Norwegian Olympic Museum  (Norges Olympiske Museum) is located at Maihaugen in Lillehammer, Norway.

The Norwegian Olympic Museum  shows the history of the Olympic Games in ancient and modern times, with a focus on the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo  and 1994 Winter Olympics at Lillehammer. Olympic highlights are presented through interactive installations, multimedia presentations and stories related to authentic objects. In addition to the permanent exhibition, the museum also displays temporary exhibitions with a theme related to sports history and athletic achievements. Paralympics and the Youth Olympics have their own sections in the museum.

The Norwegian Olympic Museum was officially opened by King Harald V and Queen Sonja on November 27, 1997, in Håkons Hall. The museum was reopened as a new modern museum at Maihaugen in 2016. The museum has interactive installations, multimedia presentations and original objects. It is the only museum in northern Europe that presents the entire history of the Olympic Games. The museum has a collection of more than 7,000 Olympic items in all.

"The stories in the museum can be important for young persons because they can inspire them to stay in sports". Bjørn Dæhlie, Olympic gold medalist

References

External links
 Official site

Culture in Innlandet
Museums in Innlandet
Olympic museums
Sports museums in Norway
1997 establishments in Norway

Norwegian Olympic Museum


AirPods are wireless Bluetooth earbuds designed by Apple Inc. They were first announced on September 7, 2016, alongside the iPhone 7. Within two years, they became Apple's most popular accessory. AirPods are Apple's entry-level wireless headphones, sold alongside the AirPods Pro and AirPods Max.

In addition to playing audio, the AirPods contain a microphone that filters out background noise as well as built-in accelerometers and optical sensors capable of detecting taps and pinches (e.g. double-tap or pinch to pause audio) and placement within the ear, which enables automatic pausing of audio when they are taken out.

On March 20, 2019, Apple released the second-generation AirPods, which feature the H1 chip, longer talk time, and hands-free "Hey Siri" support. An optional wireless charging case which costs extra was added in the offerings.

On October 26, 2021, Apple released the third-generation AirPods, which feature an external redesign with shorter stems similar to AirPods Pro, spatial audio, IPX4 water resistance, longer battery life, and MagSafe charging capability.

Models

1st generation

Apple announced the first generation AirPods on September 7, 2016, at an Apple Special Event alongside the iPhone 7 and Apple Watch Series 2. Apple originally planned to release the AirPods in late October, but delayed the release date. On December 13, 2016, Apple began taking online orders for AirPods. They were available at Apple Stores, Apple Authorized Resellers, and select carriers on December 20, 2016.

AirPods contain a proprietary Apple W1 SoC processor which helps optimize battery use as well as the Bluetooth 4.2 and audio connections. The advanced connectivity functions of the W1 requires devices running iOS 10, macOS Sierra, watchOS 3, or later. They can also function as standard Bluetooth headphones when connected to any device that supports Bluetooth 4.0 or higher, including Windows laptops and Android devices.

There are two microphones inside each AirPod, one facing outward at ear level and another at the bottom of the stem. Each AirPod weighs , and its charging case weighs . The AirPods are capable of holding a charge of around five hours. Charging them for fifteen minutes in the case gives three hours of listening time. The charging case provides 24 hours of total usage time. During a complete dismantling, each AirPod was found to contain a 93 milliwatt hour battery in its stem, while the charging case contains a 1.52 watt hour or 398 mAh at 3.81 V battery.

The model numbers for the first-generation AirPods are A1523 and A1722.

Production of the first-generation AirPods was discontinued on March 20, 2019, after the second generation was released.

2nd generation
Apple announced the second generation AirPods on March 20, 2019. They are the same design as the first generation, but have updated features. They include an H1 processor which supports hands-free "Hey Siri", Bluetooth 5 connectivity. Apple also claims 50% more talk time and faster device connection times. The "Announce Messages with Siri" feature was added in iOS 13.2, which allows the user to dictate text messages to Siri.

Second-generation AirPods can be purchased with the same charging case as the first generation, or for an additional price bundled with the Wireless Charging Case, which can be used with Qi chargers. The Wireless Charging Case can be purchased separately and is compatible with first-generation AirPods. It moves the charging indicator LED to the exterior of the case. The Wireless Charging Case was initially announced in September 2017 alongside the AirPower charging mat, but was delayed by AirPower's protracted development and eventual cancellation. The second generation AirPods remained on sale with a price cut following the release of the third generation in October 2021, but only available with the Lightning charging case.

The model numbers for the second-generation AirPods are A2032 and A2031.

3rd generation
Apple announced the third generation AirPods on October 18, 2021. They feature an external redesign with shorter stems, similar to AirPods Pro, and use similar force-touch controls. They include support for spatial audio and Dolby Atmos, IPX4 water resistance, skin detection and a case supporting MagSafe charging. Apple claims increased battery life, with AirPods lasting six hours and the charging case providing up to 30 hours. Preorders of the third generation AirPods began on October 18, 2021. The third generation AirPods were released on October 26, 2021, and are priced at $179. In September 2022, Apple released a $169 variant with a charging case lacking Qi and MagSafe charging compatibility.

The model numbers for the third-generation AirPods are A2565 and A2564.

Technical specifications
All of the electronics and circuitry responsible for the audio drivers and Bluetooth transmission are stored entirely within the head of the AirPod. The battery is stored in the stem. The battery and circuit boards are connected via flex/ribbon cable.

Compatibility
AirPods are compatible with any device that supports Bluetooth 4.0 or higher, including Android and Windows devices, although certain features such as automatic switching between devices are only available on Apple devices using iCloud.

The first-generation AirPods are fully compatible with iPhone, iPad, and iPod touch models with iOS 10 or later, Apple Watch models with watchOS 3 or later, and Mac models with macOS Sierra or later.

The second-generation AirPods are fully compatible with devices running iOS 12.2 or later, macOS Mojave 10.14.4 or later, and watchOS 5.2 or later.

The third-generation AirPods are fully compatible with devices running iOS 15.1 or later, iPadOS 15.1 or later, macOS Monterey 12.0 or later, and watchOS 8.1 or later.

Support
The lithium-ion batteries in AirPods can see significant degradation over time, with two-year-old sets lasting for less than half of the advertised five hours. Apple has a program to service batteries and purchase replacement individual AirPods and charging cases. The replacement of one or both AirPods or the charging case has a lower price with AppleCare+ than without. Apple offers battery servicing for free with AppleCare+ and for a fee without. However, this is just a replacement service, as AirPods batteries cannot be removed.

AirPods contain upgradeable firmware. Its original firmware was version 3.3.1. In February 2017, Apple released version 3.5.1, 3.7.2 in May 2017, and then 6.3.2 on March 26, 2019. In July 2019, version 6.7.8 was released and 6.8.8 followed in September 2019. In June 2020, firmware 2D15 was released (G2). In September 2020, firmware 3A283 (G2 and Pro) was released and in April 2021, firmware 3E751. AirPods automatically sync through Apple's iCloud service, allowing users to switch audio sources to other supported devices connected by the same Apple ID.

Sales
Analysts estimate Apple sold between 14 million and 16 million AirPods in 2017. In 2018, AirPods were Apple's most popular accessory product, with 35 million units sold. 60 million units were sold in 2019. Analysts estimate AirPods make up 60% of the global wireless headphone market and that Apple's entire Wearables products (Apple Watch, AirPods, and AirPods Pro) "is now bigger than 60% of the companies in the Fortune 500". An estimated 5-7% of Apple's revenue from AirPods comes from replacement earbuds and cases. Analysts estimate Apple sold 120 million or so pairs in 2021.

Cultural impact
On announcement day, AirPods were compared to Apple's previously existing EarPods (2012–present), with The Verge noting "They look... just like the old EarPods, with the wires cut off." Initially mocked by many for their unfamiliar design (including CNN asking "Would people actually wear these?" in 2016), their popularity grew rapidly over the years and they were voted the most popular "hearable" brand of 2019.

At an Apple earnings call in 2019, CEO Tim Cook called AirPods "nothing less than a cultural phenomenon". AirPods had become a viral sensation with memes circulating across the internet about its appearance and its relation to the removal of the headphone jack in iPhones. However, as time wore on, AirPods became known as a status symbol.

Criticism
AirPods have been criticized for their high price; however, at launch they were actually priced less than most "true wireless" earbuds on the market (e.g. the Samsung Gear IconX and Bragi Dash) and remain competitively priced with similar products from other major brands.

Since AirPods can easily be worn for long periods of time, AirPods have also had an effect on how people interact with each other. Having earphones in is generally perceived as a "do not disturb" signal, and some AirPods users use this fact to strategically avoid awkward small talk. But in the collaborative workplace, constant use of AirPods has sometimes been interpreted as a sign of disrespect to fellow co-workers, causing conflict in the office.

Another prominent criticism was a problem that caused the charging case battery to deplete at a rapid rate despite the AirPods not being used. Users were reporting upwards of 30% idle discharge per day. In response, Apple released a firmware update (version 3.5.1) for the AirPods, which addressed connectivity and battery drain problems. Students and college professors from the George Washington University have commented that AirPods have decreased students' daily social interactions.

According to the Financial Times, AirPods are difficult if not impossible to recycle, and not designed to be repairable.

Replacement for hearing aids
In 2022, researchers at the Taipei Veterans General Hospital in Taiwan compared  the performance of AirPods 2 and the original AirPods Pro using Live Listen on an iPhone or iPad to compare to medical hearing aids. Oticon Opn 1 was the high-end comparison, with Bernafon MD1 as the more affordable alternative. The performance of the systems were at least assisting participants with Pro (including noise cancelling features) being better and approximating the hearing aids.

Competition
Some consumers expressed the viewpoint that there were better options for wireless earphones based on quality and cost. One of Apple's biggest competitors is Samsung, which markets wireless earbuds that are very similar to AirPods. Another similar product line is from Apple's Beats Electronics, which sells products such as the Powerbeats Pro wireless earbuds.

