5th Canadian Division Support Base (5 CDSB) Gagetown, formerly known as and commonly referred to as CFB Gagetown, is a large Canadian Forces Base covering an area over , located in southwestern New Brunswick.

Construction of the base

At the beginning of the Cold War, Canadian defence planners recognized the need for providing the Canadian Army with a suitable training facility where brigade and division-sized armoured, infantry, and artillery units could exercise in preparation for their role in defending western Europe under Canada's obligations to the North Atlantic Treaty. The facility would need to be located relatively close to an all-season Atlantic port and have suitable railway connections.
Existing training facilities dating from the First and Second World Wars in eastern Canada were relatively small (Camp Debert, Camp Aldershot, Sussex Military Camp, Camp Valcartier, Camp Petawawa, Camp Utopia), thus a new facility was considered. At the same time, regional economic development planners saw an opportunity for a military base to benefit the economy of southwestern New Brunswick.

The area under consideration was an expansive plateau west of the Saint John River between the cities of Saint John and Fredericton, measuring approximately  in length and  in width; more accurately it runs between Oromocto in the north to Welsford in the south, and between the Saint John River in the east and the south branch of the Oromocto River in the west.

Over 900 families inhabited the area primarily engaged in agriculture and forestry industries. The terrain was variable, providing mixed Acadian forest, swamp and marshland, as well as open farming areas similar to the North European Plain. The influence of the St. Croix Highlands, part of the Appalachian Mountain range, creates hilly terrain and valleys in the southern and western part of the region close to the Nerepis and Oromocto Rivers.

The expropriation of lands began in the early 1950s, much to the surprise of local residents who had been kept in the dark about the expropriation until the last minute. The base was surveyed so as to not affect some of the historic communities along the western bank of the Saint John River such as Arcadia, Hampstead, and Browns Flat; the expropriation began several kilometres west of the river and eliminated the communities of Petersville, Hibernia, New Jerusalem, North Clones and others. This remains the largest single land expropriation in the history of New Brunswick.

The base headquarters were chosen for the northern part of the base adjacent to the (then) small village of Oromocto. In preparation for the influx of service personnel, Oromocto was redesigned as a "planned" town, with buried electrical utilities and residential and commercial clustering typical of larger planned towns such as Richmond Hill, Ontario.

Construction of the base facilities in Oromocto benefited from convenient railway connections provided by Canadian National and Canadian Pacific Railways. A new alignment of the Trans-Canada Highway was built on the eastern bank of the Saint John River, opposite from Oromocto in the early 1960s (see Route 2) and a new highway bridge across the Saint John River connected the Trans-Canada Highway to the village of Burton, just south of Oromocto and near the east gate for the base.

The Gagetown Military Camp (or Camp Gagetown) opened in 1956 and was named after the village of Gagetown, although the base was located west of this historic village and was headquartered  to its north in Oromocto. The base's territory measured  and included numerous live-fire ranges for infantry, armoured, and artillery units, as well as aerial weapons ranges.

At the time of its opening in 1956, until the opening of Shoalwater Bay Military Training Area in Australia in 1965, Camp Gagetown was the largest military training facility in the Commonwealth of Nations. By comparison, CFB Suffield has  with  usable by the military, and  designated as the Suffield National Wildlife Area.

The training area has been heavily "landscaped" over the years by military foresters and many woodlines have been sculpted to form shapes recognizable from the air, including:
 Scotty Dog Woods
 Square Woods
 Flag Woods
 The "CTC" cutting
 The "Maple Leaf" cutting

Operations

Initially, Camp Gagetown was the home base for many army regiments, including The Black Watch and The Royal Canadian Regiment; however, defence cutbacks in the 1960s saw a gradual reduction, and the demise of their parent formation, 3 Brigade Group. On February 1, 1968, the Canadian Army, the Royal Canadian Air Force, and the Royal Canadian Navy were merged to form the unified Canadian Forces. Following this unification, Camp Gagetown was renamed Canadian Forces Base Gagetown (CFB Gagetown).

In the post-unification armed forces, CFB Gagetown functioned as the primary combat training centre for Force Mobile Command (renamed Land Force Command in the 1990s). In the early 1970s Combat Training Centre Gagetown (CTC Gagetown) was established as a unit at CFB Gagetown comprising armour, artillery, and infantry training schools. In the early 1970s 422 and 403 helicopter squadrons were relocated to CFB Gagetown. Their helipad is located at the end of Champlain Road. In the 1990s the Canadian Forces School of Military Engineering was relocated to CFB Gagetown from CFB Chilliwack. The base is still widely referred to as Camp Gagetown.

Increased defence spending in the 1980s saw numerous new training facilities built and ranges modernized, and this continued into the 1990s as the Canadian Forces closed smaller bases in response to further defence budget cuts. A large training building housing much of CTC was opened in late 1992. CFB Gagetown continues to function as the army's primary training facility, although due to risk of forest fires in recent years, live-fire training has been pushed primarily to the fall-winter-spring seasons.

Units and formations

Principal units and formations of the CFB Gagetown are:

 5th Canadian Division
 Combat Training Centre (Royal Canadian Armoured Corps School, Royal Canadian Artillery School, Canadian Forces School of Military Engineering, Infantry School and Tactics School)
 5th Canadian Division Support Group
 42 Health Services
 1 Dental Unit Detachment Gagetown and the Joint Personnel Support Unit
 2nd Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment
 4th Artillery Regiment (General Support), RCA
 4 Engineer Support Regiment
 403 Helicopter Operational Training Squadron
 C Squadron, The Royal Canadian Dragoons
 Joint Meteorological Centre
 Canadian Army Trials and Evaluation Unit
 5th Canadian Division Training Centre
 3 Military Police Regiment Detachment Gagetown
 Argonaut Army Cadet Summer Training Centre

Defoliant testing

Portions of the training area were subject to testing of defoliants during the 1960s. The use of Agent Orange and Agent Purple has led to an inquiry as to its long-term effects upon the soldiers and civilian base personnel who were exposed to it. The affected areas had soil tests that measured dioxin levels at 143 times the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment guidelines for maximum exposure.

St. Mary's Chapel
CFB Gagetown has a chapel that is administered by the Military Ordinariate of Canada. Services at the chapel are available for all military persons and the civilian personnel of the base. During the week, the chapel organizes Mass in French and English.

Economic facts
The base and its lodger units provide full-time employment to approximately 6,500 military members and 1,000 civilians.
The base contributes over  to the local economy annually.
The base contributes more than  to the provincial economy annually.

References

Further reading

 Parr, Joy (2010). Sensing Changes: Technologies, Environments, and the Everyday, 1953-2003, UBC Press.

External links

 5th Canadian Division Support Base Gagetown
 Places of Our Hearts, a Community Memories, Virtual Museum of Canada Exhibition
Military museum of the CFB Gagetown

Buildings and structures in Queens County, New Brunswick
Buildings and structures in Sunbury County, New Brunswick
Canadian Forces bases in New Brunswick
Heliports in Canada
Military airbases in New Brunswick
Royal Canadian Regiment
Defoliants

CFB Gagetown


Hanging miniature is an in-camera special effect similar to a matte shot where a model, rather than a painting, is placed in the foreground and the action takes place in the background.  It is thus a specific form of forced perspective.

Description
There are hundreds of instances where a hanging miniature has been used. This is a very old device and when produced correctly it is almost completely undetectable. The chariot race in the 1925 version of Ben-Hur is a good example. Only a very careful examination will reveal that above the wall surrounding the stadium and the first rows of bleachers, there hangs a miniature with moving 'puppet' people that can rise and fall with the human extras. Another cost saving effect was that of 'flopping' the negative so that only one side of the stadium miniature was built. The main reason for using a miniature in this way is that, unlike a painting, the light on the built set will always be the same as that on the miniature, making it possible to shoot in a variety of different 'lights' during the day.

See also
Shot (filmmaking)
Filmmaking

Special effects

Hanging miniature


Rosickyite is a rare native element mineral that is a polymorph of sulfur. It crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system and is a high temperature, high density polymorph. It occurs as soft, colorless to pale yellow crystals and efflorescences.

It was first described in 1930 for an occurrence in Havirna, near Letovice, Moravia, Czech Republic.  It was named for Vojtĕch Rosický (1880–1942), of Masaryk University, Brno.

Rosickyite occurs as in Death Valley within an evaporite layer produced by a microbial community. The otherwise unstable polymorph was produced and stabilized within a cyanobacteria dominated layer.

References

Native element minerals
Monoclinic minerals
Minerals in space group 13
Sulfur
Polymorphism (materials science)

Rosickýite


David Petersen (born 1944) is a Welsh sculptor, cultural commentator and television presenter based in St. Clears, Carmarthenshire. He is particularly known for his metal sculptures of dragons.

Petersen was born in Cardiff in 1944, the son of Jack Petersen (1911–1990), a boxer who held the British Heavyweight title on two occasions.

Petersen worked in the GKN steelworks in Cardiff before studying fine art at Newport College of Art (1961–1965). He is an elected member of the Royal Cambrian Academy, and has served as chairman of the British Artist Blacksmiths Association.

For several years Petersen led the Welsh delegation to the Festival Interceltique de Lorient in Brittany. He resigned from the festival committee in 2008 in protest at the content of the Welsh pavilion.

Petersen's sons Aaron, Toby and Gideon are sculptors who sometimes work collaboratively with their father.

Major works

Mametz Wood Memorial (1987)

The Mametz Wood memorial commemorates an action of the 38th (Welsh) Division of the British Army during the First Battle of the Somme in 1916. The memorial, located on the site of the action in northern France, is of a large red dragon holding barbed wire, mounted on a stone plinth.

Coal, Steel and Water (1989)
A steel sculpture mounted on polished granite located in the foyer of County Hall, Cardiff. Commissioned by Allied Steel and Wire as a gift to South Glamorgan County Council.

National Millennium Beacon (1999)
Together with his sons, Petersen won a competition to make the National Millennium Beacon for the millennium celebrations. The large stainless steel sculpture was erected on the porch of Cardiff City Hall.

Postage stamp (1999)
Petersen designed the definitive issue of the Welsh second class postage stamp, which features a leek carved from wood. Petersen's sons Toby and Gideon designed the first class stamp which features a dragon.

Howard Winstone (2001)
A bronze statue of the world champion boxer Howard Winstone (1939–2000), located in a shopping centre in Merthyr Tydfil.

