Rule the World (foaled 30 March 2007) is a British-bred, Irish-trained thoroughbred racehorse who won the Grand National as a novice in 2016. He showed good form as a staying hurdler, winning the Slaney Novice Hurdle in 2013 and the Limestone Lad Hurdle in 2014 before being stepped up to compete in steeplechases. In his first season over fences he failed to win in eight attempts but finished second in five races including the Irish Grand National. In the 2015/16 season he recorded two seconds and a third in his first five races before posting his first steeplechase win in the Grand National on 9 April 2016.

Background
Rule The World is a bay gelding, bred in the United Kingdom by Mrs P. G. Wilkins and R. J. McAlpine. He was sired by Sulamani, a top-class international turf horse whose wins included the Prix du Jockey Club, Dubai Sheema Classic, Arlington Million, Juddmonte International Stakes and Canadian International Stakes. The best of his progeny included Mastery and Honeysuckle. Rule The World's dam Elaine Tully showed useful form as a racemare, winning three times on the flat and four times over hurdles. She was a great-granddaughter of the broodmare Helvetie, whose other descendants have included The Derby winner Erhaab.

As a three-year-old gelding, Rule The World was consigned to the Tattersalls Ireland National Hunt sale in June 2010 and was bought for €90,000 by Mouse Morris. During his racing career, Rule The World was owned by Ryanair executive Michael O'Leary, and trained by Morris at Fethard in County Tipperary.

Racing career

Early career
Rule The World began his racing career on the amateur point-to-point circuit, winning at Affane as a four-year-old in November 2011. In the following season he was campaigned in novice hurdle times and won three races including the Slaney Novice Hurdle at Naas Racecourse in which he defeated Champagne Fever. After the race Morris described the winner as "a nice horse" but also as "a big, raw bugger". In March 2013 he was sent to England for the Cheltenham Festival and finished second to The New One in the Baring Bingham Novices' Hurdle.

In the 2013/2014 season Rule The World was campaigned against more experienced hurdlers and began his season by winning over two and a half miles at Naas. He finished fourth to Jezki in the Hatton's Grace Hurdle and second in the Christmas Hurdle at Leopardstown Racecourse. He was then dropped to Grade 3 class for the Limestone Lad Hurdle at Naas in January and won by seven and a half length from Jennies Jewel after leading from the start. Morris described the victory as "a very pleasing performance on bottomless ground which wasn't ideal and making the running which wasn't ideal either". He appeared for the second time at the Cheltenham Festival in March 2014 and finished sixth in the World Hurdle.

Steeplechasing
Rule The World competed in novice chases in the 2014/2015 National Hunt season. He failed to win but showed consistently good form, finishing second in several races including the Woodlands Park 100 Club Novice Chase, the Kilcock Novice Chase and the Hugh McMahon Memorial Novice Chase. In the spring of 2015 he was matched against more experienced opponents in the Irish Grand National and finished second of the twenty-eight starters, four lengths behind the winner Thunder and Roses. On his final appearance of the season he contested the Galway Plate in July and appeared to be traveling well when he slipped and fell approaching the final fence.

In the 2015/2016 season, Rule The World was still a novice chaser despite his high class-form. He began his campaign by finishing third in the Kerry National at Listowel Racecourse and then finished second when favourite for the Like A Butterfly Novice Chase. He was runner-up to No More Heroes (also owned by O'Leary) in the Fort Leney Novice Chase at Leopardstown in December and went on to take fifth place in the Thyestes Chase. On 6 March he made a second attempt to win the Kilcock Novice Chase but finished fourth behind Sub Lieutenant, another O'Leary-owned horse. Up to that point he had been considered a contender for one of the long distance chases at the Cheltenham Festival, but his disappointing performance led to him bypassing the meeting.

On 9 April 2016 Rule The World started a 33/1 outsider for the Grand National in a field which included Many Clouds, Silviniaco Conti, Sir Des Champs, Shutthefrontdoor and 34 others.
Ridden by the 19 year old David Mullins he tracked the leaders for most of the way and survived a mistake at the fourth last fence before moving up into contention on the final turn. He jumped the last in third place and then began a sustained run on the outside. He took the lead at the elbow and drew away in the closing stages to win by six lengths from The Last Samuri, with another eight lengths back to Vics Canvas in third. He was the first novice to win the Grand National since 1958, when Mr. What won the race.

Trainer Morris said, after the win: "It's Disneyland – fairytale stuff. ... He's fractured his pelvis twice. Before that I always thought he was the best horse I ever had, how good would he be with a proper rear end on him?" On the day after his win at Aintree O'Leary suggested that Rule The World might be retired from racing. He said "This horse could have been Gold Cup standard but for the injuries he has suffered. He's nine now and after that we could retire him – I wouldn't want to bring him back here again, and Mouse will have to decide how he comes out of this race, but if he never runs again who cares?" Rule the World's retirement was confirmed in May 2016.

Pedigree

References

External links
 Career 1-2-3 Colour Chart – Rule The World

2007 racehorse births
Racehorses bred in the United Kingdom
Racehorses trained in Ireland
Thoroughbred family 1-w
Grand National winners

Rule the World (horse)


The cave hyena (Crocuta crocuta spelaea), also known as the Ice Age spotted hyena, was a paleosubspecies of spotted hyena in Eurasia, which ranged from the Iberian Peninsula to eastern Siberia. It is one of the best known mammals of the Ice Age and is well represented in many European bone caves. The cave hyena was a highly specialised animal, with its progressive and regressive features being more developed than in its modern African relative. It preyed on large mammals (primarily wild horses, steppe bison and woolly rhinoceros), and was responsible for the accumulation of hundreds of large Pleistocene mammal bones in areas including horizontal caves, sinkholes, mud pits and muddy areas along rivers.

Genetic evidence from the nuclear genome suggests that Eurasian Crocuta populations (including the Asian Crocuta crocuta ultima) were highly genetically divergent from African populations, though the lack of clear separation between mitochondrial genome lineages suggests that the two populations interbred for some time after the initial split.

The cause of the cave hyena's extinction is not fully understood, though it could have been due to a combination of factors, including climate change and competition with other predators.

Description and paleoecology

The main difference between the spotted hyena and the cave hyena lies in the different length of the bones of the hind and front limbs. In the cave hyena, the humerus and the femur are longer, indicating an adaptation to environments other than those of the spotted hyena. The former was also a heavier and more robust animal: an almost complete specimen, found from the Los Aprendices cave in northern Spain, was estimated to weigh 103 kilograms. As in the spotted hyena, the females were larger than the males. A study of 16 fossil specimens of Pleistocene Crocuta indicated that the cave hyena was subject to Bergmann's rule, becoming larger during glacial periods and smaller during interglacial periods. The same study revealed a progressive increase in carnivorous tooth adaptations during glacial periods, indicating that it was an even more active hunter than today's spotted hyena, a behaviour necessitated by the need to feed on calorie rich fresh meat in a freezing environment. Rock paintings in the Lascaux and Chauvet Caves indicate that the cave hyena had the characteristic patches and mane of the spotted hyena. It has been proposed that it possessed thicker fur than the spotted hyena as an environmental adaptation.

Brain
Intracranial digital casts taken from spotted hyenas and two cave hyena skulls showed that the latter had an encephalic volume of 174–218 cm³, higher than today's spotted hyena which has an average volume of 160 cm³. In cave hyenas, however, the anterior telencephalon occupied only 15.9-16.6% of the total brain volume, in contrast to the spotted hyena, whose anterior telencephalon occupied 24.5%. As previous studies show that there is a correlation between telencephalon development and feeding sociability and flexibility in hyenas, it has been proposed, in light of this finding, that the cave hyena did not demonstrate complex social behaviors or adaptability like the spotted hyena, being instead more similar like brown and striped hyena both known as solitary scavengers.

Diet
The most common prey found in Europe are invariably horses, and in the Srbsko Chlum-Komin Cave alone (in the Czech Republic), horse remains make up 51% of the species present. This predilection for equines distinguishes the cave hyena from today's spotted hyenas, which are known to target smaller antelope (impala, gazelle, wildebeest) as well as opportunistically scavenge carrion. Steppe bison remains are generally rare in hyena burrows, and it has been proposed that, except during glacial periods, these were avoided to lessen competition with cave lions and wolves. However, certain sites, such as the cave of San Teodoro, where bison make up 50% of the remains, indicate that certain populations of hyenas specialized their hunting where mammoths and bears were scarce, whose carcasses were a main source of food in much of Europe. Cervids are rare or absent in the burrows, probably being too fast for hyenas.

History of discovery and classification

Although the first full account of the cave hyena was given by Georges Cuvier in 1812, skeletal fragments of the cave hyena have been described in scientific literature since the 18th century, though they were frequently misidentified. The first recorded mention of the cave hyena in literature occurs in Kundmann's 1737 tome Rariora Naturæ et Artis, where the author misidentified a hyena's mandibular ramus as that of a calf. In 1774, Esper erroneously described hyena teeth discovered in Gailenreuth as those of a lion, and in 1784, Collini described a cave hyena skull as that of a seal. The past presence of hyenas in Great Britain was revealed after William Buckland's examination of the contents of Kirkdale Cave, which was discovered to have once been the location of several hyena den sites. Buckland's findings were followed by further discoveries by Clift and Whidbey in Oreston, Plymouth.

In his own 1812 account, Cuvier mentioned a number of European localities where cave hyena remains were found, and considered it a different species from the spotted hyena on account of its superior size. He elaborated his view in his Ossemens Fossiles (1823), noting how the cave hyena's digital extremities were shorter and thicker than those of the spotted hyena. His views were largely accepted throughout the first half of the 19th century, finding support in de Blainville and Richard Owen among others. Further justifications in separating the two animals included differences in the tubercular portion of the lower carnassial. Boyd Dawkins, writing in 1865, was the first to definitely cast doubt over the separation of the spotted and cave hyena, stating that the aforementioned tooth characteristics were consistent with mere individual variation. Writing again in 1877, he further stated after comparing the two animals' skulls that there are no characters of specific value.

Analysis of the mitochondrial genomes of Eurasian Crocuta specimens shows no clear separation from African lineages. However, analysis of full nuclear genomes suggests that African and Eurasian Crocuta populations were largely separate, having estimated to have diverged from each other around 2.5 million years ago, closely corresponding to the age of the earliest Crocuta specimens in Eurasia, which are around 2 million years old from China. The nuclear genome results also suggested that the European and Asian populations (the latter often assigned to the separate subspecies C. crocuta ultima) were distinct from each other, but were more closely related to each other overall than to African Crocuta populations. Analysis of the nuclear genome suggests that there had been interbreeding between these populations for some time after the split, which likely explains the discordance between the nuclear and mitochondrial genome results, with the mitochondrial genomes of African and European Crocuta more closely related to each other than to Asian Crocuta, suggesting gene flow between the two groups after the split between the Asian and European populations.