See also
 Apple headphones
EarPods
AirPods Pro
AirPods Max
 Pixel Buds
 Hearables
 Powerbeats Pro

References

External links
  – official site

Apple Inc. peripherals
IPhone accessories
Headphones
Products introduced in 2016

AirPods


The Francis H. Holmes House is a historic house at 349 Rocky Hill Ave. in New Britain, Connecticut.  Built in 1906–08, it is an architecturally eclectic brick building, designed by a prominent local architect for the owner of a local brickmaking business, as a showcase for the latter's wares.  The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.

Description and history
The Francis H. Holmes House is located in southeastern New Britain, at the northwest corner of Rocky Hill Avenue and South Street.  It is a two-story brick structure, with a flared hip roof and brownstone trim.  It exhibits an architecturally eclectic mix of styles, with the Jacobethan use of triple windows and gables predominating.  Also present are elements of Shingle style and Craftsman woodwork.  The roof is pierced by large gabled dormers with brownstone parapets.  An enclosed porch wraps from the east-facing facade to the south, and a similarly styled former porte-cochere, now also enclosed, is on the north side.

The house was designed by Walter P. Crabtree and built in 1906-08 for Francis Holmes, who owned a local brickyard.  Crabtree was a prominent local architect whose credits include the local Masonic lodge, the Elks building, and numerous commercial and residential buildings in New Britain and Hartford.  Holmes owned a brickyard just to the south in Berlin, and was instrumental in founding the Central Connecticut Brick Company, a consolidation of several regional brickyards.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Hartford County, Connecticut

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut
Shingle Style architecture in Connecticut
Tudor Revival architecture in Connecticut
Houses completed in 1906
Houses in Hartford County, Connecticut
Buildings and structures in New Britain, Connecticut
National Register of Historic Places in Hartford County, Connecticut
1906 establishments in Connecticut

Francis H. Holmes House


Hamid Juma Faris Jouri al-Saeedi (also known as Hamed Jumma al-Saedi, Abu Humam, Abu Hammam and Abu Rana) was a member of Al-Qaeda in Iraq accused by Iraq's government of being "the number two al-Qaeda leader [in Iraq] after Abu Ayyub al-Masri." He was captured during a joint raid by Iraqi and United States forces on June 19, 2006 either north or southwest  of Baquba, Iraq.

Activities as an insurgent
An anonymous "senior coalition official" claimed that Saeedi was responsible for many attacks and had been part of the insurgency against American forces in Iraq since about 2003. Muwaffaq al-Rubaie, Iraq's national security adviser, accused Saeedi of ordering Haitham al-Badri to carry out the February 22, 2006 Al Askari Mosque bombing in Samarra, Iraq.

Rubaie also said Saeedi "carried out al-Qaeda's policies in Iraq," specifically in the northern Salahuddin province and later Baquba province and tried to start a civil war between Shiite and Sunni Muslims in Iraq. He also said Saedi attempted to evade capture on the day of his arrest by hiding in a residential building, and that since his arrest he has told interrogators that al-Qaeda in Iraq exchanges logistical support and information with supporters of Saddam Hussein.

Post-capture
An anonymous "senior coalition official" said Saedi was captured along with "three other individuals." He was interrogated for over two months. Muwaffaq al-Rubaie, Iraq's national security adviser, said that information from Saeedi after his capture resulted in the death or capture of 11 "top Al Qaeda in Iraq figures" and nine "lower-level members.

The Mujahideen Shura Council released an internet statement on Saeedi's capture which said the arrest was propaganda designed to mask coalition defeats in the region. "We reassure our brothers that out leaders... are on the front lines, fighting and inciting the faithful," it read in part.

References

Iraqi al-Qaeda members
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Members of al-Qaeda in Iraq

Hamid Juma Faris Jouri al-Saeedi


Spaghetti is a long, string-shaped kind of pasta.

The word spaghetti was first used in 1849 as sparghetti in Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery. It comes from Italian spaghetto, which means "string".

Spaghetti is made from wheat noodles, which are boiled in water for a short time. Spaghetti can either be served as a side dish, or as a main dish. As a main dish, a sauce is added. There are many different kinds of sauces. Simpler ones are made of butter, more complicated ones include tomatos, garlic, olive oil and various other herbs. Different varieties with mussels, fish or meat also exist. Ground Parmesan cheese is often added.

In Italy the sauce is usually mixed with the spaghetti while they are being prepared. Usually, spaghetti are eaten only with a fork, or with a fork and a spoon. Sometimes, they are cut with a knife for small children. Many Italians see using a knife to eat spaghetti as bad manners, except to prepare them for small children.

In the United States, there is a kind of spaghetti called "Alvaro's spaghetti" which is served with alfredo sauce. In some countries,like United States or Canada, meatballs are often in the spaghetti sauce.

In China, spaghetti is often made by hand. In Italy, spaghetti is made with a machine so that large amounts can be made quickly. Italy is the biggest producer and consumer of spaghetti in the world.

It is also a popular dish in Libya.

Spaghetti is called by other words when it has a different thickness: "spaghettini (n. 3)", "spaghetti (n. 5)", and "spaghettoni (n. 8)".

Usually, spaghetti leftovers last in a fridge for around 3 to 5 days, while spaghetti in a freezer will last more than one month.

References

Other websites

Pasta
Italian food

Spaghetti


The Giles family is a fictional British family created by cartoonist Carl Giles at the end of World War II, appearing first on 5 August 1945.
Much of Giles's World War II work had been cartoons featuring Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini and the typical British Tommy, but he felt the need to expand after the War, hence the family. The format was a single-panel cartoon, published daily in the Daily Express and Sunday Express newspapers from 1945 until 1991. An annual collection was published each Christmas.

Characterisation
The family belongs to the better-off British working class and is usually seen living in a semi-detached house. The scenes in which they are depicted usually comment on a topic headlining the news of the day. The Giles family is patriotic but suspicious of authority. The ages of the family members remained the same throughout the 46-year run of the cartoon series, but their home, their hobbies, and their dress reflected the changing British fashions and standard of living.

The Giles family consists of the following:
 Grandma, the most distinctive character of the series. Always present but rarely given a direct voice. She is the ultimate head of the family (despite what Father may think). She is seen using such things as skis, a motorbike, a hang glider, a Sinclair C5, and playing the tuba. A proper battle-axe of a woman, who is crossed at one's peril.
 Father, Grandma's son. A mild and philosophical character. Still deludedly regards himself as the head of the family. He works, but it's never revealed where. He is passionate about boats, football, racing, fishing, betting, and hiding from the younger, louder family members. Would do anything for a quiet life and is often seen lounging in the garden.
 Mother, Organises everyone else and cheerfully tackles endless housework and mountains of cooking for the extended Giles family.
 George, Mother and Father's elder son, is an avid reader and is very rarely seen without a book in his hands. Smokes a Sherlock Holmes style pipe and wears a beret and sandals. Absent in later cartoons. He is married to the skinny bespectacled Vera who constantly suffers from a cold. They have one baby son, George Jr.
 Ann, the eldest daughter, and her babies, the twins, Lawrence and Ralph. The twins' absent father is a G.I.
 Carol, blonde daughter, always seen lounging about reading magazines.
 Ernie, the younger son. A smaller version of Father in looks and attitude, but with a child's cheekiness.
 Bridget, the youngest daughter. Wears a gymslip and has never been in any trouble because she never gets caught.
 Grandma's Parrot, called Attila the Hun.
 Butch the dog, a shaggy Airedale terrier.
 Second dog, a Border collie.
 Natalie, a black cat.
 Larry (aka "Stinker"), the mop-haired kid from next door. When not up to mischief, he can be seen with a camera recording the mischief or embarrassing situations involving others.
 Chalkie the schoolmaster, a humourless walking skeleton of a man. Modelled on one of Giles's own teachers.
 Vera, perpetually ill.

Cultural legacy

There is a statue of Grandma in Queen Street in Ipswich, England where she stands looking up at the newspaper office window where Carl Giles used to work. Grandma made a cameo appearance in DC Comics' Superman: True Brit and Alan Moore's League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Black Dossier. The appearance of Mrs. Henriot-Gulch in the comic Cerebus is closely based on Grandma.

In the 1980s the family appeared in television cartoon advertisements for Lyons Quick Brew tea, one of which included Grandma racing around on her motorbike.

References

Sources
Carl Giles Biography British Cartoon Archive, University of Kent. Accessed April 2008.

External links
 The Giles Family (Not working 28.08.2012)
 Giles cartoon database

British comic strips
Comics characters introduced in 1945
1945 comics debuts
1991 comics endings
British comics characters
Fictional families
Comics about married people
Gag-a-day comics
Gag cartoon comics
Comics set in the United Kingdom
Daily Express

Giles family


Valeriu Tabără (; born July 1, 1949) is a Romanian agronomist and politician. A member of the Romanian National Unity Party (PUNR) and later the Democratic Liberal Party (PD-L), he was a member of the Romanian Chamber of Deputies for Timiș County from 1992 to 2000, representing the same county from 2004 to 2012. In the Nicolae Văcăroiu cabinet, he was Minister of Agriculture from 1994 to 1996, and he held the same position in the Emil Boc cabinet from 2010 to 2012.

Biography
He was born in Sălciua, Alba County, and in 1967 completed secondary studies at the high school in Baia de Arieş. From then until the following year, Tabără attended the Technical Financial School, and from 1968 to 1973, studied at the Timișoara Agronomy Institute, becoming an agronomic engineer upon graduation and earning a doctorate in Agronomy in 1984. From 1973 to 1977, he worked as a researcher at a limited joint stock company in Lovrin. Beginning his teaching career in 1977 at the Banat University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, from that year until 1986, he was assistant lecturer. He advanced to senior lecturer, holding that position until 1991, and was then lecturer from 1991 to 1996. Since that year, he has been a university professor. Also, since 2001, he is again a researcher at the Lovrin firm where he worked previously. He has authored and coordinated over 220 published scientific works, is the sole author of three books and co-author of five others, and has led the thesis committee at his university since 2004.