Television
Petersen is also known as a television presenter on historical and cultural topics. His work includes Stop, Look, Listen: Tales from Wales (Channel 4, 2002) and When the Romans Came to Wales (Channel 4, 2003).

Political activity
Petersen was a Plaid Cymru candidate in the 1999 National Assembly election for the Brecon and Radnorshire constituency. He gained 2,356 votes, 8.1% of the overall vote.

External links

 republished in

References

1944 births
Living people
20th-century British sculptors
20th-century Welsh male artists
21st-century British sculptors
21st-century Welsh male artists
Artists from Cardiff
Welsh male sculptors

David Petersen (sculptor)


The National Association of Fleet Administrators, Inc. (NAFA) is a not-for-profit, individual membership professional society for professionals who manage fleets of automobiles, SUVs, trucks, vans, and a wide range of specialized mobile equipment for organizations in the United States and Canada.

History
NAFA was founded in 1957.  The association provides its members a range of services, including certification, statistical research, monthly and annual publications, regional chapter meetings, government representation, annual conferences and trade shows, and also educational seminars.

Scope
NAFA's members are responsible for the specification, acquisition, maintenance and disposal of more than 3.5 million vehicles — including 1.1 million trucks. Across the North American continent, NAFA members have more than 350,000 medium- and heavy-duty trucks in their fleets, totaling for more than $21 billion in assets for medium- and heavy-duty trucks alone.

Fleet Types
The more "traditional" fleet vehicles of passenger cars, vans, and SUVs managed by NAFA members total 1.4 million and account for $45 billion in assets, as well as a quarter million police sedans; 58,000-plus emergency vehicles; and 386,000 pieces of specialty equipment used by public service and commercial fleets.

External links

Organizations established in 1957
Professional associations based in the United States
Fleet management


Henry Vandyke Carter (born 22 May 1831, Hull – 4 May 1897, Scarborough) was an English anatomist, surgeon, and anatomical artist most notable for his illustrations of the book Gray's Anatomy.

Childhood
Henry Vandyke Carter was born on 22 May 1831 in Hull, England, the eldest son of the painter Henry Barlow Carter and mother Eliza Barlow. Soon after, his parents moved to Scarborough, where he grew up. Information on Carter's private life is known in large part due to the diary that his grandmother gave him at age 14 and that he kept for life. His family was also very religious (Protestant) and Carter kept the diary as a kind of spiritual notebook.

Early studies

He studied at Hull Grammar School but later abandoned his medical studies for economic reasons to pursue pharmacy-surgery. His parents expressed discomfort with the academic and social environment he was in so he transferred to London under the guidance of surgeon John Sawyer and took medical courses at St George's Hospital in London at age 17. Carter matriculated at the University of London in 1848  passed the Intermediate Examination in Medicine of the University of London in 1851, gaining honours in Anatomy and Physiology (one subject: 7th place) and in Chemistry (5th place). After the completion of his preclinical studies he took a trip to Paris (1852-1853) to further his studies and reflect on what his specialization would be. Upon returning to London, however, he realized that in spite of his talent, all seats had already been awarded with no recommendation, and his career could not take off.

Early career

In June 1853, Carter became a student in human and comparative anatomy at the Royal College of Surgeons. Carter sacrificed part of his small budget for an insert in the medical journal The Lancet in which he supported researchers in the medical field as an artist and illustrator. The same year he was commissioned for a large number of designs for the St. George's School of Medicine and worked for John Queckett, the first expert of microscopy, and Richard Owen, one of the best anatomists of the Victorian era. However, the working conditions and livelihood at the Royal College were difficult for Carter because of the meager salary conferred on him by Queckett and Owen, who later managed to renegotiate, and his housing situation which consisted of a small room located in the attic of the museum adjacent to the Royal College. In addition, he was too absorbed in his illustrating job. In November 1853, he failed the exam for the Bachelor of Medicine degree at the University of London, which he eventually completed with honours in Physiology & Comparative Anatomy (one subject: 3rd place) and in Surgery (4th place) in December the following year. Meanwhile, Carter grew into the idea of fully devoting himself to research and microscopy. Back in London, he was approached by his colleague and professor of anatomy, Henry Gray, with a proposal: a new fully illustrated anatomy textbook for students, which he himself created.

Collaborations with Gray and Gray's Anatomy

The first project
Carter began work for Henry Gray and others in 1852, and in 1856–1857 he drew the illustrations for the now famously illustrated Gray's Anatomy. The first meeting between the two authors of Gray's Anatomy occurred probably around 1850 while they were both working at St. George's School of Medicine. In the summer of 1850 (when the two began working together in an essay on the spleen, titled "On the structure and Use of the Spleen"), Carter described Gray in his journal as a snob. However, over time there emerged similarities between the two, especially with regard to the passion and seriousness with which both dedicated themselves to medicine, which helped to bring Carter and Gray together. Initial conflict occurred with respect to the payment that Carter received from Gray for his designs, being in need of money, and that he judged inadequate for his commitment.

Gray's proposal and Carter's decision

Around 1855, Gray presented Carter the opportunity to partner with him in the drafting of an anatomy textbook for university students, tentatively titled Gray's Anatomy. Carter had, in fact, many doubts regarding the project. First, the Bachelor in Medicine did not allow him to acquire the rank of Doctor, permit him to visit, prescribe medication and perform operations. If he did not receive his doctorate in medicine he would remain assistant pharmacist, and he would be in economic need. Second, Carter was affected by the behavior of Gray concerning illustrations he made for the essay "On the structure and Use of the Spleen." The career of Gray, who was now a member of the Royal Society, had been helped greatly by Carter's illustrations, who he had not even mentioned. All this made Carter very reticent on the proposal. Finally, Carter had almost completed the drawings requested by Gray on behalf of the School of Medicine, but had not yet been paid. In his diary, he expressed the stress which the already heavy workload for the doctorate and commissioned designs subjected him.

In December 1855, the dire need for money prevailed on doubts about the honesty of Gray who, knowing the conditions of his colleague, had promised a monthly salary of ten pounds, which would surely manage to cover expenses until completion of his doctorate. On 8 January 1856, Carter and Gray came to a verbal agreement. The partnership was working, they worked well together, continuing smoothly until Christmas 1857. In December, Carter finally obtained his doctorate in medicine as well as the nomination for the post of "curatorship of pathology," for which he harbored many reservations due to his already busy schedule and, after a long reflection, he refused.

First edition and controversy over the title

In January 1858, while he was finishing up the latest fixes on Gray's Anatomy, Carter passed an exam to provide medical services in India, where he stayed from the following 23 March.

The first version of Gray's Anatomy, published by Parker, presented Gray and Carter in equal-sized characters names, followed by a caption on a smaller scale with each's titles. Gray was strongly opposed, believing that it took advantage of the absence of his colleague to claim that the name of his illustrator was written in smaller letters with no titles that Carter had obtained. Publishers, however, considered his contributions significant, as seen in this caption in the introduction to the first edition:

"This work is illustrated by 363 woodcuts, from original drawings, chiefly from nature, by HV Carter..."
(Gray's Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical, introduction to the first edition by Parker Sr and Jr)

In the final cover, a compromise was reached: the removal of the Carter title, while retaining an acceptable character illustration credit. The first edition of Gray's Anatomy was published in London in 1858 and Philadelphia in 1859, which was followed by a second in 1860.

India and later life

Meanwhile, Carter wrote the Indian Medical Service examination and joined the service in January 1858 had moved to Bombay and was married to a woman named Harriet Bushell, only to discover that her real name was Amelia Adams, previously married and whose first marriage had been canceled because of her adultery. Carter could not legally obtain the annulment of the marriage as this would entail the loss of the legitimacy of his daughter, Eliza Lily, born in September 1860. However, he never saw his wife, and came out destroyed by an experience that became publicly known quickly throughout Bombay. Carter was employed to the Indian Medical Service in Bombay in 1858 for the rest of his career, where he took up the post of Professor of Anatomy at Grant Medical College, enjoying with satisfaction the good fortune of his book. He served in Satara from 1863 to 1872. Between 1872 and 1875 he took leave and returned to Europe and worked with visiting researchers of various European nationalities. Upon his return to India, he was sent to the peninsula of Junagadh and after a short residence he published a report on leprosy in the area. He was eventually awarded the titles of "Principal of Grant Medical College" and "First Physician at JJ Hospital" and was the secretary then president of the Bombay Medical Society, and went off to conduct medical research regarding the most common infectious diseases in poor sections of the Indian population, being the first researcher in the Indian subcontinent to confirm the presence of endemic diseases such as tuberculosis, (of which Robert Koch would only discover the pathogen, the "Koch bacillus", in 1892) and malaria. He worked on Spirillum or relapsing fever, for which he received a Stewart Prize in 1882.

After thirty years in India (1858-1888), Carter returned to England to settle down next to Lily's sister and family at Scarborough. In retirement, Carter was appointed "Honorary Deputy Surgeon-General and Honorary Surgeon to the Queen". He married Ellen Robinson in 1890, with whom he had two children before dying of tuberculosis on 4 May 1897, at the age of 65. He and his wife are buried together in the cemetery in Scarborough. A commemorative plaque in Belgrave Square honors his work as a physician and illustrator.