Relationships with hominids

Interactions
Kills partially processed by Neanderthals and then by cave hyenas indicate that hyenas would occasionally steal Neanderthal kills; and cave hyenas and Neanderthals competed for cave sites. Many caves show alternating occupations by hyenas and Neanderthals. The presence of large hyena populations in the Russian Far East may have delayed the human colonisation of North America. There is fossil evidence of humans in Middle Pleistocene Europe butchering and presumably consuming hyenas.

In rock art

The cave hyena is depicted in a few examples of Upper Palaeolithic rock art in France. A painting from the Chauvet Cave depicts a hyena outlined and represented in profile, with two legs, with its head and front part with well distinguishable spotted coloration pattern. Because of the specimen's steeped profile, it is thought that the painting was originally meant to represent a cave bear, but was modified as a hyena. In Lascaux, a red and black rock painting of a hyena is present in the part of the cave known as the Diverticule axial, and is depicted in profile, with four limbs, showing an animal with a steep back. The body and the long neck have spots, including the flanks. An image on a cave in Ariège shows an incompletely outlined and deeply engraved figure, representing a part of an elongated neck, smoothly passing into part of the animal's forelimb on the proximal side. Its head is in profile, with a possibly re-engraved muzzle. The ear is typical of the spotted hyena, as it is rounded. An image in the Le Gabillou Cave in Dordogne shows a deeply engraved zoomorphic figure with a head in frontal view and an elongated neck with part of the forelimb in profile. It has large round eyes and short, rounded ears which are set far from each other. It has a broad, line-like mouth that evokes a smile. Though originally thought to represent a composite or zoomorphic hybrid, it is probable it is a spotted hyena based on its broad muzzle and long neck. The relative scarcity of hyena depictions in Paleolithic rock art has been theorised to be due to the animal's lower rank in the animal worship hierarchy; the cave hyena's appearance was likely unappealing to Ice Age hunters, and it was not sought after as prey. Also, it was not a serious rival like the cave lion or bear, and it lacked the impressiveness of the mammoth or woolly rhino.

Extinction
The youngest known specimens of cave hyenas in Europe date to around 31,000 years ago, while the youngest specimens in East Asia date to around 20,000 years ago. Potential causal factors for extinction include decreasing temperatures, competition with other carnivores, including humans for food and living space, and decreased prey abundance.

Gallery

See also
Pachycrocuta

References

External links

 Cuvier, Georges, Note sur les ossemens fossiles d'hyènes, Nouveau Bulletin des Sciences, Tome 1, 1807-1809 (pp. 149–150).

Pleistocene mammals of Asia
Pleistocene carnivorans
Prehistoric hyenas
Fossil taxa described in 1823

Cave hyena


Miles Sindercombe (died 13 February 1657) was the leader of a group that tried to assassinate Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell during the period of the Protectorate in 1657.

Early military career
Sindercombe was born in Kent and was apprenticed to a surgeon. During the English Civil War, he became a Roundhead and a Leveller. In 1649, he took part in the mutiny of his regiment and when it failed he fled. In 1655, he re-appeared as a member of a cavalry regiment in Scotland and took part in a plot to take control of the local army. This failed as well, and Sindercombe fled to the Netherlands.

Plotters
In Flanders, he met another Leveller and anti-Cromwell plotter, Edward Sexby, in 1656. Sindercombe joined his plot to assassinate Cromwell in hope of restoring the Puritan republic as they saw it. Sexby supplied Sindercombe with money and weapons.

In 1656, Sindercombe returned to England and gathered a group of co-conspirators, including renegade soldier John Cecil, apparent conman William Boyes and John Toope, a member of Cromwell's Life-Guards. Toope gave the other plotters information about Cromwell's movements.

Assassination attempts
First, Sindercombe rented a house in King Street in Westminster, where they intended to shoot Cromwell when he rode past in his coach. However, they noticed that it would be a difficult place to escape from after the attempt, so they abandoned the plan.

Next, Sindercombe rented another house near Westminster Abbey, using the name "John Fish". He intended to shoot Cromwell with an arquebus on his way from Westminster Abbey to Parliament on 17 September 1656. However, when a large crowd gathered outside, Boyes panicked and left, and the attempt had to be abandoned.

Sindercombe's group then intended to shoot Cromwell when he left for Hampton Court, as he customarily did every Friday. They intended to shoot at Cromwell's coach while it was going through a narrow passage. As it happened, Cromwell changed his mind on that particular Friday, and the plotters waited in vain.

The next idea was to shoot Cromwell when he was walking in Hyde Park. They broke the hinges of the park gates to facilitate their escape, and John Cecil began to follow Cromwell and his entourage. However, Cromwell became interested in Cecil's horse and called him over. Cecil lost his nerve and could not shoot him. He afterwards claimed that the horse was ill and that he could not have escaped.

Capture
After so many failed attempts, Cromwell's spymaster, John Thurloe, had noticed the would-be assassins. He had already heard about the plot from his spies on the Continent.

Sindercombe's next idea was to burn down Whitehall Palace and the Lord Protector with it. Boyes made an explosive device out of gunpowder, tar and pitch, and the group planted it in the palace chapel on 8 January 1657. However, Toope, who had had a change of heart, revealed the plan to authorities. When the plotters left, guards disarmed the bomb.

Thurloe gave an order to arrest the plotters. Cecil was easily captured, but Boyes escaped. Sindercombe fought the guards until one guard cut off part of his nose. Cecil and Sindercombe were sent to the Tower.

Cecil decided to tell all. With Toope's aid, Thurloe learned Sexby's part in the plot and presented his findings to the Parliament.

Trial and death
Sindercombe remained uncooperative. On 9 February 1657, he was found guilty of High treason when both Cecil and Toope testified against him and sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered. Sindercomb's sister brought him poison the night before he was to be executed, either to spare him the agony of such a death, or because he did not want to face the humiliation of execution. He drank it and was found dead in his cell in the Tower of London on 13 February 1657. His body was dragged to the erected gallows and buried beneath it by the hangman.

See also
Killing No Murder, a pamphlet published in 1657

Notes

References
  extract

Further reading

1657 deaths
1657 crimes
Failed assassins
Levellers
People from Kent
Suicides by poison
People who died by suicide in prison custody
People convicted of treason against England
Suicides in the Tower of London
English prisoners sentenced to death
English people who died in prison custody
Prisoners who died in England and Wales detention
Year of birth unknown
17th-century suicides

Miles Sindercombe


James Boag II (1854–1919) was the son of James Boag I, and co-proprietor of J. Boag & Sons, owner of the Boag's Brewery in Launceston, Tasmania, Australia.

Educated in Launceston, James Boag II was an energetic entrepreneur. A keen sportsman throughout his youth, Boag generously supported sporting clubs all his life.

Boag performed his military service in Launceston and qualified for the Long Service Medal in 1910. During the 1901 Federation celebrations, The Examiner reported that at midnight, "twenty-one guns boomed out the royal salute from the Launceston Artillery under Captain J. Boag".

James Boag II became manager of J. Boag & Son in 1887 and later became the sole proprietor after the death of his father in 1890.

In 1919, James II died and was succeeded by James III. The Daily Telegraph reported, A wide circle of friends will regret to learn of the death of Mr James Boag. He was a man keenly interested, though not perhaps altogether publicly, in the welfare of the city, and devoted much time to the development of sport.

A widow, five sons and four daughters are left to mourn the loss of a devoted husband and father.

References

1854 births
1919 deaths
Australian people of Scottish descent
People from Launceston, Tasmania
Australian brewers
19th-century Australian businesspeople
20th-century Australian businesspeople

James Boag II


Elizabeth of Aragon (Elisabet in Catalan, Isabel in Aragonese, Portuguese and Spanish; 1271 – 4 July 1336), more commonly known as Elizabeth of Portugal, was queen consort of Portugal who is venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church.

Family and early life

Born in 1271 into the royal house of Aragon, Elizabeth was the daughter of Infante Peter (later King Peter III) and his wife Constance of Sicily and the sister of three kings: Alfonso II and James II of Aragon and Frederick III of Sicily.

Great niece and namesake of Elizabeth of Hungary, she was the original source of the bread to roses miracle often depicted in art of her better known great aunt. The kingly suspicion of generosity to poor people is far more characteristic of her warlike and abusive husband than Elizabeth of Hungary's loving and pious spouse, Louis.

Elizabeth was educated very piously, and led a life of strict regularity from her childhood: she said the full Divine Office daily, fasted and did other penances.

Marriage
Elizabeth's marriage to King Denis of Portugal was arranged in 1281 when she was 10 years old, receiving the towns of Óbidos, Abrantes and Porto de Mós as part of her dowry. It was only in 1288 that the wedding was celebrated, when Denis was 26 years old, while Elizabeth was 17. Denis, a poet and statesman, was known as the Rei Lavrador (), because he planted a large pine forest near Leiria to prevent the soil degradation that threatened the region.

Elizabeth quietly pursued the regular religious practices of her youth and was devoted to the poor and sick. Such a life was taken as a reproach to many around her and caused ill will in some quarters. Eventually, her prayer and patience succeeded in converting her husband, who had been leading a sinful life of spousal abuse and  adultery.

Elizabeth took an active interest in Portuguese politics and was a decisive conciliator during the negotiations concerning the Treaty of Alcañices, signed by Denis and Fernando IV of Castile in 1297 (which fixed the borders between the two countries). In 1304, the Queen and Denis returned to Spain to arbitrate between Fernando IV of Castile and James II of Aragon, brother of Elizabeth.

She had two children, a daughter named Constance, who married King Ferdinand IV of Castile and also a son Afonso (who later became King Afonso IV of Portugal).Elizabeth would serve as intermediary between her husband and Afonso, during the Civil War between 1322 and 1324. The Infante greatly resented the king, whom he accused of favoring the king's illegitimate son, Afonso Sanches. Repulsed to Alenquer, which supported the Infante, Denis was prevented from killing his son through the intervention of the Queen, when she, in 1323, mounted on a mule, positioned herself between both opposing armies on the field of Alvalade in order to prevent the combat. Peace returned in 1324, once the illegitimate son was sent into exile, and the Infante swore loyalty to the king.

