Juš Kozak (26 June 1892 – 29 August 1964), also known under the pseudonym Jalanov, was a Slovenian writer, playwright, and editor. He is best known for his autobiographic novels, such as Celica (The Cell) on his experience as a political prisoner, and Lesena žlica (The Wooden Spoon) on life during World War II.

Life
He was born in a wealthy middle-class family in Ljubljana, Slovenia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His younger brothers Ferdo and Vlado Kozak became political activists. He studied history and geography at the University of Vienna, but finished his studies only in 1921 at the University of Ljubljana. In 1914, Kozak was arrested by the Austrian police because of alleged collaboration with the radical pro-Yugoslav nationalist youth organization Preporod, which had ties with the militant Bosnian organization Young Bosnia, often considered to be terrorist. Immediately after release from prison, he was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army and fought first on the Eastern Front and then in the Italian Front.

After the war, he settled in Ljubljana, where he worked as a high school teacher. In 1935, he became the chief editor of the literary journal Ljubljanski zvon. As editor, he opened the journal to Marxist and Communist authors, who published their articles under pseudonyms.

During World War II, he collaborated with the Liberation Front of the Slovenian People. In 1942, he was arrested by the Fascist authorities of the Italian-occupied Province of Ljubljana. After the Italian armistice, he joined the Partisan resistance. After the war, he dedicated himself to writing. Between 1946 and 1947, he was the chief editor of the literary journal Novi svet (New World). Between 1948 and 1955, he worked as the stage director of the Drama Theatre in Ljubljana. He died in Ljubljana.

Recognition
In 1961, he became a member of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, and in 1963 he received the Prešeren Award.

References
Biography, gore-ljudje.net
Biography, dogaja.se

1892 births
1964 deaths
Members of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Writers from Ljubljana
Prešeren Award laureates
Slovenian dramatists and playwrights
Yugoslav Partisans members
Theatre people from Ljubljana
University of Ljubljana alumni
University of Vienna alumni
Dachau concentration camp survivors
Ethnic Slovene people
20th-century dramatists and playwrights
Disease-related deaths in Slovenia

Juš Kozak


Contrary Condor or Donald Duck and the Egghunt or Donald Duck at the Egg Collector is a 1944 Donald Duck short film by Walt Disney Productions and RKO Radio Pictures.

Plot
The short opens on a map, with footprints belonging to Donald trailing across the border of North America to South America, making a trail through the Andes. Donald is seen climbing up a vertical side of the mountain with plungers on his feet, yodeling as he goes. He sees the nest, and quickly reaches the top, ready to take an egg from a condor. One condor hatchling has already hatched and starts squawking at Donald's arrival, but Donald just tells the hatchling to shut up and shoves him back into his egg shell. When he spots Mother Condor flying overhead, Donald hides the other egg and hides in the other hatching's shell, kicking the baby condor out. The mother lands and decides to sit on the egg in which Donald is hiding. The warmth she provides is almost too much for Donald, and he sweats profusely. The egg suddenly starts to crack, and he is nearly crushed by the condor. Thinking quickly, Donald decides to pretend he's a condor. The mother is convinced, and gives Donald a hug, much to the surprise of the other hatchling.Mother Condor then sends her hatchlings off to learn how to fly. The hatchling pushes Donald off the tree branch, but he manages to hold on when his clothes catch a branch nearby, although he is not so lucky when a passing storm cloud starts to shower all over him. Mother Condor tries to teach Donald to fly, but Donald looks down and gets dizzy. He tries to slip away, but is spotted and brought back. Donald manages to convince her that he has a bum wing, and she starts cradling him. The hatchling gets jealous, and starts squawking for attention. Having had enough, he sends Donald flying into the air and he lands on a branch nearby. Trying to get out of his situation once and for all, Donald rigs up a decoy using branches and leaves, and sends it hurtling to the river below. Although Mother Condor tries to save her "hatchling," she believes it to be too late when it falls into the river, and she starts sobbing on the nearby bank. Donald then takes the other condor egg, thinking himself victorious, but the other hatchling steals it from him. Donald takes it back, but falls down into the river, holding the egg protectively. Relieved to see him still alive, Mother Condor gathers Donald and the egg into her arms and coddles them. That night, egg, Donald, hatchling, and Mother Condor are nestled together, while Donald mutters angrily under his breath.

Cast
 Clarence Nash as Donald Duck
 Florence Gill as Condors
 Frank Graham as The Narrator

References

Other websites

Donald Duck
Disney animated movies
Short movies

Contrary Condor


Areography is the study o the featurs o the planet Maurs sic as laundfurms, climates, wather paitrens, relic areas hainin possible lifefurms or thair fossils, an the pheesical processes that creates an modifee's thae featurs an aw, an the spatial paitrens amang thaim forby. The term comes frae Ares, the Greek equeevalent o the Roman god Maurs, bi analogy wi Geography.

Tae vizzie a Areographic cairt sneck here or here.

Maurs

Areographie


Neil R. MacCallum (15 May 1954 – 9 November 2002) was a Scottish nationalist political activist and poet.

Born in Edinburgh, MacCallum studied at Firrhill High School and Napier College before working for the Lothian Health Board.  In this role, he joined the NALGO trade union and served for a while as a shop steward.  He joined the Scottish National Party (SNP) while young, and attended the 1972 Plaid Cymru conference with a group of friends from the SNP, drawing attention by playing the bagpipes at the event.

MacCallum was elected to Edinburgh City Council in 1977, representing Wester Hailes.  He lost his seat in 1980, but was elected as Assistant National Secretary of the SNP, then National Secretary the following year.  While Secretary, he chaired the SNP Commission of Inquiry into the party's structures, and it was he who convinced party leader Gordon Wilson to include Alex Salmond as a member.  He also stood as a candidate in the 1983 general election in Edinburgh South, taking fourth place with 5.0% of the vote.  He stood down in 1986, following ill health, and was succeeded by his assistant, John Swinney.

MacCallum also wrote poetry in Lowland Scots, his work first appearing in "Out of Charity" in 1973, and from the late 1980s, he published compilations of other poetry in the language.  In the 1990s, he became active in the Scots Language Society and served on the board of the Scottish Poetry Library, and acted as arts correspondent for the Scots Independent newspaper. He succeeded David Purves as editor of Lallans in 1995 and co-edited an anthology of writing from the magazine with him in the same year.

In later life, MacCallum suffered with depression and problematic drinking, and went missing on several occasions.  In November 2002, he fell into the Union Canal and died later the same day from hypothermia.

References

1954 births
2002 deaths
Alumni of Edinburgh Napier University
Councillors in Edinburgh
Deaths from hypothermia
Politicians from Edinburgh
Scots language activists
Scots-language poets
Scottish National Party politicians
20th-century poets
People educated at Firrhill High School

Neil MacCallum


200 Press is the sixth solo EP by English musician James Blake. Blake played all the instruments and produced the record. It was released on 1-800-Dinosaur on 8 December 2014. The name of the album (and the name of the title track) are a reference to the fact that only 200 copies of the vinyl edition would be pressed.

Composition
200 Press contains further experimentation by Blake. He most notably used a sample of Andre 3000's verse from Devin the Dude's "What a Job".

The final track, "Words That We Both Know" is a poem set to disjointed piano.

Reception

The album received general acclaim from critics, mainly praising Blake's continued exploration and inventiveness. Consequence of Sound praised Blake for this, saying "... it's refreshing to see Blake immerse himself in experimentation."

AbsolutePunk gave the album an 8.5/10, stating "The music contained on 200 Press is some of the most forward thinking stuff James Blake has done yet".

Track listing

Personnel
 James Blake – writing, recording, production

References

2014 EPs
Albums produced by James Blake (musician)
James Blake (musician) albums

200 Press


Seasons in the Underground is the third studio album recorded by The Moog. The album was recorded at the London Bridge Studio in Seattle, Washington, and was mixed at the Total Access Recording in Redondo Beach, California, except tracks 1, 3, 7, 10 at the Bay 7 Studios in Los Angeles, California. The album was produced by Ken Scott (the producer of David Bowie), except tracks 1, 3, 7, 10 by Jun Murakawa.

Background and recording
On 15 January 2013, Ádám Bajor (former guitarist of The Moog) claimed that they had everything for the recording of the Seasons in the Underground except the songs ready. "We recorded ten new songs among which 5 songs were completed only at the studio. It was a survival period for the band. We were definitely in the middle of a crisis. Ken Scott, who is an excellent producer, was waiting for us with complete plans. We didn't have any plans we weren't prepared for the recording. When in a studio you are expected to have 100 versions for a guitar solo and the task of the producer is to select the right one, but we didn't have. You can feel our uncertainty on this record."

Track listing

References

External links
 Razzmatazz Orfeum at MuSick Recordings webpage

2012 albums
The Moog albums

Seasons in the Underground


The Web Ontology Language (OWL) is a family of knowledge representation languages for authoring ontologies. Ontologies are a formal way to describe taxonomies and classification networks, essentially defining the structure of knowledge for various domains: the nouns representing classes of objects and the verbs representing relations between the objects.

Ontologies resemble class hierarchies in object-oriented programming but there are several critical differences. Class hierarchies are meant to represent structures used in source code that evolve fairly slowly (perhaps with monthly revisions) whereas ontologies are meant to represent information on the Internet and are expected to be evolving almost constantly. Similarly, ontologies are typically far more flexible as they are meant to represent information on the Internet coming from all sorts of heterogeneous data sources. Class hierarchies on the other hand tend to be fairly static and rely on far less diverse and more structured sources of data such as corporate databases.

The OWL languages are characterized by formal semantics. They are built upon the World Wide Web Consortium's (W3C) standard for objects called the Resource Description Framework (RDF). OWL and RDF have attracted significant academic, medical and commercial interest.

In October 2007, a new W3C working group was started to extend OWL with several new features as proposed in the OWL 1.1 member submission. W3C announced the new version of OWL on 27 October 2009. This new version, called OWL 2, soon found its way into semantic editors such as Protégé and semantic reasoners such as Pellet, RacerPro, FaCT++ and HermiT.

The OWL family contains many species, serializations, syntaxes and specifications with similar names. OWL and OWL2 are used to refer to the 2004 and 2009 specifications, respectively. Full species names will be used, including specification version (for example, OWL2 EL). When referring more generally, OWL Family will be used.

History

Early ontology languages

There is a long history of ontological development in philosophy and computer science. Since the 1990s, a number of research efforts have explored how the idea of knowledge representation (KR) from artificial intelligence (AI) could be made useful on the World Wide Web. These included languages based on HTML (called SHOE), based on XML (called XOL, later OIL), and various frame-based KR languages and knowledge acquisition approaches.

