The Lutheran Church of China (LCC; ) was a Lutheran church body in China from 1920 to 1951. It was established as a result of the consultations between the various Lutheran missionary bodies in China that was initiated during the China Centenary Missionary Conference held in Shanghai in 1907. The church survived as an organised body after the Chinese Communist Revolution but was absorbed into the state-backed Three-Self Patriotic Movement.

History
The early Chinese Lutheran churches were the result of the work of western mission societies in the 19th century. Until 1907, no less than 25 European and American Lutheran mission bodies were working in China; most of them independently from each other and some within other organisations such as the China Inland Mission.

Early history (1831–1847)
Karl Gützlaff (also known by his Chinese name,  or  in Pinyin) is generally regarded as the first Lutheran missionary to China. Originally accredited to the Netherlands Missionary Society, Gützlaff first arrived in East Asia in 1823. As China adopted a strict closed-door policy in that period, he was unable to set foot on China until 1831. Arriving in Tianjin, he was able to distribute some religious pamphlets and gospel tracts.

Although Gützlaff's methods and results were controversial, his major contribution included the promotion of the Chinese mission field to European mission societies, particularly Lutheran bodies.

First Lutheran missions (1847–1890)
Following Gützlaff's appeal, three German mission societies, the Barmen Mission (later known as the Rhenish Missionary Society or ), the Berlin Missionary Society (), and the Basel Mission (), sent missionaries to China. On March 19, 1847, Theodore Hamberg () and Rudolph Lechler () of the Basel Mission, together with Heinrich Köster () and Ferdinand Genähr () of the Barmen Mission, arrived in Hong Kong and under Gützlaff's guidance began working in different areas of Guangdong province. The Basel missionaries concentrated among the Hakka speaking people in the eastern part of the province whereas the Barmen missionaries worked among the Cantonese speakers of the western part of the province. The churches they founded were called the Chongzhen Church (Tsung-Tsin Church or ) and Lixian Church (Rhenish Church or ) respectively.

The Berlin Missionary Society sent its first missionary to China in 1851 and initially confined its work to the Hakka speaking people in Guangdong province. It eventually extended its work to the Mandarin-speaking people in Jiangxi and Shandong provinces. The church they founded was eventually called the Yuegan Church ().

Other Lutheran missions (1890–1907)

Between 1890 and 1907, a number of American and Scandinavian Lutheran mission societies established a presence in China. The notable ones include:

American Lutheran Mission (1890)
- Mission in the provinces of Henan and Hubei
- Started the Yu'e Lutheran Church ()

Hauge's Synod Mission or  (1891)
- Mission in Hubei province
- Work later merged in 1917 with the American Lutheran Mission as the United Lutheran Mission ()

Norwegian Lutheran China Mission Association or  (1891)
- Mission in the provinces of Hubei, Henan, and Shaanxi
- Started the Yu'eshaan Lutheran Church ()

Danish Lutheran Mission or  (1896)
- Mission in Manchuria
- Started the Northeastern Lutheran Church ()

Kiel China Mission or  (1897)
- Mission in Guangdong province
- Work transferred to the Schleswig-Holstein Evangelical Lutheran Mission () in 1921
- Church eventually known as the Yuenan Lutheran Church ()

Finnish Missionary Society or  (1901)
- Mission in the provinces of Hunan and Hubei
- Started the Xiang Xibei Lutheran Church ()

American Lutheran Brethren Mission or  (1902)
- Mission in Henan and Hubei border region
- Started the Yu'xi Lutheran Church ()

Norwegian Missionary Society or  (1902)
- Mission in Hunan province
- Started the Xiangzhong Lutheran Church ()

Augustana Synod Mission or  (1905)
- Mission in the provinces of Henan, Hubei and Jiangxi
- Started the Yu'zhong Lutheran Church ()

Towards union (1907–1920)
The China Centenary Missionary Conference was held from April 25 to May 8 of 1907 in Shanghai in commemoration of the hundredth anniversary of the arrival of Robert Morrison, the first Protestant missionary to China. According to the Index of Missions released during the conference, 25 mission bodies with a Lutheran background were working in China. The Boxer Rebellion of 1900 and other experiences acted as an impetus to encourage the various Lutheran bodies to unite into a single organisation to effectively work in China. The entrance of new Lutheran missions into China after 1907 including the Evangelical Lutheran Mission for China (() in 1913, the Lutheran Free Church Mission () in 1917, and the Church of Sweden Mission () in 1918, added an extra sense of urgency to the need for a nationwide Lutheran union.

In May 1907, a Lutheran missionary consultation was held with representatives from ten Lutheran mission bodies. While there was a general agreement that Lutheran unity be achieved, practical concerns such as the linguistic differences of the mission fields, the diverse national backgrounds of the missionaries, and a poor nationwide transportation system were voiced. It was agreed that union should be sought by first adopting the name Xinyi (), meaning Faith and Righteousness, to emphasise Luther's doctrine of justification by faith; union would be achieved first in the field of literature and education and that the five mission bodies working in the central Chinese provinces would spearhead the creation of a united Lutheran body. The result of this consultation was the creation of a Union Lutheran Conference (ULC) which was mandated to follow up and implement the proposals of unity that had been discussed.

On August 28–30, 1908, the first ULC meeting was held in Jigongshan or Cockerel Mountain (Wade-Giles: Kikungshan; Traditional Chinese﹕雞公山), Henan, and during this and subsequent conferences, a number of plans were drafted to publish books, compile a hymnal, design worship liturgies, establish schools and establish a national Lutheran Church. To realise these plans, it was decided that priority should be given towards establishing a union Lutheran seminary.

On March 29, 1913, the Lutheran Theological Seminary or  (LTS) was opened in Shekou (Shekow), Hubei. The seminary was sponsored by the American Lutheran Mission, the Hauge's Synod Mission, the Norwegian Missionary Society and the Finnish Missionary Society. Oscar R. Wold of the Hauge Synod Mission was elected the first president and the campus was dedicated on October 19 of the same year. The seminary also served as a publishing house and on September 15, 1913, published The Lutheran Bulletin that served the various Lutheran bodies throughout China.

In 1915, the Temporary Committee of the Lutheran Church of China was formed and took up the task of establishing a single national Lutheran Church. By the second ULC meeting in 1917, all preparations, including a draft constitution had been finalised.

However, in 1915, a Lutheran mission affiliated with the member synods of the Synodical Conference began work and did not participate in the merger. Later, during the communist era, this separate mission ceased organized activity, and its church workers set up operations in Hong Kong instead.

The Lutheran Church of China (1920–1951)
The united Lutheran Church of China was formally established on August 22, 1920, in Jigongshan, Henan, and the first General Assembly of the LCC was also convened there.

First General Assembly (1920)
The first assembly convened on August 22–29, 1920, in Jigongshan, Henan, and officially adopted the constitution of the LCC. Five mission bodies took part in the founding of the LCC and the mission churches founded by these bodies became the LCC's first five synods :

Xiangbei Synod ()
- Church of Sweden Mission
- Northern Hunan
Xiangxi Synod ()
- Finnish Missionary Society
- Western Hunan
Xiangzhong Synod ()
- Norwegian Missionary Society
- Central Hunan
Yu'e Synod ()
- United Lutheran Mission
- Henan and Hubei
Yuzhong Synod ()
- Augustana Synod Mission
- Central Henan

Oscar Wold was elected the first president of the LCC and a resolution was passed to request all LCC synods as well as other churches in China to observe the Chinese Mid-Autumn Festival; which falls on the 15th day of the 8th month of the Chinese calendar; as a Day of Thanksgiving.

Second General Assembly (1924)
The second assembly convened in Taohualun, Hunan, on March 30 to April 2, 1924, a year later than scheduled due to the political unrest in Hunan. The Lutheran College that had been promised by the Church of Sweden during the previous assembly was located there together with other institutions of the LCC because it was the working base of both the Norwegian Missionary Society and the Xiangzhong Synod. Unfortunately the Lutheran College could not survive the political upheavals that ravaged China during that period and was closed in 1931.

Two new synods were added to the LCC during this assembly:

Yudong Synod ()
- Lutheran Free Church Mission
- Eastern Henan

Yuenan Synod ()
- Schleswig-Holstein Evangelical Lutheran Mission
- Southern Guangdong

The management of the Lutheran Board of Publication was also transferred to the LCC and marked the first step towards the indigenisation of Chinese Lutheran literature work.

Third General Assembly (1928)
Continued political unrest in China delayed the convening of the third assembly from the fall of 1926 to May 1928. The venue was also changed from Xuchang, Henan, to the Lutheran Theological Seminary in Shekou. A revised Lutheran Book of Worship & Liturgy was adopted by this assembly and the following synods were added:

Yuegan Synod ()
- Berlin Missionary Society
- Guangdong & Jiangxi

Ludong Synod ()
- United Lutheran Church of America
- Shandong

Dongbei Synod ()
- Danish Mission Society
- Manchuria & the Northeast

Fourth General Assembly (1931)
The assembly was convened in Qingdao, Shandong, on June 21–28, 1931. Among the important resolutions passed during this assembly was the establishment of a 1:1 quota for Chinese and non-Chinese representatives from each synod to the national council and the establishment of the Qingdao Lutheran Bible School for Women.

Fifth General Assembly (1934)
The assembly was convened in the YMCA in Shanghai on June 10–15, 1934. Regulations and principles were drafted and approved regarding the invitation of non Lutheran revivalists. This was in view of the growing revivalist movement in China marked by the ministries of individuals like John Sung, Wang Mingdao, and others that had affected many Lutheran churches both positively and negatively.

Sixth General Assembly (1937)
This was the last pre-war assembly to be convened, and it was held on June 13–18, 1937, in Loyang, Henan. Far-reaching plans were made, including the release of a statement on social issues from a Lutheran perspective, the establishing of a Youth Committee, and the expansion of theological training and literature work. Also notable was the decision made to excommunicate members who participated in the practice of concubinage and polygyny.

Seventh General Assembly (1946)
The assembly was originally scheduled to be held in Guangzhou, Guangdong, in 1940 but had to be postponed due to the Sino-Japanese War. It was finally held on October 21–25, 1946, in the Lutheran Theological Seminary at Shekou. According to an incomplete survey, church membership increased by 62% from the reported membership of 47,473 in the last assembly to 76,953 immediately after the war.