Dowager Queen
After Denis' death in 1325, Elizabeth retired to the monastery of the Poor Clare nuns, now known as the Monastery of Santa Clara-a-Velha (which she had founded in 1314) in Coimbra. She joined the Third Order of St. Francis, devoting the rest of her life to the poor and sick in obscurity. During the great famine in 1293, she donated flour from her cellars to the starving in Coimbra. She was also known for being modest in her dress and humble in conversation, for providing lodging for pilgrims, distributing small gifts, paying the dowries of poor girls, and educating the children of poor nobles. She was a benefactor of various hospitals (Coimbra, Santarém and Leiria) and of religious projects (such as the Trinity Convent in Lisbon, chapels in Leiria and Óbidos, and the cloister in Alcobaça).

She was called to act once more as a peacemaker in 1336, when Afonso IV marched his troops against King Alfonso XI of Castile, to whom he had married his daughter Maria, and who had neglected and ill-treated her. In spite of age and weakness, the Queen-dowager insisted on hurrying to Estremoz, where the two kings' armies were drawn up. She again stopped the fighting and caused terms of peace to be arranged. But the exertion brought on her final illness. As soon as her mission was completed, she took to her bed with a fever from which she died on 4 July, in the castle of Estremoz. She earned the title of Peacemaker on account of her efficacy in solving disputes.

Although Denis' tomb was located in Odivelas, Elizabeth was buried in the Convent of Santa Clara in Coimbra, in a magnificent Gothic sarcophagus. After frequent flooding by the Mondego River in the 17th century, the Poor Clares moved her mortal remains to the Monastery of Santa Clara-a-Nova (also in Coimbra). Her body was transferred to the main chapel, where it was buried in a sarcophagus of silver and crystal.

Sainthood

She was beatified in 1516 and canonized by Pope Urban VIII on 24 June 1626. Her feast was inserted in the General Roman Calendar for celebration on 4 July. In the year 1694 Pope Innocent XII moved her feast to 8 July, so it would not conflict with the celebration of the Octave of Saints Peter and Paul, Apostles. In 1955, Pope Pius XII abolished this octave. The 1962 Roman Missal changed the rank of the feast from "Double" to "Third-Class Feast". The 1969 revision of the Calendar classified the celebration as an optional memorial and restored it to 4 July. Her feast is also kept on the Franciscan Calendar of Saints. Since the establishment in 1819 of the Diocese of San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Canary Islands, Spain),  Saint Elizabeth is the co-patron of the diocese and of its cathedral pursuant to the papal bull issued by Pope Pius VII.
In the United States her memorial has been transferred to 5 July since 4 July is the date of the independence of that nation, a national holiday.

Elizabeth is usually depicted in royal garb with a dove or an olive branch.

Legacy
Elizabeth was the original namesake of Santa Isabela Island in Ecuador's Galapagos Islands, although this was later emended to Isabela Island on the quadricentennial of Columbus's first voyage, changing its eponym to IsabellaI of Castile.

She was the subject of a 1947 Portuguese-Spanish film, The Holy Queen, in which she was played by Maruchi Fresno. In Portuguese popular culture, she is commonly associated with a "miracle of the roses". The young adult historical fantasy novel A Curse of Roses by Portuguese author Diana Pinguicha retells her story as a princess who can turn food into flowers and falls for an Enchanted Moura.

References

Bibliography

 "Saint Elizabeth, Queen of Portugal", Butler's Lives of the Saints

External links
 Colonnade Statue at St Peter's Square

|-

1271 births
1336 deaths
Queens consort of Portugal
Portuguese Roman Catholic saints
House of Aragon
13th-century people from the Kingdom of Aragon
14th-century people from the Kingdom of Aragon
13th-century Portuguese people
14th-century Portuguese people
13th-century Spanish women
14th-century Spanish women
13th-century Portuguese women
14th-century Portuguese women
14th-century Christian saints
Aragonese infantas
Franciscan saints
Members of the Third Order of Saint Francis
Roman Catholic royal saints
Female saints of medieval Portugal
Female saints of medieval Spain
Medieval Spanish saints
Medieval Portuguese saints
People from Coimbra
Canonizations by Pope Urban VIII
Royal reburials
Daughters of kings
Queen mothers

Elizabeth of Portugal


The Gau Berlin was an administrative division of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945 in the German capital Berlin. Before that, from 1928 to 1933, it was the regional subdivision of the Nazi Party in that area. From 1926 to 1928 Berlin was part of the Gau Berlin-Brandenburg which was split into two separate Gaue on 1 October 1928.

History
The Nazi Gau (plural Gaue) system was originally established in a party conference on 22 May 1926, in order to improve administration of the party structure. From 1933 onwards, after the Nazi seizure of power, the Gaue increasingly replaced the German states as administrative subdivisions in Germany.

At the head of each Gau stood a Gauleiter, a position which became increasingly more powerful, especially after the outbreak of the Second World War, with little interference from above. The local Gauleiters often held government positions as well as party ones and were in charge of, among other things, propaganda and surveillance and, from September 1944 onward, the Volkssturm and the defense of the Gau.

The position of Gauleiter in Berlin was held by Joseph Goebbels throughout the history of the Gau. Goebbels, Reich Minister of Propaganda, was one of Adolf Hitler's closest associates and, along with his family, committed suicide on 1 May 1945.

References

External links
 Illustrated list of Gauleiter

Berlin
1928 establishments in Germany
1945 disestablishments in Germany
History of Berlin

Gau Berlin


In broadcasting, the watershed is the time of day after which programming with content deemed suitable only for mature or adult audiences is permitted.

In the same way that a geological watershed divides two drainage basins, a broadcasting watershed serves as a dividing line in a schedule between family-oriented content, and content deemed suitable only for a more mature audience, such as programs containing objectionable content; this can include graphic violence, strong language, and sexual content, or strong references to those themes, even if they are not shown explicitly. The transition to more adult material must not be unduly abrupt and the strongest material should appear later in the evening.

In some countries, watersheds are enforced by broadcasting laws. Cultural differences around the world allow those watershed times to vary. For instance, in Australia, the watershed time is 19:30 (7:30 p.m.), and in Italy it is 22:30 (10:30 p.m.). In some countries, the schedule is divided into periods with progressively fewer restrictions. In addition, some countries are more lenient towards subscription television and radio or pay-per-view channels than towards free-to-air channels.

By country

Argentina
In Argentina, any programmes broadcast between 06:00 or 07:00 and 22:00 or 22:30 must be suitable for all ages. There are also three other ratings, SAM 13, SAM 16, and SAM 18, which may be broadcast only during the broadcast time that is not covered by any programme suitable for family viewing.

Starting in September 2010, it is compulsory for broadcasters to show the notices "Comienza el horario apto para todo público" () and "Finaliza el horario apto para todo público" () at 6:00 a.m. or 7:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m. or 10:30 p.m. respectively. In addition, the notice "Atención: Contenido no apto para niños, niñas y adolescentes" () are shown before news broadcasts.

Australia
On Australian television, programmes are restricted to certain times based on their rating. Since December 2015, PG-rated programmes can be shown at any time of day, M-rated programmes from 19:30, and MA15+ programmes from 20:30. M-rated programmes can also be shown from 12:00 to 15:00 on school days.

Complications with Australian time zones allow that to vary slightly in some areas. For example, when daylight saving time is in effect in New South Wales, NSW-based stations broadcasting to the Gold Coast, Queensland, would effectively push the broadcast watersheds an hour earlier, as Queensland does not observe DST; however, complaints by Gold Coast residents have forced those stations to delay prime-time programming by one hour to compensate.

With the exception of subscription narrowcast channels, anything rated R18+ must not be shown on Australian television at any time, and must be edited to fit within MA15+ guidelines. Even on subscription narrowcast channels, the owner of the channel must ensure that its content is restricted to access by those with appropriate disabling devices.

Austria
There is no legally binding watershed in Austria. However, according to its regulations, the public service broadcaster's channels do not air content that might harm the physical, mental or moral development of minors before 8:15 p.m. and when fictional programmes "not suitable for children" or "only for adults" are aired an X or O, respectively, is added to the digital on-screen graphic.

Brazil
In Brazil, the concept of watershed was officially abolished on August 31, 2016, after a controversial decision made by the Supreme Federal Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal). Despite the online activism organized by some opposing parents and critics, such as Helena Martins, a journalist and representative of the National Program of Human Rights (Programa Nacional de Direitos Humanos), who created a petition on the Internet trying to prevent the decision, the Court ruled in favor of a lawsuit made by the Brazilian Labor Party (Partido Trabalhista Brasileiro), a nationally known political party who received the support (during the lawsuit) of the Brazilian Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters (Associação Brasileira de Emissoras de Rádio e Televisão), composed of a group of several radio and television broadcasters spread throughout the country. Both organizations advocated for the national abolition of the watershed, claiming that the watershed was a kind of restriction that caused problems related to the "lack of programming freedom" on the Brazilian television.

Starting in 1990, when the Advisory Rating Coordination (Coordenação de Classificação Indicativa) of the Department of Justice Politics (Departamento de Políticas de Justiça) was established, until the August 31, 2016 Supreme Court ruling, the Brazilian advisory rating system determined not only the content rating of a program, but also imposed a watershed system, who was created in line with the Child and Adolescent Statute (Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente), a series of regulations who determine what are the children's rights in Brazil. The watershed was composed by the following rules:

 Programs rated  (Free for All Audiences - Livre para Todos os Públicos) and  (Not recommended for minors under 10 - Não recomendado para menores de 10 anos) could be broadcast at anytime;
 Programs rated  (Not recommended for minors under 12 - Não recomendado para menores de 12 anos) could be broadcast only between 8:00 PM (20:00) and 6:00 AM;
 Programs rated  (Not recommended for minors under 14 - Não recomendado para menores de 14 anos) could be broadcast only between 9:00 PM (21:00) and 6:00 AM;
 Programs rated  (Not recommended for minors under 16 - Não recomendado para menores de 16 anos) could be broadcast only between 10:00 PM (22:00) and 6:00 AM;
 Programs rated  (Not recommended for minors under 18 - Não recomendado para menores de 18 anos) could be broadcast only between 11:00 PM (23:00) and 6:00 AM.

The watershed was enforced only for free-to-air television channels (both VHF and UHF); pay television channels were not required to follow the watershed, and indeed, could broadcast any program anytime.

Before 1990, during the military dictatorship and in the early New Republic, the regulator entity for the watershed was the Public Diversions Censorship Division (Divisão de Censura de Diversões Públicas) of the Federal Police of Brazil (Polícia Federal do Brasil). More known simply as the "Federal Censorship" (Censura Federal), it was this division who determined if a pre-recorded television program was eligible to be transmitted on a determined time (the Censorship Division also decided what was the content rating of these programs, and had the power to impede the broadcast of unauthorized programs, meaning that all television programs that were not broadcast live had to be previously sent to the "Federal Censorship" through videotapes to receive the authorization of transmission before they could be aired).