Ontology languages for the web
In 2000 in the United States, DARPA started development of DAML led by James Hendler.
In March 2001, the Joint EU/US Committee on Agent Markup Languages decided that DAML should be merged with OIL.
The EU/US ad hoc Joint Working Group on Agent Markup Languages was convened to develop DAML+OIL as a web ontology language. This group was jointly funded by the DARPA (under the DAML program) and the European Union's Information Society Technologies (IST) funding project. DAML+OIL was intended to be a thin layer above RDFS,
with formal semantics based on a description logic (DL).

DAML+OIL is a particularly major influence on OWL; OWL's design was specifically based on DAML+OIL.

Semantic web standards

RDF schema

In the late 1990s, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Metadata Activity started work on RDF Schema (RDFS), a language for RDF vocabulary sharing. The RDF became a W3C Recommendation in February 1999, and RDFS a Candidate Recommendation in March 2000. In February 2001, the Semantic Web Activity replaced the Metadata Activity. In 2004 (as part of a wider revision of RDF) RDFS became a  W3C Recommendation.
Though RDFS provides some support for ontology specification, the need for a more expressive ontology language had become clear.

Web-Ontology Working Group

The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) created the Web-Ontology Working Group as part of their Semantic Web Activity. It began work on November 1, 2001 with co-chairs James Hendler and Guus Schreiber. The first working drafts of the abstract syntax, reference and synopsis were published in July 2002. OWL became a formal W3C recommendation on February 10, 2004 and the working group was disbanded on May 31, 2004.

OWL Working Group
In 2005, at the OWL Experiences And Directions Workshop a consensus formed that recent advances in description logic would allow a more expressive revision to satisfy user requirements more comprehensively whilst retaining good computational properties.
In December 2006, the OWL1.1 Member Submission was made to the W3C. The W3C chartered the OWL Working Group as part of the Semantic Web Activity in September 2007. In April 2008, this group decided to call this new language OWL2, indicating a substantial revision.

OWL 2 became a W3C recommendation in October 2009. OWL 2 introduces profiles to improve scalability in typical applications.

Acronym

OWL was chosen as an easily pronounced acronym that would yield good logos, suggest wisdom, and honor William A. Martin's One World Language knowledge representation project from the 1970s.

Adoption
A 2006 survey of ontologies available on the web collected 688 OWL ontologies. Of these, 199 were OWL Lite, 149 were OWL DL and 337 OWL Full (by syntax). They found that 19 ontologies had in excess of 2,000 classes, and that 6 had more than 10,000. The same survey collected 587 RDFS vocabularies.

Ontologies

The data described by an ontology in the OWL family is interpreted as a set of "individuals" and a set of "property assertions" which relate these individuals to each other. An ontology consists of a set of axioms which place constraints on sets of individuals (called "classes") and the types of relationships permitted between them. These axioms provide semantics by allowing systems to infer additional information based on the data explicitly provided. A full introduction to the expressive power of the OWL is provided in the W3C's OWL Guide.

OWL ontologies can import other ontologies, adding information from the imported ontology to the current ontology.

Example
An ontology describing families might include axioms stating that a "hasMother" property is only present between two individuals when "hasParent" is also present, and that individuals of class "HasTypeOBlood" are never related via "hasParent" to members of the "HasTypeABBlood" class. If it is stated that the individual Harriet is related via "hasMother" to the individual Sue, and that Harriet is a member of the "HasTypeOBlood" class, then it can be inferred that Sue is not a member of "HasTypeABBlood". This is, however, only true if the concepts of "Parent" and "Mother" only mean biological parent or mother and not social parent or mother.

Species

OWL dialects
The W3C-endorsed OWL specification includes the definition of three variants of OWL, with different levels of expressiveness. These are OWL Lite, OWL DL and OWL Full (ordered by increasing expressiveness). Each of these sublanguages is a syntactic extension of its simpler predecessor. The following set of relations hold. Their inverses do not.

 Every legal OWL Lite ontology is a legal OWL DL ontology.
 Every legal OWL DL ontology is a legal OWL Full ontology.
 Every valid OWL Lite conclusion is a valid OWL DL conclusion.
 Every valid OWL DL conclusion is a valid OWL Full conclusion.

OWL Lite
OWL Lite was originally intended to support those users primarily needing a classification hierarchy and simple constraints. For example, while it supports cardinality constraints, it only permits cardinality values of 0 or 1. It was hoped that it would be simpler to provide tool support for OWL Lite than its more expressive relatives, allowing quick migration path for systems using thesauri and other taxonomies. In practice, however, most of the expressiveness constraints placed on OWL Lite amount to little more than syntactic inconveniences: most of the constructs available in OWL DL can be built using complex combinations of OWL Lite features, and is equally expressive as the description logic . Development of OWL Lite tools has thus proven to be almost as difficult as development of tools for OWL DL, and OWL Lite is not widely used.

OWL DL
OWL DL is designed to provide the maximum expressiveness possible while retaining computational completeness (either φ or ¬φ holds), decidability (there is an effective procedure to determine whether φ is derivable or not), and the availability of practical reasoning algorithms. OWL DL includes all OWL language constructs, but they can be used only under certain restrictions (for example, number restrictions may not be placed upon properties which are declared to be transitive; and while a class may be a subclass of many classes, a class cannot be an instance of another class). OWL DL is so named due to its correspondence with description logic, a field of research that has studied the logics that form the formal foundation of OWL.

OWL Full
OWL Full is based on a different semantics from OWL Lite or OWL DL, and was designed to preserve some compatibility with RDF Schema. For example, in OWL Full a class can be treated simultaneously as a collection of individuals and as an individual in its own right; this is not permitted in OWL DL. OWL Full allows an ontology to augment the meaning of the pre-defined (RDF or OWL) vocabulary. OWL Full is undecidable, so no reasoning software is able to perform complete reasoning for it.

OWL2 profiles
In OWL 2, there are three sublanguages of the language. OWL 2 EL is a fragment that has polynomial time reasoning complexity; OWL 2 QL is designed to enable easier access and query to data stored in databases; OWL 2 RL is a rule subset of OWL 2.

Syntax
The OWL family of languages supports a variety of syntaxes. It is useful to distinguish high level syntaxes aimed at specification from exchange syntaxes more suitable for general use.

High level
These are close to the ontology structure of languages in the OWL family.

OWL abstract syntax
High level syntax is used to specify the OWL ontology structure and semantics.

The OWL abstract syntax presents an ontology as a sequence of annotations, axioms and facts. Annotations carry machine and human oriented meta-data. Information about the classes, properties and individuals that compose the ontology is contained in axioms and facts only.
Each class, property and individual is either anonymous or identified by an URI reference. Facts state data either about an individual or about a pair of individual identifiers (that the objects identified are distinct or the same). Axioms specify the characteristics of classes and properties. This style is similar to frame languages, and quite dissimilar to well known syntaxes for DLs and Resource Description Framework (RDF).

Sean Bechhofer, et al. argue that though this syntax is hard to parse, it is quite concrete. They conclude that the name abstract syntax may be somewhat misleading.

OWL2 functional syntax
This syntax closely follows the structure of an OWL2 ontology. It is used by OWL2 to specify semantics, mappings to exchange syntaxes and profiles.

Exchange syntaxes

RDF syntaxes
Syntactic mappings into RDF are specified
for languages in the OWL family. Several RDF  serialization formats have been devised. Each leads to a syntax for languages in the OWL family through this mapping. RDF/XML is normative.

OWL2 XML syntax
OWL2 specifies an XML serialization that closely models the structure of an OWL2 ontology.

Manchester Syntax
The Manchester Syntax is a compact, human readable syntax with a style close to frame languages.
Variations are available for OWL and OWL2. Not all OWL and OWL2 ontologies can be expressed in this syntax.

Examples
 The W3C OWL 2 Web Ontology Language provides syntax examples.

Tea ontology
Consider an ontology for tea based on a Tea class. First, an ontology identifier is needed. Every OWL ontology must be identified by a URI (http://www.example.org/tea.owl, say). This example provides a sense of the syntax. To save space below, preambles and prefix definitions have been skipped.

OWL2 Functional Syntax Ontology(<http://example.org/tea.owl>
  Declaration( Class( :Tea ) )
)

OWL2 XML Syntax  <Ontology ontologyIRI="http://example.org/tea.owl" ...>
   <Prefix name="owl" IRI="http://www.w3.org/2002/07/owl#"/>
   <Declaration>
     <Class IRI="Tea"/>
   </Declaration>
 </Ontology>

Manchester Syntax Ontology: <http://example.org/tea.owl>
Class: Tea

RDF/XML syntax<rdf:RDF ...>
    <owl:Ontology rdf:about=""/>
    <owl:Class rdf:about="#Tea"/>
</rdf:RDF>

RDF/Turtle  <http://example.org/tea.owl> rdf:type owl:Ontology .
 :Tea  rdf:type            owl:Class .

Semantics

Relation to description logics
OWL classes correspond to description logic (DL) concepts, OWL properties to DL roles, while individuals are called the same way in both the OWL and the DL terminology.

Early attempts to build large ontologies were plagued by a lack of clear definitions. Members of the OWL family have model theoretic formal semantics, and so have strong logical foundations.

Description logics are a family of logics that are decidable fragments of first-order logic with attractive and well-understood computational properties. OWL DL and OWL Lite semantics are based on DLs.
They combine a syntax for describing and exchanging ontologies, and formal semantics that gives them meaning. For example, OWL DL corresponds to the  description logic, while OWL 2 corresponds to the  logic. Sound, complete, terminating reasoners (i.e. systems which are guaranteed to derive every consequence of the knowledge in an ontology) exist for these DLs.

Relation to RDFS
OWL Full is intended to be compatible with RDF Schema (RDFS), and to be capable of augmenting the meanings of existing Resource Description Framework (RDF) vocabulary. A model theory describes the formal semantics for
RDF. This interpretation provides the meaning of RDF and RDFS vocabulary. So, the meaning of OWL Full ontologies are defined by extension of the RDFS meaning, and OWL Full is a semantic extension of RDF.

Open world assumption

The languages in the OWL family use the open world assumption. Under the open world assumption, if a statement cannot be proven to be true with current knowledge, we cannot draw the conclusion that the statement is false.

Contrast to other languages
A relational database consists of sets of tuples with the same attributes. SQL is a query and management language for relational databases. Prolog is a logical programming language. Both use the closed world assumption.

Terminology
Languages in the OWL family are capable of creating classes, properties, defining instances and its operations.

