Northern Italy (, , ) is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of Italy. The Italian National Institute of Statistics defines the region as encompassing the four Northwestern regions of Piedmont, Aosta Valley, Liguria and Lombardy in addition to the four Northeastern regions of Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Emilia-Romagna

With a total area of , and a population of 27.4 million as of 2022, the region covers roughly 40% of the Italian Republic and contains 46% of its population. Two of Italy's largest metropolitan areas, Milan and Turin, are located in the region. Northern Italy's GDP was estimated at about € 1 trillion in 2021, accounting for 56.5% of the Italian economy.

Northern Italy has a rich and distinct culture. Thirty-seven of the fifty-nine World Heritage Sites in Italy are found in the region. Rhaeto-Romance and Gallo-Italic languages are spoken in the region, as opposed to the Italo-Dalmatian languages spoken in the rest of Italy. The Venetian language is sometimes considered to be part of the Italo-Dalmatian languages, but some major publications such as Ethnologue (to which UNESCO refers on its page about endangered languages) and Glottolog define it as Gallo-Italic.

Definition and etymology
Northern Italy was called by different terms in different periods of history. During ancient times the terms Gallia Cisalpina, Gallia Citerior or Gallia Togata were used to define that part of Italy inhabited by Celts (Gauls) between the 4th and 3rd century BC. Conquered by the Roman Republic in the 220s BC, it was a Roman province from c. 81 BC until 42 BC, when it was merged into Roman Italy.  Until that time, it was considered part of Gaul, precisely that part of Gaul on the "hither side of the Alps" (from the perspective of the Romans), as opposed to Transalpine Gaul ("on the far side of the Alps").

After the fall of the Roman Empire and the settlement of the Lombards the name Langobardia Maior was used, in the Early Middle Ages, to define the domains of the Lombard Kingdom in Northern Italy with capital Pavia. The Lombard territories beyond were called Langobardia Minor, consisting of the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento.

During the Late Middle Ages, after the fall of the northern part of the Lombard Kingdom to Charlemagne, the term Longobardia was used to mean Northern Italy within the medieval Kingdom of Italy. As the area became partitioned into regional states the term Lombardy subsequently shifted to indicate only the area of the Duchies of Milan, Mantua, Parma and Modena and later only to the area around Milan.

More recently, the term Alta Italia (Italian for 'High Italy') became widely used, for such by the Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale Alta Italia during the Second World War. In the 1960s, the term Padania began to be sometimes used as a geographical synonym of the Po Valley. The term appeared sparingly until the early 1990s, when Lega Nord, then a secessionist political party, proposed Padania as a possible name for an independent state in Northern Italy, giving the term has carried strong political connotation.

For statistic purposes, the Italian National Institute of Statistics uses the terms Northwest Italy and Northeast Italy for two of Italy's five statistical regions in its reporting. These same subdivisions are used to demarcate first-level Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) regions ("NUTS 1 regions") within the European Union, and the Italian constituencies for the European Parliament.

History

Antiquity and Early Middle Ages

In pre-Roman centuries it was inhabited by different peoples among whom the Ligures, the ancient Veneti, who prospered through their trade in amber and breeding of horses, the Etruscans, attested in Northern Italy at least since the early Iron Age during the Villanova period, founded the city of Bologna and spread the use of writing; later, starting from the 5th century BC, the area was invaded by Celtic – Gallic tribes. These people founded several cities like Turin and Milan and extended their rule from the Alps to the Adriatic Sea. Their development was halted by the Roman expansion in the Po Valley from the 3rd century BC onwards. After centuries of struggle, probably officially around 81 BC, the entire area of what is now Northern Italy became a Roman province with the name of Gallia Cisalpina ("Gaul on the inner side (with respect to Rome) of the Alps").

In 49 BC, with the Lex Roscia, Julius Caesar granted to the populations of the province full Roman citizenship. The Rubicon River marked its southern boundary with Italia proper. By crossing this river in 49 BC with his loyal XIII Legion, returning from the conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar precipitated the civil war within the Roman Republic which led, eventually, to the establishment of the Roman Empire. To this day the term "crossing the Rubicon" means, figuratively, "reaching the point of no return". In late antiquity, the strategic role of Northern Italy was emphasized by the moving of the capital of the Western Empire from Rome to Mediolanum in 286 and later to Ravenna from 402 until the empire collapsed in 476.

After the fall of the Western Empire, Northern Italy suffered heavily from destruction brought about by migration from Germanic peoples. In 493 the Ostrogoths managed to create a stable and prosperous kingdom, with its capital first in Ravenna and then in Pavia, but the Gothic War caused the kingdom to fall and devastated the region. In the 570s the Germanic Lombards, or Longobardi, entered Northern Italy from Friuli and founded a long-lasting reign (with its capital in Pavia) that gave the medieval name to the whole Northern Italy and the current name to the Lombardy region. After the initial struggles, relationships between the Lombard people and the Latin-speaking people improved. In the end, the Lombard language and culture assimilated with the Latin culture, leaving evidence in many names, the legal code and laws, and other things. The end of Lombard rule came in 774, when the Frankish king Charlemagne conquered Pavia, deposed Desiderius, the last Lombard king, and annexed the Lombard Kingdom to his empire changing the name in Kingdom of Italy. The former Lombard dukes were mostly replaced by Frankish counts, prince-bishops or marquises.

High Middle Ages and Renaissance

In the 10th century, North Italy, although formally under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, was included in the kingdom of Italy, of which Pavia remained the capital until 1024, however, gradually, starting from the last decades of the 11th century was in fact divided in a multiplicity of small, autonomous city-states, the medieval communes and maritime republic. The 11th century marked a significant boom in Northern Italy's economy, due to improved trading and agricultural innovations, culture flourished as well with many universities founded, among them the University of Bologna, the world's oldest university in continuous operation.

The increasing richness of the city-states made them able to defy the traditional feudal supreme power, represented by the German emperors and their local vassals. This process led to the creation of different Lombard Leagues formed by allied cities of Lombardy that defeated the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick I, at Legnano, and his grandson Frederick II, at Parma, and becoming virtually independent from the German emperors. Although having the military purpose as preponderant, the Lombard League also had its own stable government, considered one of the first examples of confederation in Europe.

The Leagues failed to develop from an alliance to a lasting confederation and subsequently, among the various local city-states, a process of consolidation took place; most of them became lordships ruled by powerful families like the Della Scala of Verona or the Visconti of Milan, and conquered neighbouring cities threatening to unify Northern Italy into one kingdom, a revived Lombard empire.

In the end a balance of power was reached in 1454 with the Peace of Lodi and Northern Italy ended up divided between a small number of regional states, the most powerful were the Duchies of Savoy, Milan, Mantua, Ferrara and the Republics of Genoa and Venice, which had begun to extend its influence in the mainland from the 14th century onwards.