From 1972 to 1989, Tabără belonged to the ruling Romanian Communist Party. Following the fall of the Communist regime, in 1991 he joined the PUNR, serving as its vice president from 1992 to 1997, a period that included his first stint as Agriculture Minister from August 1994 to September 1996, during the time of the Red Quadrilateral. In 1997, he became PUNR president, with the moderate nationalist Tabără taking control of the party from the more vocal Gheorghe Funar, prompting a massive split, with the latter taking his wing of the party into Corneliu Vadim Tudor's Greater Romania Party. As leader, he focused on concrete issues ranging from education to self-government of minorities, contrasting with his predecessor's vocal identity politics and in the process abandoning a means of competition with the Social Democrats, long installed as a moderate nationalist party. He ceased being leader in 2001, when he left the party. In 2002 he entered the PD (which evolved into the PD-L in 2008), serving on its permanent national bureau until 2004, and as vice president of its Timiș County chapter since then. His first public office was on the prefectural administrative council of Timiș County (1991–1992), and he has served on the Timiș County Council since 2004. In the Chamber, he has served on the committees on agriculture, forestry, food industry and specific services (1992–1993, 1995-, including as president since 2008) and foreign policy (1993–1995). From 1993 to 1994 and 1996 to 2000, he led the PUNR group in the Chamber, and was deputy leader of the PD-L group there from 2005 to 2008. In September 2010, Tabără was again named to the Agriculture Ministry by Boc, following a cabinet reshuffle. In February 2012, he resigned along with the rest of the cabinet amid anti-government protests.

He and his wife Silvia have a daughter and a son.

Notes

Democratic Liberal Party (Romania) politicians
Romanian National Unity Party politicians
Leaders of political parties in Romania
Romanian Ministers of Agriculture
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Romania)
Councillors in Romania
Romanian agronomists
Academic staff of the Banat University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine
Romanian science writers
People from Alba County
1949 births
Living people

Valeriu Tabără


Charles François de Mondion (6 October 1681 – 25 December 1733) was a French architect and military engineer who was active in Hospitaller Malta in the early 18th century. He was also a member of the Order of Saint John.

Career
Mondion was born in Paris, and he studied military engineering under Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban. He first arrived in Malta in 1715 during the magistracy of Grand Master Ramon Perellos y Roccaful of the Order of St. John. His early work was as deputy to the military engineer René Jacob de Tigné. One of his early works was the second Marsalforn Tower, which however no longer exists.

Mondion was eventually admitted into the Order of St. John as a Cavaliere di Grazia, and he obtained permanent residency in Malta.

Grand Master António Manoel de Vilhena's accession in June 1722 created a significant opportunity for Mondion, as the new Prince of Malta decided to unleash an ambitious building programme. On 3 November 1722, Vilhena issued orders for the restoration of the former capital Mdina and its fortifications, and entrusted de Mondion with this renovation. Mondion designed a number of Baroque buildings in the city, including the Main Gate, the portal of Greeks Gate, the Torre dello Standardo, Palazzo Vilhena, the Banca Giuratale and the Corte Capitanale.

Mondion was also involved in the construction or modifications of the Floriana Lines, Fort Manoel, the fortifications of Birgu and the Santa Margherita Lines. He designed several gates within these fortifications, including Porte des Bombes and St. Helen's Gate.

His unexpected death in 1733 cut short a promising career. Mondion was buried in the crypt of the Chapel of St Anthony of Padua within Fort Manoel.

Gallery

References

Further reading

1681 births
1733 deaths
Architects from Paris
Engineers from Paris
French military engineers
French Baroque architects
Maltese Baroque architects
18th-century French architects
18th-century French engineers
Knights of Malta

Charles François de Mondion


Franz Leopold Sonnenschein (13 July 1817 – 26 February 1879) was a German chemist from Cologne.

He taught himself pharmacy, and in the 1830s, established a small laboratory in Berlin. He worked with a physician as tutor for pharmacy students, readying them for their final exams. At the same time, he studied chemistry and in 1852 obtained his habilitation. He dedicated himself to analytic chemistry and involved himself in practical activities, for which he gained prestige. Many technical enterprises owed their success to him. He promoted analytic and judicial chemistry by numerous scientific investigations. From 1869 up until his death, he served as a professor at the University of Berlin.

Sonnenschein's reagent (phosphomolybdenic acid) is a reagent for alkaloids.

Published works
His most notable works include:
 Anleitung zur chemischen Analyse ("Guide for Chemical Analysis") (1852).
 Anleitung zur quantitativen chemischen Analyse ("Guide for Quantitative Chemical Analysis") (1864).
 Handbuch der analytischen Chemie ("Manual of Analytic Chemistry") (1870–71).
 F.L. Sonnenschein's Handbuch der gerichtlichen chemie (new edition by Alexander Classen, 1881) ("Sonnenschein's manual of forensic chemistry").

References

1817 births
1879 deaths
19th-century German chemists
German forensic scientists
Scientists from Cologne
Scientists from the Rhine Province
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin

Franz Leopold Sonnenschein


Newburgh Hamilton (1691–1761) was an Irish author and librettist.

He was born in County Tyrone, Ireland (now Northern Ireland) and entered Trinity College, Dublin, in 1708, aged sixteen, but (as was common in those days) he left without obtaining a degree. He is known to have been George Frederick Handel's librettist for three works: Alexander's Feast (1736), Samson (1743) and the Occasional Oratorio (1746). In writing the libretto for Handel's Samson (1743), he followed John Milton's Samson Agonistes rather than creating it from the story found in the Book of Judges. His comedy The Petticoat-Plotter was presented at Drury Lane on 5 June 1712 and The Doating Lovers was premièred at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre on 23 June 1715.

His work is discussed in Terence Tobin, Plays by Scots 1660-1800 (University of Iowa Press, 1974) and by Adrienne Scullion in Bill Findlay, A History of Scottish Theatre (Edinburgh: Polygon, 1998)

See also
 Alexander's Feast (Dryden)

1691 births
1761 deaths
People from County Tyrone
Scottish librettists
Irish writers
18th-century Irish writers

Newburgh Hamilton


Daniel Harvey Hill, or more commonly D. H. Hill, (July 12, 1821 - September 24, 1889) was a Confederate Major general during the American Civil War. He was an officer in the Mexican-American War and received two brevet promotions for his performance; one to captain and another to major. He left the army to become a Professor. When North Carolina seceded from the Union, Hill was appointed Colonel of the 1st North Carolina Infantry. By 1862 he was a major general serving in the Army of Northern Virginia. Hill's reputation was tarnished over the lost copy of Special Order 191 which fell into the hands of Union general George McClellan. This gave away Robert E. Lees plans for the Confederate Maryland Campaign. He was considered a military genius by some, including Lieutenant general Stonewall Jackson (his Brother-in-law).

Early life
Hill was born on July 12, 1821 at Hill's Iron Works in York County, South Carolina. He was the son of Solomon and Nancy Hill. His grandfather, William Hill, a native of Ireland, built an iron foundry that made cannon for the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He was also a Revolutionary War soldier. Hill was educated locally and in 1838 accepted an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point. He was in the same class as James Longstreet, William Rosecrans, John Pope, and George Sykes. He graduated four years later ranked 28th in a class of 56. He was given a commission in the 1st US Artillery.

Mexican War
He participated in nearly every important battle in the Mexican–American War. He rose to the rank of First lieutenant. He won the brevet rank of Captain at the battles of Contreras and Churubusco. For his actions at the Battle of Chapultepec he was breveted the rank of major. The state of
South Carolina gave him a gold sword in appreciation for his services.

Educator
He resigned from the army in 1849 and became Professor of Mathematics at Washington College (now Washington and Lee University). In 1854 Hill became a professor at Davidson College. In 1859 he resigned his chair position to become the superintendent of the North Carolina Military Institute.

Civil war
As a colonel of the 1st North Carolina Infantry he quickly became successful. In 1861 he led his forces to a victory in the Battle of Big Bethel (Virginia). By the spring of the following year, Hill had been promoted to major general in the Army of Northern Virginia. He led his division at the battles of Yorktown, Williamsburg, Seven Pines and all through the Seven Days Battles. It was Hill who advised his commander, Robert E. Lee, not to attack the Union positions at the Battle of Malvern Hill saying "If General McClellan is there in strength, we had better let him alone." Lee ignored the advice and the attacks were unsuccessful. Hill was left to defend Richmond, Virginia during the Northern Virginia Campaign. While in Richmond, Hill and Union general John Adams Dix worked out a system to exchange prisoners of war. He rejoined Lee for the Maryland Campaign.

It was during the Maryland Campaign that Hill was mistakenly sent two copies of Special Order 191. The second copy, which came to be known as the "lost copy" was found on September 13 by a Union soldier who quickly sent it up the chain of command to McClellan. Now McClellan knew the details of how Lee had weakened his forces by splitting them up into several columns. It also laid out where each part of his army was to be at any given time. McClellan acted, quicker than usual, and attacked Lee's positions. Hill's outnumbered men delayed the Union advance at the Battle of South Mountain long enough for Lee to regroup. Three days later Hill's division defended the "Bloody Lane" against several Union attacks at the Battle of Antietam before being driven back. Hill's division was also in the Battle of Fredericksburg. In 1863 Hill was sent to help defend Southern Virginia and North Caroline. He never returned to Lee's army. He was next sent west to command a Corps under Lieutenant general Braxton Bragg. At the Battle of Chickamauga Hill led his corps. But he did not get along at all with Bragg and was left without a command. This also stopped his promotion to Lieutenant general. He did not command troops again until the

In the spring of 1863, Hill was detached to help defend North Carolina and Southern Virginia. He never rejoined Lee's army. After helping defend Richmond during Lee's Gettysburg Campaign, Hill was sent west to command a corps in Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee. Hill led his corps in the victory at the Battle of Chickamauga. After the battle, however, tensions with Bragg led to Hill being sidelined and to the cancellation of his promotion to lieutenant general. Hill did not command troops again until the final weeks of the war at the Battle of Bentonville.