Instances
An instance is an object. It corresponds to a description logic individual.

Classes
A class is a collection of objects. A class may contain individuals, instances of the class. A class may have any number of instances. An instance may belong to none, one or more classes.

A class may be a subclass of another, inheriting characteristics from its parent superclass. This corresponds to logical subsumption and DL concept inclusion notated .

All classes are subclasses of owl:Thing (DL top notated ), the root class.

All classes are subclassed by owl:Nothing (DL bottom notated ), the empty class. No instances are members of owl:Nothing. Modelers use owl:Thing and owl:Nothing to assert facts about all or no instances.

Class and their members can be defined in OWL either by extension or by intension. An individual can be explicitly assigned a class by a Class assertion, for example we can add a statement Queen elizabeth is a(n instance of) human, or by a class expression with ClassExpression statements every instance of the human class who has a female value to the sex property is an instance of the woman class.

Example
Let's call human the class of all humans in the world. It is a subclass of owl:thing. The class of all women (say woman) in the world is a subclass of human.
Then we have

The membership of some individual to a class could be noted
 ClassAssertion( human George_Washington )
and class inclusion
 SubClassOf( woman human )
The first means "George Washington is a human" and the second "every woman is human".

Properties
A property is a characteristic of a class - a directed binary relation that specifies some attribute which is true for instances of that class. Properties sometimes act as data values, or links to other instances. Properties may exhibit logical features, for example, by being transitive, symmetric, inverse and functional. Properties may also have domains and ranges.

Datatype properties
Datatype properties are relations between instances of classes and RDF literals or XML schema datatypes. For example, modelName (String datatype) is the property of Manufacturer class. They are formulated using owl:DatatypeProperty type.

Object properties
Object properties are relations between instances of two classes. For example, ownedBy may be an object type property of the Vehicle class and may have a range which is the class Person. They are formulated using owl:ObjectProperty.

Operators
Languages in the OWL family support various operations on classes such as union, intersection and complement. They also allow class enumeration, cardinality, disjointness, and equivalence.

Metaclasses
Metaclasses are classes of classes. They are allowed in OWL full or with a feature called class/instance punning.

Public ontologies

Libraries

Biomedical
 OBO Foundry
 NCBO BioPortal
 NCI Enterprise Vocabulary Services

Standards
 Suggested Upper Merged Ontology (SUMO)
 TDWG
 PROV-O, the ontology version of the W3C's PROV-DM
 Basic Formal Ontology (BFO)
 European Materials Modelling Ontology (EMMO)

Browsers
The following tools include public ontology browsers:
 Protégé OWL

Search
 Swoogle

Limitations
 No direct language support for n-ary relationships. For example, modelers may wish to describe the qualities of a relation, to relate more than 2 individuals or to relate an individual to a list. This cannot be done within OWL. They may need to adopt a pattern instead which encodes the meaning outside the formal semantics.

See also

 RDF
 Semantic technology
 Agris: International Information System for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology
 Common Logic
 FOAF + DOAC
 Frame language
 Geopolitical ontology
 IDEAS Group
 Meta-Object Facility (MOF), a different standard for the Unified Modeling Language (UML) of the Object Management Group (OMG)
 Metaclass (Semantic Web), a featured allowed by OWL to represent knowledge
 Multimedia Web Ontology Language
 Semantic reasoner
 SKOS
 SSWAP: Simple Semantic Web Architecture and Protocol
 SHACL: Shapes and Constraints Language for RDF

References

Further reading

World Wide Web Consortium standards
Resource Description Framework
XML-based standards
Declarative programming languages
Ontology languages
Semantic Web

Web Ontology Language


The Restraining Acts of early 1775 were two Acts passed by the Parliament of Great Britain, which limited colonial trade in response to both increasing and spreading civil disobedience in Massachusetts and New England, and similar trade restrictions instituted by elected colonial representatives. With time the foment would spread to most of its American Colonies. The first restraining act, (15 Geo. 3. c. 10) known variously as the New England Trade And Fisheries Act, the New England Restraining Act, or the Trade Act 1775, limited the export and import of any goods to and from only Great Britain, Ireland, and the British West Indies; it also prohibited the New England colonies from fishing in the waters off Newfoundland and most of America's Atlantic coast, without special permissions and documentation, and imposed stiff penalties on both perpetrators and administrators if violations occurred. Previously legal or finessed trade between the colonies themselves or with other nations was prohibited, and enforced by naval blockade, effective July 1, 1775.  The second restraining act, (15 Geo. 3. c. 18) known also as the Trade Act 1775, similarly limited the export or import of any goods by way of only Great Britain, Ireland, and the British West Indies for most colonies south of New England; it was passed shortly after the first, upon receiving news in April that the colony's trade boycott had spread widely among other colonies. New York, Delaware, North Carolina and Georgia would escape these restraints on trade, but only for a few months.

The Restraining Acts were passed one year after the first of the Intolerable Acts had been imposed to show the potential of tighter British sovereignty over Boston, Massachusetts, and threatened the same treatment in other colonies generally. Instead of quieting the populace, these coercive laws had been met with increasing resistance and rising resentment among the colonials. Over this same period the colonies established independent communications, and the First Continental Congress established the colonial's boycott to restrain the import of British goods then the export of colonial products, which caused disruption in British trade and revenues and shortages in the colonies themselves. Additionally, the colonies had established alternative legislatures in defiance of established ones under direct imperial control. The growing defiance caused a mutual scramble for munitions and treasonous acts to obtain them, indicating that more violence was on the horizon. News arriving about the first restraining act, and related actions of the Massachusetts military governor would lead directly to the first military confrontation in the American Revolutionary War.

With fighting started, any possible reconciliation became moot, and the King would issue his Royal Proclamation of Rebellion in August. In December 1775 Parliament passed the Prohibitory Act prohibiting any trade with all the colonies, and enforcing it with a tighter blockade and more severe penalties; it was a declaration of economic war, with inbound or outbound ships, mariners and cargoes treated as if they "were the ships and effects of open enemies ... [to be] so adjudged, deemed, and taken, in all courts." With this drastic change in British tactics, effective January 1, 1776, the two Restraining Acts as well as the Boston Port Act were repealed, "whereas the prohibitions and restraints imposed by the said acts will be rendered unnecessary by the provisions of this act."

Rebellion proclaimed
The province of Massachusetts Bay was in a state of crisis following the passage of the Coercive Acts in 1774. When colonists formed the extra-legal Massachusetts Provincial Congress and began organizing militia units independent of British control, Parliament responded on February 9, 1775, by declaring that Massachusetts was in a state of rebellion.

The joint resolution of Parliament read, in part:

One of the Coercive Acts, the Boston Port Act, had cut off Boston's trade; this blockade was now extended to all of Massachusetts.

New England Restraining Act
The North ministry next turned its attention to New England generally. The New England Restraining Act (short title: New England Trade And Fisheries Act) was the ministry's response to the American colonies' decision to boycott British goods, as embodied in the Continental Association of 1774. It was given royal assent by George III on 30 March 1775. The Act provided that New England's trade be limited to Britain and the British West Indies (trade with other nations was prohibited, effective 1 July 1775). Moreover, New England ships were barred from the North Atlantic fisheries (a measure that pleased British Canadians, but threatened considerable harm to New England's economy), effective 20 July 1775.

Restraining Act extended
In April 1775, after news was received in London that colonies outside of New England had joined the Continental Association, a second restraining Act was passed to include the colonies of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Virginia, Maryland and South Carolina. New York, Delaware, North Carolina, and Georgia were not included because the North ministry mistakenly believed that those colonies were opposed to the colonial boycott.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution, 1763–1776. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968.

External links
Text of the New England Restraining Act
Text of the Southern Colonies Restraining Act

Great Britain Acts of Parliament 1775
1775 in the Thirteen Colonies
History of New England
British laws relating to the American Revolution

Restraining Acts 1775


Ivana Primorac (born in Zagreb in 1965) is a Croatian make-up artist and hairstylist. She began her career working in television after a job working for the BBC. Primorac later moved on to working in feature films, including Atonement, Sweeney Todd, The Reader, and Barbie. Primorac has earned various award nominations for her work.

Career
Primorac started working as a hair and make-up artist in television. She wanted to work at the BBC, as she believed their training was the best and eventually got a job with the BBC-trained designers as a trainee. Primorac moved on to working in feature films and she has worked on many films since the nineties, including Elizabeth, Gladiator, The Hours, Atonement, Sweeney Todd and The Reader. While working on the 2000 film, Billy Elliot, Primorac graduated to hair and make-up.

In 2009, Primorac donated her time to a television public service announcement promoting awareness of domestic violence. The announcement, titled Cut, starred actress Keira Knightley. Commenting on her rise to prominence within the film industry, Primorac said "You can't become a makeup artist overnight."

Recognition
Primorac has been nominated for five BAFTA awards for her work. Primorac has attended the Academy Award's "bake-off" sessions for The Hours, Cold Mountain and Sweeney Todd.

Filmography

Awards

References

External links

Living people
Best Makeup BAFTA Award winners
British make-up artists
1965 births

Ivana Primorac


The Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera ("academy of fine arts of Brera"), also known as the Accademia di Brera or Brera Academy, is a state-run  art school in Milan, Italy.  Its main building is the Palazzo Brera. The Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan's main public museum for art, is also located in the building. The Palazzo Brera was built in 1615 to designs by the Milanese architect Francesco Maria Richini  (1584–1658).

The academy was founded in 1776 by Maria Theresa of Austria.  Other important institutions were also housed in the Palazzo Brera during that time. These included an observatory, botanical gardens, science laboratories, a library, and the Scuole Palatine (schools for philosophy and law). The Pinacoteca di Brera as been located in the building since 1806.

In 1891, the first Triennale di belle arti exposition was held at the academy. The exposition took place every three years. Each exhibition had a special theme. The first one was devoted to new trends in the plastic arts. The exhibit included some of the first examples of Italians painting in the pointillist style.

The academy today

Like other state-run art academies in Italy, the Accademia di Brera falls under the Italian ministry of education and research. It awards first- and second-level degrees, specialised degrees, master's degrees and doctorates.

The accademia has three departments:
 Visual arts, with courses in painting, sculpture, decorative art, and graphic art
 Design and applied art, which has courses in art restoration, design for business, new technologies of art, and stage design
 Communication and education, with courses in conservation of cultural heritage, and in art education.

The academy has about 3,800 students, including about 1,000 foreign students (mostly postgraduates).

References

Other websites

Colleges and universities in Italy
Art museums in Italy
1776 establishments
18th-century establishments in Italy
1770s establishments in Europe

Brera Academy


The third season of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation premiered on CBS on September 26, 2002, and ended May 15, 2003. The series stars William Petersen and Marg Helgenberger.