Canada
The Code of Ethics and the Violence Code of the Canadian Association of Broadcasters (which does not include the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and provincial public broadcasters such as TVOntario and Tele-Quebec, which are directly overseen by the CRTC) specify that broadcasters may not air programming that contains sexually explicit material or coarse or offensive language intended for adult audiences outside of the "late viewing period," which is defined as programming beginning at 9:00 p.m., and ending at 5:30 a.m. Programs that begin before 9:00 p.m. are considered pre-watershed even if they run into this time period. In regards to time zones, the watershed is based on the time zone from which the signal originates. 11:00 p.m. is the watershed for radio broadcasting; before then and after 4:00 a.m., radio stations are forbidden from broadcasting content that glorifies violence, undue coarse language, or undue sexually explicit material.

The Violence Code does provide some leniency for scheduling programs pre-watershed in order to exercise a terrestrial broadcaster's simsub rights (noting that viewers would have access to content advisories also mandated by the code). However, in any case, no broadcaster may air material that contains "gratuitous violence in any form or which sanctions, promotes or glamourizes violence."

Czech Republic
In the Czech Republic, only programmes that "can be watched by children" can be aired until 22:00. After 22:00, adult-oriented programmes may be aired. They have to be marked with star on either corner of image. Notably Jednicka (CT1) and Dvojka (CT2).

Finland
In Finland, all the major television companies (Yle, MTV Media, Nelonen Media, SBS Finland and Fox International) have agreed not to show 16-rated content before 21:00 and 18-rated content before 23:00. Television channels use their own discretion to decide the ratings. Before airing a programme, the channel must provide the related rating information to the governmental bureau Finnish Centre for Media Education and Audiovisual Media, which replaced the now-defunct Finnish Board of Film Classification in that capacity in early 2012.

France
In France, -12 rated programmes/films are not allowed before 22:00, and -16/-18 rated programmes/films are not allowed before 22:30 and 00:00
respectively. -18 rated programmes/films may air only via satellite and cable. The period in which programmes with any ratings are permitted finishes at 06:00 except for -18 programmes, which may not be issued after 05:00.

There is also one additional rating that is not used in films: -10. -10 rated programmes signifies content less intense than -12 rated programmes. All programmes and films must display the respective icon on-screen for the duration of the programme. Before December 2012, -10 rated programmes had to display the respective icon on-screen at the start and in regular intervals.

Germany
In Germany, content suitable for ages 16 and older is permitted between 22:00 and 06:00 and content suitable for adults (18 and older)
is permitted between 23:00 and 06:00. Programmes marked "Keine Jugendfreigabe" (not approved for minors) by the ratings organization FSK may thus be shown only after 23:00. Blacklisted movies may not be aired at any time. Some content rated 12 and older is permitted between 20:00 and 06:00, but there is no general watershed for such content.

If a commercial broadcaster wants to air a programme not rated by the FSK, the programme's watershed is rated by the FSF (Freiwillige Selbstkontrolle Fernsehen: Voluntary Self Regulation for TV) instead. A programme with neither rating is not usually aired by commercial broadcasters since the KJM (Kommission für Jugendmedienschutz: Commission for the Protection of Minors in the Media) may charge a fine if it finds the content inappropriate. To avoid the original watershed for a programme or to air a blacklisted movie, commercial broadcasters may ask the FSF to tell them how to cut the movie for another rating.

Greece
Greece uses a triple-tier watershed, along with a five-tier dual-tone decal scheme, displayed at the beginning and at regular intervals during all broadcasts except for news bulletins.
 A black square containing a white circle and the letter "K" (Κατάλληλο, Suitable) in black, indicates unrestricted programming.
 A black square containing a white circle and the number "8", indicates programming that is suitable for persons aged 8 and older. TV programming using this symbol is precluded from being broadcast during special children TV programming, as well as at least thirty minutes before or after that special programming.
 A black square containing a white circle and the number "12", indicates programming that is suitable for persons aged 12 and older. and is only allowed only between 21:00 and 06:00, Monday through Thursday, and 22:00 and 06:00, Friday through Sunday as well as during school holidays.
 A black square containing a white circle and the number "16", indicates programming that that is suitable for persons aged 16 and older and is allowed only between 22:00 and 06:00.
 A black square containing a white circle and the number "18", indicates programming that is suitable for adults (persons aged 18 and older), and is allowed only between 00:00 and 06:00. Programmes with foul language and commercials with sexual oriented nudity typically fall into this category. Broadcasting content with this rating before midnight is punishable by fine except when used in the context of a suitably labelled film, theatrical play or other media.
Furthermore, for media rated "12" and above, a special identification regarding the content of the media, is required to be broadcast at the beginning of the programme. These verbal descriptors are:

 Βία (Violence) - This programme contains depictions of violence.
 Σεξ (Sex) - This programme contains depictions of sexual or sexualised acts.
 Χρήση Ουσιών (Use of Substances) - This programme contains depictions of drug use, or of other addicting substances.
 Ακατάλληλη Φρασεολογία (Improper Speech) - This programme contains use of improper or vulgar speech.

These ratings are mandatorily displayed and verbally announced at the beginning of each broadcast. The provisions are enforced by the National Radio and Television Council (ESR), an independent authority, whose executive members are appointed by the leaders of all parliamentary parties, preferably by unanimous consent and in extremis by an 80% supermajority.

Hungary
Hungary uses a two-tier watershed.
 Programmes rated for over 16-year-olds are allowed only between 21:00 and 05:00.
 Programmes rated for over 18-year-olds are allowed only between 22:00 and 05:00.

Hungarian television prime time ends about 23:30.

For more information about the two ratings' meaning, see .

India
India does not have a watershed. The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) is responsible for regulating television programming. The law permits only material rated with a U (Universal) certificate to be broadcast on television, but the law is regularly disobeyed. The government has, at times, ordered individual programmes and films to be broadcast between 11 p.m. and 5 a.m.  There have been several proposals in the past to introduce an 11 p.m. watershed, permitting programming rated 'A' (Adults Only) from then until 5 a.m., but all have been rejected by the government.

As many Indian households have only one television, nearly the entire broadcast day is positioned by broadcasters as being suitable for family viewing. Self-censorship of foreign series (particularly from the U.S.) is common in order to meet more conservative content standards, and 11 p.m. is typically treated as a de facto watershed, with adult content offered until 5 a.m. (and some channels, such as Zee Café, openly promoting programming blocks within the hours featuring "uncut" programming with fewer edits).

Ireland
In Ireland, there is no statutory requirement for a watershed. The Code of Programme Standards of the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland (BAI) requires television and radio broadcasters to use at least one of three methods to advise viewers of content, namely: an explicit watershed for adult-oriented programmes; prior warnings before potentially offensive programming; and/or a descriptive classification system. A 2005 survey for the drafters of the Code found that 83% of viewers thought a watershed was a good idea, and only 39% knew the pre-existing watershed was 21:00; 52% felt it should be 22:00 or 23:00. The 2007 Code specifies that broadcasters using a watershed must regularly promote it, and its start and end times, for viewers' awareness.

RTÉ Television implements a watershed of 21:00, as well as an onscreen classification system. Programmes with the MA ("mature audience") classification are shown only after the watershed. Programmes running through the watershed are treated as pre-watershed. RTÉ's guidelines state, "A cornerstone of our contract with television viewers is the watershed and the understanding that prior to 21.00 material broadcast should be suitable for a family audience. ... The immediately post 21.00 broadcast period should be regarded as a graduation period towards more adult material and due allowance must be made for the potential presence of children in the audience". More nuanced limits may also be applied; for example, RTÉ cleared a trailer for horror film Paranormal Activity for broadcast after 19:00, except during the Saturday evening film which many children watch. Virgin Media One operates what it calls "the internationally accepted watershed" of 21:00. Radio broadcasting does not apply a watershed.

In 2005, all television broadcasters operated a main watershed starting at 21:00. In the case of RTÉ, it ended at 06:30, while for Virgin Media One and TG4, which then had shorter broadcast hours, it ended at nighttime closedown. RTÉ Radio did not use a watershed. TG4 claimed it had "a number of different watersheds coming into effect throughout the day", while all stations had a second, less formal watershed at 22:00 for "material which is decidedly over 18". Quinn notes that the period from 18:00 to 21:00 attracts most viewer complaints, as "audience expectations of what should be shown often differ greatly".

The BAI's code regarding advertising and children states, "In general terms, programmes broadcast after 9 p.m. are not regarded as children's programmes. After this time, the primary responsibility for what a child is watching is seen to lie with the parents/guardians. The Code recognises, however, that children's viewing does not end abruptly at 9 p.m. and so the Code will offer some protection in the hour between 9 p.m. and 10 p.m."

Italy

According to Codice TV e minori (Code for Children and Television, 2002), all the channels must broadcast "general audience" programmes from 07:00 to 22:30. After 22:30, +14 programmes can be aired, while +18 programmes are prohibited from television altogether except for satellite, cable, and OTT premium adult channels, along with Cielo.

Mexico
Department of Radio, Television and Film (Mexico) regulates television programming in Mexico. Any programs shown on Mexican television must be classified A (suitable for all ages) for broadcast between 05:00 to 20:00. Broadcast for programs classified as B, B-15, C and/or D can be broadcast at certain times only.

 Programs rated B may be broadcast only from 16:00 to 05:59.
 Programs rated B-15 may be broadcast only from 19:00 to 05:59.
 Programs rated C may be broadcast only from 21:00 to 05:59.
 Programs rated D can be broadcast only from 00:00 to 05:00.

The Netherlands

 Programmes that are rated "All ages", "6" or "9" can be broadcast all day.
 Programmes that are rated "12" can be broadcast from 20.00 to 06.00
 Programmes that are rated "16" can be broadcast from 22.00 to 06.00

The number in the age rating indicates the lowest age for which it is suitable.

New Zealand

On 1 May 2020, the new classification rating system for television (both free-to-air and subscription) was implemented, bringing it more in line with film classifications as per the Films, Videos and Publications Classification Act 1993.

 G and PG rated programmes can be shown at any time on both free-to-air and subscription television.
M rated programmes can be shown any time only on subscription television. On free-to-air television, M rated programmes can be shown between the hours of 9.00am and 3.00pm on weekdays (school term time only) and from 7.30pm until 5.00am on a daily basis (including weekends, school holidays and public holidays).
16 rated programmes can be shown any time only on subscription television, but must be blocked if viewers under 16 are present. On free-to-air television, 16 rated programmes can only be shown from 8.30pm to 5.00am. 16 rated programmes may contain stronger content that may be considered unsuitable for children under the age of 16.
18 rated programmes can be shown on subscription television between 9.00am and 3.00pm on weekdays (school term time only) and from 8.00pm until 6.00am on a daily basis (including weekends, school holidays and public holidays). On free-to-air television, 18 rated programmes can only be shown between 9.30pm and 5.00am. 18 rated programmes may contain more explicit but challenging content such as very frequent coarse language, very strong or graphic violence, very strong or explicit sex scenes, nudity or material that may be considered either too distressing or offensive to some adult viewers.

