur Phillip, RN between 21 and 23 January 1788 for the British penal settlement which is now the city of Sydney, and where possession of New South Wales was formally declared on 26 January (now commemorated as Australia Day). Today, the exact site where the flag was planted is unmarked, being a spot near the bottom of Bethel Steps, The Rocks (behind the south end of the present Overseas Passenger Terminal)  This site on the west side of the Cove is confirmed by a 1789 letter by John Campbell.

Phillip had been instructed to establish the settlement at Botany Bay, a large bay further south of Sydney Cove which had been discovered by Lieutenant James Cook during his voyage of discovery in 1770, and was recommended by the eminent botanist Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied Cook, as a suitable site for a settlement. But Phillip discovered that Botany Bay offered neither a secure anchorage nor a reliable source of fresh water. Sydney Cove offered both of these, being serviced by a freshwater creek which was soon to be known as the Tank Stream.

Sydney Cove Medallion
A sample of the dark grey clay of Sydney Cove was collected by Governor Phillip and given to Sir Joseph Banks, who gave it to pottery maker Josiah Wedgwood to test for suitability for making pottery. Wedgwood found it excellent and made a commemorative medal that became known as the Sydney Cove Medallion.

Today
The cove is dual-named as Warrane, the name by which it was known by the Eora people.

The Tank Stream is encased in a concrete drain beneath the streets of the central business district and all native bushland has been cleared. The head of the cove is occupied by the Circular Quay ferry terminal. On Bennelong Point at the northern end of the eastern shore of the cove stands the Sydney Opera House. On the western shore is the historic district known as The Rocks.

Sydney Cove is a focal point for community celebrations, due to its central Sydney location between the Sydney Opera House and the Sydney Harbour Bridge. It is also one of the main congregation points for Sydney New Year's Eve and Australia Day events.

See also
 Culture of Sydney
 Sydney punchbowls

References

Further reading
 D. Manning Richards. Destiny in Sydney: An epic novel of convicts, Aborigines, and Chinese embroiled in the birth of Sydney, Australia. First book in Sydney series. Washington DC: Aries Books, 2012.

External links

 Geographic coordinates:

Australian penal colonies
Defunct prisons in Sydney
Sydney Harbour
History of immigration to Australia
Tourist attractions in Sydney

Sydney Cove


Ian Hill Nish CBE (born 3 June 1926) is a British academic, a specialist in Japanese studies, and  Emeritus Professor of International History at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE).
He is an expert on the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and Japanese foreign policy.

Early life
Nish was born in Edinburgh in 1926.

World War II gave opportunity to many young non-Japanese to become specialists in Japanese studies; and Ian Nish was one of them..

He studied at the School of Japanese Studies in Simla and Karachi in British India.

He earned a master's degree (M.A.) at the University of Edinburgh.  He was awarded a doctorate degree (Ph.D.) at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London.

Career
Nish taught in the history department of the University of Sydney from 1957 to 1962.

From 1962 through 1991, Nish taught at the London School of Economics in London.  He retired in 1991.

Selected works
In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Ian Nish, OCLC/WorldCat includes roughly 200+ works in 300+ publications in 4 languages and 7,000+ library holdings.
 Britain & Japan: Biographical Portraits (1994), with James Hoare
 The History of Anglo-Japanese Relations: The Political-diplomatic Dimension (2000)
 The Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5] (2003)

Honours
Nish argues that "a foreign scholar of Japan is often only a middleman attempting to distill the ideas of Japanese scholars".
 Japan Academy (Honorary member), 2007.
 Commander of the British Empire.
 Order of the Rising Sun, 1991.
 Japan Foundation: Japan Foundation Award, 1991.

References

Other websites
 Nish, Ian Hill at Virtual International Authority File (VIAF)

Scottish historians
British Japanologists
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
1926 births
University of Sydney faculty
Academics of the University of London
2022 deaths
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Writers from Edinburgh
University of Sydney alumni

Ian Nish


Zbarazh Castle (; ) is a fortified defense stronghold in Zbarazh, built during the times of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It dominates the crests of the Zamkova Hills of Ternopil Oblast in Western Ukraine next to the city's central plaza that was not in so distant past surrounded by marshland. The castle existence has been credited to last members of the Polish Zbaraski family; Krzysztof and Jerzy Zbaraski.