Plot
Grissom begins to suffer from hearing loss ("Inside the Box"), as Catherine faces the possibility of losing her daughter ("Lady Heather's Box") during the third season of CSI. Alongside their team, including Sara Sidle, Warrick Brown, Nick Stokes, and Jim Brass, Willows and Grissom investigate the death of a poker player ("Revenge is Best Served Cold"), the evisceration of a cheerleader ("Let the Seller Beware"), a death at a little persons convention ("A Little Murder"), the overdose of a rock-star ("Abra-Cadaver"), a jewelry heist ("Fight Night"), a mob murder ("Blood Lust"), the discovery of a body covered in fire-ants ("Snuff"), and a drive-by shooting ("Random Acts of Violence"). Meanwhile, the team are faced with their own past when they testify in court ("The Accused is Entitled"), Sara struggles to cope with the psychological trauma that she is suffering from being caught up in the explosion ("Play with Fire"), and one of Doc Robbins' autopsies goes awry when the victim wakes up ("Got Murder?").

Cast

Changes
Eric Szmanda and Robert David Hall, who joined the recurring cast in season one, become main cast members this season.

Main cast

 William Petersen as CSI Level 3 Night Shift Supervisor Gil Grissom
 Marg Helgenberger as CSI Level 3 Assistant Night Shift Supervisor Catherine Willows
 Gary Dourdan as CSI Level 3 Warrick Brown
 George Eads as CSI Level 3 Nick Stokes
 Jorja Fox as CSI Level 3 Sara Sidle
 Eric Szmanda as DNA Technician Greg Sanders
 Robert David Hall as Clark County Coroner's Office Chief Medical Examiner Dr. Al Robbins
 Paul Guilfoyle as LVPD Homicide Unit Captain Jim Brass

Recurring cast

Guest cast

Episodes

References

External links
 DVD Release Dates at TVShowsOnDVD.com.

03
2002 American television seasons
2003 American television seasons

CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (season 3)


Giovanni Pallavera (1818 in Cremona – 1886 in Milan) was an Italian painter, mainly known for his genre subjects in period costume.

He was a resident of Cremona. he began exhibiting in Milan as a student as early as 1847, and in the early 1850s depicted some subjects from history or literary subjects. In 1870, he displayed La famiglia di buon cuore. At Milan, in 1872, he exhibited: Gli ultimi tocchi, depicting a 16th-century painter in action; La Ritrosia di una modella; Lucia ringrazia l'Innominato; L'amore alla lettura; in 1881 to Milan, he sent Passeggiate sentimentali; Colla Nonna. At an 1883 contest in Milan, he sent: Contadinella con giovenca; Briansuola mezza figura; Costume Campagna Romana; and Paese; in 1883 to Rome, he sent Le Carezze alla mamma and La lezione di calze.

He also painted some sacred subjects such as his paintings in the Quadreria dell'Ospedale Maggiore and for the Istituto dei Ciechi.

References

19th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Painters from Cremona
Painters from Milan
Italian genre painters
Italian costume genre painters
1818 births
1886 deaths
19th-century Italian male artists

Giovanni Pallavera


is a private university in Aichi Prefecture, Japan. It has campuses at the city of Nisshin, Aichi, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya and Meijō Park in Nagoya.
The predecessor of the university, a Soto Zen college, was founded in 1876, and it was chartered as a university in 1953.

History
The university began as a Soto Zen school in 1876, and retains strong connections to Soto Zen. In 1903 in accordance with revisions to education regulations, it was renamed the Sotozen No. 3 middle school. In 1925 it was renamed the Aichi middle school. In 1948 it was reformed as a high school, and in 1950 it became Aichi Gakuin Junior College. In 1953 it was finally established as Aichi Gakuin University. Over the next two decades it added the Faculty of Law, the School of Dentistry (including Aichi Gakuin Dental Hospital), the Faculty of Commerce, and the Faculty of Letters. In 1974 it opened its Nisshin Campus.

It began offering masters and doctoral courses in 1974 and 1976, initially in religious studies and psychology, expanding to all subjects over the next few years. In the 1980s it created departments of Japanese Culture and International Culture (the latter now the Department of English Language and Cultures). In the 1990s, it oversaw the creation of the graduate School of Business, and graduate studies in Japanese Culture and English Language.

In 2002, the graduate School of Policy open. A satellite campus opened in Sakae in central Nagoya in 2003, with the graduate schools of Commerce and Management and of Law moving there. The School of Pharmacy Science was opened in 2005, with graduate studies beginning six years later. A new Department of Global English was established in 2007.

In 2013, the Faculty of Economics was established, while in 2014, the new Meijo Campus next to Meijo Park in Nagoya was opened, housing the faculties of Business, Commerce, and Economics.

Faculties and departments
The university currently consists of the following faculties and other divisions:
Faculty of Letters (文学部)
Department of History (歴史学科)
Department of English Language and Cultures (英語英米文化学科)
Department of Global English (グローバル英語学科)
Department of Japanese Culture (日本文化学科)
Department of Religious Culture (宗教文化学科)
Faculty of Psychological and Physical Science (心身科学部)
Department of Psychology (心理学科)
Department of Health Science (健康科学科)
Department of Health and Nutrition (健康栄養学科)
Faculty of Business and Commerce (商学部)
Department of Business and Commerce (商学科)

Faculty of Management (経営学部)
Department of Management (経営学科)
Faculty of Economics (経済学部)
Department of Economics (経済学科)
Faculty of Law (法学部)
Department of Law (法律学科)
Department of Law and Contemporary Society (現代社会法学科)
Faculty of Policy Studies (総合政策学部)
Department of Policy Studies (総合政策学科)
School of Pharmacy (薬学部)
Department of Pharmacy (医療薬学科)
School of Dentistry (歯学部)
Department of Dentistry (歯学科)
Junior College (短期大学部)
Department of Dental Hygiene (歯科衛生学科)
Division of Liberal Arts and Sciences (教養部)

National and international partner universities

Aichi Gakuin is sister school to two other universities originating in Soto Zen institutions, Komazawa University in Tokyo and Tohoku Fukushi University in Sendai. Internationally, it has overseas partners in Canterbury Christ Church University in the UK, Bond University in Australia, University of Victoria in Canada, University of Arkansas-Fort Smith in the US, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman in Malaysia, and Dongguk University in South Korea. It has academic cooperation agreements with Elmira College in the US; Hanyang University in South Korea; Hunan Normal University, Dalian University, Changchun University, Ludong University, and Linyi University in China; Tzu Chi University and Tzu Chi University of Science and Technology in Taiwan; University of Education at the University of Da Nang in Vietnam; the National University of Laos; Padjadjaran University in Indonesia; and Hacettepe University in Turkey.

Notable speakers
In 2003 on the 50th anniversary of the university's charter, former US President Bill Clinton was invited to give a lecture and received an honorary doctorate for his dedication to world peace, following which he met the parents of Yoshihiro Hattori, a Japanese high school student whose death in the US ten years previously had prompted worldwide calls for stricter US gun control. In 2015, the Dalai Lama gave a speech and interview with journalist Akira Ikegami.

List of AGU alumni

Politics
 Kenji Kanda, Japanese politician (LDP member of the House of Representatives)
 Yukio Yoshida, Japanese politician (LDP member of the House of Representatives)

Culture
Seamo, Japanese rap artist
Katsumi Suzuki, voice actor
Tengai Amano, playwright and theatre director
Gaku Sano, actor

Business
Masaki Inayoshi, Nova holdings

Science and academia
 Shigemi Gotou, noted Orthodontistry specialist, chair of the Japanese Orthodontic Society
 Shigeki Iwai Japanese culture scholar
 Takao Kobayashi, historian
 Sugane Nakagawa, historian

Sports
Yutaka Akita, Japan international professional footballer
Daisuke Ando Japanese professional footballer
Tomoya Ando Japanese professional footballer
Kei Chinen Japanese professional footballer
Sōsuke Genda, professional baseball player
Shingo Hoshino, Japanese professional footballer
Dan Howbert, Japanese professional footballer
Shogo Kimura, professional baseball player and cricketer
Yohei Kurakawa, Japanese professional footballer
Katsunori Kuwabara, Japanese pro-golfer
Shigetatsu Matsunaga, Japanese professional footballer and coach
Tatsuro Okuda, Japanese professional footballer
Akito Ōkura, professional baseball player
Toshiyasu Takahara, Japanese professional footballer
Akimasa Tsukamoto, Japanese professional footballer
Kazuya Tsutsui, professional baseball player
Hiroshi Urano, professional baseball player
Mitsunori Yamao, Japanese professional footballer
Akihiro Yamauchi, Japan national volleyball player
Megumu Yoshida, Olympic synchronised swimmer
Keiji Yoshimura, Japanese professional footballer

References

External links
 Official website

Universities and colleges established in 1876
Private universities and colleges in Japan
Buddhist universities and colleges in Japan
Soto Zen
1876 establishments in Japan
Nisshin, Aichi

Aichi Gakuin University


Geoff Wisner is an American author, book reviewer, and editor. His articles appear in publications such as The Christian Science Monitor, Words Without Borders, Transition Magazine, Boston Globe, Wall Street Journal, and Wild Earth. He is a graduate of Harvard University (1980). He currently lives in New York City.  He is married to Jennifer Marie Brissett, a writer.