Published work
 Henry Gray: On the Structure and Use of the Spleen. J. W. Parker & Son, London 1854
 Henry Gray: Anatomy, descriptive and surgical. J. W. Parker & Son, London 1858
 An account of the calculi contained in the Grant Medical College Museum, with some general remarks on calculi in India. 1860.
 Report on the prevalence & characters of leprosy in the Bombay Presidency, India, based on the official returns of 1867. Education Society's Press, 1872
 The microscopic structure and mode of formation of urinary calculi. London: J. & A. Churchill, 1873.
 On mycetoma or the fungus disease of India. London: J. & A. Churchill, 1874.
 Report on leprosy and leper-asylums in Norway, with references to India. London: G.E. Eyre and W. Spottiswoode, 1874.
 On leprosy and elephantiasis. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1874.
 Postscript to a note on the histology of lepra leprosa. Transactions of the Pathological Society of London ss. 300-302 (1875)
 Modern Indian leprosy: being the report of a tour in Kattiawar, 1876, with addenda on Norwegian, Cretan and Syrian leprosy. Bombay: Times of India Steam Press, 1876.
 Tilbury Fox, T. Farquhar: On certain endemic skin and other diseases of India and hot climates generally
 Reports on leprosy, second series. London: 1876.
 Contributions to the experimental pathology of spirillum fever / by H. Vandyke Carter; communicated by James Andrew. London : J.E. Adlard, 1880
 Spirillum fever: synonyms famine or relapsing fever as seen in Western India. London: J. & A. Churchill, 1882.
 Memoir on leprosy by Brigade-Surgeon Henry Vandyke Carter, published for general information, in continuation of Government notification No. 4900, dated 7 December 1882: 'Memorandum on the prevention of leprosy by segregation of the affected. Govt. Central Press Bombay 1884
 The later history of spirillum fever at Bombay, 1882-83: memoir based upon cases read before the Medical and Physical Society. 1884.
 On a Peyerian ulcer-lesion of the small intestines, apparently new. Education Society's Press, 1886.
 Observations on the prevention of leprosy by segregation. 1887.
 Note on the occurrence of a minute blood spirillum in an Indian rat. "Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India". 3, ss. 45–48, 1888.
 Note on some aspects and relations of the blood-organisms in ague. Calcutta, 1888

References

External links

Papers of Henry Vandyke Carter and his family at the Wellcome Library

Henry Gray's Anatomy, descriptive and surgical, with drawings by H. V. Carter, first American edition (Philadelphia, 1859)
 Richardson, Ruth (2008). Gray's anatomy descriptive and surgical: a notable anniversary
 Devinder Mohan Thappa, Ramassamy Sivaranjini, Suresh P Joshipura, Deep Joshipura. "Henry Vandyke Carter and his meritorious works in India "

1831 births
1897 deaths
British anatomists
British surgeons
Alumni of St George's, University of London
People from Kingston upon Hull
People from Scarborough, North Yorkshire
19th-century English medical doctors
English illustrators
Indian Medical Service officers

Henry Vandyke Carter


Handball Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian: Rukometni savez Bosne i Hercegovine /Рукометни савез Босне и Херцеговине) is the highest Handball governing body in the country. It organizes the Handball Championship of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Handball Cup of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

It also organizes the matches of the Bosnia and Herzegovina men's national handball team. That includes men and women, and youth teams as well.

History
The Handball Federation was founded in 1948, and was part of the Yugoslav Handball Federation. When Bosnia and Herzegovina gained independence in 1992, it became the national handball governing body, and later a member of European Handball Federation (1995) and International Handball Federation (1996).

Handball is the most popular sport in Bosnia and Herzegovina after football and basketball. There is a big number of clubs all over the country. Many Bosnian clubs were members of a very strong Yugoslav league, and RK Borac Banja Luka won the EHF Champions League in the 1975–76 season. Another team from the country that was famous in European competitions is Sloga from Doboj.

External links
EHF
IHF
RS

Bosnia
Bosnia
Bosnia
Handball in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Sports governing bodies in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Sports organizations established in 1948


Roberto Chavez (born Roberto Esteban Chavez; August 3, 1932) is an American artist. known for his personally symbolic portraits, public murals and "funny-grotesque" paintings  that reflect the multicultural landscape of Los Angeles. He was recently included in the Getty Center's Pacific Standard Time: Art in L.A., 1945-1980 and the Smithsonian's Our America: The Latino Presence in American Art exhibits.

Background
Chavez was born in Los Angeles, California to Mexican immigrants who left the chaos and dangers of post-Revolution Mexico. Chavez and his seven siblings were raised  in the Maravilla neighborhood in East Los Angeles, which at the time was inhabited by a mixture of working class families, mostly Latino, but also Jewish, Mexican, Armenian, Italian, Russian and Japanese emigres.

Education
Chavez earned his Master of Fine Arts in 1961 at the University of California at Los Angeles, where he met and worked alongside Charles Garabedian, Gordon Rice, Eduardo Carrillo and Maxwell Hendler. In the early 1960s, Chavez became part of the "emerging gallery scene along La Cienega Boulevard" at the Ceeje Gallery, which in contrast to the Ferus and Landau Galleries that often exhibited New York artists, highlighted local, ethnic and women artists.

Murals

In the mid-1970s, Chavez began painting public murals throughout the city of Los Angeles, especially East L.A. where the La Raza political movement was gaining ground. His 1972 anti-war mural Porque Se Pelean? Que No Son Carnales became part of artist Sandra de la Loza's Mural Remix. show at LACMAMural Remixed.

In 1974, Chavez painted The Path to Knowledge and the False University, a 200-foot mural on the East Los Angeles Community College campus, where he worked as an arts educator and chair of the Chicano Studies department. Although the mural was destroyed by the college, the mural, its impact and the political questions surrounding the destruction were detailed in two museum exhibits: "Roberto Chavez and The False University: A Retrospective" at the Vincent Price Museum and "Murales Rebeldes: L.A. Chicana/o Murals under Siege" Pacific Standard Time: LA/LA Beyond Borders in 2017.

Recent exhibitions
 Advance of the Rear Guard: Ceeje Gallery in the 1960s ArtCenter School of Design, Pasadena, California. October 2023 - March 2024.
 Zapata Después de Zapata Museo del Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City, Mexico November 2019 - February 2020.
 Pacific Standard Time: LA/LA
MURALES REBELDES!: Contested Chicana/o Public Art, LA Plaza de Cultura y Artes, Los Angeles, September 2017 - March 2018; San Francisco, California Historical Society, April - September 2018; Sacramento, California Museum, July - December 2019.
A Universal History of Infamy, August 2017 - February 2018, LACMA (Los Angeles County Museum of Art
 Our American: The Latino Presence in American Art, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington DC, October 2013 - March 2014, National Tour through 2017
 Pacific Standard Time: Art in L.A. 1945 - 1980 exhibits:
Art Along the Hyphen: The Mexican-American Generation  Autry National Center, Los Angeles October 2011 - January 2012
L.A. Raw: Abject Expressionism in Los Angeles, 1945-1980, From Rico Lebrun to Paul McCarthy, Pasadena Museum of California Art 2012  January - May 2012
 Roberto Chavez and The False University: A Retrospective, Vincent Price Art Museum, September - December 2014

References

Further reading

External links
 El Tamalito del Hoyo, by Roberto Chavez, 1959, oil on masonite at the Smithsonian American Art Museum.
 "Self-Portrait with Speedy Gonzales", by Roberto Chavez, 1963, oil on canvas.
 "Ladies Art Class, Sawtelle", by Roberto Chavez, 1967, oil on canvas.
 "Jueves", by Roberto Chavez, 1992, Print Poster. Center for the Study of Political Graphics.

UCLA School of the Arts and Architecture alumni
Painters from California
American artists of Mexican descent
1932 births
Living people

Roberto Esteban Chavez


Ashtabula County Courthouse Group is a registered historic district in Jefferson, Ohio, listed in the National Register in 1975.

History
The Ashtabula County Courthouse Group is a cluster of buildings built at various times in the history of the county. The center of the district and the oldest building is the 1850 courthouse designed in the popular Italianate style so prevalent in the Victorian era. The courthouse was once the only building in this group, but the increasing population and confined spaces forced the county to develop the area into a judicial and administrative campus.

Ashtabula County was settled around 1796 and was part of the Connecticut Western Reserve of the Northwest Territory. The county was officially established by the Ohio General Assembly in 1807 with the county seat located in Jefferson. A courthouse was constructed around the same time and was completed in 1811. The building was two stories high and was a simple brick structure. This building lasted until 1836 when it was razed for the construction of a new courthouse.

The second courthouse was designed by architect Willis Smith from Kinsman. The structure is basically the same in appearance as the courthouse still standing. A fire burnt some of the structure in 1850 and it was rebuilt mostly true to the original design, although the dormers piercing the roofline were removed. It was around this time that the row house known as Lawyers Row was built.

The growing population soon demanded a more spacious courthouse and instead of demolishing the 1850 courthouse, a new one was built to house the probate court in 1870, while the county courts and administration remained in the old courthouse.

In 1960 the county was again faced with the challenge of providing more room for the county government. The county decided on building a new structure. This new courthouse is a glass and masonry building with a Justice Center addition built in the 1970s.

Buildings
The district contains 4 contributing buildings:

Old Courthouse
The courthouse is located at the corner of North Chestnut and West Jefferson Streets and was completed in 1850. The building was built on the framework of an earlier courthouse from 1836 which was destroyed by a fire. The courthouse is designed in the Italianate style and is built with red brick and stone. Long rectangle windows with white trim dot the walls. The hipped roof contains several dormers for extra light to the top floor. A tower projects from the facade on Jefferson Street and houses the entrance framed by four columns with exaggerated bulbous bases. The tower is crowned with a decorative cap consisting of spires and a mansard roof. The courthouse once housed all of the county offices but after several additions the courthouse houses the county administrative offices. The County Commissioners now use old Probate Courtroom for an office and hearing room.

New Courthouse
An addition is located behind the courthouse and was built in 1960 by architects Kujala and Koski. The building is built with red brick with white window and door trim matching the original courthouse. This building is now considered as the official county courthouse.

Justice Center

Around the same time the International style Justice Center was also constructed on the property. The Justice Center houses the police departments and sheriff offices. The building is also built with red brick with white door and window trim, with a projected entrance tower. The tower is three stories and is topped with an arched roof with large rectangular windows to illuminate the entrance bay below. Large glass walls connect the entrance projection to the rest of the building. The flat roof is hidden behind a solid balustrade.

Lawyers Row
A long building rests beside the old courthouse and divides the property in half. This building is known as Lawyers Row and resembles a train station. The building is white painted wood construction with large windows and deep overhanging eaves with brackets. A "boardwalk" spans the entire length of the building connecting the offices together.

Historic uses
Professional
Courthouse

See also
 Benjamin Wade

References

Further reading
Thrane, Susan W., County Courthouses of Ohio, Indiana University Press, Indianapolis, Indiana 2000
Marzulli, Lawrence J., The Development of Ohio's Counties and Their Historic Courthouses, Gray Printing Company, Fostoria, Ohio 1983
Stebbins, Clair, Ohio's Court Houses, Ohio State Bar Association, Columbus, Ohio 1980

External links
Official Website

Courthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio
County courthouses in Ohio
Buildings and structures in Ashtabula County, Ohio
National Register of Historic Places in Ashtabula County, Ohio

Ashtabula County Courthouse Group


The Arado Ar 240 was a German twin-engine, multi-role heavy fighter aircraft, developed for the Luftwaffe during World War II by Arado Flugzeugwerke. Its first flight was in 1940, but problems with the design hampered development, and it remained only marginally stable throughout the prototype phase. The project was eventually cancelled, with the existing airframes used for a variety of test purposes.