Several important resolutions were also passed including a decision to apply for membership in the newly formed Lutheran World Federation (LWF) and to send a delegation to the First Assembly of the LWF to be held in Lund, Sweden, in 1947, and to invite the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod related Evangelical Lutheran Mission for China to join the Lutheran Board of Publications.

The following synods were also accepted to the LCC :

Yu'eshaan Synod ()
- Norwegian Lutheran China Mission Association
- Hubei, Henan and Shaanxi

Shaannan Synod ()
- Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Free Church Mission
- Southern Shaanxi

Due to changing circumstances and the rapid development of the Chinese Civil War, the Seventh General Assembly, proved to be last full assembly held by the Lutheran Church of China.

Eight General Assembly (1949)
Due to the fall of most of mainland China to the forces of the Chinese Communist Party and the continued fighting in other parts of China, the scheduled assembly in Guangzhou, Guangdong, on October 10, 1949, could not be held. An attempt to move the assembly to Hong Kong also turned out to be impossible. The National President, Peng Fu, who was in Hong Kong at that time, finally decided to hold a National Council meeting instead.

The 27th Council met in Tao Fong Shan, Shatin, Hong Kong, on November 4–5, 1949. Tao Fong Shan has been the centre of the Christian Mission to Buddhists () since 1930 and was also the temporary campus of the Lutheran Theological Seminary after its evacuation from Shekou on December 1, 1948.

Four new members were accepted into the LCC:

 Yuxi Church (Yuxi Synod / )
- American Lutheran Brethren Mission
- Eastern Henan

 Lixian Synod (Yuedong Synod / )
- Rhenish Missionary Society
- Eastern Guangdong

 Chongzhen Synod (Yuexi Synod / )
- Basel Mission
- Western Guangdong

 Daoyou Synod (Hong Kong Synod / )
- Christian Mission to Buddhists
- Hong Kong

By LCC regulations, these four synods were to be renamed according to the area in which they worked (as shown in the names in parentheses above). However, since both the Rhenish and Basel missions had been at work for more than 100 years, and the nature of the work of the Daoyouhui had been very different, it was difficult to decide on which names that the new synods were to adopt. However, as the political situation in China was changing, this matter was eventually dropped altogether.

By now, the large majority of the Lutheran missions working in China at that time had joined the LCC and according to incomplete published statistics, the LCC had a total of 104,799 members, making it one of the largest Protestant churches in China.

The Lutheran Church in China (1950–1951)
On January 25, 1951, with the National President unable to return to China, the LCC called an extended Council meeting in Hankou under the leadership of Yu Jun, the National Vice-President. In this meeting, it was decided that:

 The name of the LCC be changed from Zhonghua Xinyihui () or the Lutheran Church of China to Zhongguo Xinyihui () or The Lutheran Church in China (TLCC);
 To abolish the 16 synods and reorganise the TLCC into five geographical zones;
 To dismiss Peng Fu as National President and replace him with Yu Jun;
 To carry out the principles of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement with determination;
 To join the National Council of Churches in China;
 To sever all ties with any missions, churches, and organisations based in Hong Kong;
 To stop sending students to the Lutheran Theological Seminary in Hong Kong and invite patriotic students to return to China.

This episode effectively ended the existence of the LCC as an entity in China and by 1958, the TLCC was also abolished with the introduction of union worship and imposition of "post-denominationalism" by the Three-Self Patriotic Movement.

Organisation and structure

The LCC was organised on four levels: General Assembly, synod, district, and congregation. The General Assembly was to meet once every three years to elect a National Council headed by a National President. The synod and district levels met annually to elect a synod council and district council respectively and the congregations elected a deacons board annually.

Presidents

 1920-1924: Rev Oscar R. Wold (Yu'e Synod)

 1924-1928: Rev Arstrup Larsen (Yu'e Synod)

 1928: Rev Oscar R. Wold (Yu'e Synod); died in office

 1928-1931: Rev Zu Qiwu (Xiangzhong Synod)

 1931-1937: Rev Zhu Haorang (Yu'e Synod)

 1937-1951: Rev Dr Peng Fu (Yu'e Synod)

Legacy

Although the LCC lasted only 30 years as an organised entity in China, its legacy to the development of Lutheranism in East Asia has been substantial. Many Lutheran Churches in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore trace their beginnings to the work and missions of the LCC.

Hong Kong

Of the eight Lutheran churches in Hong Kong, six can trace the legacy of the LCC in their work :

 Tsung Tsin Mission of Hong Kong ()
The church was established by missionaries of the Basel Mission and was a district of the Chongzhen Church in eastern Guangdong. The mission joined the LCC as part of the Chongzhen (Yuexi) Synod in 1949 until the dissolution of the LCC in 1951. In 1952, it registered with the Hong Kong government under a new constitution.

 Chinese Rhenish Church Hong Kong Synod ()
The church was established by missionaries of the Barmen Missionary Society and was a district of the Lixian Church in western Guangdong. The church joined the LCC as part of the Lixian (Yuedong) Synod in 1949 until the dissolution of the LCC in 1951. On June 1, 1951, it was registered as an independent church with the Hong Kong government.

 Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hong Kong ()
The work was begun by students and faculty of the Lutheran Theological Seminary together with the expelled missionaries from China, who had worked together with the LCC. By pedigree, it can be viewed as the successor church to the LCC. It was formally established on February 24, 1954, with the Rev Dr Peng Fu as its first president.

 Hong Kong and Macau Lutheran Church ()
The work was begun by missionaries from the Norwegian Lutheran Mission who had previously worked with the Yu'eshaan Synod and had evacuated to Hong Kong after 1949. They were joined by the Rev Liu Daosheng, the previous president of the Yu'eshaan Synod, who was stranded in China due to the sudden change in the political status of China. In 1960, the Yu'eshaan Lutheran Church became the Norwegian Lutheran Mission. They were one of the founding members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hong Kong but withdrew in 1969 due to a disagreement. In 1978, the mission decided to begin transferring its operations to a self-supporting local church and on November 18 of the same year, the Hong Kong and Macau Lutheran Church was officially established.

 South Guangdong Lutheran Church ()
The church is a successor of the work of the Yuenan Synod of the LCC. In 1962, following a sudden increase in refugees from China, Rev Leung Sin-Sang, a member of the former Yuenan Synod was called by the North Elbian Mission Centre to start work in Hong Kong. He initially focused on the refugees from Hepu, one of the districts of the former Yuenan Synod.

 Christian Mission to Buddhists ()
The mission was the former Daoyou Synod of the LCC. It now functions more as an organisation than as a church although congregational work still exists on a small scale. A monastery was built in Tao Fong Shan in 1936 and remains a popular retreat centre in Hong Kong. In 1984, the Tao Fong Shan Lutheran congregation became a member of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hong Kong. The Institute of Sino-Christian Studies was established in 1995 to promote the contextualization of Christian theology in Chinese culture and to further develop dialogue with other cultures and religions.

Taiwan
There are six Lutheran churches in Taiwan, of which five can trace the legacy of the LCC in their work:

 Taiwan Lutheran Church ()
The church was started by the work of former LCC members and expelled missionaries from China who had worked with the LCC. In April 1950, Chin Chung-an, a medical doctor from Xian conducted family meetings in his residence in Kaoshiung. On June 3, 1951, the Kaoshiung congregation was established and 59 people were baptised. On November 1, 1954, the church was officially established.

 Lutheran Church of the Republic of China ()
Similar to the Hong Kong and Macau Lutheran Church, this church was started by missionaries from the Norwegian Lutheran Mission who had previously worked with the Yu'eshaan Synod. In 1952, Sigrun Omestad began work in Taipei and later that year, Rev Liu Daosheng, who had previously worked with the mission in Hong Kong was called to serve as pastor. In 1978, the mission decided to begin transferring its operations to a self-supporting local church and by 1985 the church was officially established as an independent organisation.

 Chinese Lutheran Brethren Church ()
In 1951, A. E. Nyhus, a missionary of the Lutheran Brethren China Mission who had worked with the Yuxi Synod of the LCC, arrived in Taiwan. He was joined later that year by Rev Tu Chang-Wu, the former president of the Yuxi Synod and work began among the family members of the military. In 1958, an independent church was established.

 China Lutheran Gospel Church ()
In 1954, the Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Free Church Mission (NLF) sent the Rev J. T. Johansen Jr who had previously worked with the Shaannan Synod of the LCC to work under the Taiwan Lutheran Church (TLC). In 1961, the NLF decided to separate from the TLC and conduct their work independently. The mission was established as the China Lutheran Gospel Church in August 1973 with the Rev Xiong Ming-Xiang elected as the first chairman.

 Lutheran Church of Taiwan (Republic of China) ()
On September 4, 1955, the Rev Toivo Koskikallio, president of the Lutheran Theological Seminary in Hong Kong, was asked by the Finnish Missionary Society to study the establishment of a mission in Taiwan. In October 1956, in response to Koskikallio's study, the FMS sent the Rev Päivö Parviainen and Ms Elma Aaltonen to Taiwan. All three missionaries had worked with the Xiangxi Synod of the LCC before. On April 3, 1977, the Lutheran Church of Taiwan was established and the Rev Ye Bo-Xiang was elected President.