News and current affairs programmes and sporting events are exempt from the system altogether but still carry warnings before certain stories with graphic content or objectionable material.

Previous system

The previous system for free-to-air television, introduced in 1989, used the following system based on the one formerly used in Australia:
G (General), which could air at any time,
PGR (Parental Guidance Recommended), which could not air between 6am and 9am or between 4pm and 7pm, and
AO (Adults Only), which could only air between noon and 3pm on school days, and between 8:30pm and 5am

Subscription television has always used the current system.

Peru
Peru has adult time from 22:00 to 6:00. During the rest of the time, nevertheless, some +14 programming signs may be posted on the screen. As of 2015, there have been complaints that adult time is not enforced (either from the TV channels or the authorities) since some programs such as Combate, Esto es Guerra, Amor Amor Amor and Al fondo hay sitio have broadcast violence, or sexually suggestive material, during "unrestricted" time.

Poland
In Poland, the Czas chroniony ("Protected time") rules specify that programmes with a "12" rating or higher are not allowed to be aired during scheduling blocks intended for children, programmes with a "16" rating are not allowed to be aired before 20:00 on mainstream channels, and programmes with an "18" rating may not be aired before 23:00 on mainstream channels.

Portugal
Open channel terrestrial television stations (RTP, SIC and TVI) can broadcast programmes and films rated 16 only between 22:30 and 06:00 with a permanent visual identification and red  circle in right top on the tv screen. There are no legal restrictions on pay television, but those channels usually follow the same rules as open television, for example, the red circle on the top right  (or top left ). Pornography may be aired only on encrypted channels.

Serbia
In 2015, the Serbian broadcasting regulator, the REM (Regulatory body for Electronic Media) introduced a two-tier watershed. The watershed is based on the new TV rating system.

Programmes marked "16" are allowed to be shown only between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. and may contain coarse language and mild references to gambling, drugs and sex.

Programmes marked "18" are allowed to be shown only between 12 a.m. and 6 a.m. and may contain extensive scenes of drugs and sex.

Slovakia
Slovak law defines a two-tier watershed and TV stations are obliged to show JSO's rating symbols through the entire program and also in promos.

Programmes given ratings of 15 or Educational 15+ can broadcast only from 8pm to 6am. Programmes given an 18 rating are permitted to be shown only from 10pm to 6am.

Slovenia
The national public broadcaster RTV Slovenija uses three watersheds. Between 8 PM and 5 AM content rated 12+ can be shown, programmes rated 15+ are allowed between 10 PM and 5 AM programmes and 18+ rated content can be screened between midnight and 5 AM. Cartoons and children's programmes have to be screened until 7 PM, when the main evening newscast begins. Many broadcasters (for example local or regional channels) also take this approach in a similar way.

A warning, which has to be shown for at least 10 seconds, has to be broadcast before airing a programme with an age restriction. It consists of showing an enlarged age rating symbol accompanied by a voiceover. The warning says: "Opozorilo! Predvajana programska vsebina vključuje prizore, ki so lahko neprimerni za mlajše otroke, zato je zanje priporočljiv ogled z vodstvom staršev ali skrbnikov ..." (The following programme contains scenes potentially inappropriate for younger children. Parental guidance is advised.) for programmes, rated VS (Vodstvo staršev - Parental guidance). Programmes, rated 12+, 15+ and 18+ are equipped with a similar kind of warning (Predvajana programska vsebina vključuje prizore, ki niso primerni za otroke do 12./15. leta starosti/otroke in mladoletnike do 18. leta starosti (The following programme contains scenes potentially inappropriate for children, younger than 12/15 / children and minors, younger than 18). Unrated programmes or programmes, meant for all audiences are exempt from the system. Examples of programmes, equipped with rating symbols include pornographic and violent content, some documentaries, newscasts, if they are shown in the timeslot, meant for children's programming and satirical shows.

The used age ratings and their respective symbols are:
 VS (vodstvo staršev): Parental guidance recommended for viewers under the age of 12. A white rhombus, containing parent and child stick figures is shown.
 12+: Not allowed under the age of 12. A white rhombus, containing the number 12 is shown.
 15+: Not allowed under the age of 15. A white rhombus, containing the number 15 is shown.
 18+: Not allowed under the age of 18. A white rhombus, containing the number 18 is shown.
 Explicit sexual content: White rhombus, containing the number 18 and one plus sign
 Pornographic content/programme with severe violence scenes: White rhombus with number 18 and two plus signs

Programmes with 18+ or 18++ icons must not be broadcast free-to-air and are allowed on scrambled pay-TV channels only.

The original content rating icons (used before 2014) were a red triangle with a stylised eye for content rated +15, while adult-only content used a red circle with a stylised eye.

Additional content type rating symbols (not shown on-screen):
 Nasilje (Violence): White rhombus, containing two stick figures; one is laying on the floor while being beaten up by the other, which is holding a baseball bat
 Strašljive vsebine (Scary content): White rhombus, containing a stylised grey ghost figure
 Spolnost (Sexuality): White rhombus, containing conjoined male and female sex symbols (circle with a cross, pointing downwards and a circle with an arrow, pointing upwards)
 Nevarno vedenje (Dangerous behaviour): White rhombus, containing a crouching stick figure, trying to jump over a fence and an open fire.
 Diskriminacija (Discrimination): White rhombus, containing three stick figures, of which the middle one is white, while the other two are black.
 Zloraba drog in/ali alkohola (Drug and/or alcohol abuse): White rhombus, containing a bottle, defaced with a stylised face.
 Neprimeren jezik (Inappropriate language use): White rhombus, containing a speech bubble with a hash sign, ampersand ("and" sign) and an exclamation mark.

The respective rating symbol has to be shown for the duration of the programme.

South Africa
South Africa takes a very hands-on approach when it comes to what children are allowed to see on television, and the parents or guardians of the child may be fined if they are caught not following the rules. The ratings used are:
 All: Suitable for all ages. The respective icon is required to be displayed on-screen for 30 seconds at the start of the programme.
 PG: Suitable for all ages, but very young children must be accompanied at all times. The respective icon is required to be displayed on-screen for one minute at the start of the programme.
 13: Prohibited to children under the age of 13. The respective icon is required to be displayed on-screen for two minutes at the start of the programme and after every commercial break.
 16: Prohibited to children under the age of 16. Programmes with this rating are not allowed before 21:00. The respective icon is required to be displayed on-screen for five minutes at the start of the programme and after every commercial break.
 18: Prohibited to children and young people under the age of 18. Programmes with this rating are not allowed before 23:00. The respective icon is required to be displayed on-screen for the duration of the programme. The content in programmes that have an "18" rating is not restricted as long as it does not have pornography, which is prohibited altogether.

Spain
In Spain, the watershed is simpler than in a lot of other countries since there is only one watershed time, but there is a quadruple-tier age rating system that is used alongside it. The ratings used in Spain are "All", "7", "12", "16" and "18". However, only 18-rated programmes are restricted. 18-rated programmes are allowed only between 22:00 and 06:00 and must broadcast a warning sound before it is shown.

Switzerland
Switzerland has no watershed. However, broadcasters are required by law to avoid any confrontation of minors with unsuitable programming through the choice of transmission time.

United Kingdom
According to Ofcom, the watershed for free-to-air television in the UK is at 21:00 (9:00 p.m.), and "material unsuitable for children" should not, in general be shown before 21:00 or after 05:30 (5:30 a.m.). For premium or pay-per-view services, the watershed is at 20:00 (8:00 p.m.). Until 1 October 2011, the period ended at 05:30 for premium channels as it still does for the free-to-air channels. On 1 October 2011, the rules for the premium channels were relaxed, with the adult-content period now ending at 06:00. Programmes that are rated 15 cannot be shown outside that period. However, some 12-rated shows can be shown before 21:00, such as The Simpsons, Malcolm in the Middle, Doctor Who, Atlantis, Only Fools and Horses, One Foot in the Grave and Futurama. There is no watershed on PIN-protected channels (such as Sky Cinema). On that type of channel, trying to view adult material before 20:00 requires a PIN.

In November the yearly Children in Need charity event, which is usually shown on a Friday night, has the watershed delayed until 23:30, to encourage parents to be comfortable with their children staying up after 21:00. This causes more shows to have to be censored, especially if they are part of the event. Comic Relief and Sport Relief, on the other hand, will only delay it until 22:00.

There should be a gentle transition to adult material, and 18-rated content must not air until 22:00 (10:00pm) on most channels that are without PIN protection. However, channels that are dedicated to airing adult content such as Horror Channel may be allowed to start 18-rated content at 21:00 without PIN protection.

Advertisements also have to comply with the same set of rules, and can be restricted when shown before the watershed (such as those for junk food, bingo, alcohol and condoms). Advertisements that may have an adult-related context, such as bingo, are less likely to be allowed on child-oriented channels. Some advertisements, often those for 18-rated films and video games, are not allowed before the watershed at all.

Although ratings do not have to be displayed on-screen, the channel is legally required to broadcast a verbal advisory before shows that may be unsuitable for children. Failure to do so may result in the broadcaster being given a fine. However, this rule generally does not apply to pay TV channels, so as a result, some pay TV channels, such as Comedy Central, have no verbal advisory at all. Some channels, such as That's TV Gold, have no verbal advisory but instead displays them on-screen.

United States
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has the right to regulate the broadcast of "indecent" material on free-to-air terrestrial television and radio, because it is broadcast on publicly-owned airwaves that are licensed to broadcasters. It presently enforces a 10:00 p.m. watershed, permitting adult content between then and 6:00 a.m. The FCC's jurisdiction in regards to content applies only to "over-the-air" television. Cable channels may be more permissive in their content, depending on their target audience and the standards of their advertisers, while premium channels and over-the-top streaming services are often the most permissive because they are funded primarily by their subscribers, and not commercial advertising.

In the 1975–1976 television season, the FCC attempted to enforce a "Family Viewing Hour" policy, in which the Big Three television networks (ABC, CBS, and NBC) agreed to devote the first hour of primetime to family-friendly programming. In 1976, the rule was overturned as unconstitutional following a lawsuit by the Writers Guild of America.