Design and development
The Ar 240 came about as the response to a 1938 request for a much more capable second-generation heavy fighter to replace the Messerschmitt Bf 110, which was becoming outdated. Both Arado and Messerschmitt responded. Messerschmitt's response, the Me 210, was a totally new design, but thanks to Messerschmitt's experience with the Zerstörer ("Destroyer") concept, it would be able to enter service quickly. Arado's design was considerably more ambitious for the smaller firm, a dream project of Arado's chief designer, Walter Blume, since the mid-1930s. While it would take some time before deliveries of the Arado design could begin, the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (German Aviation Ministry, RLM) was nevertheless interested enough to order prototypes of both designs.

Prior to this point, Arado had invested heavily in several lines of basic research. One was the development of the "Arado travelling flap" which offered excellent low-speed lift performance. Another was ongoing work in the design and construction of pressurized cockpits, which dramatically lowered pilot fatigue for any flight above about 4,500 m (14,760 ft). Finally, they had also invested in a technically advanced remote-control defensive gun system, which they had been experimenting with for several years. The system used a gunsight located in the rear cockpit, operated by the navigator/gunner, which had optics on both the top and bottom of the aircraft, allowing aim in any direction. The gunsight was hydraulically connected to well-streamlined pancake-shaped, remotely-operated turrets on the top and bottom of the aircraft. For the Ar 240 design, the Arado engineers combined all this research into a single airframe.

For outright performance, they used as small a wing as reasonable, thereby lowering parasite drag (at the expense of greater lift-induced drag). Normally this would make the plane have "impossibly high" landing speeds, but this was offset by the use of a huge travelling flap and leading edge slats for high low-speed lift. When the flaps were extended, the upper portion of the ailerons would remain in place while the lower portion extended rearward, essentially increasing the wing area.

The Daimler-Benz DB 601 inline engines were conventionally installed and equipped with three-blade, fully adjustable propellers. The radiators were somewhat unusual however, quite similar to those fitted to the Junkers Ju 88 which pioneered them - but much more closely resembling the intended installation of the radiators intended for the Junkers Ju 288, when powered by its intended multibank Junkers Jumo 222 liquid-cooled 24-cylinder engines - for both types, consisting of an annular block located in front of each engine, but with the Ar 240 partially covering each of them with an oversized, ducted flow-through propeller spinner forward of each radiator unit, with air entering through a large hole in the front of the spinner and exiting out of the cowl flaps, as the Jumo 222-powered Ju 288 design was intended to have.  As with the Jumo inline-powered versions of the Ju 88, this made the plane look as if it were mounting a radial engine, and the Ar 240, like later Jumo inline-powered fighter aircraft from the Focke-Wulf firm (the Fw 190 D, Ta 152 and twin-engined Ta 154) also benefitted from the simpler setup of an annular radiator just forward of the engine.

The fuel cells in the wings were provided with a newly developed self-sealing system that used thinner tank liners, allowing for more fuel storage. The liners could not be easily removed as they stuck to the outer surface of the tank, so in order to service them, the wing panelling had to be removable. This led to a complex system for providing skinning stiff enough to be handled in the field, complicating construction and driving up weight.

As with all German multi-use aircraft designs of the era, the aircraft was required to be a credible dive bomber. The thick wing panelling was not suitable for piercing for conventional dive brakes, so a "petal"-type brake was installed at the extreme rear of the fuselage — appearing much like what had been trialled with the Dornier Do 217 — which, unlike the Do 217's vertically-opening "petals", opened to the sides instead when activated. When closed the brake looked like a stinger, extending beyond the horizontal stabilizer and twin fins.

Finally, the cockpit was fully pressurized. This would not have been easy if the armament had to be hand-operated by the gunner, as it would have required the guns to penetrate the rear of the cockpit canopy. However, the remote control system allowed them to be located in turrets in the unpressurized rear of the fuselage.

All of this added weight, and combined with the small wing, led to a very high wing loading of 330 kg/m2 (221 lb/ft2), compared to an average of about a 100 for a single-seat fighter.

Operational history

Testing and evaluation
Technical specifications were first published in October 1938, followed by detailed plans later that year. In May 1939, the RLM ordered a batch of six prototypes. The first Ar 240 V1 prototype, DD+QL, took to the air on 25 June 1940, and immediately proved to have poor handling in all axes, also tending to overheat during taxiing.

The handling was thought to be the result of the ailerons being too small, given the thick wing, so the second prototype was modified to have larger ones, as well as additional vertical fin area on the dive brakes to reduce yaw. In addition, small radiators were added to the landing gear legs to improve cooling at low speeds, when the gear would normally be opened. Ar 240 V2, KK+CD, first flew on 6 April 1941, and spent most of its life at the factory in an experimental role.

Ar 240 V3 followed, the first to be equipped with the FA 9 rear-firing armament system, developed jointly by Arado and DVL, armed with a 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 81Z machine gun. Ar 240 V4 was the first to include an operational dive brake, and flew on 19 June 1941. Ar 240 V5 and the V6 followed in December and January, including the upgraded FA 13 system, using two 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine guns in place of the MG 81Z for a considerable boost in firepower. Ar 240 V7 and V8 acted as prototypes for the planned Ar 240 B, which was to use two Daimler Benz DB 605As, while Ar 240 V9, V10, and V11, and V12 served as prototypes of the Ar 240 C.

The Ar 240's excellent performance quickly led to the V3, V5 and V6 being stripped of their armament, including the defensive guns, and used as reconnaissance aircraft over England, where no other two-seater could venture by 1942. A number of pre-production Ar 240s served on the Eastern Front overflying Soviet military positions.

Variants

Ar 240 A-0 Four preproduction aircraft.
Ar 240 B Proposed version
Ar 240 C-1 Heavy fighter version.
Ar 240 C-2 Night fighter version.
Ar 240 C-3 Light bomber version.
Ar 240 C-4 High-altitude reconnaissance version. The project was abandoned in favour of the Ar 440.
Ar 440 Improved variant with the fuselage stretched by 0.9m  (35.5 in) and powered by the 1,900 hp (1,417 kW) DB 603G, the production aircraft would have had two 2,000 hp (1,491 kW) DB 627A/B engines. Ar 240 V10 was earmarked as the Ar 440 prototype; second prototype not built.

Specifications (Ar 240 A-01)

See also

References

Bibliography
 Green, William. Warplanes of the Third Reich. London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd., Fourth impression 1979, First edition 1970. .
 Gunston, Bill. Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II. New York: Jane's Publishing/Random House, 1989, First edition 1945. .
 Lang, Gerhard. Arado Ar 240 (Luftwaffe Profile Series No.8). Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 1997. .
 Smith, J.R. and Anthony L. Kay. German Aircraft of the Second World War. London: Putnam & Company Ltd., 1972. .

External links

Ar 240
1940s German fighter aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1940
Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft
Twin-tail aircraft

Arado Ar 240


Chai Lai (, English title: Dangerous Flowers and also known as Chai Lai's Angels) is a 2006 Thai action film about five female top-secret crimefighters, each with the codename of a flower, Lotus, Hibiscus, Rose, Spadix and Crown of Thorns. The premise is modelled after Charlie's Angels.

Plot
The film begins on a passenger plane, where a young girl named Miki and her step-mother are taken hostage by a man and a cross-dressing woman. They call the father of Miki, but he has his own problems; another man is menacing him and when he tries to take the gun a fight breaks out and the father is shot. One of the Chai Lai members, Rose, enters the house and gets into a fight with another henchman.

Miki gets upset that her father is shot via the mobile phone and she stabs the man who has taken her hostage in the hand with a pipe, which sets off a fight on the plane. The members of Chai Lai are fighting along with a young police man named Chen.
Meanwhile, Rose (Bongkoj Khongmalai) has gutted the henchman at the house with a machete and chases the man, who shot the father but crashes her car shortly after. When the man drives and misses her, she shoots the gasoline pouring out of the vehicle and it explodes.

A crime boss named Dragon yells at his henchman at a meeting for failing their mission to which the cross-dressing woman is named King Kong, whom she blames Chai Lai for their failures. Miki's step-mother barges in on the meeting, revealing that she works for them.

Chai Lai's boss tells the girls that it is alright that they failed their mission despite that the father is dead and the men escaped. The new plan is to protect Miki at school.

They fail to keep Miki safe at her school on the first day and she gets kidnapped by the henchman. Chai Lai chase them but when member Hibiscus (Jintara Poonlarp), after being freed from the van and saved by Rose, gets out a rocket launcher and fires but remembers that Miki is still inside.

Luckily for Miki, the van swerves and the rocket hits the tuk-tuk that Spadix was driving instead with her and Lotus (Supaksorn Chaimongkol) narrowly escaping. The van escapes as the train goes by, stopping them. Later, Miki attacks the henchman but is quickly stopped and tied. Miki's Step-mother, Ms. Mei Ling, pretends to be beaten up by King Kong so that she can reveal the secret location of the Andaman Pearl but it backfires.

The next day, the Chai Lai are getting a massage with Ms. Mei Ling and King Kong. Soon, a fight quickly breaks out with them wearing nothing but towels. Eventually, Ms. Mei Ling escapes and the henchman join in the fight. During the fight, Ms. Mei Ling gets into her car and menaces Chen in the car park until Hibiscus appears and tries to gun her but she quickly escapes.

Soon into the fight, a woman in a suit shows up and fights, King Kong escapes and Rose  is about to chase after until she is pursued by two henchman outside. King-Kong runs into Spadix, who tries to gun her but fails. After Lotus, Rose and Pouy-Sian (Kessarin Ektawatkul) finish they meet Spadix outside just as she throws King Kong and she escapes.

King Kong hires the four-nation bounty hunters to finish the Chai Lai off, Rosen goes on a date with her boyfriend, Gud, who proposes to her. Dragon's henchman arrive with a beaten up Gud, the girls end up fighting their way into the swimming pool, and they escape through hatch that is in there. The exit is in a medieval castle, which is filled with weapons the girls stock up on, because King Kong is outside with the four-nation assassins.