Malaysia and Singapore
Of the four Lutheran churches in Malaysia, two can trace the legacy of the LCC in their work:
 Basel Christian Church of Malaysia ()
The Basel Christian Church of Malaysia (BCCM) was established among the Hakka speaking refugees of the failed Taiping Rebellion in China. Because the leader of the Rebellion, Hong Xiuquan, was a Hakka speaking Christian, the Hakka speaking Basel Mission was viewed with great suspicion by the Qing Government of China. When the British North Borneo Company sought to recruit Chinese labourers to develop North Borneo, Rudolph Lechler of the Basel Mission enthusiastically supported the scheme. The first Chinese Basel Christians arrived in Lausan, North Borneo, in 1882 and the Lausan Church was built in 1886. In 1925, the Borneo Self-Governing Basel Church was established with the Rev Huang Tian-Yu elected as the first president. In 1966, the present name was adopted and the BCCM, with 45,000 members, is now the largest Lutheran church of LCC origin.
 Lutheran Church in Malaysia ()

In 1952, the Lutheran World Federation convened the First Southeast Asia Lutheran Consultation in Penang, appealing to Lutheran churches worldwide to respond to the spiritual needs of more than 500,000 ethnic Chinese who were stranded in New Villages set up by the Malayan government to counter the threat posed by the Communist Party of Malaya during the Malayan Emergency. Among the first who responded was Dr Paul Anspach (formerly of the Yu-e Synod of the LCC) of the United Lutheran Church in America and Dr Peng Fu (previous president of the LCC) who represented the Hong Kong Lutheran churches. The Lutheran Church in Malaysia was established in 1963. After the expulsion of Singapore from the Malaysian Federation in 1965, the name was changed to the Lutheran Church in Malaysia and Singapore (LCMS). In 1996, the Singapore District of the LCMS became an independent body known as the Lutheran Church in Singapore. In 2012, the name of the church body in Malaysia reverted to the Lutheran Church in Malaysia.
The Lutheran churches in Singapore are organised under one national body which originated as a mission by LCC-related missionaries and workers.
 Lutheran Church in Singapore ()
In 1960, the United Lutheran Church in America mission in Malaya extended its work to Singapore. The churches in Singapore formed the Singapore District of the LCMS until it became an independent national church in 1996 with the name the Lutheran Church in Singapore.

See also

 Protestantism in China
 Christianity in China
 19th-century Protestant missions in China
 Tao Fung Shan Christian Centre
 Lutheran Church in Malaysia and Singapore

References

External links

 Tsung Tsin Mission of Hong Kong
 Chinese Rhenish Church Hong Kong Synod
 Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hong Kong
 Hong Kong and Macau Lutheran Church
 South Guangdong Lutheran Church
 Christian Mission to Buddhists
 Taiwan Lutheran Church
 Lutheran Church in Malaysia
 Lutheran Church in Singapore

China
China
Former Christian denominations]
China
China
1920 establishments in China
1951 disestablishments in China

Lutheran Church of China


Laurens Ellis Johnson (born December 23, 1951) is a former American football coach. He served as head football coach at Gardner–Webb University in 1983, The Citadel from 2001 to 2003, and the University of Southern Mississippi in 2012.

Assistant coaching career
Johnson began his coaching career following his graduation from The Citadel in 1975, as the defensive ends coach at his alma mater under Bobby Ross in 1975. In 1976, Johnson accepted an assistant coaching position at Gaffney High School. He served as an assistant at Gaffney through the 1978 season before taking the defensive coordinator position at Spartanburg High School in 1979. After one season as defensive coordinator at Spartanburg, Johnson was promoted to head coach in 1980 and held the position through the 1981 season. As head coach he led the Vikings to a pair of playoff appearances and an overall record of 16 wins and eight losses (16–8). Johnson resigned his position to take the linebackers coach position at The Citadel.

After his one season at Gardner–Webb, Johnson served as an assistant at Appalachian State, East Carolina and Southern Miss before being hired at Alabama by Gene Stallings for the 1990 season. At Alabama, Johnson served as linebackers coach and was on the staff that won the 1992 national championship. He resigned from Alabama after the 1993 season to become the defensive coordinator at Clemson. After three years at Clemson, Johnson returned to Alabama in January 1997 to serve as defensive coordinator for head coach Mike DuBose. He served at Alabama through the 2000 season when he was hired as head coach at The Citadel.

After his three-year tenure with The Citadel, Johnson served as defensive coordinator at both Mississippi State (2004–2007) and South Carolina (2008–2011).
While serving at South Carolina the Gamecocks won the SEC East Division championship for the first time in school history in 2010, clinching the title with a convincing 36–14 victory over the Florida Gators. It was a season of firsts for South Carolina, including their first win at Florida, first win over a No. 1 ranked team (Alabama), and first time sweeping the November "Orange Crush" portion of their schedule with wins over Tennessee, Florida and Clemson. Following a 9–3 regular season and an appearance in the SEC championship game. The Gamecocks had another strong season in 2011, beating every opponent in the division.  With a 34-13 rout of Clemson, the Gamecocks won 10 games for only the second time in their 119-year football history.

During his stint at South Carolina he signed Jadeveon Clowney; not only a five-star recruit, but also the No. 1 overall prospect of the 2011 class, throughout his senior year. In a live broadcast on ESPN on his eighteenth birthday—February 14, 2011—Clowney announced his commitment to South Carolina, selecting the Gamecocks over Clemson, Alabama, Louisiana State, and Florida State.[17][18] He was the third-straight South Carolina "Mr. Football" to sign with the Gamecocks, following in the footsteps of his South Pointe teammate Gilmore, also recruited by Johnson.

He has coached in two national championship games, five SEC Championship games, has been part of one national title, three SEC Championships and has placed numerous players on NFL rosters.

While defensive coordinator at South Carolina, Johnson also served as linebackers coach. In his final season with the Gamecocks, his defense ranked third nationally, allowing just 268 yards per game. Under Johnson, South Carolina finished in the Top 15 nationally in total defense three times.

In December 2011, Johnson took the head coaching position at Southern Miss.  After one season, Johnson was fired from that position. After his dismissal from Southern Miss, on December 5, 2012, Johnson was hired as the defensive coordinator at Auburn.
Iron Bowl 2013. Johnson is credited for calling one of the most memorable plays in college football history. The Kick Six:  Auburn's defensive coordinator, Ellis Johnson, doubted Alabama would make the long kick and suggested that defensive back Ryan Smith stand in the end zone with the potential to return a missed field goal.[53] Just before the kick, Malzahn called a timeout to "ice the kicker." During the timeout, Malzahn agreed with Johnson's idea to attempt a return of any missed field goal. However, he suggested Auburn's speedy punt returner, senior Chris Davis, Jr., stand under the goalpost rather than Smith.With one second remaining in regulation, Alabama freshman Adam Griffith's 57-yard field goal attempt fell short. Auburn's Chris Davis was positioned at the back of the end zone and caught the errant kick, returning it 109 yards (100 yards under NCAA scoring rules) to the opposite end zone and giving Auburn the upset victory.

In late November 2014, reports began to surface on the internet claiming that Johnson's employment with Auburn University had been terminated.  Johnson's firing was made official later in the day.

Johnson returned to South Carolina in 2016, hired by head coach Will Muschamp to serve as an analyst until leaving that position in 2018.

Head coaching career

Gardner–Webb
After serving one season at The Citadel, on January 6, 1983, Johnson was named head coach at Gardner–Webb University. During his only season at Gardner–Webb in 1983, he led the Runnin' Bulldogs squad to a five wins and six losses (5–6). He resigned his position on January 10, 1984, to become the defensive coordinator for Mack Brown at Appalachian State.

The Citadel
After serving three seasons as defensive coordinator at Alabama, on December 21, 2000, Johnson was named head coach at The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina. During his three seasons at The Citadel from 2001 to 2003, he led the Bulldogs to 12 wins and 22 losses (12–22). He resigned his position on December 15, 2003, to become the defensive coordinator for Sylvester Croom at Mississippi State.

Southern Miss
Johnson was hired on December 20, 2011, as the Golden Eagles head coach. At his introductory news conference he noted USM's 18 straight winning seasons and said: "I am convinced you can always be successful." He signed a four-year contract on August 20, 2012 (twelve days before the start of the 2012 season) that paid him a minimum of $740,000 annually, and was to run through December 23, 2015. In the event that Southern Miss decided to terminate the contract, Johnson would be paid $700,000 for each year left on his contract.

Prior to Johnson's tenure, the Southern Miss football team had recorded eighteen straight winning seasons and been to ten consecutive postseason bowl appearances. In 2011, under Coach Larry Fedora, the Golden Eagles won a school record 12 games and finished in the Top 20 of both major polls after a victory in the 2011 Hawaii Bowl.  Fedora departed for North Carolina after the 2011 season, yet the Golden Eagles were expected to experience continued success due to the fact that they would return 13 starters from the previous season. But the 2012 season quickly unraveled and ended with an 0–12 record.  As a result, Johnson found himself dealing with an increasingly angry Golden Eagle fan base.

Personal life
Johnson has two sons, Eli and Charlie, and a daughter, Sandra Elliott.

Head coaching record

College

References

External links
 Mississippi State profile

1951 births
Living people
American football defensive ends
Alabama Crimson Tide football coaches
Appalachian State Mountaineers football coaches
Auburn Tigers football coaches
The Citadel Bulldogs football coaches
The Citadel Bulldogs football players
Clemson Tigers football coaches
East Carolina Pirates football coaches
Gardner–Webb Runnin' Bulldogs football coaches
Mississippi State Bulldogs football coaches
Southern Miss Golden Eagles football coaches
South Carolina Gamecocks football coaches
High school football coaches in South Carolina
People from Winnsboro, South Carolina

Ellis Johnson (American football coach)


Caradog ap Gruffydd (died 1081) was a Prince of Gwent in south-east Wales in the time of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn and the Norman conquest, who reunified his family's inheritance of Morgannwg and made repeated attempts to reunite southern Wales by claiming the inheritance of the Kingdom of Deheubarth.

Background & Lineage

The family's stronghold was the Kingdom of Glywysing and the Kingdom of Gwent, and Caradog was the grandson of the King of Glywysing, Rhydderch ab Iestyn who had been able to take over the throne of Deheubarth from 1023 until his death in 1033. Caradog's father Gruffydd ap Rhydderch, after receiving the Lordshop of Caerleon in 1031, also inherited Glywysing, and became King of Deheubarth in 1045, in the same year as Gruffydd's second cousin, Cadwgan ap Meurig, inherited the Kingdom of Gwent from his father Meurig ap Hywel. Both of them were co-descendants of Owain, son of Morgan Hen "the Old", the last ruler of a unified Kingdom of Morgannwg.

Gruffydd ap Rhydderch was said to be a powerful king who stoutly resisted raids by the Danes and attacks by Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. However in 1055 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn killed him in battle and took Deheubarth, campaigning through upper Gwent with an army of Welsh, Saxons and Danes to defeat Ralph, Earl of Hereford.