In the 15th century, Northern Italy became one of the centres of the Renaissance whose culture and works of art were highly regarded. The enterprising class of the communes extended its trade and banking activities well into northern Europe and "Lombards", the term that designated the merchants or bankers coming from northern Italy, were present in all of Europe. The Italian Wars between 1494 and 1559 ended the North Italian Renaissance and brought the region to be fought between France and the Spanish and Austrian House of Habsburg. After the decisive Battle of Pavia, most of present-day Lombardy became under the direct or indirect control of Spain.
At the same time Ottoman control of the eastern Mediterranean and the discoveries of sea routes to Asia around Africa and of the Americas led to the decline of the Venetian Republic. While the Republic of Genoa managed to become the main banking base of the Spanish Empire.

Pestilences, like that of 1628/1630, and the generally declining conditions of Italy's economy in the 17th and 18th centuries halted the further development of Northern Italy. The only polity that managed to thrive in this period was the Savoy's state which, thanks to military and diplomatic victories in 1720, managed to acquire the island of Sardinia, through which the then Dukes gained legitimacy as a proper Kingdom and increased Turin's importance as a European capital.

Modern history

After the French Revolution in the late 18th century Northern Italy was conquered by the French armies, many client republics were created by Napoleon and in 1805 a new Kingdom of Italy, made of all of Northern Italy but Piedmont that was annexed to France, was established with Milan as capital and Napoleon as head of state. In the congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, and furthermore enlarged by annexing the Republic of Genoa, contravening the principle of restoring the legitimate governments and monarchies of the old Republic. The rest of Northern Italy was under Austrian rule, either direct like in the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom or indirect like in the Duchies of Parma and Modena. Bologna and Romagna were given to the Papal State.
The Austrian imperial government was unpopular because of their anti-liberal politics and Northern Italy became the intellectual centre leading the Italian unification process. Piedmont and the Kingdom of Sardinia, in particular, was the state that launched Italy's unification in 1859–1861. After defeating the Austrians in 1859 and annexing Northern Italy the new state proceeded to launch a campaign to conquer Southern and Central Italy and Turin briefly became the capital of the almost whole of Italy.

After Italian unification the capital was moved from Turin to Rome and the administrative and institutional importance of Northern Italy was substantially reduced. However, from the late 19th century and especially with the economic boom of the 1950s–1960s, Northern Italy and especially the cities of Turin, Genoa, and Milan was the most important region in the Italian industrialization and sharpened its status of richest and most industrialized part of Italy.

Between 1943 and 1945, during the Second World War, Northern Italy was part of the Fascist Italian Social Republic and the main theatre of the anti-fascist partisan activity. Between April 19 and 25, 1945 the cities of Northern Italy began an insurrection against Fascist and Nazist forces that led to the liberation of Northern Italy by Allied forces. Economic differences between Northern Italy and the rest of the country, as well as the short history of Italy as a single nation, led in the 1990s to the emergence of Padanian nationalism, as Lega Nord promoted either secession or larger autonomy for Padania, the name chosen to represent Northern Italy.

Geography

Northern Italy is made of the basin of the River Po, which comprises the whole of the broad plain extending from the foot of the Apennines to that of the Alps, together with the valleys and slopes on both sides of it, the Venetian Plain and the Ligurian coast. Northern Italy has the Alps as the northern and western boundary and the Apennine Mountains as the southern one. In between the two mountain ranges lies a large plain made of the Venetian Plain and the valley of the Po, the largest river in Italy, which flows  eastward from the Cottian Alps to the Adriatic Sea and receives all the waters that flow from the Apennines northwards, and all those that descend from the Alps towards the south. The Po Valley is the largest plain in Italy and holds the vast majority of the North Italian population.

The Alps are home to some worldwide-known mountains like the Matterhorn (Cervino), Monte Rosa, Gran Paradiso in the western Alps, and Bernina, Stelvio and Dolomites along the eastern side of the Alps. The highest peak in Europe is Mont Blanc, at  above sea level, located at the border with France.

With the exception of part of Liguria all of Northern Italy lies in the drainage basin of the Adriatic Sea (with rivers Po, Piave, Adige, Brenta, Tagliamento, Reno) though the waters from some border municipalities (Livigno in Lombardy, Innichen and Sexten in Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol) drain into the Black Sea through the basin of the Danube, and the waters from the Lago di Lei in Lombardy drain into the North Sea through the basin of the Rhine.

On the foothills of the Alps, there are a number of subalpine moraine-dammed lakes, the largest of which is Garda. Other well known of these subalpine lakes are Lake Maggiore, whose most northerly section is part of Switzerland, Como, Orta, Lugano, Iseo, Idro.

Climate

The climate of Northern Italy is mainly humid subtropical (Köppen Cfa), especially in the plains. Winter in Northern Italy is normally long, relatively dry and rather cold. In addition, there is a high seasonal temperature variation between summer and winter. In the mountains, the climate is humid continental (Köppen Dfb). In the valleys it is cold but usually with low humidity, while it can be severely cold above , with copious snowfalls. The coastal areas of Liguria generally fit the Mediterranean climate profile. In the Alpine foothills, characterised by an Oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb), numerous lakes exercise a mitigating influence, allowing the cultivation of typically Mediterranean crops (olives, citrus fruit).

A peculiarity of the regional climate is the thick fog that covers the plains between October and February, especially in the central Po Plain. The east coast, particularly on the Gulf of Trieste is occasionally affected by the cold bora winds in winter and spring.

The coldest month is January: the Po valley's mean temperature is between . Winter morning lows can occasionally reach  in the Alps and  in the Po valley, with records close to  near Bologna during some of the coldest winters. Summer is usually more stable, although quite stormy near the Alps, with July temperatures in the range  near the Alps or by the sea, like in Milan or Venice, whereas in southern Po plain  can be reached, like in Bologna.

The number of days with lows below  is usually from 60 to 90 a year, with peaks of 100–110 days in the mainly rural zones. In the colder winters, the Venice Lagoon may freeze, and in the coldest ones even enough to walk on the ice sheet.

Precipitation is evenly distributed during the year, more abundant in spring and autumn at low altitudes and in summer at high elevations; it is more intense in the Prealpine zone, up to  annually, but is abundant also in the plains and Alpine zones, with an average of  annually. The total annual rainfall is on average . Snow is quite common between early December and early March in cities like Turin, Milan and Bologna, but sometimes it appears in late November or late March and even April. Both the Alps and the Apennine can see up to  of snow in a year at ; on the highest peaks of the Alps, snow may fall even during mid-summer, and glaciers are present.

Pollution
Because of high industrialization and the lack of wind due to being closed between mountain ranges air pollution remains a severe problem in Northern Italy. Even if smog levels have decreased dramatically since the 1970s and 1980s, in 2005 a team of researchers at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute reported that Northern Italy was one of Europe's most polluted areas in terms of smog and air pollution due to its climatic and geographic conditions, which cause the stagnation of pollutants.