Personality
Hill was a very good combat leader but he made enemies among other Confederate generals. He was said to be sarcastic, abrupt and often insulting. James Longstreet once said Hill's problem was he was a North Carolinian in an army of Virginians.

After the war
Hill edited a magazine at Charlotte called "The Land We Love." Between 1877 and 1880 he was president of the Arkansas Industrial university (later renamed the University of Arkansas). Following that he was president of the Middle Georgia Military and Agricultural College (now Georgia Military College). He remained there until August of 1889 when ill health caused him to resign. He died at Charlotte September 23, 1899. Hill was buried at the Davidson College Cemetery.

References

1821 births
1889 deaths
Confederate Army generals
Military people from South Carolina

Daniel Harvey Hill


Climate change in Nigeria can be explained as an increase or decrease in temperature, and rainfall in coastal areas (places exposed to erosion) and continental areas. It, therefore, causes a rise in water level i.e. sea level, floods, erosions, etc. all of these will contribute negatively to the day-to-day activities of humans.

Reference

Climate change
Nigeria

Climate change in Nigeria


Agnes Mary Christabel Latham (31 January 1905 – 13 January 1996) was a British academic, Professor of English at Bedford College. She is remembered for her lifelong project of editing the letters of Sir Walter Raleigh  and for her edition of As You Like It for the Arden Shakespeare.

Early life
Latham was the middle of three daughters of Harry Latham and Francis Marian Latham. She studied at Wakefield Girls' High School, and later received a scholarship to Somerville College, Oxford. There, she graduated with a first class English Literature and Language degree.

Career
In 1929 she published her edition of the poems of Sir Walter Raleigh. Her research was completed within a year, funded by a grant from Wakefield Girls' High School.

After a period of school teaching, she obtained a post of lecturing in English at Bedford College, London in 1940 but was suspended until 1946 because of the outbreak of World War II. She remained at Bedford college until 1958. At Bedford, her lectures focused on English language and syntax.

Her project of editing Sir Walter Raleigh's letters gained her international recognition. Their publication is currently being completed at Exeter University. Between then and her retirement in 1973, she gained a readership and engaged in teachings of Shakespeare and Milton in 1958. During this time she was frequently reviewing anonymously for The Times Literary Supplement.

Latham is perhaps best known for her edition of As You Like It for the Arden Shakespeare which was published subsequent to her retirement in 1975. It was considered "impressive not only for its weight of scholarly insight but also for its careful consideration of the readers needed to be persuaded to share her prestigious knowledge of the Renaissance period and its values the better to appreciate the power of the text as drama".

Publications

Shakespeare, William, ed. Angles Latham, As you like it: The Arden Shakespeare. Methuem publishing, 22 May 1975
Latham, Agnes M. C. Sir Walter Ralegh. London: Longmans, Green, 1964
Raleigh, Walter, and Agnes Mary Christabel. LATHAM. The Poems of Sir Walter Ralegh. Edited with an introduction by Agnes M.C. Latham. Pp. lxiii. 182. *Routledge & Kegan Paul: London, 1951
Ralegh, Walter, and Agnes M. C. Latham. Selected Prose and Poetry. University of London: Athlone Press, 1965
Raleigh, Walter, Agnes M. C. Latham, and Joyce A. Youings. The letters of Sir Walter Ralegh. Exeter: U of Exeter Press, 1999
Raleigh, Walter ed. Latham, Agnes. The poems. Constable, London 1929

References

Census Returns of England and Wales, 1911. Kew, Surrey, England: The National Archives of the UK (TNA), 1911.

1905 births
1996 deaths
British women academics
Academics of Bedford College, London
British writers
British women writers
Alumni of Somerville College, Oxford

Agnes Latham


Johan Reinert Reierson (April 17, 1810, Vestre Moland, Aust-Agder - September 6, 1864) was a Norwegian-American  writer, author and publisher as well as an early Texas pioneer and emigration activist.

Immigration
Reierson had been sponsored in 1843 by a group of prospective emigrants and financiers to tour the United States and report settlement possibilities. He made his way to the Republic of Texas. Reierson traveled to Austin, where President Sam Houston encouraged him to bring Norwegian settlers to the republic and promised aid in the establishment of a colony.

In 1844, Reierson wrote and published a comprehensive book about America titled Pathfinder for Norwegian Emigrants to the United North American States and Texas (Norwegian: Veiviser for norske emigranter til De forenede nordamerikanske stater og Texas) a comprehensive book about America published in Norway. Reierson particularly advocated Texas as the most promising regions for settlement.

Reierson decided to immigrate to Texas and establish a Norwegian colony in the republic. With a small group of Norwegians, including his own family, he returned in the spring of 1845. Before departing for America, he established a monthly magazine, Norway and America (Norwegian: Norge og Amerika) to report on the progress of the Norwegians in America to the people of Norway. When Reierson immigrated to Texas, Elise Wærenskjold assumed the editorship of the popular magazine until she herself immigrated to Texas in 1847.

After the annexation of Texas in 1845, Reierson led his group of settlers into the state and established the first real Norwegian immigrant colony in Texas in Henderson County. The colony, originally named Normandy, merged with nearby Brownsboro.  In 1850, Reierson established a second colony. Families from Brownsboro moved to these communities, which they named Four Mile Prairie in Van Zandt County and Prairieville in Kaufman County. In 1848 the Texas legislature had formed Van Zandt and Kaufman counties out of Henderson County. His pro-American letters to Norwegian newspapers continued to mark him as a controversial figure in his homeland.

Personal life
Reierson married Henrietta Christine Waldt (1818–1851) on August 5, 1836 in Prairieville, Texas.   The couple had six sons and two daughters. He spent the remainder of his life as a farmer and member of the Prairieville community. When he died in Prairieville, he was still writing about Texas in publications in Norway. He was buried at Four Mile Prairie Norwegian Cemetery.

References

Other sources
Blegen, Theodore C. Norwegian Migration to America, 1825-1860  (2 vols., 1931; 1940., New York: Haskell House, 1969)
Unstad, Lyder L.  The First Norwegian Migration into Texas (Southwestern Historical Quarterly 43. October 1939)
Clausen,  C. A., ed., The Lady with the Pen: Elise Waerenskjold in Texas (Norwegian-American Historical Association, Northfield, Minnesota. 1961)
Russell, Charles H. Undaunted: A Norwegian Woman in Frontier Texas (Texas A&M University Press. 2005)
Payne, Darwin  Early Norwegians in Northeast Texas (Southwestern Historical Quarterly 45. October 1961)
Van Zandt County History Book Committee, History of Van Zandt County (Dallas: National ShareGraphics; 1st edition 1984)
Hall, Margaret Elizabeth A History of Van Zandt County (Austin: Jenkins Publishing Company. 1976)

External links
Four Mile Prairie, Texas
Prairieville, Texas
Normandy, Texas

1810 births
1864 deaths
People from Lillesand
Norwegian emigrants to the United States
American Lutherans
Norwegian newspaper editors
People from Kaufman County, Texas
19th-century journalists
Male journalists
19th-century Norwegian writers
19th-century Norwegian male writers
19th-century Lutherans

Johan Reinert Reiersen


In statistics, probability theory, and information theory, a statistical distance quantifies the distance between two statistical objects, which can be two random variables, or two probability distributions or samples, or the distance can be between an individual sample point and a population or a wider sample of points.

A distance between populations can be interpreted as measuring the distance between two probability distributions and hence they are essentially measures of distances between probability measures. Where statistical distance measures relate to the differences between random variables, these may have statistical dependence, and hence these distances are not directly related to measures of distances between probability measures.  Again, a measure of distance between random variables may relate to the extent of dependence between them, rather than to their individual values.

Many statistical distance measures are not metrics, and some are not symmetric. Some types of distance measures, which generalize squared distance, are referred to as (statistical) divergences.

Terminology
Many terms are used to refer to various notions of distance; these are often confusingly similar, and may be used inconsistently between authors and over time, either loosely or with precise technical meaning. In addition to "distance", similar terms include deviance, deviation, discrepancy, discrimination, and divergence, as well as others such as contrast function and metric. Terms from information theory include cross entropy, relative entropy, discrimination information, and information gain.

Distances as metrics

Metrics
A metric on a set X is a function (called the distance function or simply distance) d : X × X → R+
(where R+ is the set of non-negative real numbers). For all x, y, z in X, this function is required to satisfy the following conditions:

 d(x, y) ≥ 0     (non-negativity)
 d(x, y) = 0   if and only if   x = y     (identity of indiscernibles. Note that condition 1 and 2 together produce positive definiteness)
 d(x, y) = d(y, x)      (symmetry)
 d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z)      (subadditivity / triangle inequality).

Generalized metrics
Many statistical distances are not metrics, because they lack one or more properties of proper metrics. For example, pseudometrics violate property (2), identity of indiscernibles; quasimetrics violate property (3), symmetry; and semimetrics violate property (4), the triangle inequality. Statistical distances that satisfy (1) and (2) are referred to as divergences.

Statistically close
The  variation distance of two distributions  and  over a finite domain , (often referred to as statistical difference
or statistical distance  in cryptography) is defined as

.

We say that two probability ensembles  and  are statistically close if  is a negligible function in .

Examples

Metrics
 Total variation distance (sometimes just called "the" statistical distance)
 Hellinger distance
 Lévy–Prokhorov metric
 Wasserstein metric: also known as the Kantorovich metric, or earth mover's distance
 Mahalanobis distance
 Amari distance
 Integral probability metrics generalize several metrics or pseudometrics on distributions

Divergences
 Kullback–Leibler divergence
 Rényi divergence
 Jensen–Shannon divergence
 Bhattacharyya distance (despite its name it is not a distance, as it violates the triangle inequality)
 f-divergence: generalizes several distances and divergences
 Discriminability index, specifically the Bayes discriminability index, is a positive-definite symmetric measure of the overlap of two distributions.