Early career

After Gruffydd ap Llywelyn's victory in battle near Glasbury in 1056, by 1057 Gruffydd was recognized as King of Wales and Caradog received Caerleon. From the family's stronghold in Gwent, Caradog appears to have been able to add his Morgannwg inheritance during his early career. After the defeat of Gruffyd ap Llylewyn by Harold Godwinson in 1063, old lineages in the south were restored, with Caradog becoming ruler of Glywysing at about the same time as Maredudd ab Owain ab Edwin, the male-line heir of Hywel Dda, became ruler of Deheubarth.

Contest over Gwent

Harold Godwinson subsequently began to build a hunting lodge in Portskewet. In 1065 Caradog attacked and destroyed Harold's hunting lodge, going on to ravage the district with his forces. Then, after Harold's defeat at the Battle of Hastings, the Normans sacked south-east Wales and parts of Gwent in response to Eadric's Herefordshire rebellion in alliance with the Welsh prince of Gwynedd (and Powys), Bleddyn ap Cynfyn. King Maredudd of Deheubarth decided not to resist the Norman encroachment on Gwent and was rewarded with lands in England in 1070, at the same time as the chronicler Orderic Vitalis noted in his Historia Ecclesiastica that a Welsh king named "Caducan" (Cadwgan ap Meurig) suffered defeat in battle at the hands of William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford.

Contest for Deheubarth

Caradog thereafter set out to emulate his father and grandfather by adding Deheubarth to his realm. In 1072 he defeated and killed King Maredudd of Deheubarth in a battle by the Rhymney River. In 1074 Caradog took over control over what was left of the war-ravaged Kingdom of Gwent from Cadwgan ap Meurig.

In 1078 Caradog won another victory over Rhys ab Owain, who had succeeded Maredudd as prince of Deheubarth, killing him too. By 1081 he had forced the new prince of Deheubarth, Rhys ap Tewdwr to flee to St David's Cathedral.

However the situation was changed by the arrival from Ireland of Gruffudd ap Cynan, who was aiming to seize the throne of Gwynedd from Trahaearn ap Caradog. Rhys ap Tewdwr and Gruffudd ap Cynan met at St David's Cathedral and made an alliance with the blessing of the Bishop of St Davids.

Killed at the Battle of Mynydd Carn

Caradog countered this by himself making an alliance with the King of Gwynedd, Trahaearn ap Caradog. The two factions met in battle at Mynydd Carn, about a day's march north of St David's. Caradog and his ally Trahaearn were both killed.

Succession

Caradog left a son, Owain ap Caradog, who contented himself with the rule of Gwynllwg and was the founder of the line of the Lords of Caerleon, while Iestyn ap Gwrgant became King of Morgannwg.

References

John Edward Lloyd (1911) A history of Wales from the earliest times to the Edwardian conquest (Longmans, Green & Co.)

People from Caerleon
1081 deaths
Monarchs of Deheubarth
Monarchs of Gwent
Monarchs of Morgannwg
Medieval Welsh killed in battle
11th-century Welsh monarchs
Year of birth unknown
Welsh princes
Monarchs killed in action
Monarchs of Glywysing

Caradog ap Gruffydd


Claude Harriott (born April 8, 1981) is a former American football defensive end.

Early years
Harriott played high school football at Glades Central Community High School in Belle Glade, Florida. He played college football at Pittsburgh.

Professional career
Harriott began his professional career in the National Football League by being drafted by the Chicago Bears in the fifth round of the 2004 NFL Draft. He did not make the roster, being released in the final cut.

In January 2005, he signed with the New York Giants but was released that April.

Claude was drafted in the first round to the Amsterdam Admirals of NFL Europa in January 2006 NFL Europe Draft. He appeared in World Bowl XIV.In June of 2006, Harriott signed with the Detroit Lions. He arrived in Detroit, he attended training camp but again was released in the final cut. He was signed to the [(practice squad)] and to the active roster in December but did not play.

Being released by the Lions in September 2007, he signed to the practice squad of the Kansas City Chiefs where he remained until December. He then re-signed with Detroit.

In 2008, he attended training camp with the Lions but was again released in the final cut.

On September 15, 2008, Harriott signed a practice roster agreement with the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League and joined the active roster on September 20. His performance in the seven final games of the season with 20 defensive tackles, 2 sacks, 1 forced fumble, 3 tackles for a loss, and 1 pass knockdown impressed the Argos enough to extend his contract through the 2010 CFL season.  On May 27, 2010, the Argonauts released him, stating his knee injury as the primary reason.

Omaha Nighthawks
Harriott was signed by the Omaha Nighthawks on June 10, 2011. He played with them until the United Football League folded in the middle  of the 2012 season.

References

External links
Just Sports Stats

1981 births
Living people
American football defensive ends
Pittsburgh Panthers football players
Chicago Bears players
New York Giants players
Detroit Lions players
Amsterdam Admirals players
Kansas City Chiefs players
Canadian football defensive linemen
Toronto Argonauts players
Sportspeople from Westmoreland Parish
Jamaican players of American football
Omaha Nighthawks players

Claude Harriott


Organizational network analysis (ONA) is a method for studying communication and socio-technical networks within a formal organization. This technique creates statistical and graphical models of the people, tasks, groups, knowledge and resources of organizational systems. It is based on social network theory and more specifically, dynamic network analysis.

Applications
ONA can be used in a variety of ways by managers, consultants, and executives.

Network visualizations
There are several tools that allow managers to visually depict their employee networks. Most of the tools are built specifically for researchers and academics who study Network theory, but are relatively inexpensive to use, as long as the leaders are well-versed on how to capture the information, feed it into the tool in the correct formats, and understand how to "read" and translate the network graphs into business decisions.

Innovation gauge
Several recent studies and research has highlighted that 'Psychological Safety' is the marker for an innovative team. This has been studied and published first by Google, in their Project Aristotle work as well as highlighted in New York Times and other research publications. Amy Edmondson is the preeminent scholar and researcher in this field who has worked across various industries to identify the benefits and even the characteristics of 'Psychological Safety' in teams.

ONA is now increasingly being used in this context to analyze the relationships developed within a given team, and for understanding how that team works as a unit to create this psychological safety for its members. This technique is more thorough than the traditional surveys.

Employee engagement
Engagement surveys and other such culture surveys have become a mainstay of the workplace. However, one of the largest complaints from such surveys are that once managers see the results, often the aggregated sentiments of their employees, they are unsure of next steps and actions. Organizational Network Analysis, when combined with such engagement surveys, however change the way that leaders use and leverage these results. Because ONA allows managers to see the context behind the sentiments, they can actually understand how to correct or sustain these results. For example, if a company's engagement survey said 30% of the employees felt they are inadequately trained for their jobs, a manager would be perhaps inclined to either do nothing, or invest more in comprehensive training programs.  However, doing an ONA alongside this might reveal to managers that employees are unhappy with training because they have limited access to institutional knowledge at the company. Then, instead of a training program, managers might simply work on ensuring their top knowledge hubs share their knowledge broadly, and have a longer, more sustainable improvement to the team's level of information and training.

References

Social networks
Systems theory
Workplace

Organizational network analysis


Paul H. Rabinowitz (born 1939) is the Edward Burr Van Vleck Professor of Mathematics and a Vilas Research Professor at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. He received a Ph.D. from New York University in 1966 under the direction of Jürgen Moser. From 1966 to 1969 he held a position as assistant professor at Stanford University. He has visited many mathematical institutions all over the world (among them universities at Aarhus, Pisa, Paris and ETH in Zurich). In 1978 Paul Rabinowitz became a fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.

He works in the fields of partial differential equations and nonlinear analysis. He is best known for his global bifurcation theorem and the mountain pass theorem, the latter done jointly with Antonio Ambrosetti. However also the linking and saddle point theorems, results concerning the existence of periodic solutions to hamiltonian systems, variational methods in the theory of critical points of strongly indefinite functional under the absence of compactness conditions of the Palais–Smale type and other achievements of Paul Rabinowitz have found their place in the history of mathematics.

He is the recipient of numerous honors and awards, including the George David Birkhoff Prize in 1998. He was elected as a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1998. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. In 2014 Paul Rabinowitz was awarded with the Juliusz Schauder Medal, the prize established by the Juliusz Schauder Center for Nonlinear Studies at the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland, in recognition of his important contribution in the field of topological methods in nonlinear analysis.

References and notes

External links
Paul Rabinowitz at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Announcement of Election to National Academy
Juliusz P. Schauder Center for Nonlinear Studies

20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty
1939 births
Living people
Fellows of the American Mathematical Society
Fellows of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Paul Rabinowitz


In geometry, the center of curvature of a curve is found at a point that is at a distance from the curve equal to the radius of curvature lying on the normal vector.  It is the point at infinity if the curvature is zero.  The osculating circle to the curve is centered at the centre of curvature.  Cauchy defined the center of curvature C as the intersection point of two infinitely close normal lines to the curve. The locus of centers of curvature for each point on the curve comprise the evolute of the curve. This term is generally used in physics regarding the study of lenses and mirrors (see radius of curvature (optics)).

It can also be defined as the spherical distance between the point at which all the rays falling on a lens or mirror either seems to converge to (in the case of convex lenses and concave mirrors) or diverge from (in the case of concave lenses or convex mirrors) and the lens/mirror itself.

See also
Curvature
Differential geometry of curves

References

Bibliography

Curves
Differential geometry
Curvature
Concepts in physics

Center of curvature


Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording.

Acoustic analog recording is achieved by a microphone diaphragm that senses changes in atmospheric pressure caused by acoustic sound waves and records them as a mechanical representation of the sound waves on a medium such as a phonograph record (in which a stylus cuts grooves on a record). In magnetic tape recording, the sound waves vibrate the microphone diaphragm and are converted into a varying electric current, which is then converted to a varying magnetic field by an electromagnet, which makes a representation of the sound as magnetized areas on a plastic tape with a magnetic coating on it. Analog sound reproduction is the reverse process, with a larger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to form acoustic sound waves.

Digital recording and reproduction converts the analog sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by the process of sampling. This lets the audio data be stored and transmitted by a wider variety of media. Digital recording stores audio as a series of binary numbers (zeros and ones) representing samples of the amplitude of the audio signal at equal time intervals, at a sample rate high enough to convey all sounds capable of being heard. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is amplified and connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound.