Kathleen, who is a goofy cross-eyed assassin girl, who becomes King Kong's sidekick. The girls are captured in a cage except Hibischus, who arrives in a tank and attacks as the girls escape but unfortunately Gud is still captured.

The Chai Lais have no clue how Dragon knew where their house was and also they decide not to love anyone again because of Gud, new orders are given to the girls from their boss by iPod.
Dragon get the idea the Andaman Pearl is on an island called Thai Baht due to Miki and they travel there. The men find the Andaman Pearl and escape with it after being attacked by Lotus, Rose and Pouy-Sian.

At a party to sell the Andaman Pearl, Miki's father arrives as a surprise bidder. The Chai Lais, soon enter the arena, where a fight starts.

Ms. Mei Ling shoots Gud in the back in cold blood with Rose upset and in her anger, she guns Ms. Mei Ling down and the SUV driver guy. Dragon is chases by Lotus, Spadix and Pouy-Sian as he has the pearl and Miki hostage, whom she escapes from. Dragon heads to the roof for a helicopter escape, with Lotus chasing after. Miki is pursued by King Kong and Kathleen in a park and the rest are with many henchman in another part of the park.

The henchman are all dead, Dragon shot in the head twice by Lotus and Kathleen shoots King Kong many times.
Chai Lai's boss reveals that Kathleen was a spy and he has some kind of relationship with her. Miki is made as a member of Chai Lai. Chai Lai (including Kathleen and Miki) goes to battle; the members are dressed in white with machine guns fighting on the Afghan beaches near the Afghan jungles.

Cast
Bongkoj Khongmalai as Kulap (Rose)
Supaksorn Chaimongkol as Bua (Lotus)
Jintara Poonlarp as Chaba (Hibiscus)
Kessarin Ektawatkul as Pouy-sian (Crown of Thorns)
Bunyawan Pongsuwan as Na-wua (Spadix)
Krit Sripoomsed as Chen
Narawan Techaratanaprasert as Miki
Nithichai Yotamornsunthorn
Petchtai Wongkamlao as the Chai Lais' handler

Production
Director Poj Arnon acknowledged he was asked by Sahamongkol Film International to copy the style of Charlie's Angels, but that budgetary differences – 35 million baht compared to the US$92 million budget for the Charlie's Angels films – and Thai styles of fighting (muay Thai) make Chai Lai different.

One scene called for the actresses to wear only towels while fighting with the bad guys in a shopping mall. To avoid any accidental exposure, they wore bikinis underneath the towels and had the towels taped to their chests. "But the towels still came off a few times," Bongkoj Khongmalai told Channel NewsAsia.

The actresses sustained some bruises and scratches in the fight scenes, also during a diving sequence in Phuket and when they were dressed in negligees.

Soundtrack
The closing-title song, "Chai Lai", performed by Jintara Poonlarp, is featured on Jintara's 2006 album, Mor lam sa on 12.

Reception
Variety called it a "blatant imitation and shameless spoof take the "Charlie's Angels" genre back to its jiggle origins in "Chai-lai: Dangerous Flowers," a shoddy but fun espionage romp from Thailand."

Home media
It was released on DVD on December 9, 2009.

See also
Cinema of Thailand

References

External links

2006 films
2006 action comedy films
2006 LGBT-related films
Sahamongkol Film International films
Thai-language films
Thai martial arts films
Martial arts comedy films
Muay Thai films
Thai Muay Thai films
Thai action comedy films
Girls with guns films
2006 martial arts films
Films directed by Poj Arnon
Cross-dressing in film
Films set in Afghanistan

Chai Lai


Flyting or fliting (Classical Gaelic: immarbág) () (lit. "counter-boasting"), is a contest consisting of the exchange of insults between two parties, often conducted in verse.

Etymology
The word flyting comes from the Old English verb  meaning 'to quarrel', made into a gerund with the suffix -ing. Attested from around 1200 in the general sense of a verbal quarrel, it is first found as a technical literary term in Scotland in the sixteenth century. The first written Scots example is William Dunbar, The Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedie, written in the late fifteenth century.

Description

Flyting is a ritual, poetic exchange of insults practiced mainly between the 5th and 16th centuries. Examples of flyting are found throughout Scots, Ancient, Medieval and Modern Celtic, Old English, Middle English and Norse literature involving both historical and mythological figures. The exchanges would become extremely provocative, often involving accusations of cowardice or sexual perversion.

Norse literature contains stories of the gods flyting. For example, in Lokasenna the god Loki insults the other gods in the hall of Ægir. In the poem Hárbarðsljóð, Hárbarðr (generally considered to be Odin in disguise) engages in flyting with Thor.

In the confrontation of Beowulf and Unferð in the poem Beowulf, flytings were used as either a prelude to battle or as a form of combat in their own right.

In Anglo-Saxon England, flyting would take place in a feasting hall. The winner would be decided by the reactions of those watching the exchange. The winner would drink a large cup of beer or mead in victory, then invite the loser to drink as well.

The 13th century poem The Owl and the Nightingale and Geoffrey Chaucer's Parlement of Foules contain elements of flyting.

Flyting became public entertainment in Scotland in the 15th and 16th centuries, when makars would engage in verbal contests of provocative, often sexual and scatological but highly poetic abuse. Flyting was permitted despite the fact that the penalty for profanities in public was a fine of 20 shillings (over £300 in  prices) for a lord, or a whipping for a servant. James IV and James V encouraged "court flyting" between poets for their entertainment and occasionally engaged with them. The Flyting of Dumbar and Kennedie records a contest between William Dunbar and Walter Kennedy in front of James IV, which includes the earliest recorded use of the word shit as a personal insult. In 1536 the poet Sir David Lyndsay composed a ribald 60-line flyte to James V after the King demanded a response to a flyte.

Flytings appear in several of William Shakespeare's plays. Margaret Galway analysed 13 comic flytings and several other ritual exchanges in the tragedies. Flytings also appear in Nicholas Udall's Ralph Roister Doister and John Still's Gammer Gurton's Needle from the same era.

While flyting died out in Scottish writing after the Middle Ages, it continued for writers of Celtic background. Robert Burns parodied flyting in his poem, "To a Louse", and James Joyce's poem "The Holy Office" is a curse upon society by a bard. Joyce played with the traditional two-character exchange by making one of the characters representing society as a whole.

Similar practices
Hilary Mackie has detected in the Iliad a consistent differentiation between representations in Greek of Achaean and Trojan speech, where Achaeans repeatedly engage in public, ritualized abuse: "Achaeans are proficient at blame, while Trojans perform praise poetry."

Taunting songs are present in the Inuit culture, among many others. Flyting can also be found in Arabic poetry in a popular form called naqā'iḍ, as well as the competitive verses of Japanese Haikai.

Echoes of the genre continue into modern poetry. Hugh MacDiarmid's poem A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle, for example, has many passages of flyting in which the poet's opponent is, in effect, the rest of humanity.

Flyting is similar in both form and function to the modern practice of freestyle battles between rappers and the historic practice of the Dozens, a verbal-combat game representing a synthesis of flyting and its Early Modern English descendants with comparable African verbal-combat games such as Ikocha Nkocha.

In the Finnish epic Kalevala, the hero Väinämöinen uses the similar practice of kilpalaulanta (duel singing) to defeat his opponent Joukahainen.

Modern portrayals
In "The Roaring Trumpet", part of Harold Shea's introduction to the Norse gods is a flyting between Heimdall and Loki in which Heimdall says, "All insults are untrue. I state facts."

The climactic scene in Rick Riordan's novel The Ship of the Dead consists of a flyting between the protagonist Magnus Chase and the Norse god Loki.

In the Monkey Island video game series, insults are often integral to duels such as sword fighting and arm wrestling.

In Assassin's Creed: Valhalla, in which the protagonist is a Viking themself, players can engage in flyting with various non-playable characters for prestige and other rewards.

Some see the subculture of hip hop music known as Battle rap as a modern expression, providing a platform for two individuals to poetically insult each other.

See also
Beot
Craic
Senna
Slam poetry
Dozens
Maternal insult
Battle rap
Banter
Pwnco, a verse 'battle' forming part of the Welsh custom of the Mari Lwyd

Notes

External links

Flyting – britannica.com

Genres of poetry
Theatrical combat
European court festivities
Competitions
Verse contests
Folk poetry

Flyting


Material culture is the aspect of culture manifested by the physical objects and architecture of a society. The term is primarily used in archaeology and anthropology, but is also of interest to sociology, geography and history. The field considers artifacts in relation to their specific cultural and historic contexts, communities and belief systems. It includes the usage, consumption, creation and trade of objects as well as the behaviors, norms and rituals that the objects create or take part in.

Material culture is contrasted with symbolic culture or non-material culture, which include non-material symbols, beliefs and social constructs. However, some scholars include in material culture other intangible phenomena like sound, smell and events, while some even consider it to include language and media. Material culture can be described as any object that humans use to survive, define social relationships, represent facets of identity, or benefit peoples' state of mind, social, or economic standing.

The scholarly analysis of material culture, which can include both human made and natural or altered objects, is called material culture studies. It is an interdisciplinary field and methodology that tells of the relationships between people and their things: the making, history, preservation and interpretation of objects. It draws on both theory and practice from the social sciences and humanities such as art history, archaeology, anthropology, history, historic preservation, folklore, archival science, literary criticism and museum studies.

Material value

Research in several areas looks into the reasons for perceiving an object as having meaning. Common reasons for valuing material lie in their monetary or sentimental value.

A well-known related theory is Daniel Kahneman's endowment effect theory. According to Kahneman, people infuse objects they own with a higher value than they do if they do not own the object. The endowment effect is found to occur as soon as an item is acquired and the effect increases over time.

Another way in which material can hold meaning and value is by carrying communication between people, just like other communication forms such as speech, touch and gesture. An object can mediate messages between time or space or both between people who are not together. A work of art, for example, can transfer a message from the creator to the viewer and share an image, a feeling, or an experience. Material can contain memories and mutual experiences across time and influence thoughts and feelings. A study found that couples who have more items that were jointly acquired and more favorite items among them had higher-quality relationships.