Evidence of the City of Zbarazh formation can be seen in the Ruthenia fortress dating back to 1211 that was positioned somewhat away from current castle. Today this is a village of Zbarazky District located in the immediate proximity of Zbarazh itself and called . At that distant time the old castle and the province was ruled by Gediminids Landlords Zbarazky.

The castle is known for being the seat of the Ukrainian aristocratic Wiśniowiecki family and its prominent members, most notably Jeremi Wiśniowiecki.

Early Zbarazh Castle

The Zbarazky landlords erected a primeval wooden fortress in the town which nowadays is called Stary Zbaraż (Old Zbarazh), a quarter mile away from their own mansion. Soon after it was incinerated during a skirmish with the tatars. All the fortification's protectors, including Vasyl Nesvizky, the grandson of Theodore Kaributas, were killed on the burning battleground. Another castle was constructed in the same location using the same materials, and its end was enacted in the same deadly way. It was set on fire during a nomadic attack in the year of 1589 while Janusz Zbarski commanded the stronghold. Later in the beginning of the 17th century, his son decided to build a masonry structure in the new location receiving guidance from Western European architects.

The first blueprints were drafted by Vincenzo Scamozzi for Krzysztof Zbaraski, but the project did not gain approval: it would remain more a palace then a marshal bastion. Scamozzi had envision his creation at first and described it in the tractate named "The idea of universal architecture", which he later on partially embodied into stone in the city of Zbarazh. It appeared that this architect took "Utopia" of Thomas More too close to his heart. Therefore, the contender won a different project by Henryk van Peene, who was quite familiar with the landlords due to his previous work on Zbaraski's palace in Kraków.

New Zbarazh Castle

An escarped bulwark emerged from the mounds of dirt up to  high, and a terrace for the castle troopers was laid out of  wide. A rectangular courtyard inside had been plotted. Behind the walls arched chambers were constructed, that nowadays house specimens of arms and wooden sculptures of Pinzel's students. An entrenchment around bulwark was very wide, in some parts it is as much as . In the middle of the fortress, regarding rules of "palazzo in fortezza", was developed a palace in the architectural style of Renaissance with early Baroque elements.

First ruination of the new fortification was endeavored by cossacks in 1648. Polish sources reported their amount as much as 100,000 strong. But it would rather be an exaggeration. There was no business for such a ferocious army to siege a small castle. Nonetheless the landlords became determined increasing security of the military outpost. In the year of 1649 it was improved complying to a design of architect Dubois from Lorraine. During some period of time the stronghold was vacant, but later on its ownership was transferred to the Wiśniowiecki family. In 1675, it was overcome and burned by Turks, and soon afterwards followed a restoration by Dimitry Wiśniowiecki. That was exactly a moment when castle was turned into a palace, losing its strategic military designation. Nevertheless, it did not stop Russian soldiers plundering a building in the years of 1707 to 1734. Dmitry Wiśniowiecki having died in 1682, the architectural complex became a property of the Potocki family. These were Joseph and later on Stanislav, Mayor of Kyiv. Zbarazh remained under the control of the Potoki family until the middle of the 19th century.

The castle was taken by the Cossacks in 1649 and the Turks in 1675. The events of 1649 are dramatized by Henryk Sienkiewicz in his novel With Fire and Sword. Ivan Bohun was heavily wounded under the castle's walls. Ivan Mazepa and Peter I are known to have visited it in 1707.

Today's outlook

Ukrainian Independence having been announced, the castle was included into a registry of national historical architectural heritage in the year of 1994. The complex has a rectangular footprint, and surrounded on all sides by some marshland. This fortification demonstrated most advanced achievements of European marshal fortpost defense craft that included an escarped bulwarks, four bastions, and a moat encircling the building perimeter. Earlier, in the place of the palace, rectangular void was taken completely by the castles yard. The palace itself has two stories, being masonry built, with distinctive simplistic features of Renaissance era. The main entry way is emphasized by a balcony with a stone console. The outer corners of the palace are decorated with a field stone. Facades were risen in the Renaissance style as well. Gatehouse was aligned straightforward with the castle main entry. Pentagon bastions have been preserved partially. In everyone of them there are a tunnels connecting the castle yard and chambers.

An exposition

Exposition  halls of the castle has been housing significant collection of arts and artifacts informing tourist and visitors of Zbarazh District history.