In March 2019, the European Space Agency (ESA) published images took from their satellites. These images show a big stain, made of nitrogen dioxide and fine particles, situated above the Po Valley area, which incorporates the city of Milan, Turin, and Bologna. Milan and Turin share high levels of ozone and nitrogen oxides, which are mainly produced by cars diesel and petrol engines. The big stain analyzed by ESA is the main reason why Po Valley air pollution levels are so high it is considered nowadays the worst area in Europe for air quality. To shed light on how dangerous it is for humans to live in polluted environments, Chicago Energy Policy Institute has recently developed the Air Quality Life Index (AQLI), a system capable of analyzing air pollution worldwide. According to AQLI findings, Po Valley air pollution affects inhabitants so hard that it cuts off about half a year of their life expectancy. The main reasons why there's a big stain of air pollution over the Po Valley are strictly connected to livestock and factories. The so-called "NPK fertilizers", made of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, along with manure emissions from intensive breeding and high levels of nitrogen dioxide released by diesel and petrol engines are all accountable for this disastrous air condition in Northern Italy. The region of Lombardy produces also vast amounts of animal waste, a big contributor to pollution. It delivers more than 40 per cent of Italy's milk production, for example, while over half of the Italian pig production is located in the Po Valley.

According to a research, published in The Lancet Planetary Health in January 2021, which estimates the death rate associated with fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution in 1000 European cities, Brescia and Bergamo in Lombardy have the highest death rate from fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in Europe. Vicenza (Veneto) and Saronno (Lombardy) are respectively in fourth and eighth place in the top ten of ten cities. Turin and Milan are also at the top of the European ranking – 3rd and 5th respectively – in terms of increased mortality from nitrogen dioxide, a gas that derives mainly from traffic and in particular from diesel vehicles, while Verona, Treviso, Padova, Como and Venice rank eleventh, fourteenth, fifteenth, seventeenth and twentythird respectively.

The data show that many cities in the Po Valley suffer the most serious impact at the European level due to poor air quality, first of all the metropolitan area of Milan, thirteenth in the ranking in terms of fine particulate impact, where any year 3967 premature deaths – approximately 9% of the total.

Languages

Northern Italy is dominated by the Gallo-Italic family of languages, as opposed to the rest of the country where the Italo-Romance languages are spoken, and they include Emilian, Ligurian, Lombard, Piedmontese, and Romagnol. Venetian, on the other hand, has different origins. Its precise place within the Romance language family remains somewhat controversial. Both Ethnologue and Glottolog group it into the Gallo-Italic branch. Devoto, Avolio and Ursini reject such classification, and Tagliavini places it in the Italo-Dalmatian branch of Romance.

The Gallo-Italic languages also reach the north of the Marche region in central Italy (province of Pesaro and Urbino and the city of Senigallia in province of Ancona) and Tuscany (most of the province of Massa-Carrara and the northernmost areas of Garfagnana in the province of Lucca, but also some parts of the Metropolitan City of Florence), so these areas are considered linguistically part of northern Italy.

In southern Italy Gallo-Italic languages are spoken in some language islands in Basilicata (Gallo-Italic of Basilicata) and Sicily (Gallo-Italic of Sicily). Other Gallo-Romance languages spoken are Occitan, Arpitan spoken in the Occitan and Arpitan valleys in western Piedmont, and the Rhaeto-Romance group which includes Friulian and Ladin.

Non-Romance languages are also spoken: Germanic languages such as "standard" German and Bavarian in South Tyrol, small Walser communities in Piedmont and Valle d'Aosta, and Cimbrian and mocheno in Veneto, Friuli and Trentino. Slavic languages are spoken in Friuli-Venezia Giulia: there are Slovenian minorities in the province of Trieste and in the eastern parts of those of Udine and Gorizia.

History
During the Middle Ages, mainly between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, an illustrious vulgar was in use, by the name of "Lombard-Venetian koiné". In medieval sources, it was simply called "written language" or Lombard, because the toponym "Lombardy" was then used to indicate the entire region of northern Italy. This literary koiné manifested itself with authors such as Bonvesin da la Riva, Giacomino da Verona, Uguccione da Lodi, Girardo Patecchio, etc.

Economy

Northern Italy is the most developed and productive area of the country, with one of the highest GDPs per capita in Europe. It was the first part of Italy to become industrialised in the last half of the 19th century; the so-called industrial triangle was formed by the manufacturing centres of Milan and Turin, as well as the seaport of Genoa. Since then, the industrial core of the area has shifted eastward; the current industrial triangle consists of Lombardy, Veneto, and Emilia-Romagna. A similar shift happened for GDP per capita, and the eastern regions (including Lombardy) have since become wealthier than Piedmont and Liguria. With a 2021 nominal GDP estimated at €1.0 trillion, Northern Italy accounts for 56% of the Italian economy, despite having just 46% of the population.

Largest cities

The most populous cities (with over 100,000 inhabitants) as of 31 July 2021, estimates were:

Alpine regions
Aosta Valley, Piedmont, Veneto, Trentino Alto-Adige, Liguria, Friuli-Venezia-Giulia and Lombardy are known as the Alpine regions of Italy, consisting of all of North Italy except for Emilia-Romagna.

Culture

Cultural roots

The regions of northern Italy were exposed to different historical influences, which were due to the peoples and dominations that settled there, such as the Ligures, the Veneti, the Celts, the Etruscans, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Lombards, the Spanish and the Austrians. Some of its woodlands and mountains are preserved in several National Parks; a major example is the Gran Paradiso National Park, between Aosta Valley and Piedmont, which is the oldest national park in Italy. The first two most visited regions of Italy are Veneto and Trentino-Alto Adige, while the fourth and fifth are Emilia-Romagna and Lombardy.

UNESCO sites, sports and tourism

Northern Italy has many major tourist attractions, many of which are protected by UNESCO. Northern Italy is the home of the Italian Riviera, including Portofino, Sanremo, and of Cinque Terre. There are many historic cities in this part of Italy: Turin, the manufacturing capital of Italy, Milan, the business and fashion capital of the country and the important port of Genoa are the most popular tourist destinations of the area. Other cities like Aosta, Bergamo, Brescia, Como and Mantua have a rich cultural heritage, which share the region's visitors with beautiful landscapes such as the lakes Garda (with Grottoes of Catullus and Gardone Riviera), Como (with Bellagio and Varenna) and Maggiore (with Borromean Islands and Angera). There are also important ski resorts like Sestriere, Courmayeur, Breuil-Cervinia, Livigno and Bormio.