Early history

Long before sound was first recorded, music was recorded—first by written music notation, then also by mechanical devices (e.g., wind-up music boxes, in which a mechanism turns a spindle, which plucks metal tines, thus reproducing a melody). Automatic music reproduction traces back as far as the 9th century, when the Banū Mūsā brothers invented the earliest known mechanical musical instrument, in this case, a hydropowered (water-powered) organ that played interchangeable cylinders. According to Charles B. Fowler, this "... cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century." The Banū Mūsā brothers also invented an automatic flute player, which appears to have been the first programmable machine.

Carvings in the Rosslyn Chapel from the 1560s may represent an early attempt to record the Chladni patterns produced by sound in stone representations, although this theory has not been conclusively proved.

In the 14th century, a mechanical bell-ringer controlled by a rotating cylinder was introduced in Flanders. Similar designs appeared in barrel organs (15th century), musical clocks (1598), barrel pianos (1805), and music boxes (). A music box is an automatic musical instrument that produces sounds by the use of a set of pins placed on a revolving cylinder or disc so as to pluck the tuned teeth (or lamellae) of a steel comb.

The fairground organ, developed in 1892, used a system of accordion-folded punched cardboard books. The player piano, first demonstrated in 1876, used a punched paper scroll that could store a long piece of music. The most sophisticated of the piano rolls were "hand-played," meaning that they were duplicates from a master roll which had been created on a special piano, which punched holes in the master as a live performer played the song. Thus, the roll represented a recording of the actual performance of an individual, not just the more common method of punching the master roll through transcription of the sheet music. This technology to record a live performance onto a piano roll was not developed until 1904. Piano rolls were in continuous mass production from 1896 to 2008. A 1908 U.S. Supreme Court copyright case noted that, in 1902 alone, there were between 70,000 and 75,000 player pianos manufactured, and between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 piano rolls produced.

Phonautograph

The first device that could record actual sounds as they passed through the air (but could not play them back—the purpose was only visual study) was the phonautograph, patented in 1857 by Parisian inventor Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville. The earliest known recordings of the human voice are phonautograph recordings, called phonautograms, made in 1857. They consist of sheets of paper with sound-wave-modulated white lines created by a vibrating stylus that cut through a coating of soot as the paper was passed under it. An 1860 phonautogram of Au Clair de la Lune, a French folk song, was played back as sound for the first time in 2008 by scanning it and using software to convert the undulating line, which graphically encoded the sound, into a corresponding digital audio file.

Phonograph
Thomas Edison's work on two other innovations, the telegraph and the telephone, led to the development of the phonograph. Edison was working on a machine in 1877 that would transcribe telegraphic signals onto paper tape, which could then be transferred over the telegraph again and again. The phonograph was both in a cylinder and a disc form.

Cylinder

On April 30, 1877, French poet, humorous writer and inventor Charles Cros submitted a sealed envelope containing a letter to the Academy of Sciences in Paris fully explaining his proposed method, called the paleophone. Though no trace of a working paleophone was ever found, Cros is remembered by some historians as an early inventor of a sound recording and reproduction machine.

The first practical sound recording and reproduction device was the mechanical phonograph cylinder, invented by Thomas Edison in 1877 and patented in 1878. The invention soon spread across the globe and over the next two decades the commercial recording, distribution, and sale of sound recordings became a growing new international industry, with the most popular titles selling millions of units by the early 1900s. A process for mass-producing duplicate wax cylinders by molding instead of engraving them was put into effect in 1901. The development of mass-production techniques enabled cylinder recordings to become a major new consumer item in industrial countries and the cylinder was the main consumer format from the late 1880s until around 1910.

Disc

The next major technical development was the invention of the gramophone record, generally credited to Emile Berliner and patented in 1887, though others had demonstrated similar disk apparatus earlier, most notably Alexander Graham Bell in 1881. Discs were easier to manufacture, transport and store, and they had the additional benefit of being marginally louder than cylinders. Sales of the gramophone record overtook the cylinder ca. 1910, and by the end of World War I the disc had become the dominant commercial recording format. Edison, who was the main producer of cylinders, created the Edison Disc Record in an attempt to regain his market. The double-sided (nominally 78 rpm) shellac disc was the standard consumer music format from the early 1910s to the late 1950s. In various permutations, the audio disc format became the primary medium for consumer sound recordings until the end of the 20th century.

Although there was no universally accepted speed, and various companies offered discs that played at several different speeds, the major recording companies eventually settled on a de facto industry standard of nominally 78 revolutions per minute. The specified speed was 78.26 rpm in America and 77.92 rpm throughout the rest of the world. The difference in speeds was due to the difference in the cycle frequencies of the AC electricity that powered the stroboscopes used to calibrate recording lathes and turntables. The nominal speed of the disc format gave rise to its common nickname, the "seventy-eight" (though not until other speeds had become available). Discs were made of shellac or similar brittle plastic-like materials, played with needles made from a variety of materials including mild steel, thorn, and even sapphire. Discs had a distinctly limited playing life that varied depending on how they were manufactured.

Earlier, purely acoustic methods of recording had limited sensitivity and frequency range. Mid-frequency range notes could be recorded, but very low and very high frequencies could not. Instruments such as the violin were difficult to transfer to disc. One technique to deal with this involved using a Stroh violin which uses a conical horn connected to a diaphragm that in turn is connected to the violin bridge. The horn was no longer needed once electrical recording was developed.

The long-playing 33 rpm microgroove LP record, was developed at Columbia Records and introduced in 1948. The short-playing but convenient  45 rpm microgroove vinyl single was introduced by RCA Victor in 1949. In the US and most developed countries, the two new vinyl formats completely replaced 78 rpm shellac discs by the end of the 1950s, but in some corners of the world, the 78 lingered on far into the 1960s. Vinyl was much more expensive than shellac, one of the several factors that made its use for 78 rpm records very unusual, but with a long-playing disc the added cost was acceptable. The compact 45 format required very little material. Vinyl offered improved performance, both in stamping and in playback. Vinyl records were, over-optimistically, advertised as "unbreakable". They were not, but they were much less fragile than shellac, which had itself once been touted as "unbreakable" compared to wax cylinders.

Electrical

Sound recording began as a purely mechanical process. Except for a few crude telephone-based recording devices with no means of amplification, such as the telegraphone, it remained so until the 1920s. Between the invention of the phonograph in 1877 and the first commercial digital recordings in the early 1970s, arguably the most important milestone in the history of sound recording was the introduction of what was then called electrical recording, in which a microphone was used to convert the sound into an electrical signal that was amplified and used to actuate the recording stylus. This innovation eliminated the "horn sound" resonances characteristic of the acoustical process, produced clearer and more full-bodied recordings by greatly extending the useful range of audio frequencies, and allowed previously unrecordable distant and feeble sounds to be captured. During this time, several radio-related developments in electronics converged to revolutionize the recording process. These included improved microphones and auxiliary devices such as electronic filters, all dependent on electronic amplification to be of practical use in recording.

In 1906, Lee De Forest invented the Audion triode vacuum tube, an electronic valve that could amplify weak electrical signals. By 1915, it was in use in long-distance telephone circuits that made conversations between New York and San Francisco practical. Refined versions of this tube were the basis of all electronic sound systems until the commercial introduction of the first transistor-based audio devices in the mid-1950s.

During World War I, engineers in the United States and Great Britain worked on ways to record and reproduce, among other things, the sound of a German U-boat for training purposes. Acoustical recording methods of the time could not reproduce the sounds accurately. The earliest results were not promising.

The first electrical recording issued to the public, with little fanfare, was of November 11, 1920, funeral service for The Unknown Warrior in Westminster Abbey, London. The recording engineers used microphones of the type used in contemporary telephones. Four were discreetly set up in the abbey and wired to recording equipment in a vehicle outside. Although electronic amplification was used, the audio was weak and unclear, as only possible in those circumstances. For several years, this little-noted disc remained the only issued electrical recording.

Several record companies and independent inventors, notably Orlando Marsh, experimented with equipment and techniques for electrical recording in the early 1920s. Marsh's electrically recorded Autograph Records were already being sold to the public in 1924, a year before the first such offerings from the major record companies, but their overall sound quality was too low to demonstrate any obvious advantage over traditional acoustical methods. Marsh's microphone technique was idiosyncratic and his work had little if any impact on the systems being developed by others.

Telephone industry giant Western Electric had research laboratories with material and human resources that no record company or independent inventor could match. They had the best microphone, a condenser type developed there in 1916 and greatly improved in 1922, and the best amplifiers and test equipment. They had already patented an electromechanical recorder in 1918, and in the early 1920s, they decided to intensively apply their hardware and expertise to developing two state-of-the-art systems for electronically recording and reproducing sound: one that employed conventional discs and another that recorded optically on motion picture film. Their engineers pioneered the use of mechanical analogs of electrical circuits and developed a superior "rubber line" recorder for cutting the groove into the wax master in the disc recording system.

By 1924, such dramatic progress had been made that Western Electric arranged a demonstration for the two leading record companies, the Victor Talking Machine Company and the Columbia Phonograph Company. Both soon licensed the system and both made their earliest published electrical recordings in February 1925, but neither actually released them until several months later. To avoid making their existing catalogs instantly obsolete, the two long-time archrivals agreed privately not to publicize the new process until November 1925, by which time enough electrically recorded repertory would be available to meet the anticipated demand. During the next few years, the lesser record companies licensed or developed other electrical recording systems. By 1929 only the budget label Harmony was still issuing new recordings made by the old acoustical process.

Comparison of some surviving Western Electric test recordings with early commercial releases indicates that the record companies artificially reduced the frequency range of recordings so they would not overwhelm non-electronic playback equipment, which reproduced very low frequencies as an unpleasant rattle and rapidly wore out discs with strongly recorded high frequencies.