Books
 Thoreau's Animals, published by Yale University Press (2017)
 Thoreau's Wildflowers, published by Yale University Press (2016)
 African Lives: An Anthology of Memoirs and Autobiographies, published by Lynne Rienner Publishers (2013)
 A Basket of Leaves: 99 Books That Capture the Spirit of Africa , published by Jacana Media (2007)

Work reviews
Poetry Written Out of Outrage: The Rising of the Ashes by Tahar Ben Jelloun, The Quarterly Conversation (2010)
Magical Realist Africa: A River Called Time by Mia Couto, The Quarterly Conversation (2010)
Dreams in a Time of War: A Childhood Memoir by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, The Quarterly Conversation (2010)
Beneath the Lion's Gaze by Maaza Mengiste, The Christian Science Monitor (2010)
The Journal of Henry David Thoreau edited by Damion Searls, The Quarterly Conversation (2009)
The Education of a British-Protected Child by Chinua Achebe, The Christian Science Monitor (2009)
Becoming Americans edited by Ilan Stavans, The Christian Science Monitor (2009)
The Pattern in the Carpet by Margaret Drabble, The Christian Science Monitor (2009)
The Thing Around Your Neck by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, The Quarterly Conversation (2009)
An Elegy for Easterly, by Petina Gappah, The Christian Science Monitor (2009)
Gods and Soldiers: The Penguin Anthology of Contemporary African Writing by Rob Spillman (editor), The Quarterly Conversation (2009)
"Solo in the Congo", Blood River: A Journey to Africa's Broken Heart by Tim Butcher, Wall Street Journal (2008)
"Love, like violence, can be random", The Stone Virgins by Yvonne Vera, African Review of Books (2004)
"Congo's history in the life of one man", The Fire of Origins by Emmanuel Dongala, African Review of Books (2001)
"Abuses of Haiti", The Uses of Haiti by Paul Farmer, Transition 66 (1995)
"Wolves in the Hills", High Noon in Southern Africa by Chester Crocker, Transition 60 (1993)
"Dry Season", African Laughter: Four Visits to Zimbabwe by Doris Lessing, Transition 59 (1993)
The Lives of Beryl Markham by Errol Trzebinski, Boston Sunday Globe (1993)

Articles
"Fleurs du Mal: A Visit to Haiti", Global Exchange (1997)
"Haiti as a Tourist Destination", Global Exchange (1997)
 "Noted With Pleasure", excerpt from The Best of Bad Hemingway, The New York Times (1992)

Interviews
99 Essential African Books: The Geoff Wisner Interview, A Quarterly Conversation interview with Scott Esposito (September 2009)
Laura Reviews ...   Laura Cococcia interviews Geoff Wisner (April 2009)
Interview with Geoff Wisner conducted by Victor Dlamini on SAfm. (July 2007)

References

External links
Geoff Wisner's Official site
Geoff Wisner also blogs at Words Without Borders

Living people
American Africanists
American editors
American literary critics
American ethnographers
Harvard University alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)

Geoff Wisner


The Toledo Jeeps were a professional basketball team that played in the National Basketball League from 1946 to 1948.  As with many other NBL teams, they owed their name to an industry of their hometown, in this case the Willys Jeep Plant.  They played their games at the University of Toledo Field House.

The 1946–47 team featured players such as Chips Sobek, Hal Tidrick, Jule Rivlin and rookie Paul Seymour.  Rivlin served as the player-coach. It went 21–23 and qualified for the playoffs, where it lost to the Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons.  It would, however, be invited to the 1947 World Professional Basketball Tournament, where it finished 2nd.

In the 1947–48 NBL season, Sobek, Tidrick and Rivlin returned, and were joined by Dick Mehen and Harry Boykoff.  The team finished with a record of 22–37 and missed the playoffs.  The 1948 season proved to be the Jeeps' last; they were replaced for the NBL's final campaign with the Waterloo Hawks, who inherited Mehen and Boykoff.

References

Basketball teams established in 1946
Basketball teams disestablished in 1948
1946 establishments in Ohio
1948 disestablishments in Ohio

Toledo Jeeps


Kshira Sagara is said as the birth place of supreme Trimurti god Vishnu. Kshira Sagara is hindu historical place which is surrounded by pure water with powers of millions of stars, universe,constellations, etc. It is said to be the hidden heaven in earth there are lots scripts in Ramayana and Mahabharata, And it is also mentioned in tamil and sanskrit scripts. Kshira Sagara is the underground mysterious place. Which is connected with time and space.

Hindu mythology

Kshira Sagara


Essex is a town in Middlesex County, Connecticut, United States. The town is part of the Lower Connecticut River Valley Planning Region. The population was 6,733 at the 2020 census. It is made up of three villages: Essex Village, Centerbrook, and Ivoryton.

History

The Great Attack

Essex is one of the few American towns to have ever been attacked by a foreign power; this occurred on April 8, 1814, and the economic losses were among the largest sustained by the United States during the War of 1812. 28 vessels, with a total value estimated to be close to $200,000 (at a time when a very large two story home in Essex, then known as Potapoug Point, would have been worth no more than $1,000), were destroyed by the British. One historian has called it the "Pearl Harbor" of that war.

On that date, approximately 136 British marines and sailors under the command of Richard Coote  (or Coot) rowed 6 boats from four British warships (the , , Maidstone and ) anchored in Long Island Sound, 6 miles up the Connecticut River, past the unmanned fort in Old Saybrook, arriving at the boat launch at the foot of Main Street in Essex close to 4 A.M. The boats were armed with swivel guns loaded with grapeshot, the officers armed with swords and pistols, the marines with "Brown Bess" muskets, and the sailors with torches and axes; they responded to the single cannon fired by the town's surprised defenders with a massive volley, neither side incurring any casualties. They quickly commandeered the town, eliciting a promise of no resistance from the Essex militia in return for promising not to harm the townspeople or burn their homes, while a messenger rode to Fort Trumbull in New London for help. A dubious local myth states that Coote did not burn the town as a favor to a local merchant who greeted him with a secret Masonic handshake.

The British marched to the Bushnell Tavern (now the Griswold Inn), then seized the town's stores of rope (each ship of that time requiring 8 miles of rope) and, according to the April 19, 1814 Hartford Courant, "$100,000 or upwards" worth of rum (acquired from the East Indies in trade for beef and wood from Connecticut).

Their main targets, however, were the newly constructed privateers in the harbor, ready or nearly ready for sail, which they burned. Within 6 hours, their mission was accomplished, and The British went downstream with two captured ships in tow, including the Black Prince, a vessel that may well have primarily inspired the raid. Stranded in the river by low tide, they were forced to wait at the extreme range of the shots of the volunteers from the nearby town of Killingworth, Connecticut who lined the riverbanks; 2 marines were killed and the captured ships had to be destroyed, but the rest of the men escaped safely when the tide turned.

At the time of the raid, Essex (then known as Potopaug) had been a major center of shipping and shipbuilding, but was suffering under a blockade by The British; as a result, the privateers were being constructed. Captain Richard Hayden, a prominent shipbuilder, had advertised his Black Prince in a New York City newspaper as "a 315 ton sharp schooner that would make an ideal privateer." This may have caught the attention of The British, who then investigated Essex and launched the successful raid. Perhaps as a consequence of the practical, but somewhat less than heroic, response of the town to the raid, shortly afterwards, the name of the town was changed to Essex.

On the second Saturday of each May since 1964, the "Sailing Masters of 1812" of Essex commemorate the "Burning of the Ships" with an ancient fife and drum corps parade down Main Street and ceremony at the steamboat dock, wearing the United States naval uniform of that period; by tradition, this event is unpublicized. The Connecticut River Museum, situated at the site where Coot landed, now hosts an exhibit portraying the raid, featuring a large diorama by Russell Joseph Buckingham, a musket ball believed to have been fired then and a plank from the ship Osage, burned by The British. Plans are to expand the celebration of "the town's worst day in history" in future years, according to the museum's executive director, Jerry Roberts.

Historical architecture

Centerbrook, a fertile and productive agricultural area, was the "center" of town until the Revolutionary War. Many farmhouses remain from this era. The Selah Griswold House and Clark Nott House on Bokum Road are fine examples of two-story center chimney homes that were characteristic of the time. The Benjamin Bushnell Homestead on Ingham Hill Road falls into the same category. Also characteristic of Centerbrook were smaller Cape Cod type homes. The Snow House on Main Street, the Nott House on Westbrook Road, the Taylor Bushnell House on Ingham Hill Road, and the Silent Rose House near the train station are fine examples. The dominant building in Centerbrook, from a historical standpoint, is the Congregational Church. This structure is the second to stand here, and the oldest existing church building in Middlesex County.

There were a few homes built in Essex Village (known as Potapoug Point until 1854) during the first half of the 18th century. One of the more notable is the Pratt House on West Avenue, an "organic" structure built according to the immediate needs of the Pratt family.  Shipbuilding dominated between the Revolution and the Civil War. As a result, the village came to be the focal point of the area. Many homes were erected between 1790 and 1820. By that time, Main Street had much the same make-up as today. The homes were primarily Federal, with one extended family dominating lower Main Street. The first eight structures (including the Griswold Inn) on the south side of this highway (starting at the waterfront) were either built or lived in by members of the Hayden family. Of these eight structures, only the one on the west side of Novelty Lane and the one on the east corner of Parker Lane were not built by this family. The fact that the well known Hayden Shipyard was directly south of these buildings was the primary reason for this situation. All these homes are different architecturally. The Ebenezer Hayden House (third from the river) was the initial hip-roof house in the lower valley, and the current Episcopal Church Rectory (the Richard Hayden Dwelling) was the first brick house in the lower valley. Pratt Street runs parallel to Main Street, and many houses on that thoroughfare not only were built in the Federal style, but have their roof lines perpendicular to the street, which allows for more homes to be erected on a given highway. In addition, there are two homes on Pratt Street that have Palladian windows in the garret area. Also of note is the 1846 Baptist Church on Prospect Street, one of three Egyptian Revival style churches in the United States.

As the construction of wooden sailing ships faded, the growth of the ivory and piano parts industry in the village of Ivoryton changed the focal point of Essex again. The growth of Comstock, Cheney & Co., one of the two largest producers of ivory products in the United States, made Ivoryton literally the center of Essex (and the lower Connecticut River Valley). The houses built here after the Civil war reflect the influence and affluence of that village. East Main Street, entering Ivoryton from Centerbrook is " Victorian Row." All the houses along this way were owned by executives or stockholders of Comstock, Cheney & Co. Contrast this with Essex Village, where there are relatively few Gothic or Victorian style dwellings, two examples of which are the 1855 "Gingerbread House" at the corner of Riverview Street and Maple Avenue, and the Parker House on North Main Street.

Perhaps the most culturally significant homes in town were built in Ivoryton during the 1890 to 1920 era. The factory was in desperate need of low-cost labor, and as a result, many immigrants from Italy and Poland came to work for Comstock, Cheney & Co. around the turn of the 20th century. The firm constructed many factory homesteads for these people. The great majority of these homes remain today, although most have been substantially altered. A journey through Blake, Oak, Walnut, and Chestnut Streets as well as Comstock Avenue is most revealing, as these factory homes give a glimpse into the past.

Geography and climate

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which,  of it is land and  of it (12.35%) is water.

The town is made up of three villages: Essex (ZIP code 06426), Centerbrook (06409) and Ivoryton (06442). The local public school, Essex Elementary School, educates around 560 students for grades K–6.