This part of Italy also boasts several important tourist attractions, such as the canal-filled city of Venice, the cities of Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Trento, Bolzano, Cremona, Bologna, Ferrara, Parma, Ravenna, Cesena, Rimini and Trieste. There are also several mountain ranges such as the Dolomites, the Carnic and Julian Alps and first-class ski resorts like Cortina d'Ampezzo and Madonna di Campiglio.

Cuisine

Ligurian cuisine consists of dishes from the culinary tradition of Liguria, a region of northwestern Italy, which makes use of ingredients linked both to local production (such as preboggion, a mixture of wild herbs), and to imports from areas with which, over the centuries, the Ligurians have had frequent trade (such as Sardinian pecorino, one of the ingredients of pesto).

Venetian cuisine, from the city of Venice, Italy
or more widely from the region of Veneto, has a centuries-long history and differs significantly from other cuisines of northern Italy (notably Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol), and of neighbouring Austria and of Slavic countries (notably Slovenia and Croatia), despite sharing some commonalities. Cuisine in Veneto may be divided into three main categories, based on geography: the coastal areas, the plains, and the mountains. Each one (especially the plains) can have many local cuisines, each city with its own dishes.

Lombard cuisine is the style of cooking in the Northern Italian region of Lombardy. The historical events of its provinces and the diversity of its territories resulted in a varied culinary tradition. First courses in Lombard cuisine range from risottos to soups and stuffed pasta (in broth or not), and a large choice of second-course meat or fish dishes, due to the many lakes and rivers of Lombardy. The cuisine of the various Lombardy provinces can be united by the following traits: prevalence of rice and stuffed pasta over dry pasta, both butter and olive oil for cooking, dishes cooked for a long time, as well as the widespread use of pork, milk and dairy products, and egg-based preparations; to which is added the consumption of polenta, common to the whole Northern Italy.

Legends and folklore
The Badalisc is a mythical creature of the Val Camonica in the southern central Alps. The Badalisc is represented today as a creature with a big head covered with a goat skin, two small horns, a huge mouth and glowing eyes. According to legend the Badalisc lives in the woods around the village of Andrista (comune of Cevo) and is supposed to annoy the community: each year it is captured during the period of Epiphany (5 & 6 January) and led on a rope into the village by musicians and masked characters, including il giovane (the young man), il vecchio (the old man), la vecchia (the old woman) and the young signorina, who is "bait" for the animal's lust. There are also some old witches, who beat drums, and bearded shepherds, and a hunchback (un torvo gobetto) who has a "rustic duel" with the animal. Traditionally only men take part, although some are dressed as women. In medieval times women were prohibited from participating in the exhibition, or even seeing or hearing the Badalisc's Speech; if they did so they would be denied Holy Communion the following day.

Alberto da Giussano is a legendary character of the 12th century who would have participated, as a protagonist, in the battle of Legnano on 29 May 1176. In reality, according to historians, the actual military leader of the Lombard League in the famous military battle with Frederick Barbarossa was Guido da Landriano. Historical analyses made over time have indeed shown that the figure of Alberto da Giussano never existed. In the past, historians, attempting to find a real confirmation, hypothesized the identification of his figure with Albertus de Carathe (Alberto da Carate) and Albertus Longus (Alberto Longo), both among the Milanese who signed the pact in Cremona in March 1167 which established the Lombard League, or in an Alberto da Giussano mentioned in an appeal of 1196 presented to Pope Celestine III on the administration of the church-hospital of San Sempliciano. These, however, are all weak identifications, given that they lack clear and convincing historical confirmation.

See also

National Institute of Statistics (Italy)
NUTS statistical regions of Italy
 Italian NUTS level 1 regions:
 Northwest Italy
 Northeast Italy
 South Italy
 Insular Italy
 Central Italy
 Southern Italy
 Padanian nationalism

References

Geography of Italy
Regions of Italy
Society of Italy

Northern Italy


Francis Bosley Crowther Jr. (July 13, 1905 – March 7, 1981) was an American journalist, writer, and film critic for The New York Times for 27 years. His work helped shape the careers of many actors, directors and screenwriters, though his reviews were sometimes regarded as unnecessarily harsh. Crowther was an advocate of foreign-language films in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly those of Roberto Rossellini, Vittorio De Sica, Ingmar Bergman, and Federico Fellini.

Life and career
Crowther was born Francis Bosley Crowther Jr. in Lutherville, Maryland, the son of Eliza Hay (née Leisenring, 1877–1960) and Francis Bosley Crowther (1874–1950). As a child, Crowther moved to Winston-Salem, North Carolina, where he published a neighborhood newspaper, The Evening Star. His family moved to Washington, D.C., and Crowther graduated from Western High School in 1922. After two years of prep school at Woodberry Forest School, he entered Princeton University, where he majored in history. For his writing, Crowther was offered a job as a cub reporter for The New York Times at a salary of $30 per week. He declined the offer, made to him by the publisher Adolph S. Ochs, hoping to find employment on a small Southern newspaper. When the salary offered by those papers was not half of the Times offer, he went to New York and took the job. He was the first nightclub reporter for the Times, and in 1933 was asked by Brooks Atkinson to join the drama department. He spent five years covering the theater scene in New York, and even dabbled in writing for it.

While at the Times in those early years, Crowther met Florence Marks, a fellow employee; the couple married on January 20, 1933. They had three sons, Bosley Crowther III, an attorney; John M. Crowther, a writer and artist; and Jefferson, a banker and the father of Welles Remy Crowther who died in the September 11 attacks in 2001.

In addition to his film criticism, Crowther wrote The Lion's Share: The Story of an Entertainment Empire (1957), the first book documenting the history of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and Hollywood Rajah: The Life and Times of Louis B. Mayer (1960), a biography of the head of the MGM studio.

Film criticism
Crowther was a prolific writer of film essays as a critic for The New York Times from 1940 to 1967. Perhaps conscious of the power of his reviews, he adopted a tone that New York Times obituarist Robert D. McFadden considered to be "scholarly rather than breezy". Frank Beaver wrote in Bosley Crowther: Social Critic of the Film, 1940–1967 that Crowther opposed displays of patriotism in films and believed that a movie producer "should balance his political attitudes even in the uncertain times of the 1940s and 1950s, during the House Un-American Activities Committee". Crowther's review of the wartime drama Mission to Moscow (1943), made during the period when the Soviet Union was one of the Allied Powers with the United States, chided the film by saying it should show "less ecstasy", and wrote:
"It is just as ridiculous to pretend that Russia has been a paradise of purity as it is to say the same thing of ourselves".

In the 1950s, Crowther was an opponent of Senator Joseph R. McCarthy, whose anti-communist crusade targeted the State Department, the administration of Harry S. Truman, the U.S. Army, and individual government employees. However, he also criticised the left-wing film Knock on Any Door for blaming law-abiding society for a juvenile delinquent's descent into murder: "Rubbish! The only shortcoming of society which this film proves is that it casually tolerates the pouring of such fraudulence onto the public mind."