In 1980 the church, being itself an architectural heritage of the year 1755, accommodated District Museum of Natural History. It was founded as public entity by the Chief District Representative Department of Education Voityna Peter Denysovich. In the April 1982, it was transformed into government establishment and was serving to the needs of Ternopil Oblast's Museum of Natural History. First executive officer became Voityna Peter. In the year of 1989 Zbarazh District Museum of Natural History was headed by Matsipoora Annatoly Viktorovych. Due to a transferring the churches from the state control to respectful parishes supervision, the museum was moved into a gym that at that moment was situated in the castle

The art collection foundation at a time accumulated 4,277 items of primary fund and 1,401 items of auxiliary documents and artifacts. Major contributors to the cause were organization employees as Voityna P., Malevych A., Pohaudiy I., Matsipoora A., Mackarchuk N. The fund was enriched by materials of archeological excavations, ancient arms, paintings and sculpture artwork, numismatic collection, retro-clocks and furniture, old prints, pieces of worship, rugs and embroidery, items of everyday needs. In 1994, taking into account significant historical, architectural and creative importance of the castle legal act #78 on February 8, 1994, ruled inception of State Historic Cultural Preservation in the District of Zbarazh. For eight years of existence the fund became a part of architectural complex and filled in expositions in the halls of the museum. By a resolution of the Zbarazh board meeting on December 25, 2002, all the infrastructure and museum holding were given in service to the State Historic Architectural Preservation in the District of Zbarazh.

Using materials of art collection foundation were compiled primary expositions in the Zbarazh castle palace. These are archeological and ethnographic exhibits, as well as hall of sacred arts. State Historic Architectural Preservation expanded and enriched the museum tradition and complemented achievements of District Museum of Natural History. Every year exhibition was being enriched with items from state historic preservation fund, constant improving introductory tours is practiced, and control of excursions quality is being enacted as well. In accordance with the decree issued by the President on January 15, 2005 #35/2005 state preservation received a status of "Zamky Ternopolya" National Preservation. Nowadays the 17th century Zbarazh Castle is a center of "Zamky Ternopolya" preservation and a notable landmark of the district and the whole region. Today's museum collection consists of 50,000 items of exposition. All of them unveil a history of Zbarazh countryside in various epochs and development periods.

Zbarazh Castle exposition consist of eight distinctive exhibitions. There is an overall list of them by the area of interest:
 Country archeological discoveries,
 Cucuteni-Trypillian culture,
 Ethnography,
 Arms,
 Wood carved sculptures of folk artist Volodymir Lipyichuk;
 Deity sculptures;
 Retro furniture,
 Numismatics and notaphily,
 Sacred arts;
 Australia, New Zealand and Oceania chamber of Ivan Prashka, native of Zbarazh;
 Galicia and Volyn embroidery;
 Folk dress code;
 Ceramics of renowned master of Ukrainian arts Taras Levkiv, native of Zbarazh country;
 Hall of Cossacks' Fame;
 A torture chamber cellars;
 Countryside crafts;
 Hall of current project exhibits;

Most ancient history of Zbarazh countryside presented in archeology. All the artifacts collected on this particular subject constituted a presentation of Paleolithic Era, Bronze and Iron Age, Chernyakhov Culture, epoch of early Slavs and Kyivan Rus'. Most notable artifacts are shown off originating in Trypillian Culture found near the village of Bodaky, Zbarazh District.

Area of interest exhibits

Archeological excavations of Cucuteni-Trypillian culture near the village of Bodaky executed by National Preservation together with Saint Petersburg Institute Material Culture Russian Academy of Science, Ukrainian scientists and archeologists. Results of the research have yielded enough material to assemble a traveling exposition of Zbarazh countryside for presentations abroad. To the date of writing this note, it visited Varna, Orléans and Tours, Granada.

The Battle of Zbarazh entered into annals of Ukrainian history as one of the most patriotic stages of Revolutionary War for Independence. In the 1649 Zbarazh became an arena of combat straggle between Polish military and Cossack squadrons spearheaded by Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Precisely for this reason in the castle palace was created a Hall of Cossack's Fame. You would find there many busts of renowned warriors. Besides those sculptures, there is a portrait picture-show of Cossacks' chieftains painted by Stanislav Kovalchuk Honored Artist of Ukraine .