Researchers from the fields of sociology, psychology, and anthropology have also been fascinated by gift-giving, a universal phenomenon that holds emotional meaning using material culture. According to Schieffelin, "gift-giving is a vehicle of social obligation and political maneuver." Mauss defines the gift as creating a special bond between the giver and the receiver. According to Mauss, the giver never really leaves the gift but becomes part of the receiver's future by inserting the gift into their life. A gift leads at some point to another gift in response, which creates a special reciprocal bond between people.

History

Material culture studies as an academic field grew along the field of anthropology and so began by studying non-Western material culture. All too often, it was a way of putting material culture into categories in such a way that marginalized and hierarchized the cultures from which they came. During the "golden age" of museum-going, material cultures were used to show the supposed evolution of society from the simple objects of non-Westerners to the advanced objects of Europeans. It was a way of showing that Europeans were at the end of the evolution of society, with non-Westerners at the beginning. Eventually, scholars left the notion that culture evolved though predictable cycles, and the study of material culture changed to have a more objective view of non-Western material culture.

The field of material culture studies as its own distinct discipline dates to the 1990s. The Journal of Material Culture began publishing in 1996. Collecting habits date back hundreds of years.

Contributors
Leslie White was an American anthropologist, known for his advocacy of theories of cultural evolution, sociocultural evolution, and especially neoevolutionism and for his role in creating the department of anthropology at the University of Michigan Ann Arbor. He was president of the American Anthropological Association (1964). He wrote The Science of Culture in 1949 in which he outlined schema of the world as divided into cultural, biological, and physical levels of phenomenon. White believed that the development of culture rested primarily on technology and that the history of human technology could be understood through the study of human-produced materials.

American anthropologist James Deetz, known for his work in the field of historical archaeology, wrote the book "In Small Things Forgotten" in 1977 and published a revised and expanded version in 1996. He pioneered there the ideas of using neglected substances such as trash pits, potshards, and soil stains to reveal human actions. By analyzing objects in association with their location, the history of that location, the objects they were found with, and not singling out the most valuable or rarest ones, archaeologists can create a more accurate picture of daily life. Deetz looks at the long view of history and investigates the impact of European culture on other cultures across the globe by an analysis of the spread of everyday objects.

Ian M. G. Quimby's Material Culture and the Study of American Life, written in 1978, tried to bridge the gaps between the museum world and the university and between curator and historian. Quimby posits that objects in museums are understood through an intellectual framework that uses non-traditional sources. He also describes the benefits of work on exhibit design as a vehicle for education.

Thomas Schlereth, Professor Emeritus of American Studies at the University of Notre Dame, wrote about philosophies and methods of teaching history outside the traditional classroom. In his book Artifacts and the American Past, Schlereth defines material culture study as an attempt to explain why things were made, why they took the forms they did, and what social, functional, aesthetic, or symbolic needs they serve. He advocates studying photographs, catalogues, maps and landscapes. He suggests a variety of modes for interrogating artifacts.

Professor Kiki Smith of Smith College, asserts that "…clothes can reveal much about lives from the past", and that garments preserved in collections are akin to other artifacts, including books, diaries, paintings and letters. She established the Smith College Historic Clothing Collection with 3000 items for the college's theater department. This archive of women's clothing and accessories, from all social classes, is a resource for courses in costume design, history, material culture, and literary history and curatorial practices.

Gerd Koch, associated with the Ethnological Museum of Berlin, is known for his studies on the material culture of Tuvalu, Kiribati and the Santa Cruz Islands. During his early field work in 1951 to 1952, Koch developed techniques in the recording of culture, including the use of tape recorders and cinematographic cameras.

Archaeology

Archaeology is the study of humanity through the inferential analysis of material culture to ultimately gain an understanding of the daily lives of past cultures and the overarching trend of human history.  An archaeological culture is a recurring assemblage of the artifacts from a specific time and place, most often that has no written record. These physical artifacts are then used to make inferences about the ephemeral aspects of culture and history. With more recent societies, written histories, oral traditions, and direct observations may also be available to supplement the study of material culture.

Beginning in the European Renaissance and the culture's fascination with classical antiquities,  the study of artifacts from long-lost cultures has produced many forms of archaeological theory, such as trans-cultural diffusion, processual archaeology, and post-processual archaeology. Additionally, archaeological sub-disciplines have emerged within the field, including prehistoric archaeology, classical archaeology, historical archaeology, cognitive archaeology, and cultural ecology. Recently, a scientific methodology and approach to the analysis of pre-historic material culture has become prevalent with systematic excavation techniques producing detailed and precise results.

Anthropology

Anthropology is most simply defined as the study of humans across time and space. In studying a human culture, an anthropologist studies the material culture of the people in question as well as the people themselves and their interactions with others. To understand the culture in which an object is featured, an anthropologist looks at the object itself, its context, and the way that it was manufactured and used.

The first anthropologist interested in studying material culture was Lewis Henry Morgan, in the mid-19th century. He is most known for his research on kinship and social structures, but he also studied the effect of material culture, specifically technology, on the evolution of a society. Later in the 19th century, Franz Boas brought the fields of anthropology and material culture studies closer together. He believed that it was crucial for an anthropologist to analyze not only the physical properties of material culture but also its meanings and uses in its indigenous context to begin to understand a society. At the same time in France, Émile Durkheim wrote about the importance of material culture in understanding a society. Durkheim saw material culture as one of the social facts that functions as a coercive force to maintain solidarity in a society.

Claude Lévi-Strauss, in the 20th century, included the study of material culture in his work as an anthropologist because he believed that it could reveal a deeper level of structure and meaning unattainable by typical fieldwork. According to Lévi-Strauss, material culture can recall the mindset of a people, regardless of intervening time or space. Also in the 20th century, Mary Douglas thought that anthropology was about studying the meaning of material culture to the people who experience it. Marvin Harris, a contemporary of Douglas, put forward the theory of cultural materialism and said that all aspects of society have material causes.

Sociology

In archaeology, the idea that social relations are embodied in material is well known and established, with extensive research on exchange, gift giving and objects as part of social ceremonies and events. However, in contradiction to archaeology, where scientists build on material remains of previous cultures, sociology tends to overlook the importance of material in understanding relationships and human social behavior.

The social aspects in material culture include the social behavior around it: the way that the material is used, shared, talked about, or made. An object cannot hold meaning in and of itself and so when one focuses on the social aspects of material culture, it is critical to keep in mind that interpretations of objects and of interactions with them are the ones to evoke importance and meaning.

Heritage industry
Museums and other material culture repositories, by their very nature, are often active participants in the heritage industry.  Defined as "the business of managing places that are important to an area's history and encouraging people to visit them," the heritage industry relies heavily on material culture and objects to interpret cultural heritage. The industry is fueled by a cycle of people visiting museums, historic sites, and collections to interact with ideas or physical objects of the past. In turn, the institutions profit through monetary donations or admission fees as well as the publicity that comes with word-of-mouth communications.

That relationship is controversial, as many believe that the heritage industry corrupts the meaning and importance of cultural objects. Often, scholars in the humanities take a critical view of the heritage industry, particularly heritage tourism, believing it to be a vulgar oversimplification and corruption of historic fact and importance. Others believe that the relationship and the financial stability it brings is often the element that allows curators, researchers, and directors to conserve material culture's legacy.

See also
 Symbolic culture
 Non-material culture
 Museum anthropology
 Museum folklore

References

Philosophy of technology
Methods in archaeology
Cultural studies
Western culture

eo:Materia kulturo

Material culture


Margaret Lindsay, Lady Huggins (14 August 1848, in Dublin – 24 March 1915, in London), born Margaret Lindsay Murray, was an Irish-English scientific investigator and astronomer. With her husband William Huggins she was a pioneer in the field of spectroscopy and co-wrote the Atlas of Representative Stellar Spectra (1899).

Family and early life
Margaret Lindsay Huggins was part of a family of four. She had a brother, Robert Douglas. Her parents were John Murray and Helen Lindsay. Her father was a solicitor, who attended Edinburgh Academy. Margaret's younger brother by three years,
Robert Douglas, attended Edinburgh Academy at the age of twelve, and then attended further education in Trinity College, Dublin in his later years. The family home was a Georgian style townhouse, at 23 Longford Terrace in Kingstown (present-day Dún Laoghaire).

Margaret's grandfather, Robert Murray, was a very important figure in her life. He was a wealthy officer at the Bank of Ireland but also enjoyed the hobby of astronomy. From a young age Margaret had a keen interest in astronomy as a result of the relationship between herself and her grandfather. When she was a young girl her grandfather brought her outdoors in the evening, and taught her about all the constellations and how they can be identified. This inspired her to be an astronomer, and she therefore attended private school in Brighton from a young age.

Education

Margaret's early education took place privately at her home in Dublin, where she studied art, classics, literature, languages and music.  She also spent some time at a school in Brighton, England. The exact location is unknown, but during this time period Brighton had at least two private boarding schools for girls, both now defunct.

Despite her successful career in Astronomy, Mary received no formal training in this field. Instead, she studied popular Astronomy books, including Sir John Herschel's Outlines of Astronomy. Margaret also developed a keen interest in photography, which she studied in her spare time; something which would later play a role in her career.

In 1873, during a continued effort to educate herself, Margaret read a copy of the 19th century publication Good Words.  Although a religious pamphlet, it often published articles on general subjects, and science.

Here, she found a piece by the group The British Association for the Advancement of Science (now the British Science Association) about the recent work done by William Huggins on the spectroscope and constructed a spectroscope after finding inspiration in that article.

Huggins' interest and abilities in spectroscopy led to her introduction by astronomical instrument maker Howard Grubb to the astronomer William Huggins, whom she married on 8 September 1875 in the Parish Church at Monkstown, County Dublin. Evidence suggests that Margaret was instrumental in instigating William Huggins' successful program in photographic research. She was a contributor to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.

The London Times, in the notice of the death of Huggins, mentioned that Richard Proctor referred to her as the "Herschel of the Spectroscope". In her will she bequeathed to Wellesley College and to the College's Whitin Observatory some of her astronomy collection including cherished astronomical artefacts.

Marriage
Prior to their first encounter, Margaret was already a fervent admirer of her husband-to-be, Sir William Huggins. William was an astronomical spectroscopist, whose line of work collaborated instantly with Margaret's. Their partnership was described as being "one of the most successful husband and wife partnerships in the whole of astronomy".