Climate

There are 4 distinct seasons in Essex. During Autumn, the leaves change colors and the temperatures fall. The average November high temperature is about 50 degrees. Snow is prevalent in winter, typically starting in December and lasting through March. The average January low temperature is about 19 degrees. In recent years winter have become erratic, with the first snowfall of winter 2006-2007 not reported until mid-late January. However, the winter of 2008-2009 was unusually cold and snowy, with over 50 inches of snow (compared to an average of about 30 inches) and days with temperatures below 0 degrees Fahrenheit in the morning. Spring is pleasant with temperatures averaging in the 60s. Summertime in Essex is warm and humid, with average July temperatures into the 80s.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 6,505 people, 2,811 households, and 1,776 families residing in the town.  The population density was .  There were 2,977 housing units at an average density of .
There were 2,811 households, out of which 27.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.6% were married couples living together, 5.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.8% were non-families. 31.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.87.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 21.9% under the age of 18, 3.6% from 18 to 24, 27.4% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 19.5% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.6 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.9 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $66,746, and the median income for a family was $88,888. Males had a median income of $54,053 versus $38,276 for females. The per capita income for the town was $42,806.  About 0.5% of families and 2.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.0% of those under age 18 and 3.5% of those age 65 or over.

Ancestry/Ethnicity

The largest self-reported ancestry groups in Essex, Connecticut are:

 English 24.9%
 Irish 23.1%
 Italian 18.6%
 German 15.5%
 Scottish 6.1%
 Polish 6.6%
 French 6.3%
 Swedish 5.0%

Government
The Essex Town Hall is located on the corner of West Avenue and Grove Street in Essex.

Police/Fire/EMS
-Essex Police Department is attached to the rear of the town hall. Essex has a resident state trooper and five constables. The town pays the Connecticut State Police for a state trooper to supervise the constables. The First Selectman is considered the Chief of Police.

-Essex Fire Engine Co. 1 has two fire houses: the central fire house on the corner of Route 153 and Route 154 and the sub-station in Ivoryton on Summit Street. The Fire Department is the designated PSA holder for first responding to medical emergencies.

Elections for these positions are annual and voted by the department at an annual meeting. The department is limited by its charter with the town to 60 Members. The Fire Department responds to about 1000 calls each year, mostly medical first response calls, and fire alarms.

-Essex Ambulance Association, Inc. is an independent association, receiving town funding for workers' compensation insurance only. The association was founded in 1964, and is composed of 32 volunteers with MRT and EMT certification levels. The association operates three ambulances which respond to over 900 calls for service each year, and provides mutual aide to all surrounding towns. Elections for officers are held annually.

The association is self-sufficient, funded through billing and donations. The ambulance receives an intercept paramedic for Advanced Life Support when needed through Middlesex Hospital.

Libraries

There are two libraries in Essex: the Essex Library, located next to the Town Hall (corner of Grove St. and West Ave.) and one in the center of Ivoryton, the Ivoryton Library.] A resident can obtain a single card for both libraries. The Essex Library was recently rebuilt and is a center of the community, providing nearly 400 free programs a year for children and adults. It is an association library with 501(c)(3) non-profit status.

Religion
The one Lutheran Church sits on Main Street in Centerbrook. There is a building which once housed a Methodist church on the corner of Prospect Street and Main Street, but it is no longer in use. The First Baptist Church of Essex, Connecticut, built in 1846, is notable for being one of only three Egyptian revival churches known to have ever been built in the United States. The architect was Minard Lafever.

There is also one Catholic Church, Our Lady of Sorrows, on Prospect Street in Essex Village, just a short walk from Essex downtown. After being destroyed by a fire in 1925, the new church was built on the foundations of an abandoned inn. Recently, the parish joined with the Chester, CT parish church, St. Joseph's. The current pastor of the Our Lady of Sorrows is Father Arul Rajan Peter, and has been with the parish since 2012.

Education
Essex, like the other two towns in the "tri-town area" (Deep River and Chester), is a member of Regional School District #4. Essex Elementary School is located in Centerbrook and serves students in grades Pre-K–6 and serves about 350 students. John Winthrop Junior High School, located in Deep River, serves grades 7 and 8, and Valley Regional High School, located on Kelsey Hill Rd. in Deep River, serving grades 9–12, are the secondary schools for Regional School District #4.

Culture and attractions

The town of Essex sponsors an annual Groundhog Day parade.  A large papier mache groundhog named "Essex Ed" is carried through town with revelers making noise in order to rouse him from his slumber and bring an end to winter.  The town also sponsors a "Loser's Day Parade," which celebrates the 1814 event of having 29 ships burned in Essex harbor during a raid by British marines. The first Saturday in June there is a Shad Bake sponsored by the Rotary Club of Essex.

In 1851 was founded the Essex Savings Bank located on the Main Street (today on the Plains Road), one of the oldest still functioning banks in Connecticut.

The Essex Art Association Gallery at 10 North Main St. was founded in 1946 by a group of avant-garde artists. It is open 1–5 PM daily during the summer months. It is housed in a historic schoolhouse. Artists are invited to take part in the six shows held each season.

The Essex Steam Train is one of the most famous and popular Essex attractions. The main station is located in Centerbrook, with other stations in Deep River, Chester, and Haddam. The regular train ride goes from Essex to Deep River and then the Becky Thatcher Riverboat takes the passengers up to the Haddam area. The Essex Clipper Dinner Train goes from Essex all the way up to Haddam. A few times a year Thomas the Tank Engine comes to town and it a large attraction for the children. During the holiday season, the Essex Steam Train has a North Pole Express where you can celebrate the spirit of the season with elves and Mr. and Mrs. Claus.

The Ivoryton Playhouse is a regional theater located in Essex's village of Ivoryton. The theater produces 8–12 plays and musicals each year.

The Connecticut River Museum, located at the end of Main Street and right on the Connecticut River, is home to numerous river artifacts and is home to the Connecticut River Eagle Festival each year.

Transportation
The Estuary Transit District provides public transportation throughout Essex and the surrounding towns through its 9 Town Transit Service.  Services include connections to the Old Saybrook Train Station, served by Amtrak and Shore Line East railroads.

National Historic Sites in Essex
 Benjamin Bushnell Farm, added May 10, 1990
 Centerbrook Congregational Church, added February 12, 1987
 Christeen, added December 4, 1991
 Comstock-Cheney Hall (The Ivoryton Playhouse), added April 15, 1982
 Essex Freight Station, added April 19, 1994
 Hill's Academy, added August 23, 1985
 Pratt House, added August 23, 1985
 Steamboat Dock Site, added April 1, 1982

Sister cities
 Deschapelles, Haiti

See also

 Essex Reef Light

References

External links

 Official website
Essex Historical Society
 Essex Board of Trade

Towns in Middlesex County, Connecticut
Connecticut populated places on the Connecticut River
Towns in Connecticut
Greater Hartford
Towns in Lower Connecticut River Valley Planning Region, Connecticut

Essex, Connecticut


A baptismal font is an ecclesiastical architectural element, which serves as a receptacle for baptismal water used for baptism, as a part of Christian initiation for both rites of infant and adult baptism.

Aspersion and affusion fonts
The earliest western fonts are found in the Catacombs of Rome. The fonts of many western Christian denominations that practice infant baptism are designed for baptisms using a non-immersive method, such as aspersion (sprinkling) or affusion (pouring). The simplest of these fonts has a pedestal with a holder for a basin of water. The materials vary greatly consisting of carved and sculpted marble, wood, or metal in different shapes. Many fonts are in  octagonal shape, as a reminder of the new creation and as a connection to the Old Testament practice of circumcision, which traditionally occurs on the eighth day. Some fonts are three-sided as a reminder of the Holy Trinity to represent the unity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three persons in one.

Fonts are often placed at or near the entrance to a church's nave to remind believers of their baptism as they enter the church to pray, since the rite of baptism served as their initiation into the Church. In Lutheran churches, the baptismal font may be located in the  chancel near the altar to serve as a testament to Lutheran sacramental theology.
In many churches of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, there was a special chapel or even a separate building for housing the baptismal fonts, called a baptistery. Both fonts and baptisteries were often octagonal (eight-sided), octagonal fonts becoming more common from the 13th century and the norm from the 14th century. Saint Ambrose wrote that fonts and baptisteries were octagonal "because on the eighth day, by rising, Christ loosens the bondage of death and receives the dead from their graves".
Saint Augustine similarly described the eighth day as "everlasting... hallowed by the resurrection of Christ".

The quantity of water is usually small. There are some fonts where water pumps, a natural spring, or gravity keeps the water moving to mimic the moving waters of a stream. This visual and audible image communicates a "living waters" aspect of baptism. Some liturgical church bodies use consecrated holy water for the purpose of baptism, while others will use water straight out of the tap to fill the font. A special silver vessel called a ewer can be used to fill the font. Most baptismal fonts have covers to prevent water from evaporating and to protect baptismal water against contamination.

The mode of a baptism at a font is usually one of sprinkling, pouring, washing, or dipping in keeping with the Koine Greek verb βαπτίζω. Βαπτίζω can also mean "immerse", but most fonts are too small for that application. Some fonts are large enough to allow the immersion of infants, however.

Regional types
In certain regions of England, a common historic type of font design can be identified. In South East England the "Aylesbury font" can be seen in several churches in Buckinghamshire and the surrounding area. These fonts, which date from the late 12th Century around the years 1170 to 1190, are typically chalice-shaped, ornately carved around the rim with fluting below, and are considered fine examples of English Norman architecture. They are named after the font found in the Church of St Mary the Virgin, Aylesbury. Other identifiable types include the Early English "table-top" font, also found in Buckinghamshire; the "Bodmin font" in Cornwall, the "Seven Sacrament fonts" in East Anglia; and "Chalice fonts" in Herefordshire.
In Northern Europe, baroque font covers in the shape of a floating angel which are hung vertically from the ceiling of the choir became fashionable in the Lutheran churches of Germany, Denmark and Sweden during the 17th and 18th centuries. During the baptism ceremony, they were lowered using a pulley which symbolized the angel bringing the baptismal water directly from heaven.

Immersion fonts
The earliest baptismal fonts were designed for full immersion, and were often cross-shaped, usually with three steps to represent Holy Trinity, leading down into the baptismal pool. Often such baptismal pools were located in a separate building, called a baptistery; however, this baptismal practice was then relocated to be administered near the entrance of the church, mostly nearby the main door to signify entrance to the Church. As infant baptism became more common, fonts became smaller. Denominations that believe only in baptism by full immersion tend to use the term "baptismal font" to refer to immersion tanks dedicated for that purpose; however, in the Roman Catholic tradition, a baptismal font differs from an immersion.