Optical and magnetic

In the 1920s, Phonofilm and other early motion picture sound systems employed optical recording technology, in which the audio signal was graphically recorded on photographic film. The amplitude variations comprising the signal were used to modulate a light source which was imaged onto the moving film through a narrow slit, allowing the signal to be photographed as variations in the density or width of a sound track. The projector used a steady light and a photodetector to convert these variations back into an electrical signal, which was amplified and sent to loudspeakers behind the screen. Optical sound became the standard motion picture audio system throughout the world and remains so for theatrical release prints despite attempts in the 1950s to substitute magnetic soundtracks. Currently, all release prints on 35 mm movie film include an analog optical soundtrack, usually stereo with Dolby SR noise reduction. In addition, an optically recorded digital soundtrack in Dolby Digital and/or Sony SDDS form is likely to be present. An optically recorded timecode is also commonly included to synchronize CDROMs that contain a DTS soundtrack.

This period also saw several other historic developments including the introduction of the first practical magnetic sound recording system, the magnetic wire recorder, which was based on the work of Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen. Magnetic wire recorders were effective, but the sound quality was poor, so between the wars, they were primarily used for voice recording and marketed as business dictating machines. In 1924, a German engineer, Kurt Stille, improved the Telegraphone with an electronic amplifier. The following year, Ludwig Blattner began work that eventually produced the Blattnerphone, which used steel tape instead of wire. The BBC started using Blattnerphones in 1930 to record radio programs. In 1933, radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi's company purchased the rights to the Blattnerphone, and newly developed Marconi-Stille recorders were installed in the BBC's Maida Vale Studios in March 1935. The tape used in Blattnerphones and Marconi-Stille recorders was the same material used to make razor blades, and not surprisingly the fearsome Marconi-Stille recorders were considered so dangerous that technicians had to operate them from another room for safety. Because of the high recording speeds required, they used enormous reels about one meter in diameter, and the thin tape frequently broke, sending jagged lengths of razor steel flying around the studio.

Tape

Magnetic tape recording uses an amplified electrical audio signal to generate analogous variations of the magnetic field produced by a tape head, which impresses corresponding variations of magnetization on the moving tape. In playback mode, the signal path is reversed, the tape head acting as a miniature electric generator as the varyingly magnetized tape passes over it. The original solid steel ribbon was replaced by a much more practical coated paper tape, but acetate soon replaced paper as the standard tape base. Acetate has fairly low tensile strength and if very thin it will snap easily, so it was in turn eventually superseded by polyester. This technology, the basis for almost all commercial recording from the 1950s to the 1980s, was developed in the 1930s by German audio engineers who also rediscovered the principle of AC biasing (first used in the 1920s for wire recorders), which dramatically improved the frequency response of tape recordings. The K1 Magnetophon was the first practical tape recorder, developed by AEG in Germany in 1935. The technology was further improved just after World War II by American audio engineer John T. Mullin with backing from Bing Crosby Enterprises. Mullin's pioneering recorders were modifications of captured German recorders. In the late 1940s, the Ampex company produced the first tape recorders commercially available in the US.

Magnetic tape brought about sweeping changes in both radio and the recording industry. Sound could be recorded, erased and re-recorded on the same tape many times, sounds could be duplicated from tape to tape with only minor loss of quality, and recordings could now be very precisely edited by physically cutting the tape and rejoining it.

Within a few years of the introduction of the first commercial tape recorder—the Ampex 200 model, launched in 1948—American musician-inventor Les Paul had invented the first multitrack tape recorder, ushering in another technical revolution in the recording industry. Tape made possible the first sound recordings totally created by electronic means, opening the way for the bold sonic experiments of the Musique Concrète school and avant-garde composers like Karlheinz Stockhausen, which in turn led to the innovative pop music recordings of artists such as The Beatles and The Beach Boys.

The ease and accuracy of tape editing, as compared to the cumbersome disc-to-disc editing procedures previously in some limited use, together with tape's consistently high audio quality finally convinced radio networks to routinely prerecord their entertainment programming, most of which had formerly been broadcast live. Also, for the first time, broadcasters, regulators and other interested parties were able to undertake comprehensive audio logging of each day's radio broadcasts. Innovations like multitracking and tape echo allowed radio programs and advertisements to be produced to a high level of complexity and sophistication. The combined impact with innovations such as the endless loop broadcast cartridge led to significant changes in the pacing and production style of radio program content and advertising.

Stereo and hi-fi

In 1881, it was noted during experiments in transmitting sound from the Paris Opera that it was possible to follow the movement of singers on the stage if earpieces connected to different microphones were held to the two ears. This discovery was commercialized in 1890 with the Théâtrophone system, which operated for over forty years until 1932. In 1931, Alan Blumlein, a British electronics engineer working for EMI, designed a way to make the sound of an actor in a film follow his movement across the screen. In December 1931, he submitted a patent application including the idea, and in 1933 this became UK patent number 394,325. Over the next two years, Blumlein developed stereo microphones and a stereo disc-cutting head, and recorded a number of short films with stereo soundtracks.

In the 1930s, experiments with magnetic tape enabled the development of the first practical commercial sound systems that could record and reproduce high-fidelity stereophonic sound. The experiments with stereo during the 1930s and 1940s were hampered by problems with synchronization. A major breakthrough in practical stereo sound was made by Bell Laboratories, who in 1937 demonstrated a practical system of two-channel stereo, using dual optical sound tracks on film. Major movie studios quickly developed three-track and four-track sound systems, and the first stereo sound recording for a commercial film was made by Judy Garland for the MGM movie Listen, Darling in 1938. The first commercially released movie with a stereo soundtrack was Walt Disney's Fantasia, released in 1940.  The 1941 release of Fantasia used the Fantasound sound system. This system used a separate film for the sound, synchronized with the film carrying the picture. The sound film had four double-width optical soundtracks, three for left, center, and right audio—and a fourth as a "control" track with three recorded tones that controlled the playback volume of the three audio channels. Because of the complex equipment this system required, Disney exhibited the movie as a roadshow, and only in the United States.  Regular releases of the movie used standard mono optical 35 mm stock until 1956, when Disney released the film with a stereo soundtrack that used the Cinemascope four-track magnetic sound system.

German audio engineers working on magnetic tape developed stereo recording by 1941. Of 250 stereophonic recordings made during WW2, only three survive: Beethoven's 5th Piano Concerto with Walter Gieseking and Arthur Rother, a Brahms Serenade, and the last movement of Bruckner's 8th Symphony with Von Karajan. Other early German stereophonic tapes are believed to have been destroyed in bombings. Not until Ampex introduced the first commercial two-track tape recorders in the late 1940s did stereo tape recording become commercially feasible. Despite the availability of multitrack tape, stereo did not become the standard system for commercial music recording for some years, and remained a specialist market during the 1950s. EMI (UK) was the first company to release commercial stereophonic tapes. They issued their first Stereosonic tape in 1954. Others quickly followed, under the His Master's Voice (HMV) and Columbia labels. 161 Stereosonic tapes were released, mostly classical music or lyric recordings. RCA imported these tapes into the USA. Although some HMV tapes released in the USA cost up to $15, two-track stereophonic tapes were more successful in America during the second half of the 1950s.

The history of stereo recording changed after the late 1957 introduction of the Westrex stereo phonograph disc, which used the groove format developed earlier by Blumlein. Decca Records in England came out with FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording) in the 1940s, which became internationally accepted as a worldwide standard for higher-quality recording on vinyl records. The Ernest Ansermet recording of Igor Stravinsky's Petrushka was key in the development of full frequency range records and alerting the listening public to high fidelity in 1946.

Until the mid-1960s, record companies mixed and released most popular music in monophonic sound. From mid-1960s until the early 1970s, major recordings were commonly released in both mono and stereo. Recordings originally released only in mono have been rerendered and released in stereo using a variety of techniques from remixing to pseudostereo.

Audio components

The replacement of the relatively fragile vacuum tube by the smaller, rugged and efficient transistor also accelerated the sale of consumer high-fidelity sound systems from the 1960s onward. In the 1950s, most record players were monophonic and had relatively low sound quality. Few consumers could afford high-quality stereophonic sound systems. In the 1960s, American manufacturers introduced a new generation of modular hi-fi components — separate turntables, pre-amplifiers, amplifiers, both combined as integrated amplifiers, tape recorders, and other ancillary equipment like the graphic equalizer, which could be connected together to create a complete home sound system. These developments were rapidly taken up by major Japanese electronics companies, which soon flooded the world market with relatively affordable, high-quality transistorized audio components. By the 1980s, corporations like Sony had become world leaders in the music recording and playback industry.

Digital

The advent of digital sound recording and later the compact disc (CD) in 1982 brought significant improvements in the quality and durability of recordings. The CD initiated another massive wave of change in the consumer music industry, with vinyl records effectively relegated to a small niche market by the mid-1990s. The record industry fiercely resisted the introduction of digital systems, fearing wholesale piracy on a medium able to produce perfect copies of original released recordings.

The most recent and revolutionary developments have been in digital recording, with the development of various uncompressed and compressed digital audio file formats, processors capable and fast enough to convert the digital data to sound in real time, and inexpensive mass storage.
This generated new types of portable digital audio players. The minidisc player, using ATRAC compression on small, re-writeable discs was introduced in the 1990s, but became obsolescent as solid-state non-volatile flash memory dropped in price. As technologies that increase the amount of data that can be stored on a single medium, such as Super Audio CD, DVD-A, Blu-ray Disc, and HD DVD became available, longer programs of higher quality fit onto a single disc. Sound files are readily downloaded from the Internet and other sources, and copied onto computers and digital audio players. Digital audio technology is now used in all areas of audio, from casual use of music files of moderate quality to the most demanding professional applications. New applications such as internet radio and podcasting have appeared.

Technological developments in recording, editing, and consuming have transformed the record, movie and television industries in recent decades. Audio editing became practicable with the invention of magnetic tape recording, but technologies like MIDI, sound synthesis and digital audio workstations allow greater control and efficiency for composers and artists. Digital audio techniques and mass storage have reduced recording costs such that high-quality recordings can be produced in small studios.

Today, the process of making a recording is separated into tracking, mixing and mastering. Multitrack recording makes it possible to capture signals from several microphones, or from different takes to tape, disc or mass storage allowing previously unavailable flexibility in the mixing and mastering stages.

Software
There are many different digital audio recording and processing programs running under several computer operating systems for all purposes, ranging from casual users and serious amateurs working on small projects to professional sound engineers who are recording albums, film scores and doing sound design for video games.