After their marriage on 8 September 1875, at the Monkstown Parish Church, the "two star-gazed" lovers devoted themselves to their research and their inspiring companionship resulted in an array of astronomical findings. Margaret and William Huggins were the first to "observe and to identify the series of hydrogen lines in the spectrum of the star Vega." The pair's detailed notebook entries contributed to their first paper publication in 1889, discussing the "studies of the spectra of planets". They were also among those who "observed the Nova of 1892, Nova Aurigae." Margaret was specifically in charge of the visual observations, while together they collected "photographic spectra over several nights."

The couple's work had a major influence on their daily lives. Their home acted more as a work space, rather than a place for any kind of familial essence, and they never had any children. In 1903, Margaret and William Huggins published their final piece of joint scientific research on the spectra of certain radioactive substances.

Career
Margaret Huggins learnt the basic skills of photography early on in her life, and used these skills to assist her research at the Tulse Hill observatory. In 1875, Margaret and her husband William began photographic experiments, which were meticulously documented in observatory notebooks. Their early experiments photographed Sirius and Venus, and they used different techniques to capture them such as using wet and dry plates. Margaret made great improvements to their observatory equipment, and Margaret and William quickly rose to the forefront of spectroscopic astrophotography.

Margaret worked alongside her husband William at the Tulse Hill observatory. At first, she is documented to being an assistant, but after extensive research into their observatory notebooks, this has been disproven. She conducted many of her own research projects, and was a collaborative assistant to William. After 1875, Margaret and William began a meticulous program of photographic experiments. During the 1880s, the pair were devoted to two projects; the first attempting to photograph the solar corona, and the second examining different nebulae. The second project marked a milestone for Margaret, it was the first time she would be mentioned as the co-author of the paper alongside William. The Huggins' worked together for thirty-five years as equal collaborative investigative partners.

Death and legacy

After 30 years of devoting her life to Science, Margaret felt that she had contributed the best of her work. Margaret's husband, William Huggins died in 1910. She planned to write the biography of her late husband, but never succeeded. Margaret fell ill and underwent various surgeries and spent some time in hospital. Aware of her illness, she decided to donate her scientific and artistic treasures to Wellesley College in the United States. Margaret greatly admired the achievements of American women in the academic world and supported women's education.

Margaret Huggins died on 24 March 1915, at the age of 66. She was cremated and her ashes laid next to William's at Golders Green Crematorium. Margaret addressed in her will for a memorial to be erected in St. Paul's Cathedral, London, in honor of her husband. This memorial consists of a pair of medallions which are inscribed "William Huggins, astronomer 1824–1910" and the other "Margaret Lindsay Huggins, 1848–1915, his wife and fellow worker". There was a plaque established in 1997 that marks the house she grew up in on 23 Longford Terrace, Monkstown Dublin.

Publications
 Obituary, William Lassell, 1880.
 Astronomical Drawing, 1882.
 Obituary, Warren de la Rue, 1889.
 On a new group of lines in the photographic spectrum of Sirius, 1890.
 The System of the Stars, 1890.
 On Wolf and Rayet's Bright-Line Stars in Cygnus, 1891.
 The Astrolabe, 1895.
 The Astrolabe. II. History, 1895.
 Spectroscopic notes, 1897.
 An Atlas of Representative Stellar Spectra from λ 4870 to λ 3300, 1899.
 Obituary, Agnes Mary Clerke, 1907.

References

External links

 Obituary – Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1916, volume 76, pp. 278–82.
 Bibliography from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

1848 births
1915 deaths
Scientists from Dublin (city)
Wellesley College people
Irish astronomers
Women astronomers
Spectroscopists
Whitin Observatory
Encyclopædia Britannica

Margaret Lindsay Huggins


HMS Derwent was a Hawthorn Leslie-type River-class destroyer ordered by the Royal Navy under the 1901 – 1902 Naval Estimates.  Named after the River Derwent in central England, she was the second ship to carry this name.

Construction
She was laid down on 12 June 1902 at the Hawthorn Leslie shipyard at Hebburn-on-Tyne and launched on 14 February 1903.  She was completed on 1 July 1904.  Her original armament was to be the same as the turtleback torpedo boat destroyers that preceded her.  In 1906 the Admiralty decided to upgrade the armament by landing the five 6-pounder naval guns and shipping three 12-pounder 8 hundredweight (cwt) guns.  Two were mounted abeam at the foc'x'le break and the third gun was mounted on the quarterdeck.

Pre-War
After commissioning she was assigned to the East Coast Destroyer Flotilla of the 1st Fleet and based at Harwich.

In April 1909 she was assigned to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla on its formation at Harwich.  She remained until displaced by a  by May 1912.  She was assigned to the 5th Destroyer Flotilla of the 2nd Fleet with a nucleus crew.

On 30 August 1912 the Admiralty directed that all destroyer classes were to be designated by letters.  The ships of the River class were assigned to the E class.  After 30 September 1913, she was known as an E-class destroyer and had the letter 'E' painted on the hull below the bridge area and on either the fore or aft funnel.

World War I
In early 1914 when displaced by G-class destroyers she joined the 9th Destroyer Flotilla based at Chatham tendered to .  The 9th Flotilla was a patrol flotilla operating anti-submarine and counter-mining patrols in the Firth of Forth area.  By September 1914, she was deployed to the Dover Patrol based at Portsmouth.  Here she provided anti-submarine and counter-mining patrols and defended the Dover Barrage.

In August 1915 with the amalgamation of the 7th and 9th Flotillas, she was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla when it was redeployed to Portsmouth in November 1916.  She was equipped with depth charges for use in anti-submarine patrols, escorting of merchant ships and defending the Dover Barrage.  In the spring of 1917 as the convoy system was being introduced the 1st Flotilla was employed in escort duties for convoys through the English Channel for the remainder of the war.

Loss
On 2 May 1917 she struck a contact mine, laid by German submarine , off Le Havre, France. She sank 2 cables north of Whistle Buoy at position  with the loss of 58 officers and men.

Pennant numbers

References

Bibliography

River-class destroyers
Ships built on the River Tyne
1903 ships
Maritime incidents in 1917
World War I shipwrecks in the English Channel
Ships sunk by mines

HMS Derwent (1903)


Carsten Bjørnlund (born 28 June 1973) is a Danish theatre, film and television actor.

Bjørnlund's first leading film role was Rasmus in 2008's One-Way Ticket to Korsør. He played one of the leading characters in the second series of Forbrydelsen (The Killing). Among his film roles are Karl in The Thing (2011) and Martin in ID:A (2011).
He also played the male character in the 2012 music video for "The Fall" by Rhye.

From 2012 to 2015, he played the character Rasmus in TV2's comedy-drama "Rita". The show returned in 2020, featuring Carsten Bjørnlund.

Since 2014 he has been playing one of the leads in the drama Arvingerne (The Legacy).

Bjørnlund has two sons, Bertram and Vilfred and a daughter, Ziggy.

In 2004, he married Danish actress Signe Skov, with whom he had two sons (Bertram Bjørnlund and Vilfred Bjørnlund). They divorced in 2011. He began dating designer Christie Fals, with whom he had a daughter, Ziggy Bjørnlund, at the beginning of October 2016.

Filmography

References

External links

1973 births
20th-century Danish male actors
21st-century Danish male actors
Danish male film actors
Danish male television actors
Living people
Male actors from Copenhagen

Carsten Bjørnlund


Lu'an (), is a prefecture-level city in western Anhui province, People's Republic of China, bordering Henan to the northwest and Hubei to the southwest. At the 2010 census, it had a total population of 5,612,590, whom 1,644,344 lived in the built-up area made of 2 urban districts. Neighbouring prefecture-level cities are the provincial capital of Hefei to the east, Anqing to the south, Huanggang (Hubei) and Xinyang (Henan) to the west, and Huainan and Fuyang to the north. Although the character "" (literally: "six") is normally pronounced "Liù", in this case it changes to "Lù" on account of the historical literary reading.

References

Other websites

Government website of Lu'an

Cities in China
Anhui

Lu'an


Danza is a musical genre that originated in Ponce, a city in southern Puerto Rico.  It is a popular turn-of-the-twentieth-century ballroom dance genre slightly similar to the waltz. Both the danza and its cousin the contradanza are sequence dances, performed to a pattern, usually of squares, to music that was instrumental. Neither the contradanza nor the danza were sung genres; this is a contrast to, for example, the habanera, which was a sung genre. There is some dispute as to whether the danza was in any sense a different dance from the contradanza, or whether it was just a simplification of the name. Through the first part of the 19th century the dance and its music became steadily more creolized. The music and the dance is creolized because composers were consciously trying to integrate African and European ideas because many of the people themselves were creoles, that is, born in the Caribbean; accepting their islands as their true and only homeland.

Some well-known composers of danzas are Manuel Gregorio Tavárez, "The Father of Puerto Rican Danza", and Juan Morel Campos, considered by many to have raised the genre to its highest level. Others are Cuban Ignacio Cervantes, and Curaçaoan Jan Gerard Palm.

Danza in Puerto Rico

Danza is a form of music that can be varied in its expression. The Puerto Rican national anthem, La Borinqueña, was originally a danza that was later altered to fit a more anthem-like style. Danzas can be either romantic or festive. Romantic danzas have four sections, beginning with an eight-measure paseo followed by three themes of sixteen measures each.  The third theme typically includes a solo by the bombardino and, often, a return to the first theme or a coda at the end. Festive danzas are free-form, with the only rules being an introduction and a swift rhythm.

The first part of the romantic danza, the paseo, had 8 measures of music without a fixed rhythm (a snare drumroll may be played as background), when the couples circled the room elegantly, giving the lady the opportunity to display her beauty. The second part, called the merengue, grew from the original 16 measures to 34, in 1854. Here the couples held each other in a proper stance and executed turns that looked very much like a waltz.

While the origins of the danza are murky, it probably arose around 1840 as a sort of reaction against the highly codified contradanza and, according to Cuban sources, was strongly influenced by Cuban immigrants and their habanera music. The first danzas were immature, youthful songs condemned by the authorities, who occasionally tried ineffectively to ban the genre.

In Puerto Rico, the genre continued evolving until it was taken up by the young pianist Manuel Gregorio Tavárez, who had just arrived from his studies in Paris, and took it to a new artistic level. His disciple, Juan Morel Campos, adopted it also and developed it further to its maximum expression, composing more than 300 danzas, most of them masterpieces of an exquisite beauty. The danza that evolved was inspired mostly by women and romance and their titles reflected that change.