See also
Probabilistic metric space
Randomness extractor
Similarity measure
Zero-knowledge proof

Notes

External links
Distance and Similarity Measures (Wolfram Alpha)

References
Dodge, Y. (2003) Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP.

Statistical distance


Madurai Tamil Sangam, also known as the fourth Tamil Sangam, was a language academy founded by Prince Pandithurai Thevar and other Tamil language scholars to promote the use of Tamil language and Tamil culture in the late 19th century in British held India.

It was modeled after the legendary Sangams of Madurai city as mentioned in ancient Tamil literature. As there were three Tamil Sangams before, this one was considered to be the fourth one. It held exams to confer Tamil Pandithar degree on those who passed. Swami Vipulananda a noted Sri Lankan Tamil social reformer was one of the earlier Tamil Pandithars as recognized by the academy. It also published a scholarly journal called Centamil.

In the late 19th century, there was a great awakening of the Tamils and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, S. V. Damodaram Pillai, and others brought to light many of the ancient Tamil works which had hitherto remained in obscurity. Madurai Tamil Sangam is still functioning in the Tamil sangam road, Madurai.
The present president of Madurai Tamil Sangam is King of Mugavai. Mannar Na. Kumaran Sethupathi, vice president is Dr. N. sethuraman and secretary is S. Mariappa Murali.

See also
 Tamil Sangams

References

Indian literature
Tamil-language literature
Indic literature societies
Culture of Madurai

Madurai Tamil Sangam


Jan van Wechelen or Hans van Wechelen (c. 1530 – 1570) was a Flemish painter and draughtsman active in Antwerp in the middle of the 16th century known for his landscapes, biblical subjects and genre scenes.

Life
Details about his life are scarce. Jan van Wechelen was born some time between 1530 and 1537.

He is first mentioned in 1557 as Jan van Wechlen, the master of an apprentice by the name of Hans de Boeys in the records of the Guild of Saint Luke in Antwerp.  He is known for his collaborations with Cornelis van Dalem.

Work

General
Only a few works by Jan van Wechelen are known to exist as most of his oeuvre was destroyed by war and the Iconoclasm of the 16th century. The majority of these are landscapes and religious scenes.  His oeuvre also includes a few genres scenes and an architectural painting of a church interior.  The artist's work enjoyed an excellent reputation at the beginning of the 17th century and was collected by Rubens as well as the prominent art collectors Cornelis van der Geest and Pieter Stevens.

Jan van Wechelen collaborated regularly with fellow Antwerp artist Cornelis van Dalem. Van Wechelen was a gifted staffage painter and his dignified figures are regarded as well suited to van Dalem's landscapes.  At least three such collaborations between the two artists are suspected. This includes a  Landscape with nomads (also known as Landscape with gypsies at the Staatliche Kunsthalle Karlsruhe.  This painting likely represents a family of gypsies as a seated woman wears the distinctive oval white hat which was a common indicator for a gypsy woman in 16th century Flemish paintings.

The baker of Eeklo
An interesting genre painting made in collaboration with Cornelis van Dalem is the composition The Legend of the Baker of Eeklo.  The original of the painting is lost but a presumed copy of the original is part of the collection of the Rijksmuseum and is on loan to the Muiderslot.  There also exist many versions said to have been made by the circle of, or after Cornelis van Dalem and Jan van Wechelen. The composition was engraved by Frederik Bouttats the Younger.

The painting depicts a legend told about the citizens of Eeklo in Flanders.  When they were unhappy with the look of their heads, they would go to the village bakery. There the baker and his assistants would lop off their heads and place cabbages on their necks to stem the bleeding. The improved heads would then be kneaded and rolled, rubbed with a new finish, baked in the oven and ultimately replaced.  The composition recounts the whole process. However, there was always the risk that a new head would fail to bake, or over-bake, thus resulting in a deformed or deficient head.  There is a scene of a woman holding a severed head who is having a discussion with the baker dressed in red.  She is probably trying to return the head of her husband with which she is not happy. This story had a moral and cautionary message to those who were dissatisfied with their appearance and wanted to do something drastic about it.

Church interior with Christ preaching to a crowd

A composition entitled Church interior with Christ preaching to a crowd (Rijksmuseum) is attributed to a collaboration between van Wechelen and van Dalem.  It shows a large church interior with a crowd of people in contemporary as well as foreign dress who are listening to Jesus Christ who is preaching while seated near a column.  The interior of the church is quite barren and the only decorations seen are some sculptures high on the columns. Various scenes are depicted in the interior of the church such as priests chasing away children, a man with a walking stick and a dog who is accosted by a man in thorn clothes (a beggar?), some dogs sniffing each other, a couple flirting, a man with a shovel etc.

Van Dalem, his collaborator on this composition, was suspected of being a Protestant and possibly the composition contains criticism of the Catholic Church. By placing a preaching Jesus amidst modern church architecture and a contemporary crowd the composition should possibly also be read against the background of the iconoclasm of the Beeldenstorm, which had caused a reflection on the role of religious art in the Low Countries.  The attack on sculptures and paintings had placed the entire church interior under discussion. Finding answers to questions such as what a church should be, which type of architecture was suitable and how it should be embellished had become urgent. Contemporary religious practice was compared with the words and deeds of Christ and his apostles and the past and the future of religion, its temples and its rites were under scrutiny.

Kermesse

Jan van Wechelen produced three versions of a composition representing a village kermesse with peasants making merry.  The prime version painted on panel is now in a private European collection, while two other versions were sold at Sotheby's respectively on 1 April 1992 (lot 57, on panel) and 5 December 2007 (lot 19, on canvas).  There are some differences between the various versions.

Jan van Wechelen succeeded in these genre scenes to bring the kermesses to life.  He was close to Pieter Brueghel the Elder in his ability to animate these picturesque scenes with a great number of characters with comical and delightful attitudes. The realism in his genre paintings reveal a rather profane spirit while his lines with clearly emphasized forms connect his work to the rigorist trends that were developing in the Low Countries around 1540.

Religious paintings

Jan van Wechelen painted a number of religious compositions.  His Ecce Homo (Indianapolis Museum of Art) reprises a theme and setting that had become popular in Flemish art from the 15th century.  Placing this subject matter of Jesus being shown to the people in a contemporary setting was not uncommon as is demonstrated by a work of Gillis Mostaert, which places the scene on the main square of Antwerp.  By staging the dramatic scene on the square of a Flemish town an accusation of sinfulness and culpability is directed at the contemporary crowd witnessing the event. That children also share culpability is implied by the prominent presence of children among the spectators. The cartload of crosses in the foreground on the right refers to the people's call for Christ's execution.

Jan van Wechelen painted at least two versions of the Road to Calvary, another theme popularized by Pieter Brueghel the Elder.  One of the paintings is in the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya and the other one in a private collection (previously Oppenheimer collection). Van Wechelen opted to place this passion scene against the backdrop of a contemporary town.  In the foreground are people coming out of their houses and leaving their vegetable stalls to get closer and get a better view of the 'show'.

References

External links

Flemish Renaissance painters
Flemish landscape painters
Flemish genre painters
Painters from Antwerp
1530s births
1570s deaths

Jan van Wechelen


Václav Riedlbauch (1 April 1947 – 3 November 2017) was a Czech composer, pedagogue and manager. He was the Minister of Culture in the caretaker government of Jan Fischer (2009–2010).

Musician
Riedlbauch studied accordion with Josef Smetana and composition with Zdeňek Hůla at the Prague Conservatory from 1962 to 1968. He continued his studies at the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague in the class of Václav Dobiáš.

He was program director at the Prague Congress Centre, formerly the Palace of Culture, and director of the National Theatre in Prague and music publishing house Panton. From 2001, he was the Director General of the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra. Riedlbauch was a professor of composition at the Faculty of Music, Academy of Performing Arts in Prague.

Selected compositions
Stage
Macbeth, Ballet for soloist, a group of dancers and large orchestra (1979–1982); written for the National Theatre Ballet in Prague

Orchestral
Sonáta "Rožmberská" (The Rožmberk Sonata) for winds and percussion instruments (1971)
Symphony No. 1 (1972)
Symphony No. 2 s refrénem (With Refrain) (1973)
Smrtelná ronda (Deadly Rondos) (1975)
Povídka (The Story), Symphonic Narration (1983)
Vize (Vision), Fantasy in honor of the Czech Music Year 2004 (1985)
Pokušení a čin (Temptation and Act), Macbethan Parable (1988)
Příhoda (Adventure), Narration for concert wind orchestra (1988)
Předehra ticha (Overture of Silence), 3 Pictures for a rather strange instrumental ensemble (2002)

Concertante
Koncert-bitva (Concerto-Battle) for organ and orchestra (1973)
Tři koncertní variace (Three Concert Variations) for flute and string orchestra (1990)