Digital dictation software for recording and transcribing speech has different requirements; intelligibility and flexible playback facilities are priorities, while a wide frequency range and high audio quality are not.

Legal status
In copyright law, a phonogram or sound recording is a work that results from the fixation of sounds in a medium. The notice of copyright in a phonogram uses the sound recording copyright symbol, which the Geneva Phonograms Convention defines as ℗ (the letter P in a full circle). This usually accompanies the copyright notice for the underlying musical composition, which uses the ordinary © symbol.

The recording is separate from the song, so copyright for a recording usually belongs to the record company. It is less common for an artist or producer to hold these rights. Copyright for recordings has existed since 1972, while copyright for musical composition, or songs, has existed since 1831. Disputes over sampling and beats are ongoing.

United States
United States copyright law defines "sound recordings" as "works that result from the fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other sounds" other than an audiovisual work's soundtrack. Prior to the Sound Recording Amendment (SRA), which took effect in 1972, copyright in sound recordings was handled at the state level. Federal copyright law preempts most state copyright laws but allows state copyright in sound recordings to continue for one full copyright term after the SRA's effective date, which means 2067.

United Kingdom
Since 1934, copyright law in Great Britain has treated sound recordings (or phonograms) differently from musical works. The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 defines a sound recording as (a) a recording of sounds, from which the sounds may be reproduced, or (b) a recording of the whole or any part of a literary, dramatic or musical work, from which sounds reproducing the work or part may be produced, regardless of the medium on which the recording is made or the method by which the sounds are reproduced or produced. It thus covers vinyl records, tapes, compact discs, digital audiotapes, and MP3s that embody recordings.

See also

International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives

Notes

References

Further reading

 Barlow, Sanna Morrison. Mountain Singing: the Story of Gospel Recordings in the Philippines. Hong Kong: Alliance Press, 1952. 352 p.
 Coleman, Mark, Playback: from the Victrola to MP3, 100 years of music, machines, and money, Da Capo Press, 2003.

 Gronow, Pekka, "The Record Industry: The Growth of a Mass Medium", Popular Music, Vol. 3, Producers and Markets (1983), pp. 53–75, Cambridge University Press.
 Gronow, Pekka, and Saunio, Ilpo, "An International History of the Recording Industry", [translated from the Finnish by Christopher Moseley], London; New York : Cassell, 1998.
 Lipman, Samuel,"The House of Music: Art in an Era of Institutions", 1984. See the chapter on "Getting on Record", pp. 62–75, about the early record industry and Fred Gaisberg and Walter Legge and FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording).
 Millard, Andre J., "America on record : a history of recorded sound", Cambridge; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1995.
 Millard, Andre J., " From Edison to the iPod", UAB Reporter, 2005, University of Alabama at Birmingham.
 Milner, Greg, "Perfecting Sound Forever: An Aural History of Recorded Music", Faber & Faber; 1 edition (June 9, 2009) . Cf. p. 14 on H. Stith Bennett and "recording consciousness".
 Read, Oliver, and Walter L. Welch, From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph, Second ed., Indianapolis, Ind.: H.W. Same & Co., 1976. N.B.: This is an historical account of the development of sound recording technology.  pbk.
 Read, Oliver, The Recording and Reproduction of Sound, Indianapolis, Ind.: H.W. Sams & Co., 1952. N.B.: This is a pioneering engineering account of sound recording technology.
 , San Diego University
 St-Laurent, Gilles, "Notes on the Degradation of Sound Recordings", National Library [of Canada] News, vol. 13, no. 1 (Jan. 1991), p. 1, 3–4.
 McWilliams, Jerry. The Preservation and Restoration of Sound Recordings. Nashville, Tenn.: American Association for State and Local History, 1979.
 Weir, Bob, et al. Century of Sound: 100 Years of Recorded Sound, 1877-1977. Executive writer, Bob Weir; project staff writers, Brian Gorman, Jim Simons, Marty Melhuish. [Toronto?]: Produced by Studio 123, cop. 1977. N.B.: Published on the occasion of an exhibition commemorating the centennial of recorded sound, held at the fairground of the annual Canadian National Exhibition, Toronto, Ont., as one of the C.N.E.'s 1977 events. Without ISBN

External links

 Oral history of recorded sound Interviews with practitioners in all areas of the recording industry. British Library
 Archival Sound Recordings – tens of thousands of recordings showcasing audio history from 19th century wax cylinders to the present day. British Library
 History of Recorded Sound. New York Public Library
 Noise in the Groove – A podcast about the history of the phonograph, gramophone, and sound recording/reproduction.
 Audio Engineering online course under Creative Commons Licence
 Recorded Music at A History of Central Florida Podcast
 Millard, Andre, "Edison's Tone Tests and the Ideal of Perfect Reproduction", Lost and Found Sound, interview on National Public Radio.

Audio engineering
Mass media technology
Recording and reproduction
Recording and reproduction

Sound recording and reproduction


The Midnight Line is a novel by British writer Lee Child. This is the twenty-second book in the Jack Reacher series. The book was released on 7 November 2017. The plot finds Reacher once again in the Midwest, this time being thrust into an investigation involving the illegal opioid trade, the pharmaceutical companies that often turn a blind eye in the name of profits, and the people dependent on them.

Plot summary
After spending the night with a woman named Michelle Chang (from Make Me), Jack Reacher is traveling through Wisconsin when he happens to stop at a pawnshop selling an unusual item: a 2005 West Point class ring. Unwilling to accept that such a priceless thing would be willingly sold, Jack suspects it to be stolen and decides against leaving town. He questions the pawnbroker and learns that the ring was sold to him by a biker named Jimmy Rat. Reacher beats up Rat's gang and learns that the ring originally belonged to a fence named Arthur Scorpio, who runs a laundromat in Rapid City, South Dakota. Reacher leaves town, aware that Rat has already warned Scorpio of his plans.

In Rapid City, Reacher encounters two other people with an interest in Scorpio: Gloria Nakamura, a detective who has tried and failed for years to find incriminating evidence of Scorpio's criminal enterprise, and Terrence Bramall, a private investigator hired by Tiffany Jane Mackenzie, a woman searching for her missing twin sister Serena Rose Sanderson, who Reacher learns, through a sympathetic general at West Point, is the owner of the ring. Reacher allows himself to be picked up by Scorpio's men and then subdues them in less than three seconds. In turn, Scorpio provides him with the name of Seymour Porterfield, the man who originally gave him the ring, but secretly instructs an associate of his, Billy, to kill Reacher before he finds Seymour.

Reacher travels to Mule Crossing, a rural town in Wyoming, where Porterfield last lived. A local shopkeep reveals that Sy has been dead for well over a year, supposedly killed by a wild bear. Bramall runs into Reacher at Billy's house, and the two agree to partner up, at least temporarily. They search Sy's house, and find evidence that a woman was living with him. Mackenzie shows up, having grown impatient with Bramall's lack of results, and Reacher reveals his growing suspicion that both Rose and Sy were involved with the illegal opioid trade, which is subsequently confirmed by Kirk Noble, a DEA agent who asks Reacher to keep him informed if he finds Rose or Billy.

While looking for a new lead on Rose's location, three junkies try to scare the group off, but Reacher intimidates them into leaving. The men turn out to be friends of Rose, and when Reacher convinces them that they mean no harm, they are taken to see Rose, who has been in hiding since an IED in Afghanistan shredded her face, leaving her disfigured and in constant pain, making her dependent on opioids. Fearing that her sister will die, Mackenzie formulates a plan to move her to her home in Illinois, where her addiction can be treated in secret. Before they can leave, Stackley, a dealer who has taken over Billy's operation following the latter's disappearance, bribes the junkies to kill Reacher.  One is accidentally shot and dies, and Reacher forces the others to lure Stackley into a trap; Rose manages to kill him with a rifle.

As Rose will likely die without a new supply of opioids, Reacher, Bramall, and Mackenzie steal what she needs from Stackley's suppliers, and Reacher cuts a deal with Noble to protect Rose from having to testify against the dealers on the DEA's behalf. Nakamura attempts to arrest Scorpio, who she realizes is the head of the operation, but he chains her to a table. Reacher then confronts Scorpio and stuffs him in a mechanical dryer, while the DEA receives sufficient information to complete their investigation. Reacher learns Seymour had been framed by a Col. Bateman, a corrupt Marine, for trying to expose his theft of military opioid supplies for resale to Scorpio. Seymour had committed suicide; Bateman was convicted for other wrongdoings some time before this story.

Reacher returns Rose's ring to her, and she promises to get clean before she, Bramall, and Mackenzie drive off. Reacher then hitches another ride out of South Dakota, heading towards Kansas.

References

External links

2017 British novels
English novels
Jack Reacher books
Novels about substance abuse
Works about the illegal drug trade
Delacorte Press books

The Midnight Line


Girl from Rio (Spanish:Chica de Río) is a 2001 film, written and directed by Christopher Monger, starring Hugh Laurie, Vanessa Nunes, Santiago Segura, Lia Williams, and Patrick Barlow.

Plot
Raymond Woods, a junior manager in a bank in the City, is becoming increasingly bored of his life as it takes a downhill tumble. First he finds out that he has missed the promotion opportunity at work by his bad tempered and disapproving boss, Strothers, and then he catches his wife a couple of days before Christmas having an affair with Strothers.

(MISSING:) There is a plot detail left out here. Hugh Laurie character decides to get back at his bank boss by stealing money from the bank and get back at his wife by leaving her and living the high life in Rio. His character loves to watch latin dancing, hence another reason to go to Rio, where the dancer Orlinda is.

Touching down in Rio, he calls a cab to take him to a nice hotel. The cab driver, Paulo, takes him to a fairly run down hotel. Raymond insists he needs a much nicer hotel with a beach, while Paulo insists Raymond would not be able to afford such a hotel, but suddenly changes heart once Raymond shows him a large wad of cash. Paulo immediately befriends Raymond, with his eyes greedily on his cash as he owes money to the biggest Mafia leader in Rio. He insists that he is prepared to take Raymond wherever he needs to go and whatever he needs done can be done. Therefore, Paulo takes Raymond to the nicest hotel in Rio. Raymond trips up in a commotion at the door of the hotel, dropping his bag and spreading his cash all over the floor. Once he hastily shuffles it all away, the hotel clerks immediately show him to the Presidential suite. After a day of shopping and generous spending Raymond reveals to Paulo he has come to Rio to look for the famous samba dancer Orlinda.