Crowther opposed censorship of movies, and advocated greater social responsibility in the making of them. He approved of movies with social content, such as Gone with the Wind (1939), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), Citizen Kane (1941), The Lost Weekend (1945), All the King's Men (1949), and High Noon (1952).

Crowther barely concealed his disdain for Joan Crawford when reviewing her films, saying that her acting style in Female on the Beach (1955) was characterized by "artificiality" and "pretentiousness," and also chided Crawford for her physical bearing. In his review of the Nicholas Ray film Johnny Guitar (1954), Crowther complained that "no more femininity comes from (Crawford) than from rugged Mr. Heflin in Shane (1953). For the lady, as usual, is as sexless as the lions on the public library steps and as sharp and romantically forbidding as a package of unwrapped razor blades".

His preferences in popular movies were not always predictable. He defended epics such as Ben-Hur (1959) and Cleopatra (1963), but gave the World War II film The Great Escape (also 1963) a highly unfavorable review, and panned David Lean's later works. He called Lawrence of Arabia (1962) a "thundering camel-opera that tends to run down rather badly as it rolls on into its third hour and gets involved with sullen disillusion and political deceit."

Crowther often admired foreign-language films, especially the works of Roberto Rossellini, Vittorio De Sica, Ingmar Bergman, and Federico Fellini. However he was critical of some iconic releases as well. He found Akira Kurosawa's classic Throne of Blood (1957, but not released in the U.S. until 1961), derived from Macbeth, ludicrous, particularly its ending; and called Gojira (Godzilla) (1954) "an incredibly awful film". Crowther dismissed Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960) as "a blot on an otherwise honorable career". He soon reassessed the film, considering it one of the top ten movies of the year, writing that Psycho was a "bold psychological mystery picture.... [I]t represented expert and sophisticated command of emotional development with cinematic techniques." He commented that while Satyajit Ray's Pather Panchali (1955, US: 1958) took on "a slim poetic form" the structure and tempo of it "would barely pass as a 'rough cut' with editors in Hollywood". Writing about L'Avventura (1960), Crowther said that watching the film was "like trying to follow a showing of a picture at which several reels have got lost."

The career of Bosley Crowther is discussed at length in For the Love of Movies: The Story of American Film Criticism, including his support for foreign-language cinema and his public repudiation of McCarthyism and the Blacklist. In this 2009 documentary film, contemporary critics who appreciate his work, such as A. O. Scott, appear, but also those who found his work too moralistic, such as Richard Schickel, Molly Haskell, and Andrew Sarris.

Bonnie and Clyde criticism
The end of Crowther's career was marked by his disdain for the 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde. He was critical of what he saw as the film's sensationalized violence. His review was negative:

Other critics besides Crowther panned the movie. John Simon, the critic of New York magazine, while praising its technical execution, declared "Slop is slop, even served with a silver ladle." Its distributor pulled the film from circulation. However, the critical consensus on Bonnie and Clyde reversed, exemplified by two high-profile reassessments by Time and Newsweek. The latter's Joe Morgenstern wrote two reviews in consecutive issues, the second retracting and apologizing for the first. Time hired Stefan Kanfer as its new film critic in late 1967; his first assignment was an ostentatious rebuttal of his magazine's original negative review. A rave in The New Yorker by Pauline Kael was also influential.

Even in the wake of this critical reversal, however, Crowther remained one of the film's most dogged critics. He eventually wrote three negative reviews and periodically blasted the movie in reviews of other films and in a letters column response to unhappy Times readers. The New York Times replaced Crowther as its primary film critic in early 1968, and some observers speculated that his persistent attacks on Bonnie and Clyde had shown him to be out of touch with current cinema and weighed heavily in his removal. Crowther worked as an executive consultant at Columbia Pictures after leaving the Times.

Death
Crowther died of heart failure on March 7, 1981, at Northern Westchester Hospital in Mount Kisco, New York. He was survived by his wife Florence, who died in 1984; a sister, Nancy Crowther Kappes; three sons, F. Bosley, John, and Jefferson; and four grandchildren.

References

Sources
 Bosley Crowther: Social Critic of the Film, 1940–1967 by Frank Eugene Beaver, Ayer Publishing, 1974.
 Kellye, Beverly M., Reelpolitik II: Political Ideologies in '50s and '60s Films, Rowman & Littlefield (2004), ,
 The Lion's Share: The Story of an Entertainment Empire. Ams Prs Inc, 1957.
 The Great Films: Fifty Golden Years of Motion Pictures. New York: Putnam, 1971.

External links
The New York Times links to numerous film reviews by Bosley Crowther
Speech at DePauw University; February 6, 1948

1905 births
1981 deaths
American film critics
Critics employed by The New York Times
Princeton University alumni
People from Lutherville, Maryland
Writers from Winston-Salem, North Carolina
20th-century American non-fiction writers
Woodberry Forest School alumni
20th-century American male writers
American male non-fiction writers

Bosley Crowther


The following is a list of conventional lines of rail transport in China. For the high-speed network, see List of high-speed railway lines in China.

North–south direction

Beijing-Harbin Corridor
Jingqin Railway; Beijing-Qinhuangdao 京秦线
Jingshan Railway; Beijing-Shanhaiguan 京山线
Shenshan Railway; Shenyang-Shanhaiguan 沈山线
Qinshen Passenger Railway; Qinhuangdao-Shenyang 秦沈客运专线
Changda Railway; Changchun-Dalian 长大线
Changbin Railway; Changchun-Harbin 长滨线
Binzhou Railway; Harbin-Manzhouli 滨洲线

In passenger rail service, Jingshan Railway, Shenshan Railway, Changda Railway|Changda Railway, Changchun-Shenyang Portion and Changbin Railway are collectively called Jingha Railway (Beijing-Harbin).

East Coast
Changda Railway; Changchun-Dalian 长大线, Shenyang-Dalian Portion (沈大段)
Yanda Railway Ferry 烟大铁路轮渡
Lanyan Railway; Lancun-Yantai 蓝烟线
Jiaoxin Railway; Jiaozhou-Xinyi 胶新线
Xinyi–Changxing railway; Xinyi-Changxing 新长线
Xuancheng–Hangzhou railway Xuancheng-Hangzhou宣杭线, Hangzhou-Changxing Portion (杭长段)
Xiaoshan–Ningbo railway; Xiaoshan-Ningbo 萧甬线
 Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou Railway Ningbo-Wenzhou 甬台温铁路
 Wenzhou–Fuzhou railway Wenzhou-Fuzhou 温福铁路
 Fuzhou–Xiamen railway Fuzhou-Xiamen 福厦铁路
Yingtan–Xiamen railway; Yingtan-Xiamen 鹰厦线, Zhangping-Xiamen Portion (漳厦段)

Beijing-Shanghai Corridor
Jingshan Railway; Beijing-Shanhaiguan 京山线, Beijing-Tianjin Portion (京津段)
Jingpu Railway; Tianjin-Pukou 津浦线
Huning Railway; Shanghai-Nanjing 沪宁线

Jingshan Railway Beijing-tianjin Portion, Jingpu Railway and Huning Railway are collectively called Jinghu Railway(京沪线) in passenger rail service.