Chamber music
Sonatina za Jakuba (Sonatina for James) for violin and piano (1971)
Pastorále (Pastoral) for flute (1973)
Obraz "Zátiší s mrtvým slavíkem" (Picture "Still Life with a Dead Nightingale") for flute and piano (1974)
Báj (Tale) for flute, violin, cello and piano (1974)
Lamento for clarinet and piano (1975)
Balady (Ballads) for violin and piano (1975)
Přiběhy (Stories) for bass clarinet and piano (1975)
Allegri e pastorali [Woodwind Quintet No. 1] for woodwind quintet (1976)
Vábení (Luring) for flute and piano (1977)
Pastorali e concerti for brass quintet (1978)
Concerti e trenodi for wind octet (1979)
Nezmar (Hydra) for flute, accordion, 2 violins and percussion (1979)
Doslov (Epilogue), Movement for saxophone quartet (1983)
Svlékání hadí kůže (Snake Moulting) for trombone solo (1986)
Výjev (Scene), Movement for bassoon and piano (1986)
String Quartet No. 1 "Památce Josefa Čapka a jemu podobných" (In Memory of Josef Čapek and the Others) (1986–1987)
Novoroční meditace (A New Year Meditation) for trumpet and organ (1989)
Preludia k vernisážím (Preludes to the Exhibition's Openings) for flute solo (1990)
Trio for violin, cello and piano (1991)
Malý kamenný tanec (A Small Stone Dance), Trio for flute, cello and piano (1993)
Woodwind Quintet No. 2 (1999)
Duetto Pocta Manuelu Poncemu (A Tribute to Manuel Ponce) for flute and guitar

Keyboard
Katedrály (Cathedrals), Toccata for organ (1972)
Noční stráž (Night Watch), 2 Allegros for accordion (1974)
Kánony (Canons) for piano (1977)
Parade for Organ (1978)
Loutky (Puppets) for accordion (1980)
Závěs (The Curtain), Movement for organ (1982)
Konjunkce (Conjunction), Game for 2 organs or other keyboard instruments (1983)

Instructive works
Pražský speciálník (Special Book of Prague), Book of Polyphonic Compositions for accordion (1972)
Pastorale for 3 recorders (1973)
Čaroděj (The Wizard), Accordion School for children (1973–1976)
Jihočeská nokturna (South Bohemian Nocturnes) for 2 violins, cello, accordion and trumpet (1979)
Převrácenky (Reversals) for children's accordion (1980)
Povídačky (Talks), 8 Polyphonic Pieces for 2 violins (1982)
Flétnový sešit (Flute Notebook), Miniatures for 2–5 flutes (1986)

Vocal
Touženec písní, Songs for tenor and piano (1975); words by Rabindranath Tagore
Písničky z Rejdové (Songs from Rejdová) for soprano, alto, violin and piano (1976)
Tesknice (Nostalgic Songs), 3 Folk Songs for 2 recorders and 3-part children's choir (1976)
Svatební zpívání (Wedding Singing) for girls', female or male chorus (1978); words after Sappho
Nebocyklus pro děti (Rather-Or Cycle for Children), 7 children's choruses (1978); words by R. Steindl
Zpěvy a hry na úryvky ze Shakespeara (Songs and Games to Excerpts from Shakespeare) for 6 singers, 2 violins, oboe and cello (1979)
Kantorská: Oslava českého baroka (Teachers' Song: Celebration of Bohemian Baroque) for organ and children's chorus (1980); words by V. Fischer
Slabikář: Úryvky ze školních začátků (The Primer: Excerpts from the Beginnings at School), 4 Polyphonic Pieces for children's chorus (1980)
Daidalos tvůrce (Daidalos the Creator) for male chous with baritone solo (1982); words after Ovid
Podzim v Praze (Autumn in Prague) for baritone and orchestra (2000)

External links
 Czech Music Information Centre

1947 births
2017 deaths
Czech composers
Czech male composers
Czech accordionists
Culture ministers of the Czech Republic
People from Plzeň-City District
Academy of Performing Arts in Prague alumni
Prague Conservatory alumni

Václav Riedlbauch


Arirang () is a 2011 South Korean documentary film by Kim Ki-duk. The film addresses a personal crisis Kim went through, sparked by an incident during the filming of his previous film, Dream, where the lead actress nearly died by hanging, and by the departure of a couple of close colleagues, including the director Jang Hoon. The title comes from a Korean folk song with the same title. In a heavily line-broken text released about the film, Kim writes that "Through Arirang I understand human beings, thank the nature, and accept my life as it is now." Kim produced the film entirely on his own. It premiered in the Un Certain Regard section of the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, where it won the Prix un certain regard.

Release
The film premiered on 13 May at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival where it was screened in Un Certain Regard. Kim only did one interview at the festival, where he said that he felt better than when he made the film, and that it had helped him cure himself. At one occasion during the interview, Kim suddenly started to sob and sang "Arirang".

Reception
After attending the festival screening in Cannes, Variety'''s Leslie Felperin wrote: "Further evidence, as if it were needed, that digital is both the liberation of low-budget filmmaking and the enabler of self-indulgence". Felperin went on to call Arirang "An experience that can be likened only to being stuck next to a drunk in a bar who keeps reminding you he used to be famous, all his friends are bastards and he now understands the meaning of life". In Screen Daily, Dan Fainaru called it "the ultimate 'film d'auteur'", and wrote: "Doing it justice in a short review is almost impossible, not because Kim Ki-duk is providing revolutionary insights into his line of work, but because he raises numerous issues that are too often ignored as irrelevant or pedantic by professionals who should know better." Peter Bradshaw wrote: "It is the most extravagantly self-indulgent piece of pure loopiness imaginable – but gripping as well. A piece of experimentalism at odds with convention."

The film won the Prize of Un Certain Regard, the top award for best film in the section. The win was shared with the German film Stopped on Track'', directed by Andreas Dresen.

References

Publications
MARTONOVA, (2012) A. To feel HAN (Arirang by Kim Ki-duk) // Kino, No.3, Sofia:p. 49-47, ISSN 0861-4393 [Да чувстваш ХАН ("Ариран" на Ким Ки-док). – Original title in Bulgarian]

External links

2011 films
2011 documentary films
South Korean documentary films
Autobiographical documentary films
Films directed by Kim Ki-duk
2010s Korean-language films
Documentary films about South Korea
2010s South Korean films

Arirang (2011 film)


Eveleen Mary Weldon Severn (1882–1942), of Chicago, Illinois, was a philatelist who pioneered in breaking of the "glass ceiling" encountered by women in the ranks of philately, and founded the first women's stamp club. She was the husband of Charles Esterly Severn.

Philatelic literature
Eveleen Severn served at Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News in a number of positions, starting in 1929 and finally becoming its editor. Severn used her position at Mekeel's to attract women into the ranks of philately.

Women's rights
Up until the 1930s, philately was generally regarded as a "man's" hobby and women were, in most cases, excluded or at least not encouraged to participate. Eveleen Severn was a crusader for the inclusion of women into philatelic circles, and was one of the founders of Chicago Woman's Stamp Club, the first stamp club exclusively for women. The club was founded on May 13, 1930, and Eveleen Severn was named president.

Continuing her activism for women's rights, Eveleen Severn applied for membership at the Chicago Philatelic Society, was accepted, and became the first woman member of the society.

Philatelic activity
Eveleen Severn was a member of the American Philatelic Society and served on various committees. In 1940 she was on the committee that presented the first Luff Award, and she was responsible for recommending that the society establish the American Philatelic Society Hall of Fame for deceased philatelists who had made outstanding contributions to philately.

At the Severn-Wylie-Jewett Company, which owned Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News, she assumed the role of president on the death of her husband Charles Esterly Severn. She eventually was appointed editor and continued in that role until she died.

Honors and awards
Eveleen Severn was named to the American Philatelic Society Hall of Fame in 1942.

See also
 Philately
 Philatelic literature

References
 Eveleen Mary Weldon Severn

1882 births
1942 deaths
Philatelic literature
American philatelists
People from Chicago
American Philatelic Society
Women philatelists

Eveleen Mary Weldon Severn


Zinc, sometimes called spelter, is a chemical element. It is in the group of metals called the transition metals. It is sometimes considered a post-transition metal. Its symbol on the periodic table is "Zn". Zinc is the 30th element on the periodic table, and has an atomic number of 30. Zinc has a mass number of 65.38. It contains 30 protons and 30 electrons. In total, 29 isotopes of zinc are known, and five of these occur in nature. Some isotopes are radioactive. Their half-lives are between 40 milliseconds for 57Zn and 5x1018 years for 70Zn.

Zinc is a metal that is mostly used for galvanizing and batteries. It is the fourth most common metal used by people.

Properties

Physical properties
Zinc is a shiny bluish grey metal. When it has just been cut, zinc has a whitish-grey color. If it is exposed to air, it will not stay shiny for long. Its melting point is (), and its boiling point is (). This temperature is lower than most transition metals but higher than tin or lead. It can be melted on a cooking stove. It boils at a low temperature for a metal. It is not magnetic. When heated a little, it becomes very flexible. If it is heated more, it becomes very brittle. It forms alloys easily with other metals.

Chemical properties
Zinc is a reactive metal. It is about as reactive as aluminium and more reactive than most of the more common metals, such as iron, copper, nickel, and chromium. It is less reactive than magnesium. Zinc can react with acids, bases, and nonmetals. It does not rust in air, though. A coating of zinc oxide and zinc carbonate forms on the surface of the zinc when it is in air. This coating stops corrosion. Acids can dissolve this coating and react with the zinc metal. This reaction of zinc with an acid makes a zinc(II) salt such as zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. This is a very common chemical reaction. The reaction below is the reaction with hydrochloric acid.

Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

Zinc can burn when powdered or in small pieces to make zinc oxide, a white powder. The flame is bright blue-green.

 2 Zn + O2 → 2 ZnO

Zinc oxide can dissolve in strong bases. This reaction happens in some batteries that have zinc in them.

 ZnO + H2O + 2 OH- → Zn(OH)42-.

Zinc is a chalcophile. This means that it would rather react with sulfur and elements below it on the periodic table than oxygen. That is why zinc sulfide is the most common zinc ore, not zinc oxide.

Chemical compounds

Zinc can make chemical compounds with other elements. These chemical compounds are only in one oxidation state: +2. A +1 compound has been found but it is hard to make. There are no other oxidation states other than +1 or +2. Most of these compounds have no color. If they have a color, it is not the zinc that is making the color.

Zinc chloride is one of the most common zinc compounds. They are quite unreactive. They are a little acidic when dissolved in water. They make a green flame when heated in a fire.