See also
Music of Puerto Rico
Fiesta Nacional de la Danza

References

Further reading

Díaz Díaz, Edgardo. 2008. "Danza antillana, conjuntos militares, nacionalismo musical e identidad dominicana: retomando los pasos perdidos del merengue." Latin American Music Review 29(2): 229–259.
Díaz Diaz, Edgardo, and Peter Manuel. "Puerto Rico: The Rise and Fall of the Danza as National Music". In Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean, edited by Peter Manuel. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009.

Malavet Vega, Pedro. Historia de la canción popular en Puerto Rico (1493-1898). San Juan, 1992.
Manuel, Peter, with Kenneth Bilby and Michael Largey. Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae (2nd edition). Temple University Press, 2006|
Manuel, Peter, "Puerto Rican Music and Cultural Identity: Creative Appropriation of Cuban Sources from Danza to Salsa," Ethnomusicology 3/2, Spring/Summer 1994, pp. 249–80.

Latin dances
Puerto Rican styles of music
Cuban styles of music
Ponce, Puerto Rico

Danza


The Nissan Primera was an automobile produced by Nissan. It replaced the Nissan Bluebird in 1990 and was produced in three generations produced until 2006. The first generation was made from 1990 to 1996. The second generation was made from late 1996 to early 2002 with a facelift in 1999 for European markets. The third generation was made from late 2001 to 2006 and was effectively replaced with the Qashqai crossover model in early 2007. It was also offered in the US market as the Infiniti G20 sold over two generations with only a sedan model available coming from the factory in Japan between the 1991 and 2002 model years. It is available as a 4-door sedan, 5-door hatchback and 5-door station wagon bodystyles with 4-cylinder petrol and diesel engines. The model was produced in Japan and the UK.

Gallery

Primera
Front wheel drive vehicles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles

Nissan Primera


Francis Scott Street (October 20, 1831 – April 15, 1883), with partner Francis Shubael Smith were the owners of Street & Smith publishing company in New York City.

New York Dispatch
He was born in New York City in 1831, but moved to New Brunswick, New Jersey in 1844 to work for a grocer. In 1849 he went to work as a bookkeeper for Amos J. Williamson, the publisher of the New York Dispatch, a weekly newspaper. Street teamed up with Francis Shubael Smith, then an editor at the Dispatch in 1855 when they bought a failing magazine together. They then bought the New York Dispatch Weekly in 1858 for $40,000. The sum was to be paid to Williamson over 5 years. Street and Smith were able to increase circulation, and at the time it became one of the most widely circulated New York City weekly newspapers.

Marriage
Francis married Susan E. Potts (1836-1883), daughter of Abram and Elizabeth Potts, around 1858 and they lived in Greenpoint in Brooklyn in 1860. Susan died on June 5, 1883, just 8 weeks after her husband died. Together they had two sons and two daughters.

Francis had a cousin: Jacob Street (c1790-?) from Pitminster, England who moved to Newfoundland, Canada around 1820. Jacob left Canada to travel back to England in 1858–1860, and then he went to New York City where he stayed with his cousin Francis Scott Street.

Death
He was suffering from liver disease for several years but died from a cerebral hemorrhage at his home at 137 Bedford Avenue in Brooklyn. He was buried in Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York in a coffin of red cedar with gold trimmings.

References
1860 US Census; Greenpoint, Brooklyn;
Brooklyn Eagle; April 16, 1883;
The New York Times; April 16, 1883;
The New York Times; April 18, 1883; Funeral for Francis S. Street

External links
Findagrave: Francis Scott Street

1831 births
1883 deaths
People from New Brunswick, New Jersey
Businesspeople from New York City
19th-century American newspaper publishers (people)
American pulp magazine publishers (people)
American paperback book publishers (people)
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery
Street & Smith
19th-century American journalists
American male journalists
Journalists from New York City
19th-century American male writers

Francis Scott Street


Vidar Leif Theisen (5 May 1933 – 30 August 2012) was a Norwegian meteorologist, known for his nasal speech and lack of tonal variation during his presentations of the weather forecast. This uncommon speech pattern made him a cult star in Norway, even after his retirement.

Career
Vidar Theisen was born in Oslo and began his studies there. While a student at the University of Oslo, he decided to pursue a career in meteorology and began his education in the field in 1956. He finished his studies two years later in 1958 and began working at the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. In 1980, Theisen began delivering forecasts in the daily news for the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK), at the time the only television channel in Norway. He quickly became popular amongst viewers for his nasal, monotone and straightforward delivery of the weather forecasts, which also made him a popular character with comedians, and he was often parodied. He was famously parodied by comedian Trond Kirkvaag, who worked with him in NRK.

In 1998, Theisen had his final forecast on television, but he continued working for the Norwegian Meteorological Institute until his retirement in 2001. After his retirement he made guest appearances on both radio and television from time to time.

Personal life and death
Theisen was married twice. His first wife died during childbirth in 1962, along with their child. He later remarried and had two children, one boy and one girl. He also had several grandchildren. Theisen was a deeply faithful Christian and an active member of his congregation until his death.

In 2002, Theisen was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, and thus reduced his workload, devoting his time to faith and family. During his final years he had several complications from the disease and withdrew from the public altogether. Theisen died on 30 August 2012 from Parkinson's disease, aged 79.

References

1933 births
2012 deaths
Scientists from Oslo
University of Oslo alumni
Norwegian meteorologists
Norwegian television personalities
NRK people
Neurological disease deaths in Norway
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
Television people from Oslo

Vidar Theisen


The term drug cartel is used to describe a group who makes, distributes and sells illegal drugs on national level. Drug cartels are often doing so across multiple countries. Mostly, the cartels in areas like Mexico and South America bring drugs to North America.

The basic structure of a drug cartel is the following:

 Falcons: Considered the "eyes and ears" of the cartel. Falcons are typically the lowest rank of drug cartel members. They are scouts, responsible for reporting activities of the police, military, and rival groups.
 Hitmen: These members are armed. They are responsible for carrying out assassinations, kidnappings, and theft. They are also responsible for defending their turf from rival groups and the military.
 Lieutenants: The second highest position in a drug cartel. They are typically allowed to carry out low-profile murders without permission from their bosses. They are also responsible for supervising the hitmen below them.
 Drug Lords: The highest position in a drug cartel. They are responsible for supervising the drug industry, appointing leaders, making alliances with rival groups, and planning high profile murders.

There are other members in drug cartels, typically those who are drug planters and suppliers. They are critical parts of a drug cartels operation. They are technically not considered part of the logistics in drug cartels.

Related pages
Illegal drug trade
Organized crime

Illegal drug production and trade

Drug cartel


In civil proceedings and criminal prosecutions under the common law, a defendant may raise a defense (or defence) in an attempt to avoid criminal or civil liability. It is an answer, made by a defendant to a plaintiff's action or a denial of a prosecutor's charges. It is also an answer in equity.

Civil law defenses
Under common law, a defendant may raise any of the numerous defenses to limit or avoid liability. These include:
 Lack of jurisdiction of the court, such as diplomatic immunity.
 Failure to state a cause of action or other insufficiencies of pleading.
 Any of the affirmative defenses.
 Defenses conferred by statute - such as a statute of limitations or the statute of frauds.
 Ex turpi causa non oritur actio - the action against the defendant arises from an illegality.
 Volenti non fit injuria - consent by the victim or plaintiff.
 In pari delicto - both sides equally at fault
 Unclean hands

Criminal defenses
In a criminal trial, there are a wide variety of defenses offered. Some of these include:
 You could also get shot for major bad acts.
 Most often, defendants claim that they did not commit the alleged act in question.
 The defendant had an alibi. He or she was someplace else when the crime was committed and could not be guilty.
 Self-defense, a claim that an act was justified because of something the other person did.
 An Insanity defense claiming the defendant was not capable of telling right from wrong.
 Under the Influence, a claim the defendant should not be held accountable for their actions due to the influences of drugs or alcoholic drink.
 Entrapment is an inducement to commit a crime by authorities in order to get a conviction.

Many of the above are considered an affirmative defense in which case the burden of proof may be on the defendant to prove their innocence. Otherwise in a criminal trial the burden of proof usually rests with the prosecution. They must prove the defendant is guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.

Related pages
Absolute defense
Lawsuit
Presumption of innocence
Criminal procedure
Statute of limitations
Adversarial system

References

Legal terms

Defense (legal)


Paul Stanley is a solo album from the guitarist of the American hard rock/heavy metal band Kiss. It was released on September 18, 1978, as one of four solo albums released by the members of Kiss.

Track listing
Tonight You Belong To Me
Move On
Ain't Quite Right
Wouldn't You Like To Know Me
Take Me Away (Together As One)
It's Alright
Hold Me, Touch Me (Think Of Me When We're Apart)
Love In Chains
Goodbye

Kiss (band) albums
1978 albums
Hard rock albums

Paul Stanley (album)


In probability and statistics, the binomial distribution is a probability distribution which models the probabilities of having a certain number of successes among n identical trials (each having p as the probability of success). It is also written as . The variables n and p are thus the two parameters of a binomial distribution.

The binomial distribution has discrete values. It counts the number of successes in yes/no-type experiments. Each of these experiment, also called Bernoulli trial, either results in success or failure. Examples of binomial distribution include:
 Tossing a coin 10 times, and counting the number of face-ups. (n=10, p=1/2)
 Rolling a dice 10 times, and counting the number of sixes. (n=10, p=1/6)
 Counting the number of green-eyed people among 500 randomly chosen people (assuming that 5% of all people have green eyes). (n=500, p=0.05)
In order to use the binomial distribution, the following must be true about the problem:
 The outcomes are mutually exclusive, that is, there are two possible outcomes which cannot occur simultaneously (for example. in flipping a coin, there are two possible outcomes: heads or tails. It is always one or the other, never both or a mix of outcomes).
 The probability of a success (p) is consistent throughout the problem (for example, a basketball player makes 85% of his free throws. Each time the player attempts a free throw, 85% is assumed to be the likelihood of a made shot).
 The trials are independent of each other (for example, on the second flip of a coin, the first outcome does not impact the chance of the next toss: the chance of tossing a heads (or tails) is still 50%).

Related pages

 Bernoulli distribution
 Poisson distribution

References

Probability distributions

Binomial distribution