Paulo then calls to tell Raymond he has found Orlinda. After dropping Raymond off at the club where Orlinda is performing, Paulo sneaks back to the hotel in an unsuccessful attempt to steal the money. Meanwhile, Raymond and Orlinda dance together, then Paulo drives them back to the hotel. Paulo tells Orlinda about the safe. Raymond enjoys a passionate night with Orlinda, but wakes to find the money gone. Raymond tries to find Orlinda, believing she has been kidnapped along with the money. Realising it is Christmas Eve, Paulo helps Raymond find Orlinda at midnight mass. She confesses to stealing his money, but tells him she doesn't have it, as she owed money to a Mafia leader, Bichero. On leaving mass, Raymond sees Bichero handing out cash, and runs after Bichero's car, but is captured. Bichero is about to have him executed, but instead locks him in a safe and forces him to count Bichero's money.

On Christmas Day, Orlinda visits Raymond to give him a present. Raymond is still angry at the fact that she has ended him up in this situation. She tells him that she wished the money was only a small portion of what he owned and it wouldn't matter that she took it, and tells Raymond he's a "common crook". She tells Raymond not to give up hope. Raymond collects a large portion of the money and claims it is his. Orlinda then meets up with Paulo who takes his taxi and ties a rope to pull away at the bars of Raymond's prison.

Raymond decides he should return the money to the bank, as he still has enough time to get back to England and return the money to the vaults without anybody noticing it had gone. He quickly buys a ticket back to London and hires a taxi driver to rush him back to the bank. However, when he arrives, the police are all over the building. About to rush in and explain to the police inspector, he discovers that over the Christmas period, somebody tunnelled into the vault and swiped the remainder of the money. Confused and relieved, Raymond leaves the bank, intending to return to Rio. Catching a taxi, when a couple leave, he recognises them as his wife and Strothers who have evidently just returned from their holiday in Tenerife. He tells his wife he'll leave her the address of where he's living in Rio to send the divorce papers, resigns from his job and goes back to Rio. He is next shown living with Orlinda and Paulo some years later with two babies and Bichero as his servant.

Soundtrack
The soundtrack is Silencio, by Adriana Maciel.
The end credits is a song called "Libera Geral" by Terra Samba.

References

External links

2001 romantic comedy films
2001 films
British romantic comedy films
Films set in Rio de Janeiro (city)
Films shot in Rio de Janeiro (city)
Films directed by Christopher Monger
2000s English-language films
2000s British films
Brazilian romantic comedy films

Girl from Rio (2001 film)


(English: On the miraculous things in Sacred Scripture) is a Latin treatise written around 655 by an anonymous Irish writer and philosopher known as Augustinus Hibernicus or the Irish Augustine.

The author's nickname is in reference to the philosopher Augustine of Hippo. This pseudo-Augustine was born in Ireland sometime in the first half of the seventh century and is noted especially for his natural philosophy.

Around the year 655 he wrote a treatise called . It has long been regarded as an exceptional work, in that it demonstrates a strictly scientific approach in the matter of making direct observations of nature and subjecting them to a strictly logical interpretation.

His treatise seeks to explain each miracle in the Scriptures as an extreme case of phenomena, yet still within the laws of nature. Augustine also gives a list of the terrestrial mammals of Ireland, and solves the problem of how they reached Ireland after the flood of Noah by proposing a solution – hundreds of years ahead of its time – that the island had been cut off from continental Europe by marine erosion.

Sources

Further reading
 Patrologia Latina 35.2149-200.

Secondary literature

7th-century Latin books
Latin texts of medieval Ireland
Medieval Irish writers
Natural philosophy
7th-century Christian texts
7th-century writers in Latin

De mirabilibus sacrae scripturae


Ǝ ǝ or turned E is an additional letter of the Latin alphabet used in African languages using the Pan-Nigerian alphabet. The minuscule is based on a rotated e and the capital form majuscule Ǝ, based on a reversed (mirrored) majuscule E.

It is not to be confused with , the existential quantifier used in logic, or with  (uppercase Ə), which is used as a phonetic symbol and as a letter in languages of the Caucasus (such as Azerbaijani). In MacOS with the U.S. Extended keyboard, the letters Ǝ ǝ are made with  followed by E e respectively. The letter has been used by American rapper Eminem in order to stylize his stage name.

Unicode encodings

References

Latin-script letters

Ǝ


Ypresiosirex is an extinct genus of sawfly in the horntail family Siricidae.  The genus is solely known from a single Eocene fossil found in North America.  At the time of its description the new genus was composed of a single species named Ypresiosirex orthosemos.

History and classification
Y. orthosemos is known only from one fossil, a part and counterpart holotype, specimen number RBCM.EH2015.004.0001.001A&B, which is housed in the collections of the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria, British Columbia.  Ypresiosirex was described from a specimen which was recovered from outcrops of the early Eocene, Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds near Cache Creek, British Columbia.  The unnamed formation outcropping at the McAbee Fossil Beds preserve an upland temperate flora that was first interpreted as being Microthermal, although further study has shown them to be more mesothermal in nature.  The plant community preserved in the McAbee Fossil Beds site is mostly broadleaf pollen with alder and elm dominating, and may represent a successional forest involving multiple volcanic ash eruptions.

Ypresiosirex was first studied by the paleoentomologists S. Bruce Archibald from Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia and Alexandr Rasnitsyn of the A. A. Borissiak Paleontological Institute.  Their 2015 type description of the new genus and species was published in the journal Canadian Entomologist.  The genus name Ypresiosirex was coined by the researchers as a combination of Ypresian, the age of the fossil, and Sirex a horntail genus name.  The specific epithet orthosemos is derived from Greek meaning "with vertical stipes", alluding to the corrugated texture of the wing membrane at its base.

Ypresiosirex orthosemos was one of three sawfly species described in Archibald & Rasnitsyn's 2015 paper, the other two being Ulteramus republicensis and Cuspilongus cachecreekensis, from the Klondike Mountain Formation and the McAbee fossil beds respectively.

Description
The single described female of Ypresiosirex is mostly complete, missing the very apical section of the ovipositor.  The female has a body length of approximately  and an overall preserved length of  with the partially preserved ovipositor included.  The body is dark in coloration overall, with an area of the mid-abdomen possibly lighter, though the change in color may be the result of preservation showing the ventral color and not the dorsal color. The fore-wings show darkening near the base which grades to hyaline for the rest of the membrane.  In some areas of the head and thorax preservation is detailed enough to show the surfaces had a patterning of shallow densely spaced pits.  Placement of the genus into Siricidae was based on the modified abdomen tip which forms a cornus. The basal area of the wings shows distinct corrugation running from the leading edge to the rear edge, which is not seen in any other hymenopterans.

References

Ypresian insects
Fossils of British Columbia
Fossil taxa described in 2015
Prehistoric insects of North America
†
Tranquille Formation

Ypresiosirex


Andrea Walther (born 1970) is a German applied mathematician whose research interests include nonlinear optimization, non-smooth optimization, and scientific computing, and who is known in particular for her work on automatic differentiation. She is professor of mathematical optimization in the institute for mathematics of Humboldt University of Berlin.

Education and career
After studying business mathematics at the University of Bayreuth beginning in 1991 and earning a diploma in 1996, Walther completed a doctorate at the Dresden University of Technology in 1999. Her dissertation, Program Reversal Schedules for Single-and Multi-processor Machines, was supervised by . She completed a habilitation at the Dresden University of Technology in 2008.

She worked as a research assistant and junior professor at the Dresden University of Technology from 2000 to 2008. In 2009, she took a professorship at Paderborn University, and in 2019 she moved to her present position at Humboldt University.

Since 2020 she has been convenor of European Women in Mathematics.

Book
With her advisor Andreas Griewank, Walther is the coauthor of the second edition of the book Evaluating derivatives: principles and techniques of algorithmic differentiation (Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2008).

References

External links
Home page

1970 births
Living people
21st-century German mathematicians
German women mathematicians
University of Bayreuth alumni
TU Dresden alumni
Academic staff of TU Dresden
Academic staff of Paderborn University
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin

Andrea Walther


Haugesund is a town within the Municipality of Haugesund, and is the capital of the municipality. It is within the Rogaland county in the country of Norway. It had a population of roughly 32,000 (42,000 including all of the suburbs) as of January 2020. The "birthplace of Norway", as it is called, Avaldsnes, is approximately 8.5km away from the town. The town is named after the nearby Haugesundet strait which is close to the town.

The residents of the town are nicknamed "Måke" (Seagulls), especially those who live in the east side of the town and support the local soccer team.

Tourist attractions
Here is a list of tourist attractions which can be found within the town:

• (Natural attraction) The Haraldsvang hiking area. It is quite close to the Skelsvannet lake.

• (Natural attraction) The Skelsvannet lake is good for fishing, and you could be able to find some fish that are from the region. It would also be good for birdwatching, mostly seagulls which are commonly found in Haugesund.

• There is a North Sea cycling route which runs through, which would be good for cyclists

• Haugesund also has an airport (HAU) for people who like planespotting.

• Haugesund also hosts the Norwegian International Film Festival, and the "Slidajazz" festival in August every year.

Sports in Haugesund
Haugesund is home to the soccer club Haugesund FK (FKH), who currently play in the Eliteserien, the highest tier in Norwegian soccer (20/21 season).

Municipal council
The municipal council () of Haugesund is made up of 49 representatives that are elected every four years. The government is located at the Haugesund City Hall.

International relations
Haugesund is a sister city with the following places:

  Søllerød, Hovedstaden, Denmark
  Ystad, Skåne, Sweden
  Ekenäs, Uusimaa, Finland
  Emden, Lower Saxony, Germany

Each of the sister cities (except Emden) has been given its name to a street in Haugesund. The streets are located in the same area near the border to the neighbouring municipality.

Gallery of images

Related pages
List of mayors in Norway that are elected until 2027

References

Municipalities of Rogaland

Haugesund