Other zinc compounds are:
Zinc antimonide, gray semiconductor
Zinc arsenide, orange semiconductor
Zinc bromide, a shield against radiation
Zinc carbonate, ore of zinc
Zinc fluoride
Zinc hydroxide, used in surgical bandages
Zinc iodide, used in X-ray picture-taking
Zinc nitrate, used as a mordant
Zinc oxide, used in sunscreen
Zinc phosphate, used in dentistry
Zinc sulfate, used in pigments
Zinc sulfide, common zinc ore

Occurence

Five isotopes of zinc are found in nature. 64Zn is the most common isotope, with 48.63% of naturally occurring Zinc. This isotope has a half-life of 4.3x1018 years. This is so long, that its radioactivity can be ignored. Similarly,  (0.6%), with a half life of 1.3x1016 years  is usually considered to not be radioactive. The other isotopes found in nature are  (28%),  (4%) and  (19%).

Zinc is not found as a metal in the earth's crust. Zinc is only found as zinc compounds. Sphalerite, a mineral that is made of zinc sulfide, is a main ore of zinc. Very little zinc is in the ocean. Zinc ore is normally found with copper and lead ores.

There are some other zinc ores, such as smithsonite (zinc carbonate) and a zinc silicate mineral. They are less common.

Preparation
The zinc sulfide is concentrated by flotation. There is a detergent that collects the zinc sulfide. The impurities sink to the bottom and are removed. Then the zinc sulfide is heated in air to make zinc oxide and sulfur dioxide.

2 ZnS + 3 O2 → 2 ZnO + 2 SO2

The sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfur trioxide.

2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3

The sulfur trioxide reacts with the zinc oxide to make zinc sulfate. This makes a soluble form of zinc which can be processed more.
SO3 + ZnO → ZnSO4

The zinc sulfate is purified and electrolyzed. This electrolysis makes oxygen, zinc, and sulfuric acid. This makes a pure zinc that is known as "SHG" or special high grade.

2 ZnSO4 + 2 H2O → 2 Zn + 2 H2SO4 + O2

The sulfuric acid is reused in place of the sulfur trioxide to leach more zinc oxide.

Zinc oxide can also be reduced by carbon to zinc metal and carbon dioxide at high temperatures. This is a blast furnace process similar to how iron is made.

2 ZnO + C → 2 Zn + CO2

This form of zinc is cheaper but is not pure.

Zinc is the fourth most commonly used metal in the world. About 10 million tons are made every year.

Uses

As a metal

Zinc is used in electrical batteries. The alkaline cell and the Leclanche cell are the ones that use zinc the most. It becomes oxidized and provides electrons for the battery to run.

About 59% of zinc is used for corrosion prevention, which includes galvanizing. 47% of the world's zinc is used for galvanizing. This is used to protect another metal, usually iron, from rusting. The zinc coating corrodes instead of the iron. The zinc coating can be placed on the metal in two ways. The metal can be dipped into a pot of melted zinc. The zinc can also be electroplated on to the metal. Dipping lasts longer but has a patchy surface that some do not think looks nice. It is also used in motorboats and pipelines to slow rusting. The motor of a motorboat often has a "bullet" of zinc, that will corrode easily, but will help other metal parts of the motor to stay rust free.

Zinc is used in alloys. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Brass is the most common zinc alloy. Zinc can form alloys with many other metals. Zinc aluminium is an alloy of zinc and aluminium, which makes good bearings. Commercial bronze has zinc in it. Sometimes cadmium telluride is reacted with zinc to make cadmium zinc telluride, a semiconductor. Nickel silver is another zinc alloy.

Zinc can be used in the pipes of a pipe organ. An alloy of tin and lead was used in the past. Zinc is used in the US penny, which only has a thin layer of copper. The core is zinc. Older pennies were made completely out of bronze.

A mixture of powdered zinc and sulfur can be used to propel a model rocket. This reaction makes zinc sulfide, heat, light, and gases. Zinc sheet metal is used to make zinc bars.

As zinc compounds
About 1/4 of zinc is used to make zinc compounds. Zinc oxide can be used for sunscreen or paint pigment. Zinc oxide also is a semiconductor. Zinc chloride is used to preserve wood so it does not rot. Some fungicides have zinc in them. Zinc sulfate is used in dyes and pigments. Zinc sulfide is used in fluorescent bulbs to convert the ultraviolet light to visible light.

In biology
Humans need a little bit of zinc to help their body run well. If they do not get enough zinc in their food, they can get a mineral deficiency. Almost two billion people have a zinc deficiency. Zinc deficiency makes one more easily get infections. Some people say that when we get colds, we should take more zinc. Others say that zinc does not make a difference. There are medicines that one can use when they have a cold. People add tiny amounts of zinc compounds to vitamin pills and cereals to make sure that they get enough zinc. Most single-tablet vitamins have zinc in them. Zinc is found in at least 100 enzymes. It is the second most common transition metal other than iron. Zinc also is used by the brain. The human body contains 2 to 4 grams of zinc. A zinc enzyme helps remove carbon dioxide from blood. Whole wheat has much zinc in it.

Safety
Large amounts of zinc metal are toxic. It can dissolve in stomach acid. When too much zinc is eaten, copper and iron levels go down in the body. Zinc compounds can be corrosive in the stomach. Zinc compounds put in the nose can ruin the sense of smell.

Zinc ions are very toxic to fish and many things that live in water.

References

Transition metals

Zinc


Total War: Shogun 2 is a strategy video game developed by Creative Assembly and published by Sega in 2011. It is the seventh mainline entry in the Total War series and returns to the setting of the first Total War game, Shogun: Total War, after a series of games set mainly in Europe and the Middle East.

As with the original game, Shogun 2 is set in 16th-century feudal Japan, during a period known as the Sengoku Jidai (Warring States period), where the ruling Ashikaga shogunate has lost its authority over the regional warlords (daimyō) and their clans, whose now fight amongst themselves for power. The player takes on the management of one of these clans, with the goal of defeating rival clans and ultimately establishing their rule over Japan as the new Shogun. The standard edition of the game features a total of eight factions (plus a ninth faction for the tutorial), each with a unique starting position and different political and military strengths. The limited edition includes an exclusive ninja clan, the Hattori, and a DLC unlocks a tenth clan, the Ikko-Ikki.

The game moves away from the European setting of previous Total War games and returns to the first setting in the Total War series, but making significant changes to core gameplay elements of Shogun 2. Compared to Empire which spanned almost the entire globe, the new installment focuses only on the islands of Japan (excluding Hokkaido) and on a reduced number of unit types.

Shogun 2 received critical praise from reviewers, including for its simplification and refinement of the series by returning to its roots. A standalone expansion, Total War: Shogun 2: Fall of the Samurai, which depicts the 19th-century Boshin War, was released in 2012.

Gameplay

Shogun 2's blend of turn-based strategy and real-time tactics gameplay is a staple of the Total War series. The player plays the role of both the clan leader and general, alternating between the campaign, where the player manages land and armies turn by turn, and the battles, where the player takes control of the army on the battlefield in real-time.

In the campaign, the player needs to oversee the development of settlements, military production, economic growth, and technological advancement respectively. The armies and units are organised and moved around the stylised campaign map by the player to carry out battles with other factions. In addition to fighting, the player is able to engage in diplomacy, political manoeuvring and the use of special agents to gain the upper hand. Ninja and geisha are also present in the game as assassins and spies.

The game's unit roster includes both peasant soldiers known as ashigaru as well as samurai warriors: ashigaru are basic infantry which are easily recruitable and cheaper to field than samurai, while samurai require specific province buildings to recruit but are more effective in combat and assume specialised roles in battle, such as cavalry. Other land units the player may field include siege units such as mangonels and European-made cannons, and a few special units such as the kisho ninja, who excel at stealth and climbing castle walls. Naval battles first introduced in Empire and Napoleon return in Shogun 2, and the player can construct warships of various weights and speed which can fire upon enemy ships or engage in boarding actions.

There are four types of agents the player may recruit. Ninja are capable of scouting, sabotage, and assassination, geisha specialises in solely assassination, metsuke can oversee provinces, arrest or execute enemy agents, or even bribe enemy settlements and armies, and monks (or missionaries for Christian clans) can inspire armies, spread the clan's religion, and convince enemy agents to retire.

Bolstering a clan's capabilities is the research tree known as "Mastery of the Arts", which is divided into Bushido (military) and Way of Chi (economic, religious, and agents) reforms that provide the player with new units, buildings, and abilities. Certain buildings, events, and character modifiers can improve a clan's research speed.

The player must also manage religious affairs in their domain. The predominant religion among clans, Shinto-Buddhism, allows the player to recruit warrior monks—infantry units that forego armour in exchange for exceptional combat capabilities. Meanwhile, the Catholic faith introduced by European traders instead provides the player with enhanced trade and early access to firearms, and converting the clan to Christianity will grant further advantages. However, provinces with religions other than the player's clan causes significant civil unrest, and must be countered by religious buildings or agents. Conversely, the player can spread their religion to enemy clans to incite unrest.

There are nine major clans that inhabit the provinces of Japan which the player chooses from. There are others, including the "Akamasu retainer clan". All Clans have particular advantages in certain areas, to give a variety of play style with each.
 The Chōsokabe clan inhabit Tosa Province and can recruit superior archers and generate more income from farming.
 The Date clan control Iwate and can recruit superior no-dachi samurai, and their units also get a bonus when charging.
 The Hōjō clan are great castle builders and siege specialists. They inhabit Izu Province and Sagami Province.
 The Mōri clan inhabit Aki Province and have a long history of naval mastery.
 The Oda clan field superior ashigaru and are settled in Owari Province.
 The Shimazu clan inhabit Satsuma Province and can recruit superior katana-armed samurai, their generals are also more loyal to their clan.
 The Takeda clan preside over Kai Province and recruit superior cavalry.
 The Tokugawa clan inhabit Mikawa Province initially as a vassal of the Imagawa clan and rely on diplomatic relations and the recruitment of better warrior ninja and metsuke.
 The Uesugi clan control Echigo Province and specialize in Buddhism, allowing them to recruit better monks and warrior monks as well as generating more income from trading.