In 1978, the Supreme Court case FCC v. Pacifica Foundation (dealing with a broadcast of the George Carlin routine "Filthy Words" by WBAI radio) upheld the ability for the FCC to regulate the broadcast of "indecent" material on free-to-air radio and television, citing the "uniquely pervasive presence" of broadcasting in society, and the likelihood that children could be exposed to such content by chance. From then on, the FCC enforced a safe harbor on the broadcast of indecent material between 10:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m.

In 1987, the FCC introduced a stricter definition of indecency, defined as "language or material that, in context, depicts or describes, in terms patently offensive as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium, sexual or excretory activities or organs". The FCC also removed the previous 10:00 p.m. watershed and stated that the prohibition would apply during any time that there "is a reasonable risk that children may be in the audience". In 1988, as directed by the United States Congress, the FCC announced that it would ban the broadcast of indecent material entirely, with no safe harbor. In 1991, the FCC's proposed 24-hour ban was struck down by the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals as unconstitutional. The Telecommunications Act of 1992 re-established a safe harbor period for indecent content between midnight and 6:00 a.m. The period was lengthened back to 10:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. following further D.C. Circuit rulings.

Some American television scenes famous for "pushing the envelope" (such as limited nudity on NYPD Blue) were aired in the 10:00 to 11:00 p.m. hour; however, the broadcasts were before the safe harbor in the Central and Mountain time zones, where programming scheduled for 10:00 p.m. Eastern would typically be broadcast starting at 9:00 p.m. (using a one-hour delay in Mountain Time broadcast areas). Because each U.S. time zone enters safe harbor separately (at 10:00 p.m. local time), it is possible for not all network affiliates that air an "indecent" program at the same moment to face the same penalties. Such was the case with CBS, whose affiliates faced a proposed fine of US$3.63 million for a repeat of the episode "Our Sons and Daughters" of Without a Trace in December 2004. The program was flagged for depicting an orgy involving teenagers. It was televised at 10:00 p.m. in the Eastern and Pacific time zones (within the safe harbor), but at 9:00 p.m. in Central and Mountain times (outside the safe harbor). The FCC split its fine among the 111 CBS affiliates covering those time zones. After a court settlement, the network agreed to pay US$300,000 in fines.

Even though the watershed occurs at the prime time hour of 10:00 p.m., broadcast networks have since avoided indecent content to avoid reprimands from their affiliates and advertisers, and because of the constant fluctuation of indecency standards to account for changes in acceptance and FCC enforcement. In 2011 and 2012, courts overturned fines regarding a brief scene featuring nudity in a 2003 NYPD Blue episode, as well as fines over fleeting expletives in a live awards show broadcast in 2002 by Fox, ruling that the FCC's basis for the fines was too vague.

Venezuela
In Venezuela, the watershed is at 23:00. The period between the watershed and 05:00 is called "Adult time" according to Article 7 of the Law on Social Responsibility on Radio, Television and Electronic Media. During that block, adult-oriented programs may be transmitted as long as they do not contain hardcore pornography, political or religious intolerance, racism or xenophobia.

Notes

References

Citations

General sources

External links
 The Ofcom Broadcasting Code – Section 1
 Canadian Broadcast Standards Council – What is the Watershed?

Broadcast law
Television terminology

Watershed (broadcasting)


Robert Jacob Alexander, Baron Skidelsky,  (born 25 April 1939) is a British economic historian. He is the author of a three-volume award-winning biography of British economist John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946). Skidelsky read history at Jesus College, Oxford, and is Emeritus Professor of Political Economy at the University of Warwick, England.

Early life
Skidelsky's parents, Boris Skidelsky and Galia Sapelkin, were British subjects of Russian ancestry, Jewish on his father's side and Christian on his mother's. His father worked for the family firm L. S. Skidelsky, which leased the Mulin coalmine in northern Manchuria from the Chinese government in 1920. Boris had three brothers, one of whom was the British novelist and bridge player and writer S. J. "Skid" Simon (1904–1948). In 1919, a factory was built by L. S. Skidelsky in Harbin for obtaining albumin from blood.

When war broke out between Britain and Japan in December 1941, he and his parents were interned first in Manchuria then Japan and finally released in exchange for Japanese internees in England. He then went back to China with his parents in 1947, living for a little over a year in Tientsin (now Tianjin). They left for Hong Kong just before the Chinese Communists took the city.

Education
From 1953 to 1958, Skidelsky was a boarder at Brighton College. He went on to read history at Jesus College, Oxford. Between 1961 and 1969 he was successively research student, senior student and research fellow at Nuffield College, Oxford. In 1967 he published his first book, Politicians and the Slump, based on his DPhil dissertation, which explores the ways in which British politicians handled the Great Depression.

Academic career
During a two-year research fellowship at the British Academy Skidelsky published English Progressive Schools (1969) and began work on his biography of Oswald Mosley, which was published in 1975. In 1970, he became an associate professor of history in the School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University. However, the controversy surrounding the publication of his biography of Mosley, which some critics felt let Mosley off too lightly, led Johns Hopkins to refuse him tenure. Oxford also proved unwilling to give him a permanent post.

From 1976 to 1978, Skidelsky was Professor of History, Philosophy and European Studies at the Polytechnic of North London. In 1978, he was appointed Professor of International Studies at the University of Warwick, where he has since remained, although he joined the Economics Department as Professor of Political Economy in 1990. He has been a professorial fellow at the Global Policy Institute at London Metropolitan University, and a Honorary Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1994. Since 2016 he has been a director and trustee of the School of Civic Education. He is Emeritus Professor of Political Economy at the University of Warwick.

Skidelsky currently writes a column on economic history for Project Syndicate, an international media organization.

Political career
Skidelsky has been a member of four political parties. Initially a member of the Labour Party, he left to become a founding member of the Social Democratic Party (SDP), in which he remained until it merged with the Liberal Party to become the Liberal Democrats in 1988. He objected to the merger and remained in the 'continuing' SDP until its dissolution in 1990. On 15 July 1991 he was created a life peer as Baron Skidelsky of Tilton in the County of East Sussex and in 1992 he joined the Conservative Party.  Around the time of the announcement of his peerage it was speculated that David Owen, a co-founder of the SDP, had lobbied then Prime Minister John Major for Skidelsky's appointment.  He was made an opposition spokesman in the Lords, first for Culture, then on the Treasury (1997–1999), but he was removed by William Hague, then party leader, for publicly opposing NATO's bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999.

In 2001 Skidelsky left the Conservative Party for the cross benches. He was Chairman of the Social Market Foundation between 1991 and 2001.

In September 2015 Skidelsky endorsed Jeremy Corbyn's campaign in the Labour Party leadership election, writing in The Guardian: "Corbyn should be praised, not castigated, for bringing to public attention these serious issues concerning the role of the state and the best ways to finance its activities. The fact that he is dismissed for doing so illustrates the dangerous complacency of today's political elites. Millions in Europe rightly feel that the current economic order fails to serve their interests. What will they do if their protests are simply ignored?"

Russia
In March 2014, it was reported that Skidelsky was a director on the board of the Russian state-owned company Rusnano Capital. After Russia annexed Crimea in 2014, Skidelsky declined to resign from Rusnano, criticised sanctions that targeted Russia and argued that the Russian-speaking parts of Ukraine should be given an opportunity to separate from Ukraine.

Between 2016 and 1 January 2022, Skidelsky was a non-executive director on the board of Russian oil company Russneft.

On 28 February 2022, he signed a letter to the Financial Times on the subject of Ukraine, along with David Owen and others, that stated: "NATO governments have rightly said they are willing to address Russia's security concerns, but then say in the same breath that Russia has no legitimate security concerns because NATO is a purely defensive alliance. Whether we like it or not, a NATO that now borders Russia and could in future border even more of Russia is seen by Russia as a security concern."

On 17 April 2022, he argued against Finland's joining NATO and shortly after against the imposition of economic sanctions on Russia following the invasion of Ukraine. In June 2023 Skidelsky attended a party held by Russian embassy in London and later explained he wanted to show "respect and affection for the Russian people on their national day, especially in these circumstances".

Awards

The second volume of Skidelsky's three-volume biography of John Maynard Keynes The Economist as Saviour, 1920–1937 won the Wolfson History Prize in 1992. The third volume Fighting for Britain, 1937–1946 won the Duff Cooper Prize in 2000, the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for biography in 2001, the Arthur Ross Book Award for international relations in 2002 and the Lionel Gelber Prize for International Relations and was shortlisted for the Samuel Johnson Prize for non-fiction writing in 2001.

Personal life
Skidelsky has two sons, Edward Skidelsky, a lecturer in philosophy at the University of Exeter; and William Skidelsky, a journalist and author of Federer and Me: A Story of Obsession.

Selected works
 1967: Politicians and the Slump
 1969: English Progressive Schools
 1975: Oswald Mosley
 1983: John Maynard Keynes: Hopes Betrayed, 1883–1920 (Vol. 1)
 1992: John Maynard Keynes: The Economist as Saviour, 1920–1937 (Vol. 2)
 1993: Interests and Obsessions: Historical Essays (Macmillan)
 1995: The World After Communism: A Polemic for Our Times (Macmillan)
 Published in America as The Road from Serfdom: The Economic and Political Consequences of the End of Communism
 1996: Keynes (Oxford University Press: Past Masters)
 2000: John Maynard Keynes: Fighting for Freedom, 1937–1946 (Vol. 3)
 2009: Keynes: The Return of the Master (London: Allen Lane)
 2012: How Much Is Enough? Money and the Good Life. with Edward Skidelsky (Allen Lane)
 2018: Money and Government: The Past and Future of Economics
 2020: What's Wrong with Economics?: A Primer for the Perplexed
 2022: Economic Sanctions: A Weapon out of Control?

References

External links

 Lord Skidelsky: Registered Interests at parliament.uk
 Robert Skidelsky's Interview in the New Statesman about Keynes: the Return of the Master.
 How Much is Enough?: Money and the Good Life  Free Webinar with Professor Skidelsky, 20 November 2012

1939 births
Living people
British people of Russian-Jewish descent
People educated at Brighton College
Academics of the University of Warwick
British biographers
British people of Russian descent
Social Democratic Party (UK, 1988–1990) peers
Conservative Party (UK) life peers
Crossbench life peers
Alumni of Jesus College, Oxford
Fellows of Jesus College, Oxford
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Fellows of Nuffield College, Oxford
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients
Life peers created by Elizabeth II
Social Democratic Party (UK) life peers

Robert Skidelsky


Josephus Theodorus Joannes Cuypers (10 June 1861, Roermond –  20 January 1949, Meerssen) was a Dutch architect; primarily known for his Catholic churches.