Full-immersion baptisms may take place in a man-made tank or pool, or a natural body of water such as a river or lake. The entire body is fully immersed, dunked, submerged or otherwise placed completely under the water. This practice symbolizes the death of the old nature, as found in Romans . In Hagia Sophia, the water was supplied to the baptismal tank from a water tower.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, baptism is always by full triple immersion, even in the case of infant baptism (aspersion or pouring is permitted only in extremis). For this reason, Eastern baptismal fonts tend to be larger than their Western counterparts and they are usually portable. Eastern Orthodox fonts are often shaped like a large chalice (significant since the Orthodox administer Holy Communion to infants after baptism), and are normally fashioned out of metal rather than stone or wood. Symbolically, Orthodox baptismal fonts represent the womb of the Church, as well as the tomb of Christ, since the baptized individual is put into the tomb/womb and is brought out born into a new life in Christ. During the baptismal service, three candles are lit on or around the baptismal font, in honour of the Holy Trinity. In many Orthodox churches, a special kind of holy water, called "Theophany Water", is consecrated on the Feast of Theophany (Epiphany). The consecration (literally, "Great Blessing") is performed twice: the first time on the eve of the feast, in a baptismal font; the second, on the day of the feast, in a natural body of water.

In the Roman Catholic Church, especially after its Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), greater attention is being given to the form of the baptismal font. Currently, the Roman Catholic Church encourages baptismal fonts that are suitable for the full immersion of an infant or child, and for at least the pouring of water over the whole body of an adult. The font should be located in a space that is visibly and physically accessible, and should preferably make provision for flowing water.

Baptisms of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are usually undertaken in a simple font located in a local meetinghouse, although they can be performed in any body of water in which the person may be completely immersed. In Latter-day Saint temples, where proxy baptisms for the dead are performed, the fonts rest on the sculptures of twelve oxen representing the twelve tribes of Israel, following the pattern of the Molten Sea in the Temple of Solomon (see 2 Chronicles 4:2-5).

Examples

Aspersion and affusion fonts

Immersion fonts

See also
 Baptistery
 Bronze laver (Temple)
 Mikveh
 Holy water font
 Nipson anomemata me monan opsin

References

Notes

Citations

Further reading

External links

 Church Furniture article in Christian Cyclopedia
 The Baptismal font of Renier d'Huy in Liège, Belgium

Baptism
Church architecture
Christian worship and liturgy
Christian terminology

Baptismal font


Demak is a town in Central Java, Indonesia. It is the capital of Demak Regency and the location of the former Sultanate of Demak, briefly the strongest power on the island of Java. The town covers an area of 61.13 km2, and had a population of 110,165 at the 2020 Census.

Climate
Demak has a tropical monsoon climate (Am) with moderate to little rainfall from May to October and heavy to very heavy rainfall from November to April.

References

Demak Regency
Districts of Central Java
Populated places in Central Java
Regency seats of Central Java

Tuntang basin

Demak, Demak


Velvet McIntyre (born November 24, 1962) is an Irish-Canadian retired professional wrestler. After beginning her career in 1980, she wrestled in American independent promotions before joining the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). She had rivalries with both The Fabulous Moolah and Sherri Martel and held the WWF Women's Championship and WWF Women's Tag Team Championship. After the WWF's women's division went on hiatus in the 1990s, McIntyre wrestled in several Canadian promotions, holding several championships.

McIntyre wore wrestling boots for the first four years of her career, but later wrestled barefoot when someone took one of her boots as a joke and she was forced to wrestle without them. Wrestling barefoot subsequently became one of her trademarks, as well as her high flying wrestling maneuvers.

Professional wrestling career

Canada (1981–1984)
Growing up in Ireland, McIntyre had three brothers with whom she wrestled. After finishing high school, she moved to Oregon in 1980 to train with Sandy Barr, under whom she trained with her future opponent and tag team partner, Princess Victoria. McIntyre made her professional wrestling debut in Idaho in 1980, and began wrestling full-time three months later. She then joined Vancouver's All Star Wrestling in 1981, where she feuded with Princess Victoria. She continued to feud with Victoria for the remainder of the year in both singles and tag team matches in Vancouver and the NWA Pacific Northwest under promoter Don Owen.

In 1982, she joined the World Wrestling Federation, where she began teaming with Princess Victoria, and in March, the duo lost a series of matches against the team of The Fabulous Moolah and Wendi Richter. McIntyre defeated Richter in two separate matches in Bill Watts's Mid-South Wrestling Association. In November and December 1982, McIntyre worked for Stampede Wrestling, where she teamed with Judy Martin against Richter and Joyce Grable; the feud between the two teams resumed in April 1983 in Verne Gagne's American Wrestling Association.

In May 1983, McIntyre returned to Stampede Wrestling, where she continued her rivalry with Richter and Grable. This time, she teamed once again with Princess Victoria. Victoria and McIntyre won the NWA Women's World Tag Team Championship on May 13 in Calgary.

World Wrestling Federation (1982; 1984–1988)
In 1983, the World Wrestling Federation withdrew from the National Wrestling Alliance, and when McIntyre and Victoria rejoined the promotion in 1984, they were immediately recognized as holding the WWF Women's Tag Team Championship. The duo defended the championship against the team of Wendi Richter and Peggy Lee. Desiree Petersen later replaced Victoria in the team when Victoria had to retire due to a neck injury and the new duo lost the title in August 1985 to Judy Martin and Leilani Kai (known as The Glamour Girls) in Egypt.

McIntyre then began wrestling as a singles wrestler, immediately feuding with The Fabulous Moolah, unsuccessfully challenging her at Wrestlemania 2 (the referee counted the pin on McIntyre despite her left leg being draped over the bottom rope which should have stopped the count). It was necessary as her wrestling suit's right strap had broken during her failed top rope splash onto Moolah so they had to do this.Some speculated she was promised she'd win the title that night to get her to wrestle Moolah who she hated and cost her the chance to wrestle on an all women's wrestling tour of Syria. She won the WWF Women's Championship on July 3, 1986 when she defeated Moolah at the Brisbane Festival Hall on the WWF's 1986 Australian tour, but Moolah regained the title six days later at the Sydney Entertainment Centre (the only two times the WWF Women's Championship changed hands in the Southern Hemisphere).This title change was never acknowledged by the WWF though some websites like Facebook have a picture of McIntyre wearing the WWF's women title.  Years later, Moolah called McIntyre the best female wrestler in Canada. In 1987, McIntyre consistently lost matches to Moolah and Sherri Martel. She also competed at the Survivor Series, teaming with Moolah, Rockin' Robin, and the Jumping Bomb Angels against Martel, Leilani Kai, Judy Martin, Donna Christanello, and Dawn Marie, herself eliminating both Christanello and Martel by pinfall before being eliminated by Kai. By 1990, the WWF women's division was again on hiatus.

Return to Canada (1993–1998)
After leaving the WWF, McIntyre continued to wrestle sporadically on the independent circuit. At that time, there were not many opportunities for females in the business. She competed in the Women's Pro Wrestling organization in the early 1990s. In November 1993, she won the Canadian Wrestling Alliance's Women's Championship from Iron Maiden, but lost it to Iron Maiden again in January 1994. They continued to feud into 1996, when the two women joined Extreme Canadian Championship Wrestling, where the two traded the Women's Championship, which McIntyre held for two months. In September, they competed in a strap match—a match where the wrestlers must compete while connected via a leather strap—in which McIntyre was victorious.

In November 1997, as a part of the International Championship Wrestling, she won the WWWA Women's Championship from Bertha Faye. She also held the ICW Women's Championship, which she lost in July 1998.

Personal life
It is a common misconception that McIntyre is the daughter of professional wrestler Stan Mykietowich.

McIntyre retired from wrestling in 1998 after discovering she was pregnant, and she later gave birth to twins. In her spare time, she makes and sells crafts.

Championships and accomplishments
 Canadian Wrestling Alliance
 CWA Women's Championship (1 time)
 Extreme Canadian Championship Wrestling
 ECCW Women's Championship (1 time)
 International Championship Wrestling
 ICW Women's Championship (1 time)
 WWWA Women's Championship (1 time)
 National Wrestling Alliance
 NWA Texas Women's Championship (1 time)
 NWA United States Women's Championship (1 time)
 NWA World Women's Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Penny Mitchell
 World Wrestling Federation
 WWF Women's Championship (1 time)
 WWF Women's Tag Team Championship (2 times, inaugural) – with Princess Victoria (1) and Desiree Petersen (1)

Footnotes

References

External links

1962 births
Canadian female professional wrestlers
Irish emigrants to Canada
Living people
WWF/WWE Women's Champions
Irish female professional wrestlers
Stampede Wrestling alumni
20th-century female professional wrestlers
WWF Women's Tag Team Champions

Velvet McIntyre


The Hough transform is a computer vision technique used to identify lines within an image. The only knowledge you need prior to understanding the algorithm is that lines can be represented either by two points or by two values. The first is the angle of the line (theta) and the second is the shortest distance from that line to the origin (rho). The algorithm basically works like this:
 Create a large matrix where one axis of the matrix corresponds to theta and one to rho. This matrix is called the accumulator and is said to represent the "Hough space" of the image. Initialize this matrix by each entry being 0.
 Create a grayscale image
 Find the edges in that image (for example using the canny algorithm)
 For each point in those edges:
 Calculate many lines defined by theta and rho radiating out from that point. Each theta should have the same angle of difference to each other and each rho is calculated based on the coordinate of the point and the theta. For each of these lines, add a 1 to the corresponding entry in the accumulator matrix.
 When you have a filled in accumulator, find a number of local maxima within that accumulator. Each local maxima corresponds to a line in the image, so if you want to find 10 lines you should pick out the 10 local maxima that have the largest values in the accumulator matrix.
 Transform the local maxima in the accumulator back to lines using their corresponding theta and rho values.
 To visualize the result, overlay these lines on your original image.

Some notes about the algorithm:
 If you increase the resolution of the accumulator, allowing more values for theta and rho, you will get a more precise result but the computational time will increase and you risk have many overlapping lines when you pick out the local maxima from the accumulator.
 The Hough transform is not very computationally efficient.
 The Hough transform can be generalised to find circles and ellipses, not just lines. In order to do this, simply repeat the algorithm above but use the parameters for circles and ellipses in the Hough space instead of just parameters for lines.
When you increment the accumulator you can use a different value than 1. Instead you can calculate the gradient magnitude of the grayscale image and use that as an input to a continuously increasing function (such as the sigmoid function). This means that stronger edges get a higher impact in deciding where the final lines should be drawn and can give a better result.