There are also three factions available as downloadable content (the Hattori faction came complimentary with preorders of the game, however):
 The Hattori are the leading family in Iga Province and recruit specialised ninja and warrior ninja with more expertise.
 The Ikkō-ikki clan are a "family" of religious rebels that control Echizen Province and Kaga Province, and recruit rōnin and superior warrior monks.
 The Ōtomo clan control Bungo Province and Buzen Province, they start under the Catholic faith and can recruit superior firearm units, as well as Portuguese Elite Infantry known as terços.

In Total War: Shogun 2, leaders and generals are given personality and depth in gameplay, with high emphasis on role-playing. Generals and agents are portrayed as "larger-than-life" heroes with unique characteristics and powerful abilities. The player is able to improve and unlock traits and special abilities for the characters as they gain experience. However, the player may also be inclined to engage in family politics within the clan to keep its members loyal.

The battles of Shogun 2 involve large-scale engagements between armies that meet on the campaign map and can take place on land or on water. The developers proclaim they are paying particular attention to re-designing the naval and siege battles appropriate to the new setting. In contrast to European castles and forts, the castles in feudal Japan had multiple tiers, and thus the siege battles in the game put less focus on wall defences but more on courtyard brawls and tactical maneuvering. Also, the players will fight naval battles with unique Japanese ships resembling "floating castles", and take into consideration melees on ships, arrow fire, coastal terrain, and other factors.

Like the recent installments, Empire and Napoleon: Total War, the weather and climatic conditions have an effect on battles. For example, fog greatly reduces visibility, while heavy rain diminishes the effectiveness of missile troops, such as archers or gunners, thus requiring the players to adapt their strategies. Also, as in Napoleon, armies standing on enemy provinces during winter season or fleets far from the coast suffer attrition. Shogun 2 reintroduces from the original Shogun the option of waiting before a battle begins up to three times to select a preferred weather condition; however, this only occurs if the player's army is the one initiating the battle.

Unique to Shogun 2 is a feature known as Realm Divide, in which one by one, all computer-controlled surviving clans declare war on the player (or players in coop-campaign mode) and ally with each other, though the player's allies tend to do so later. Realm Divide is triggered either when the player captures the Shogunate capital of Kyoto and holds it for four turns—thereby becoming the new Shogun—or alternatively, if the player raises their clan's fame to the maximum level through conquering Provinces and winning battles.

Shogun 2 features multiplayer battles with up to 8 players as well as multiplayer campaigns involving competitive or cooperative play with 2 players. In a multiplayer campaign, players can be grouped into different clans, so that for each clan, one player assumes the role of clan leader and others take command of armies. The clan leader has the ability to direct other players and assign rewards based on loyalty and performance, introducing clan politics into multiplayer. As a player's army invades an enemy territory or is attacked by enemy armies, the online matchmaker finds a suitable opponent and initiates a multiplayer battle. When a player defeats enemy armies and conquers territories, the player will gain points and other bonuses for the clan. In addition, an achievement system is designed to provide adhering players with unique abilities and cosmetic upgrades.

Release

A demo became available on Steam on 22 February 2011. The demo covers the campaign tutorial, the historical Battle of Sekigahara and the full game encyclopaedia.

Shogun 2 was released in four different editions. The "Standard Edition" contains just the game, while the "Limited Edition" additionally makes playable a unique faction with special talents (the Hattori Clan), an additional historical battle scenario 'Nagashino', a complete set of armour for the player's online avatar and a starting bank of experience points to spend on that online character. The "Collector's Edition" includes the "Limited Edition" content as well as a replica bamboo box containing a Shogun 2 art book and a detailed figurine of Takeda Shingen. The "Grand Master's Edition" consists of the "Collector's Edition", as well as a bamboo Shogun 2 themed chess set, currently exclusive to select stores in the UK and Australia.

Players who pre-ordered at GameStop (online or in-store) unlocked and can take part in the historic Battle of Kawagoe. Set in 1545, the Battle of Kawagoe saw the Later Hōjō clan launch a successful night time counter-attack against the besieging Uesugi clan, eschewing heavy armour in favour of speed and stealth. Those who pre-ordered at Best Buy (online or in-store only) will unlock 1,000 Koku, the currency used in Total War: Shogun 2. Player's campaigns will begin with 1,000 Koku, allowing them to purchase new buildings, train new units and upgrade their towns.

As a special pre-order bonus, Steam announced the "Shogun Pack" for Team Fortress 2. This was given to players who purchased Total War: Shogun 2 before its release date. The pack consists of eight feudal Japan-themed items, including a sashimono, katana, kunai and gunbai. These items do not affect Shogun 2 in any way and can only be used in Team Fortress 2. Steam also released the Total War Collection on 10 March 2012. This consisted of Empire: Total War, Medieval II: Total War, Rome: Total War, and Napoleon: Total War. It also included Total War: Shogun 2 which could be preloaded on 14 March.

Downloadable content
"The Ikko-Ikki Clan Pack" (released on 26 May 2011) adds the "warrior monk" clan to Shogun 2 and a wide variety of brand-new content for use across the different game modes of Shogun 2. It is new clan for use in single or multiplayer Campaign modes and Custom and Multiplayer Battles. There are 8 new unit-variants specific to the Ikko-Ikki clan; new technology tree; new historical battle, Nagashima 1574 (Ikko-Ikki vs. Oda); Ikko-Ikki armour set for Avatar – includes hood, robes and barefoot leg-pieces; and new Retainers for use in the Avatar Conquest mode.
"Sengoku Jidai Unit Pack" adds ten new elite units for multiplayer and singleplayer game modes. Along with this DLC pack came a patch which fixed several bugs and revamped unit balancing in multiplayer game modes.
"Saints and Heroes Unit Pack" adds nine new hero units for multiplayer and single-player game modes. Along with this DLC pack came a patch which fixed several bugs and revamped unit balancing in multiplayer game modes.
"Rise of the Samurai Campaign", set 400 years before the dramatic civil war depicted in Shogun 2, is based on the Genpei War, a conflict between six legendary clans of the Taira, Minamoto and Fujiwara families. It culminated in the first Shogunate, and the rise of the Samurai as the ruling class. Rise of the Samurai DLC pack adds new units in multiplayer and single player battles. The pack adds 16 new land units spread across swordsmen, spearmen, archers, and cavalry; 4 new Hero units; 10 new naval units and 3 new naval special abilities; and 4 new agent types with their own unique skill trees, and a new historical battle of Anegawa (1570). The campaign retains the realm divide event from Shogun 2.
"The Hattori Clan Pack" includes all four unlocks previously only available in Total War: Shogun 2 Limited Edition. The Hattori clan are masters of the Iga-ryu ninjutsu – a unique collection of martial skills and guerrilla techniques. This additional in-game faction is available for use in single or multiplayer Campaign modes and Custom and Multiplayer Battles. It includes the most powerful battlefield ninja units. The Battle of Nagashino (historical scenario) saw an alliance between the Oda and Tokugawa clans clashing against the legendary Takeda clan in 1575.
"Blood Pack" adds blood and gore visual effects as well as the appropriate sound effects.
"The Otomo Clan Pack" adds a Christian clan with slightly changed research tree and more "Westernized" units.
 "Battle of Kawagoe" adds a historical battle previously available only in the pre-order offer of the Gamestop store.

Compilations and ports
On 5 March 2013 in North America and on 8 March of the same year in Europe and Australasia (Eu/Au) "Gold Edition" compilations were released. The North American edition contained the base game, the Rise of the Samurai campaign and the Fall of the Samurai game. The Eu/Au edition contained these as well as all but one of the downloadable content packs (Dragon War Battle, Hattori Clan, Ikko Ikki Clan, Otomo Clan, Saga Clan, Obama Clan, Tsu Clan, Sendai Clan, Saints & Heroes Elite Unit and Sengoku Jidai Elite Unit packs but not the Blood Pack). The Eu/Au version also came in a gold and black wajima-nuri inspired folding case unlike the standard case for the North American version.

On 31 July 2014, Shogun 2 was released for macOS by Feral Interactive, along with the Total War: Shogun 2 Collection, which includes all previously released additional content except "Blood Pack". Shogun 2, Shogun 2 Collection and Fall of the Samurai were released for Linux on 23 May 2017.

Reception

Total War: Shogun 2 received "universal acclaim", according to review aggregator Metacritic.

Al Bickham of PC Gamer gave Shogun 2 a score of 92%. In his review, he praised the game's visual design, music and atmosphere, attention to detail, refined and simplified troop variety, the "pleasing geometric puzzle" of siege battles, and the marked improvement to the enemy's artificial intelligence on both the campaign map and during battles compared to previous Total War games—namely Empire—noting that they are properly challenging to the player on higher difficulty levels. Bickham also complimented the overhauled multiplayer and the addition of the clan system that encourages community oriented gameplay. He concludes by declaring the game to be a "tighter, more focused" experience compared to Empire and Napoleon and a return to form for the series. In 2019, PC Gamer listed Shogun 2 as the best Total War game.

GameSpot reviewer Daniel Shannon has called it the "best Total War yet".

Alan Blair (lead campaign programmer), Kevin McDowell (lead artist) and Scott Pitkethley (lead battle programmer) won British Academy Video Games Awards for Total War: Shogun 2 for best strategy game.

As of 31 March 2011, the game has sold 600,000 units in Europe and North America.

References

External links

2011 video games
Creative Assembly games
Feral Interactive games
Japan in non-Japanese culture
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Multiplayer and single-player video games
Real-time tactics video games
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Video games set in 16th-century Sengoku period
Video games with Steam Workshop support
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Video games about samurai
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Total War: Shogun 2