Sacred Arts of Zbarazh countryside are represent three expositions. Castle palace three exposition halls house a collection of icons belonging to the period of 17th — first half of 20th century, that originate in Zbarazh District worship establishments. All the specimens of this assemblage were mindfully preserved by the employees. First category artist-instaurator of oil paintings Magynsky Vladimyr recovered most of them to the original state. Quite interesting is a property of parishes, that is situated in the halls of Sacred Arts securities. In particular, these are lithography and old prints, ritual and church service literature, ceremonial regalia of Christian worshiping.

Another feature deserving visitors' attention is an exposition of Ivan Prasko's personal belongings; archbishop Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church of Australia, Oceania and New Zealand; born in the City of Zbarazh, he was a minister during 1950–1994 period of time; died in 2001, but his individual items were returned to his homeland with father Michael Bedry's help and were saved in the castle repositories.

In the separate exposition hall has been shown off sacred arts sculptures created by both Pensel's students as well as talented artist Antony Osinsky in the middle of 18th century. Their work material was a wood; polychrome technique was taken advantage of, as well as metal leaf layering of gold and silver applied. At one point of time these sculptures decorated Saint Antony's temple, but now they have become a museum collection cynosure of the castle palace. The icons and sacred sculptures collection, that were chosen out of State Historic Preservation fund, notably represented Zbarazh Castle out on a show of "Saved Relics" at Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv transpired during April-May 2000.

Ethnography and a way of live in Zbarazh countryside represented by three palace show halls. A rare collection of Galych and Volyn embroidery have been situated there. Runners and tablecloths fabricated in different techniques on homemade and factory canvases using geometrical, floral, and zoological ornamentations. Alongside in the exhibition halls there are specimens of sacred art embroidery and gender specific folk dress code of Zbarazh District in history.

A story of most popular country craftsmanship and its evolution tells us an exhibition containing articles of everyday living at the last guarder of 19th – beginning of 20th century. These are things produced with homemade canvas, figure loom rugs, earthenware and carpenter goods, wickerwork of straw, osier, and bast. Prominent feature of Zbarazh Castle is Ukrainian Honored Artist Vladimir V. Lipyichuk's sculpture collection. It constitutes more than forty authorial artifacts crafted out of lime-tree. Some items are represented by a plot of particular genre. Others are combined into duplets or triplets by common name or quotation. Lipyichuk's art work is an attempt to embody characters from well known and cherished writing of Taras Shevchenko, Ivan Franko, Lesya Ukrainka. Fans of modern Ukrainian art also demonstrate acute interest to creations of Taras Levkiv, Honored Artist of Arts, native of the Village of Malla Beresovytsya of Zbarazh District.

Separate focus of attention require collection of arms that being housed in two castle exposition halls. It was assembled out of specimens from Stone Age era, Iron Age, epoch of early and late Middle Ages, as well as period of First World War.

A torture chamber

There is a historical chamber  of torture opened in Zbarazh Castle recently. In the dark and humid cellars of the fortress next to the dungeon walls now has been installed ancient devices that used to inflict suffering. All the hellish instrument have been manufactured using original blueprints. The charts were looked for in old archives. All the equipment is in working conditions.

The subject of instrument of torture is a very peculiar topic. They were engaged mostly in the period of Inquisition, that had been widely practiced on the territory of modern Spain, Italy, and Germany, and latter on with the spreading of Catholicism in Ukraine as well. There was a decision made to show off this equipment in the cellars of Zbarazh Castle. Between the items of exposition there is a chair of witch. There is only three hundreds years passed by since last time women sat in it for suspicion in practicing an enchantment craft. Chiefly these were most of the good looking females. The interest to this artifact is particular, but there was no one trying to sit in the seat itself though.

As of this moment in the chamber of torture there are up to ten devil's mechanisms, but the exposition has been promised to be enriched.

Gallery

See also
 Siege of Zbarazh

References

Castles in Ukraine
Castles in Ternopil Oblast
Tourist attractions in Ternopil Oblast
Museums in Ternopil Oblast
History museums in Ukraine
Art museums and galleries in Ukraine
Prison museums in Europe
Castle
Wiśniowiecki family residences

Zbarazh Castle


A button can have three meanings.

A button is a fastener that keeps your shirt or pants closed.
A button is something that sticks up from a flat surface, and when you push it, it makes something happen.
A button is a picture on a computer monitor that is pressed with a computer mouse to make the computer  do something.

Basic English 850 words

Button