Computer science

Hough transform


In engineering, macro-engineering (alternatively known as mega engineering) is the implementation of large-scale design projects. It can be seen as a branch of civil engineering or structural engineering applied on a large landmass. In particular, macro-engineering is the process of marshaling and managing of resources and technology on a large scale to carry out complex tasks that last over a long period. In contrast to conventional engineering projects, macro-engineering projects (called macro-projects or mega-projects) are multidisciplinary, involving collaboration from all fields of study. Because of the size of macro-projects they are usually international.

Macro-engineering is an evolving field that has only recently started to receive  attention. Because we routinely deal with challenges that are multinational in scope, such as global warming and pollution, macro-engineering is emerging as a transcendent solution to worldwide problems.

Macro-engineering is distinct from Megascale engineering due to the scales where they are applied. Where macro-engineering is currently practical, mega-scale engineering is still within the domain of speculative fiction because it deals with projects on a planetary or stellar scale.

Projects
Macro engineering examples include the construction of the Panama Canal and the Suez Canal.

Planned projects
Examples of projects include the Channel Tunnel and the planned Gibraltar Tunnel.

Two intellectual centers focused on macro-engineering theory and practice are the Candida Oancea Institute in Bucharest, and The Center for Macro Projects and Diplomacy at Roger Williams University in Bristol, Rhode Island.

See also

 Afforestation
 Agroforestry
 Atlantropa (Gibraltar Dam)
 Analog forestry
 Bering Strait bridge
 Buffer strip
 Biomass
 Biomass (ecology)
 Climate engineering (Geoengineering)
 Collaborative innovation network
 Deforestation
 Deforestation during the Roman period
 Ecological engineering
 Ecological engineering methods
 Ecotechnology
 Energy-efficient landscaping
 Forest gardening
 Forest farming
 Great Plains Shelterbelt
 Green Wall of China
 IBTS Greenhouse
 Home gardens
 Human ecology
 Megascale engineering
 Permaculture
 Permaforestry
 Sahara Forest Project
 Qattara Depression Project
 Red Sea dam
 Sand fence
 Seawater Greenhouse
 Sustainable agriculture
 Terraforming
 Windbreak
 Wildcrafting

References
 Frank P. Davidson and Kathleen Lusk Brooke, BUILDING THE WORLD: AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT ENGINEERING PROJECTS IN HISTORY, two volumes (Greenwood Publishing Group, Oxford UK, 2006)
 V. Badescu, R.B. Cathcart and R.D. Schuiling, MACRO-ENGINEERING: A CHALLENGE FOR THE FUTURE (Springer, The Netherlands, 2006)
 R.B. Cathcart, V. Badescu with Ramesh Radhakrishnan, (2006): Macro-Engineers' Dreams PDF, 175pp. Accessed 24 May 2013
 Alexander Bolonkin and Richard B. Cathcart, Macro-Projects (NOVA Publishing, 2009)
 Viorel Badescu and R.B. Cathcart, Macro-engineering Seawater (Springer, 2010), 880 pages.
 R.B. Cathcart, MACRO-IMAGINEERING OUR DOSMOZOICUM. (Lambert Academic Publishing, 2018) 154 pages.

External links
 Engineering and the Future of Technology
 Megaengineering at Popular Mechanics

Macro-engineering


The Vikings were Scandinavian people from Northern Europe who were known as great seamen and warriors. From the 8th to the 11th centuries they travelled to Europe in their long ships, attacking and then settling in areas that are now modern Great Britain, Germany, France, Spain, and Italy.

Background
The people of the far north, later called Vikings, were first noticed by the Romans around the year 100 BC.{{efn|The Romans of the time believed the Baltic sea was a part of the ocean and lands north of the Baltic were islands. Early writers mentioned an island called Thule.<ref>Barry Cunliffe, The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek: The Man Who Discovered Britain (New York: Walker & Company, 2002), p. 126</ref> It lay beyond the known world of the time but it is thought now to be Norway. They did not come into contact with Germanic tribes north of the Danube until the 1st century AD. About 98 AD, Tacitus wrote Germania which was an account of the German peoples..}} This is when the Cimbri and the Teutons moved into southern Gaul. The Romans believed these war-like tribes came from Jutland. But the Romans suspected they were only a part of a greater threat located further north. The Roman historians Jordanes described the destructive Ostrogoths and Visigoths as having come from Gotland. The northern menace survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

The Frankish Empire that came after them in Gaul became more and more aware of the northern threat. As the later Carolingian Empire expanded into northern Germany they came into contact with the Danish people. This is when the Vikings first entered into written history. The first recorded raid in the west was at Lindisfarne in 793. Why the Vikings suddenly began raiding is not completely clear. But a popular theory is the populations had grown to the point there was not enough food to feed everyone. The earliest raiders did not seem to want to move out of Scandinavia. They turned to looting, then returning home. These hit-and-run raids were made possible because the Vikings were master boat builders and they created flat bottomed boats ideal for journeys up rivers, where many monastic sites lay, ready for plundering.   This seems to indicate there was space enough for everyone. Because they found raiding so easy, it became more and more popular among the Vikings.

Three different groups of Vikings can be identified. They took three different, sometimes overlapping, routes.
 Danes raided England, Gaul, and followed the Atlantic coast of Europe south into the Mediterranean to Italy.
 Swedes went eastward into the Baltic Sea. They followed the Volga and Dnieper Rivers south as far as the Black Sea. One group, called the Rus', founded the settlement of Kiev. They called it Russland (later known as Russia).
Norwegians raided England but preferred Ireland and Scotland. They also traveled to Greenland and about the year 1,000 AD landed at a place they called Vinland (North America).

 Vikings in Europe

Europeans were scared of the Vikings because of their strong weapons, swift attacks, and cruel fighting tactics. They were known for their bad treatment of women, children and monks in the places where they fought. When the Vikings came to England, the English kings paid them to leave the country, but the Vikings took their money and sometimes fought them anyway. These payments were called Danegeld. From the 9th century to 1066, when the French Duke of Normandy, who became King William I of England, conquered it, Danish and Norwegian Vikings ruled large parts of England.

Because of their longships, which could float in 4 feet (1.3m) of water, the Vikings were able to make their way up rivers and land deep inside a country. For example they sailed up the River Shannon in Ireland and built a harbour 60 miles (100 km) from the coast.

There was a difference in who led Viking raids. In the 9th century, Viking Age raids were led by men who may have been exiles in their own countries. The later Viking raids in the late 10th century and early 11th century and were led by Kings. Some of the early leaders tried to become kings with the riches they plundered from Europe and Russia. Some were successful but most were not.

 In Russia and the Mediterranean

The Vikings were called Rus' by the peoples east of the Baltic Sea.  The Vikings who settled in Kiev formed the first Russian state. The Vikings (Rus') who served the Byzantine Emperors were called Varangians. They became the personal bodyguards to the Emperor and were called the Varangian Guard.

 Exploration
The Vikings traveled through Russia, the Mediterranean Sea, southern Europe, northern Africa and south-western Asia. Some Vikings sailed across the Atlantic Ocean via Iceland and Greenland and may have explored places in North America. The ruins of a Viking settlement have been found at L'Anse-aux-Meadows, Newfoundland.

Archaeologists used radiocarbon dating to find out how old the settlement was. Their tests gave them a range of dates from about AD 700 to about AD 1000.

 Language
Some English words, and many place names, came from the Scandinavian and Viking language (Norse). For example, the words skirt and shirt came from the word skyrta, meaning a tunic. As English changed, the semantics altered to give us the separate words 'skirt' and 'shirt' we know today. Skin came from the Norse word skinn (which meant to strip the meat off something). Some place-names in the areas the Vikings conquered are still in use. For example, in Yorkshire places ending with thwaite meant a clearing and dale meant a valley. The word thorpe meant new village, such as Scunthorpe.

 Religion

The Anglo-Saxons called the Vikings pagans. They worshiped a great many gods. Viking gods belonged to two groups of gods in Norse mythology. They either belonged to the Aesir or the Vanir. The Aesir were gods of war. Aesir means "gods". They were the rulers of Asgard. Odin was the leader of the Aesir. He and the gods under him ruled mortal men. The vanir were wise gods skilled in magical arts. they live in Vanaheim, although nobody knows where it is. The Vanir can also predict the future. There was a war between the Aesir and the Vanir. When it ended the god Njord and his children Freya and Freyr came to live in Asgard.

The pagan Vikings were exposed to Christianity from the beginning of the Viking Age. They were surrounded by Christian countries. Early Christian missionaries were either enslaved or put to death. The Vikings came into contact with Christianity when they raided other areas around them. Viking raids produced many Christian slaves who were brought back to Scandinavia. They called Christians "Cross-men" because of the cross in their worship. In response many Vikings adopted Thors hammer as their religious symbol. When Vikings settled in Christian areas they converted to Christianity. There are still Headstones in England with both a cross and a hammer. Perhaps they thought it was better to be safe than sorry. That, or the more gods the better. As some Vikings turned from raiding to trading they found a nominal (in name only) profession of Christianity to be helpful. Scandinavia, their homeland, was slower to change to the Christian religion. But by the mid-11th century most of Norway and Denmark had converted. Sweden was converted by the mid-12th century. Overall Scandinavia and the peoples of the Baltic Sea were the last to accept Christianity.

The Viking's religion affected Christianity as well. The pagan celebration of Yuletide became Christmas along with the custom of the Christmas tree. Priests blessing the fields took the place of pagan fertility rites of spring held to make sure there was a good harvest. Norse kept their "farm gods" well after Christianity just to make sure they were protected. Santa Claus owes much of his legend to the Norse god Odin. With his snow-white beard he traveled the midwinter sky on his eight-footed steed Sleipnir visiting his people with gifts. He became Father Christmas. Blended with the Christian Saint Nicholas he (they) became Santa Claus.

In fiction and theater

In the late 19th century (the 1800s), Richard Wagner and other artists in the Romantic period made operas and other artwork about ancient Germanic culture.  They liked the Vikings because they were not Greeks or Romans.  They came up with the idea of Vikings wearing fur clothes and helmets with wings or horns on them and drinking out of hollowed-out animal horns.  Some ancient Germans wore helmets with horns on them, but real Vikings did not.  Wagner and his partners deliberately dressed the actors in the opera Ring des Nibelungen'' so they would look like ancient Germans and so the audience would feel like modern Germans came from medieval Vikings.

Related pages

 Viking Age
 Kievan Rus'
 Varangians

Notes

References

Other websites

 BBC: History of Vikings
 Borg Viking museum, Norway
 The Viking Network
 Ibn Fadlan and the Rusiyyah, by James E. Montgomery, with full translation of Ibn Fadlan

History of Europe
Germanic tribes
Nordic people

Vikings