Life and work

He was born to the architect, Pierre Cuypers, and his wife, Antoinette née Alberdingk Thijm. His training began at his father's firm. Later he studied at the Delft University of Technology, graduating in 1883, and becoming his father's assistant. The following year, he created his first work, a pension (guest house) on Vondelstraat. His first design for a church,  in Nes aan de Amstel, was completed in 1888. He also became involved in restorations, beginning with the Basilica of St Plechelm, in Oldenzaal. He married Delphine Marie Povel in 1889. They had three sons and two daughters.
In 1893, he was commissioned to build the new Cathedral of St Bavo, Haarlem. The following year, he took over management of the family firm, when his father retired to Valkenburg aan de Geul. In 1898, he was selected to design another major project; St. Mary's Cathedral, in Rangoon (Yangon). His initial design incorporated Asian elements, but this was rejected in favor of a traditional Neo-Gothic style.

From 1900 to 1908, he worked with Jan Stuyt, at "", a Catholic-oriented architects' group. Under the influence of this group, and Stuyt, the public taste gradually changed from Neo-Gothic to Neo-Romanesque. He was also a member of several other associations, including , an offshoot of the artists' group, Arti et Amicitiae. Occasionally, he acted as a judge for their competitions, and served on committees; notably one delegated with helping to plan the Museumplein, a park with three museums and a concert hall. For a brief time, he served as Chairman of a Catholic trade union known as "Gildebond".

In 1908, his partnership with Stuyt was voluntarily terminated, when Stuyt expressed his intention to get married. He went back to working independently, rather than find a new partner. A relatively unproductive period followed, although he completed his largest secular project; the Amsterdam Stock Exchange.

Many years later, in 1920, he began working with his son, , who had been employed by the French architect, Paul Bellot, and favored the Expressionist style. Together, they designed two domed churches in that style; in Beverwijk and Bussum. They also created more traditional designs, such as the Berchmanianum in Nijmegen. Another important project involved restoring the  in Meerssen, which was accomplished from 1936 to 1938.

During World War II, in 1944, his home in Roermond was destroyed by a bomb. He went to live in the rectory at the Basilica, and remained there until his death in 1949, at the age of eighty-seven.

References

Further reading
 Ileen Montijn: Pierre Cuypers, 1827–1921, Schoonheid als Hartstocht. Stedelijk Museum Roermond und Immerc bv, Wormer 2007,
 Entry in the Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland (1989), by A.J. Looyenga, (Online)
 Lodewijk Hermanus Epeus van Hylckama Vlieg; "Verslag van de 1114e gewone vergadering gehouden op woensdag den 24sten Oct. 1900, des avonds om 8 uur, in het genootschapslokaal, Parkzicht, alhier", In: Architectura, Vol.8, #43 (1900) pp.347-348

External links

 A detailed examination of his works @ Archimon
 "Op zook naar een eigen stijl: archief von J. Th. J. (Joseph) Cuypers ontslotten" @ Nederlands Architectuurinstituut

1861 births
1949 deaths
Dutch architects
Sacral architecture
Catholic architecture
People from Roermond

Joseph Cuypers


The Four Columns ("Les Quatre Columnes" in Catalan) are four Ionic columns originally created by Josep Puig i Cadafalch in Barcelona, Spain. They were erected in 1919, where the Magic Fountain of Montjuïc now stands.

They symbolized the four stripes of the Catalan senyera, and they were intended to become one of the main icons of Catalanism. Because of this, they were demolished in 1928 during Primo de Rivera's dictatorship, when all public Catalanist symbols were systematically removed in order to avoid their being noticed during the 1929 Universal Exposition, which was to take place on Montjuïc.

Moreover, for these same political motives, Poble Espanyol (Spanish Village in Catalan), on the same hill, was the name given to the open-air museum formerly to be named Iberona – in homage to the Iberians, the first inhabitants of what is now Catalonia, Spain. Analogously for the nearby Plaça d'Espanya.

In 1999, the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB) commissioned the renowned Valencian sculptor Andreu Alfaro to create four similar columns for its Bellaterra Campus. In contrast to the original columns which were 20m high, these spiral up,  in height, in red granite.

Re-erection

After eight years of campaigning by Catalanist civic bodies and the pro-independence political party Esquerra Republicana, a replica of the columns was erected in 2010 very close to the original site and following Puig i Cadafalch's original plans.

External links

 Campaign for restoring The Four Columns

References

Buildings and structures completed in 1919
Buildings and structures in Barcelona
History of Barcelona
Politics of Barcelona
Sants-Montjuïc
Josep Puig i Cadafalch buildings
Tourist attractions in Barcelona
Buildings and structures completed in 2010
Monumental columns in Spain
Buildings and structures demolished in 1928
Monuments and memorials in Barcelona

The Four Columns


Sebastian Poon Wan-fung (born 30 May 1978), also known as his stage name "Tong Hing", is the guitarist and songwriter of the Hong Kong-based band Sugar Club.

Biography
Sebastian Poon worked as a computer cartographer and guitar teacher before signing WOW Music. In 2007, Sebastian decided to form the band Sugar Club with Kandy Wong, who was introduced by his friend. Later, Sugar Club gained the opportunity to perform at Langham Place The Mall every week, until December, 2010.

In 2008, Sugar Club's performance was admired by WOW Music and they were signed to the record label at the same year. On 30 December 2010, they released their debut album I Love Sugar Club Best.

In 2011, Sebastian proposed to his girlfriend Jessie on the first big concert of Sugar Club, and held their wedding ceremony in April, 2013.

In addition to the songs for Sugar Club, Sebastian also writes songs for other singers including Jason Chan, Dicky Cheung, etc.

Filmography

Television dramas

Films

References

External links
 Sebastian's Instagram
 Sebastian's Sina Weibo

1978 births
Living people
Hong Kong songwriters
Hong Kong guitarists
21st-century guitarists

Sebastian Poon


Taschenbergpalais is a palace hotel owned by the Kempinski Group. It is located on Sophie Street next to the Dresden Castle and in front of the Zwinger. In direct proximity are the Semperoper, the Theaterplatz (theatre square) and the Dresden Cathedral.
The facade of the Hotel Taschenbergpalais as well as the staircase on the inside of the building are designed historically whereas the interior in general is designed rather modern.

History
When the architect, Johann Friedrich Karcher, commenced building the Taschenbergpalais in 1705, he followed the design of previous buildings. The Taschenbergpalais was the palace of Anna Constantia von Brockdorff, later Countess of Cosel and one of Augustus II's mistresses. After Anna Constantia von Hoym was banned by Augustus II in 1713, the Taschenbergpalais was renovated and named "Turkish Palais".
From 1718 to 1720, the Palais was expanded several times for the crown prince family by Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann and Raymond Leplat. The two fountains next to the entrance were constructed from 1747 to 1750 by Johann Christoph Knöffel. The fountains were restored in 1990, and copies were set up next to the entrance while the Taschenbergpalais was being rebuilt. The last expansion was added in 1843 to the south eastern part of the building.

After being extensively restored in 1934, Taschenbergpalais was subsequently destroyed in 1945 by the bombing of Dresden. It remained in that state for nearly half a century until reconstruction started in 1992, using original models and remains. Reconstruction was completed in 1995 at a cost of 127.8 million euros, and on March 31, 1995, the Hotel Taschenbergpalais Kempinski Dresden was opened up as the first five-star hotel in Saxony.

Features
The hotel features 213 rooms and suites as well as the Palais Bistro restaurant, the Café Vestibül coffeehouse located next to the historical staircase, and the Karl May Bar. Furthermore, the hotel contains a spa area with a pool, steam bath, sauna, fitness center, and massage treatments.

Awards
As of 2009, the hotel was a member of The Leading Hotels of the World.  In 1995 it was lauded as the best new hotel in Germany and in 2008 it was declared the fourth-best German hotel on the international Top 500 list of hotels. The hotel reached second place behind the Ritz-Carlton Berlin in a list of the best business hotels in Germany by the financial magazine Euro am Sonntag.

Prominent Guests
On June 4, 2009, the 44th President of the United States of America Barack Obama stayed at the hotel during his visit to Dresden.  Other visitors include politicians such as Horst Köhler, Vladimir Putin, Jacques Chirac, Helmut Schmidt, and Gerhard Schröder, royalty such as Margrethe II of Denmark, Beatrix of the Netherlands, and Prince Albert II of Monaco, and artists like Günter Grass, Thomas Gottschalk, Karl Lagerfeld and Anna Netrebko.

In June 2016, the 2016 Bilderberg Conference was held at the hotel.

External links

 Hotel Taschenbergpalais Kempinski Dresden, official website
 History of the Taschenberg Palais

Hotels in Germany
Buildings and structures in Dresden
Baroque architecture in Dresden
Kempinski Hotels
Hotels established in 1995
1995 establishments in Germany
Houses completed in 1708
Rebuilt buildings and structures in Dresden
18th-century architecture in Germany

Taschenbergpalais


Palau Robert () is a building on Barcelona's Passeig de Gràcia 107, the former private residence of Robert Robert i Surís, an influential aristocrat, politician and businessman at the turn of the 20th century. It's now a government-run institution that hosts an exhibition centre with three halls, a concert hall, a public swimming pool and gardens as well as the Information Centre for Catalonia, including the city's tourism bureau. In the 1936–1939 period, it was the site of the Generalitat de Catalunya's Ministry of Culture. After the Spanish Civil War, Robert's family regained the Palau, until its second purchase by the Generalitat de Catalunya (the Catalan government) in 1981, when it became a public building.

The building
An example of late neoclassical style, made of stone from Montgrí, the Palau Robert was finished in 1903 under the direction of architects Henry Grandpierre and Joan Martorell i Montells. The garden was designed by Ramon Oliva, who also designed Plaça Catalunya. Its palm trees were brought during the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition.

Transport
The nearest Barcelona Metro station is Diagonal, and the FGC station Provença, on lines L3, L5, L6, L7, S1, S2, S5 and S55. The station's exit is adjacent to the Palau Robert.
Bus lines stopping nearby are: 6, 7, 15, 16, 17, 22, 24, 28, 33 and 34.

See also
List of museums in Barcelona
List of theatres and concert halls in Barcelona

External links

Official Website
BCN Internet.com
Barcelona.vivelaciudad.es

Eixample
Passeig de Gràcia
Avinguda Diagonal
Palaces in Barcelona
Culture in Barcelona
Theatres and concert halls in Barcelona

Palau Robert


Matthew de Glendonwyn (modern spelling Glendinning)(died 10 May 1408) was a late 14th and early 15th century bishop of Glasgow. He was elected to the see after the death of Cardinal Walter Wardlaw, his predecessor as bishop. He was elected sometime between Wardlaw's death in September and Matthew's first appearance as bishop-elect in December. Matthew was consecrated some months after his election, either in late 1387 or early 1388.