Beijing-Kowloon Corridor
Jingjiu Railway 京九线 / 京九鐵路; Beijing-Shenzhen (and onward into Kowloon, Hong Kong)
Guangshen Railway; Guangzhou-Shenzhen 广深铁路

Jingjiu Railway uses the same line as Guangmeishan Railway between Longchuan and Dongguan. It also uses the same line as Guangshen Railway between Dongguan and Shenzhen. It then crosses the border and follows the East Rail line to Kowloon, Hong Kong.

Beijing-Guangzhou Corridor
Jingguang Railway; Beijing-Guangzhou 京广线

Datong-Zhanjiang Corridor
Beitongpu Railway; Datong-Fenglingdu 北同蒲线
Taijiao Railway; Taiyuan-Jiaozuo 太焦线
Jiaoliu Railway; Jiaozuo-Liuzhou 焦柳线
Shichang Railway; Shimenxian-Changsha 石长线
Xianggui Railway; Hengyang-Pingxiang 湘桂线
Yuehai Railway; Guangdong-Haikou粤海铁路

Baotou-Liuzhou Corridor
Shenmu–Yan'an railway神延铁路
Xi'an–Yan'an railway 西延铁路
Xi'an–Ankang railway 西康铁路

Baoji-Kunming Corridor
Baocheng Railway; Baoji-Chengdu 宝成铁路
Chengdu–Kunming Railway; Chengdu-Kunming 成昆铁路

East–west direction

Beijing-Lhasa
Fengtai–Shacheng railway; Fengtai-Shacheng 丰沙铁路
Beijing–Baotou railway; Beijing-Baotou 京包铁路
Baotou–Lanzhou railway; Baotou-Lanzhou 包兰铁路
Lanzhou–Qinghai railway; Lanzhou-Xining 兰青铁路
Qinghai–Tibet railway; Xining-Lhasa 青藏铁路

Eurasian Land Bridge
Longhai Railway; Lianyungang-Lanzhou 陇海铁路
Lanzhou–Xinjiang railway; Lanzhou-Xinjiang 兰新铁路
Northern Xinjiang Railway;Ürümqi-Alashankou (Alataw Pass)北疆铁路
 The Second Ürümqi-Jinghe Railway (乌精二线)
Nanjing–Xi'an railway; Nanjing-Xi'an 宁西铁路

Yangtze River Valley
Nanjing–Qidong railway 宁启铁路
Nanjing–Tongling railway 宁铜铁路 (including Nanjing-Wuhu Railway 宁芜铁路)
Tongling–Jiujiang railway 铜九铁路
Wuhan–Jiujiang railway 武九铁路
Wuhan-Yichang Railway 汉宜铁路
Yichang–Wanzhou railway 宜万铁路

Shanghai-Kunming Railway (Hukun Line)
Shanghai–Hangzhou railway; Shanghai-Hangzhou 沪杭铁路
Zhegan Railway; Hangzhou-Zhuzhou 浙赣铁路
Xiangqian Railway; Zhuzhou-Guiyang 湘黔铁路
Shanghai–Kunming railway; Guiyang-Kunming 贵昆铁路

South Coast
 Xiamen–Shenzhen railway Xiamen–Shenzhen 厦深铁路
Guangzhou–Meizhou–Shantou railway; Guangzhou–Meizhou–Shantou 广梅汕线
Guangzhou–Sanshui railway; Guangzhou–Sanshui 广三线
Guangzhou–Maoming railway; Sanshui–Longhua 三茂线
Hechun–Maoming railway; Hechun–Maoming 河茂线
Litang–Zhanjiang railway; Litang–Zhanjiang 黎湛线
Hainan eastern ring high-speed railway
Yuehai railway; Zhanjiang–Haikou 粤海铁路
Guangdong–Hainan railway, Guangzhou–Haikou  (includes the Guangdong–Hainan Ferry)

Other inter-regional railways
Xinjiang–Tibet railway (proposed)
Huanghua–Dajiawa railway 黄大铁路 (freight only)

Regional railways

North
Beijing–Zhangjiakou railway; Beijing–Zhangjiakou 京张线
Beijing–Chengde railway; Beijing–Chengde 京承线
Chengde–Longhua railway; Chengde–Longhua 承隆线
Yeboshou–Chifeng railway; Yeboshou–Chifeng 叶赤线
Ningwu–Kelan railway 宁岢铁路
Handan–Changzhi railway 邯长铁路
Handan–Jinan railway 邯济铁路
Xinxiang–Yanzhou railway 新兖铁路
Yanzhou–Shijiusuo railway 兖石铁路
Zibo–Dongying railway 淄东铁路
Dongdu–Pingyi railway 东平铁路
Ciyao–Laiwu railway 磁莱铁路
Xindian–Taian railway 辛泰铁路
Yangpingguan–Ankang railway 阳安铁路
Yangquan–Dazhai railway 阳大铁路
Tianjin–Jizhou railway 津蓟铁路
Tangshan–Caofeidian railway
Jiexiu–Yangquanqu railway

Northeast
Beijing–Tongliao railway; Beijing–Tongliao 京通铁路
Jinzhou–Chengde railway; Jinzhou–Chengde 锦承线
Weizhangzi–Tashan railway; Weizhangzi–Tashan 魏塔线
Jining–Tongliao railway; Jining–Tongliao 集通线
Jinzhou–Nanpiao railway; Jinzhou–Nanpiao 南票线
Xinlitun–Yixian railway; Xinlitun–Yixian 新义线
Gaotaishan–Xinlitun railway; Gaotaishan–Xinlitun 高新线
Goubangzi–Tangwangshan railway;Goubangzi–Tangwangshan 沟海线
Yingkou–Dashiqiao railway; Yingkou–Dashiqiao 营口线
Zhoushuizi–Lushun railway; Zhoushuizi–Lushun旅顺线
Jinzhou–Chengzidan railway; Jinzhou–Chengzidan 金城线
Chengzidan–Zhuanghe railway; Chengzidan–Zhuanghe 城庄线
Qiqihar–Bei'an railway; Qiqihar–Bei'an 齐北铁路
Fuyu–Nenjiang railway; Fuyu–Nenjiang 富嫩铁路
Nenjiang–Greater Khingan Forest railway; Nenjiang–Greater Khingan Forest District 嫩林铁路
Tongliao–Ranghulu railway; Tongliao–Daqing 通让铁路
Baiyinhua–Xinqiu railway 巴新铁路 (freight only)
Xiangyangchuan–Hayudao railway 向阳川-哈鱼岛铁路

East and Southeast
 Anhui–Jiangxi railway Wuhu–Guixi 皖赣铁路
 Hengfeng–Nanping railway Hengfeng–Nanping 横南铁路
 Nanping–Fuzhou railway Nanping (Waiyang Station)–Fuzhou 外福铁路
 Zhangping–Quanzhou–Xiaocuo railway Zhangping–Quanzhou 漳泉肖铁路
 Xiangtang–Putian railway Nanchang–Fuzhou, Putian 向莆铁路
 Zhangping–Longyan railway; Zhangping–Longyan 漳龙铁路
 Meikan railway; Meizhou–Kanshi 梅坎铁路
 Longyan–Xiamen railway Longyan–Xiamen 龙厦铁路
 Ganzhou–Longyan railway Ganzhou–Longyan 赣厦铁路
 Jinhua–Wenzhou railway Jinhua–Wenzhou 金温铁路
 Ganzhou–Shaoguan railway Ganzhou–Shaoguan 赣韶铁路
Quzhou–Ningde railway
Dezhou–Dajiawa railway Dezhou–Weifang 德大铁路 (freight only east of Dongying)
Dongying Port railway 东营港疏港铁路 (freight only)
Longkou–Yantai railway
Xiangtangxi–Le'an railway (freight only, partially abandoned)
Xingguo–Quanzhou railway (under construction)
Binhai Port railway (under construction)
Jinhua–Taizhou railway (under construction)

South Central
 Jingmen–Shashi railway 荆沙铁路
 Hankou–Danjiangkou railway 汉丹铁路
Huaihua–Shaoyang–Hengyang railway 怀邵衡铁路
 Huizhou Port railway 惠州港铁路 (freight only)
 Nansha Port railway 南沙港铁路

Southwest
Xiangyang–Chongqing railway; Xiangyang–Chongqing 襄渝铁路
Dazhou–Chengdu railway 达成铁路; Chengdu–Dazhou
Chengdu–Chongqing (Chengyu) railway; Chengdu–Chongqing 成渝铁路
Suining–Chongqing railway; 遂渝铁路
Yuli railway; Chongqing–Lichuan 渝利铁路
Chongqing–Huaihua railway; Chongqing–Huaihua 渝怀铁路
Sichuan–Guizhou railway; Chongqing–Guiyang 川黔铁路
Guizhou–Guangxi railway Guiyang–Liuzhou 黔桂铁路
Hunan–Guangxi railway Hengyang–Pingxiang 湘桂铁路
Nanning–Kunming railway; Nanning–Kunming 南昆铁路
Neijiang–Kunming railway; Neijiang–Kunming 内昆铁路
Yunnan–Vietnam railway; Kunming–Hanoi 昆河铁路
Guangtong–Dali railway; Guangtong Station–Dali 广大铁路
Dali–Lijiang railway; Dali–Lijiang 大丽铁路
Kunming–Yuxi railway; Kunming–Yuxi 昆玉铁路
Weishe–Hongguo railway; Weishe–Hongguo 威红铁路
Pan County West railway; Hongguo–Zhanyi 盘西铁路
Liupanshui–Baiguo railway; Liupanshui–Baiguo 水柏铁路
Yulin–Tieshangang railway; Yulin–Tieshangang 玉铁铁路
Wen'an–Machangping railway 瓮马铁路 (under construction)
Dali–Ruili railway 大瑞铁路 (under construction)

Northwest
Linhe–Ceke railway; Linhe–Ejin Banner 临策铁路
Jiayuguan–Ceke railway; Jiayuguan–Ejin Banner 嘉策铁路
Southern Xinjiang railway; Turpan–Kashgar 南疆铁路
Kashgar–Hotan railway; Kashgar–Hotan 喀和铁路
Jinghe–Yining–Khorgos railway; Jinghe–Yining–Khorgos 精伊霍铁路
Kuytun–Beitun railway; Kuytun–Beitun 奎北铁路
Ürümqi–Dzungaria railway; Ürümqi–Jiangjunmiao 乌准铁路
Hami–Lop Nur railway; Hami–Lop Nur 哈罗铁路
Hotan–Ruoqiang railway (under construction)
Tianshui–Longnan railway 天陇铁路 (under construction)

Coal transport railways
Datong–Qinhuangdao railway 大秦铁路
Ningwu–Jingle railway 宁静铁路
Shenhuang railway
Houma–Yueshan railway 侯月铁路
Xinxiang–Yueshan railway 新月铁路

Intra-city Metros
 Urban rail transit in China
 Rail transport in Hong Kong

Former railways
Woosung Road

International railways
 China–Nepal railway
 China–Pakistan railway
 China–Laos railway
 China–North Korea railway
 Yiwu–London railway line
 Chongqing–Xinjiang–Europe Railway
 Yiwu–Madrid railway line
 Trans–Mongolian Railway

External links

 Individual China Rail Passenger routes displayed in Google Maps with timetable (Chinese and English)
Railway map of China (1). Showing double track lines, eletrified lines and planned lines in detail around year 2001.
Railway map of China (2). Showing railway network in 1990s.
Railway map of China (3). Showing railway network in 1980s.
Railway map of China (4). Showing railway network by 2006.
Railway map of China (5). Very Large railway map of China in Both English and Chinese by 2006.

China

Lines

List of railway lines in China


The Astrophysical Virtual Observatory (AVO) project conducted a research and demonstration programme on the scientific requirements and technologies necessary to build a virtual observatory for European astronomy. The AVO has been jointly funded by the European Commission (under FP5 - Fifth Framework Programme) with six European organisations participating in a three-year Phase-A work programme, valued at 5 million euro. The partner organisations were the  European Southern Observatory (ESO) in Munich, Germany, the European Space Agency (ESA), AstroGrid (funded by PPARC as part of the UK's E-Science programme), the CNRS-supported Centre de Données Astronomiques de Strasbourg (CDS), the University Louis Pasteur in Strasbourg, France, the CNRS-supported TERAPIX astronomical data centre at the Institut d'Astrophysique in Paris, France, and the Jodrell Bank Observatory of the Victoria University of Manchester, United Kingdom.

The Phase A program focussed its effort in the following areas:

A detailed description of the science requirements for the AVO was constructed, following the experience gained in a smaller-scale science demonstration program called ASTROVIRTEL (Accessing Astronomical Archives as Virtual Telescopes).
The difficult issue of data and archive interoperability was addressed by new standards definitions for astronomical data and trial programmes of "joins" between specific target archives within the project team.
The necessary GRID and database technologies were assessed and tested for use within a full AVO implementation.

References

 Virtual Observatories initiatives worldwide, State of the projects 2006 ( www.Interquanta.biz/vos ) highlights that EURO-VO is the continuation from AVO as a Phase-B deployment of an operational VO in Europe.