Matthew was a witness to charters of kings Robert II and Robert III, an occasional ambassador of the Scottish crown to England, and a frequent arbiter in disputes concerning various religious establishments. On 21 May 1401, he introduced a tax in his diocese to improve the deficient ornamenta of the diocese (i.e. chasubles, copes, dalmatics, etc.). According to the Martyrology of Glasgow, he died on 10 May 1408.

References
Dowden, John, The Bishops of Scotland, ed. J. Maitland Thomson, (Glasgow, 1912)

14th-century births
1408 deaths
Bishops of Glasgow
14th-century Scottish Roman Catholic bishops
15th-century Scottish Roman Catholic bishops

Matthew de Glendonwyn


Shanhua District () is a suburban district of Tainan, Taiwan. Until 25 December 2010, it was an urban township in the dissolved Tainan County, which is now merged with the original Tainan City to form a single special municipality.

History
Shanhua was inhabited by the Taiwanese aboriginal tribe of Siraya, who called it Bakaloan (transliterated into ) (see also Anding, bordering to the southwest). It was one of the four major towns established by the tribe.

In 1625, the Dutch East India Company was driven back by the aborigines while trying to collect bamboo. The Dutch, however, were able to conquer the town in 1635, and started setting up schools and churches in the area, calling the place Tevoran (see modern-day Yujing). They encouraged Han settlers to cultivate the place.

In the Siege of Fort Zeelandia, Koxinga drove the Europeans out of Taiwan. Under the Kingdom of Tungning, Bakaloan was governed as Sian-hoa Village () of Tien-hsing County (). According to the Shanhua Urban Plan Total Review Report, the old name for the region is Oanli () before it was changed back again to  under Japanese rule in 1920. In 1940, the village was upgraded to , , Tainan Prefecture.

Republic of China
After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China in 1945, Shanhua was organized as an urban township of Tainan County. On 25 December 2010, Tainan County was merged with Tainan City and Shanhua was upgraded to a district of the city.

Politics
Until 25 December 2010, the chief executive of Shanhua Township was the popularly elected magistrate ().  The township also had a council () consisting of councillors elected from the township.

Since the current administrative arrangement came into effect on the above date, a director () appointed by the mayor of Tainan City is in charge of the administration of the newly created district.

Administrative divisions
The district consists of Tungguan, Zuojia, Guangwen, Wenchang, Nanguan, Wenzheng, Hujia, Hucuo, Shinai, Ximei, Liufen, Liude, Tianliao, Niuzhuang, Jiabei, Jianan, Xiaoxin, Dingjie, Changlong and Liantan Village.

Economy
Shanhua has an agricultural economy. Major products of the township include rice, sugarcane, strawberry, and watermelon.

In 1973, the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC) was co-established by eleven nations including the United States, Japan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan). It has the goal to improve agricultural techniques. The headquarters of the organization is located in the southern part of Shanhua and is the first and only headquarters of an international organization located in Taiwan.

The National Science Council of the Executive Yuan founded the Tainan Science Park based in Sinshih. Part of the park lies within Shanhua and brings job opportunities to local residents.

Notable natives
 Shen Guangwen (沈光文) (1612–1688), scholar, poet, educator and the founder of Taiwanese literature. Also called the Taiwanese Confucius.
 Huang Ta-chou (黃大洲) (1936) Taiwan politician, The former mayor of Taipei, chairman of the Chinese Taipei Olympic committee

Tourist attractions

Qing-An Gong
The Qing-An Gong () is a temple, which is almost 300 years old, dedicated to goddess Matsu. According to oral tradition, the Dutch set up a Dutch-language school here when they ruled Taiwan.

Transportation

 Taiwan Railway Administration
 Shanhua Station
 Formosa Freeway
 Shanhua Interchange
 Provincial Highway No.1

References

 Tang Te-chien (唐德塹). Local Records of Shanhua Township (《善化鎮鄉土誌》), 1982

External links

Districts of Tainan

Shanhua District


Digunai (24 February 1122 – 15 December 1161), also known by his sinicised name Wanyan Liang and his formal title Prince of Hailing (海陵王, Hǎilíng Wáng), was the fourth emperor of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty of China. He was the second son of Wanyan Zonggan, the eldest son of the dynastic founder Wanyan Aguda (Emperor Taizu). He came to power in 1150 after overthrowing and murdering his predecessor, Emperor Xizong, in a coup d'état. During his reign, he moved the Jin capital from Shangjing (present-day Acheng District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province) to Yanjing (present-day Beijing), and introduced a policy of sinicisation. In 1161, after the Jin dynasty lost the Battle of Caishi against the Southern Song dynasty, Digunai's subordinates rebelled against him and assassinated him. After his death, even though he ruled as an emperor during his lifetime, he was posthumously demoted to the status of a prince – "Prince Yang of Hailing" (海陵煬王) – in 1162 by his successor, Emperor Shizong. However, in 1181, Emperor Shizong further posthumously demoted him to the status of a commoner, hence he is also known as the "Commoner of Hailing" (海陵庶人).

Background

Digunai was the second son of Woben (斡本; also known as Wanyan Zonggan 完顏宗幹), a son of Aguda (Emperor Taizu), the founder of the Jin dynasty. His mother was, Lady Da, came from an elite family of Balhae descent. Emperor Taizu's brother and successor, Emperor Taizong, started a series of wars between the Jin and Song dynasties. During the reign of Emperor Xizong, who succeeded Emperor Taizong, Wanyan Zonggan was described as the most influential man in the Jin imperial court.

Digunai, who was an army marshal under Emperor Xizong, overthrew the emperor in a coup d'état in 1150 and replaced him. Having seized the throne through illegitimate means, Digunai was suspicious of other members of the Jurchen aristocracy, and, immediately upon taking the throne, started eliminating potential rivals. He ordered the massacre of the descendants of Emperor Taizong, so as to secure the position of the lineage of Emperor Taizu, to which he belonged.

Reign
Digunai capitalised on the Jin dynasty's "superior status" vis-à-vis the Song dynasty after its victory over the latter in 1141, and sought to make the Jin dynasty the sole Chinese empire. To legitimise himself as a sinicised ruler, in 1150 he lifted Emperor Taizong's prohibition of wearing Han Chinese dress, and adopted an array of Han Chinese practices and institutions, such as holding of sacrificial ceremonies in the northern and southern suburbs of his capital in 1149 (cf. ceremonies conducted at the Temple of Earth and Temple of Heaven in Beijing during the Ming and Qing dynasties), the use of the imperial carriage in 1151, a system of feudal rights in 1156, and the Song dynasty's shan-hu (山呼) style of court ceremonies in 1157. Digunai also introduced the imperial examination system in 1150 and set up the Imperial Academy in the following year. In his pursuit for greater sinicisation and the desire to acquire the Mandate of Heaven, Digunai moved his imperial court from Shangjing (present-day Acheng District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province to Yanjing (present-day Beijing) in 1153. In 1157, he ordered the destruction of the imperial palaces in Shangjing.

In contrast to the traditions of the Tang and Song dynasties, which rarely imposed corporal punishment on the members of the society's educated elites, Digunai continued the Khitan and Jurchen tradition of floggings with gusto, sometimes enjoying personally watching his subjects – including chancellors, censors, and a princess – beaten with poles or whips.

Assassination

Digunai's attempts to conquer the Southern Song dynasty and unify China under the Jin dynasty's rule ended in failure when his fleet was defeated by Song forces at the battles of Tangdao and Caishi in 1161. Many of his officers defected and in some places the people rebelled against him. His subordinates conspired against him and assassinated him on 15 December 1161 in a military camp near the Yangtze River. Digunai's cousin, Wulu, who had led a rebellion against Digunai's rule, was proclaimed the new emperor.

Family

Parents
 Father: Woben (斡本), sinicised name Wanyan Zonggan (完顏宗幹)
 Mother:  Empress Cixian, of the Da clan of Bohai (慈憲皇后大氏)
Consort and issue(s):
 Empress Tudan (徒單皇后; d.1170),  of the Tudan clan
Wanyan Guangying, Crown Prince (太子 完顏光英, 1150 – 1161), 2nd son
 Noble Consort, of the Tangkuo clan  (貴妃 唐括氏), personal name Dingge (定哥)
 Nailahu (奈剌忽), First Consort (元妃), ex-wife of Zhang Ding'an (張定安)
First Consort, of the Da clan of Bohai (元妃 大氏),
Wanyan Yuanshou, Prince of Chong (崇王 完顏元壽, d. 1151), 1st son
Consort Li, of the Tangukuo clan (麗妃唐括氏), personal name Shigge (石哥)
 Wanyan Shensi'abu, Prince of Su (宿王 完顏矧思阿補, 1156 – 1158), 3rd son
Consort Chen, of the Xiao clan (宸妃 蕭氏)
Consort Li, of the Yelü clan  (麗妃 耶律氏)
 Consort Zhao, of the Pucha clan (昭妃 蒲察氏), personal name Alihu (阿里虎)
Consort Zhao (昭妃), personal name Alan (阿懶)
Consort Rou, of the Yelü clan (柔妃 耶律氏)
Consort Zhao, of th Wanyan clan  (昭妃完顏氏), personal name Shigu (什古)
Consort Shu, of the Wanyan clan (淑妃完顏氏), personal name Pula (蒲剌)
Consort Shu, of the Wanyan clan (淑妃完顏氏), personal name Shigu'er (師姑兒)
Consort Gui, of the Wanyan clan (貴妃 完顏氏), personal name Shaliguzhen (莎里古真)
Consort Zhao, of the Wanyan clan  (昭妃), personal name Chongjie (重節)
Consort Li, of Tanguko clan (麗妃唐括氏),, personal name Puluhuzhi (魯胡只)
Zhaoyuan, of the Yelü clan (昭媛 耶律氏)
Xiuyi, of the Gao clan (修儀 高氏)
Cairen, of the Nan clan  (才人 南氏)
Wanyan Guangyang, Prince of Teng (滕王 完顏廣陽), 4th son
Lady, of the Pucha clan (蒲察氏), personal name Chacha (叉察)
 Unknown:
 Princess of Rong (榮國公主), personal name Henü (合女)
married Tushan Sila (單術斯剌)
 Unnamed Princess
 married Xiao Yu's son (蕭玉)
 Unnamed Princess
 married Wugulun Yi (烏古論誼)

See also
 History of Beijing

References

Citations

Sources
 Jing-shen Tao, The Jurchen in Twelfth-Century China. University of Washington Press, 1976, .

1122 births
1161 deaths
Jin dynasty (1115–1234) emperors
12th-century Chinese monarchs
Murdered Chinese emperors

Wanyan Liang