External links

Its continuation project EURO-VO or European Virtual Observatory Euro-VO
AVO at ESA/Hubble

Virtual observatories
Organizations based in Europe

Astrophysical Virtual Observatory


In mathematics, in particular field theory, the conjugate elements or algebraic conjugates of an algebraic element , over a field extension , are the roots of the minimal polynomial  of  over . Conjugate elements are commonly called conjugates in contexts where this is not ambiguous.  Normally  itself is included in the set of conjugates of .

Equivalently, the conjugates of  are the images of  under the field automorphisms of  that leave fixed the elements of . The equivalence of the two definitions is one of the starting points of Galois theory.

The concept generalizes the complex conjugation, since the algebraic conjugates over  of a complex number are the number itself and its complex conjugate.

Example
The cube roots of the number one are:

The latter two roots are conjugate elements in   with minimal polynomial

Properties
If K is given inside an algebraically closed field C, then the conjugates can be taken inside C. If no such C is specified, one can take the conjugates in some relatively small field L. The smallest possible choice for L is to take a splitting field over K of pK,α, containing α. If L is any normal extension of K containing α, then by definition it already contains such a splitting field.

Given then a normal extension L of K, with automorphism group Aut(L/K) = G, and containing α, any element g(α) for g in G will be a conjugate of α, since the automorphism g sends roots of p to roots of p. Conversely any conjugate β of α is of this form: in other words, G acts transitively on the conjugates. This follows as K(α) is K-isomorphic to K(β) by irreducibility of the minimal polynomial, and any isomorphism of fields F and F that maps polynomial p to p can be extended to an isomorphism of the splitting fields of p over F and p over F, respectively.

In summary, the conjugate elements of α are found, in any normal extension L of K that contains K(α), as the set of elements g(α) for g in Aut(L/K). The number of repeats in that list of each element is the separable degree [L:K(α)]sep.

A theorem of Kronecker states that if α is a nonzero algebraic integer such that α and all of its conjugates in the complex numbers have absolute value at most 1, then α is a root of unity. There are quantitative forms of this, stating more precisely bounds (depending on degree) on the largest absolute value of a conjugate that imply that an algebraic integer is a  root of unity.

References
David S. Dummit, Richard M. Foote, Abstract algebra, 3rd ed., Wiley, 2004.

External links

Field (mathematics)

Conjugate element (field theory)


is a shōjo manga created by Ema Toyama. The series was first published in 2004 by Kodansha. Pixie Pop was then later translated and released on 13 February 2007 by Tokyopop.

The series lasted for three volumes and rated for 13 (Teens 13 and/or older) for romance. Although the story's theme mainly focuses on the romance that ensues between the protagonist and her crush, Pixie Pop also contains fantasy elements, such as the existence of drink fairies and magical abilities.

Plot
The story follows the adventures of 12-year-old Mayu Kousaka who is just starting middle school. Her family owns a successful café business, and as such, she is heavily selective about what she drinks. Mayu especially enjoys soda pop, though she is known to like anything that has flavor.

When Mayu goes to her first day of middle school, she finds that she must sit next to her former elementary school crush, Shinya Amamiya. The memory of when he turned her down on the day of elementary school graduation still plagues Mayu's mind, and she is incapable of making any true effort to speak to him.

As Mayu is sitting at the bar, a glass and several cans of pop near her, she begins to reminisce about her first meeting with Shinya, when he helped her find her mother. A single teardrop falls into her glass, turning the pop seven different colors. Figuring it was one of her mother's "experiments", she drinks the strange liquid, and finds it to be disgusting. This is when she sees Pucho, who suddenly appears. As it turns out, Pucho is a magical drink spirit, who had gotten the recipe for the seven-color drink (which is supposed to transform drink fairies into adults). Bitter that Mayu drank it instead of her, Pucho proceeds to terrorize Mayu, who thinks that she's merely dreaming and drinks some cold milk to wake herself up. In all actuality, it turns her into a giant. From that point on, anything Mayu drinks (with the exception of water, although it did turn her invisible one time) will cause her to transform. Many times, Mayu has no control over what she does or says during her transformations, and the only way to undo them is with the magic words spoken by Pucho: "Puppuku Pucho!".

The rest of the series centers around Mayu and Pucho's adventures to uncover the colors of the seven-color drink in order to assemble it again, as it is said that the feelings of love create them. As such, Pucho vows to make Shinya fall in love with Mayu.

Characters

Main

The twelve-year-old protagonist of the series. She has a mother and a younger brother, and her family owns and runs a café called Clover; her father, though mentioned, never appears. After drinking the seven-color drink, Mayu gains the special ability to transform. She has a long-lasting elementary school crush on Amamiya, and is unsure if he reciprocates her feelings. She is the only one who can see Pucho because of the 7-colored drink.

Mayu's romantic rival is Konoha and weeps constantly because of Konoha's many advances towards Amamiya. In the 3rd volume she tries to make Amamiya jealous by dating Yuuki, and it works, but Amamiya doesn't reveal his true feelings and causes her to get upset. Due to Yuuki's kindness and love it causes one color of the seven colored drink to appear and Mayu thinks she fell in love with him, but Pucho explains that the color represented "being loved". She tries to reject him but finds it hard since he was so kind to her. Yuuki sees her love for Amamiya and tells her to go after him. She confesses her love again and Amamiya kisses her. She and Amamiya get married at the end of the book.

The drink fairy responsible for keeping Mayu's family's café in business. She at one time had assembled all of the ingredients for the seven-color drink, ending with the last one, "human tears" (supplied by Mayu), but was late to get to it, and as a consequence, Mayu drank it instead. She has magical abilities, such as an incantation to make Mayu's transformation end (Puppuku Pucho). She is supposedly a powerful drink fairy, due to her mentioning that only the stronger ones can receive the recipe for the seven-color drink. Pucho is sarcastic and strong-minded. Some readers once thought that she was a male due to her tone and use of language. At one time, it is said that her full name is "Pucho Puchocho Puppuku Pikokku". Pucho cannot be seen by normal humans, so when only one color was left in Mayu she was upset since Pucho would disappear and refused to see Shinya and give out the last color. Pucho convinced her they would always be friends and Mayu got the last color. At Mayu's wedding with Shinya, Pucho became an adult by absorbing Mayu's tears of happiness and was able to be seen by humans.

Mayu's first and only crush since kindergarten. After rejecting her on the day of elementary school graduation, he appears somewhat indifferent to her, though at one point does give her the "okay" to romantically pursue him. He is noted for turning down the popular girl in school, Kanemoto, when she asked him if he would like to go out with her. He also claims that he won't date someone he doesn't know well. He dislikes sweets. Shinya had a crush on Konoha when he was younger, and when he learned she left for America he was devastated and changed into a cold jerk. He fell in love with Mayu because she always loved him no matter how he acted and wanted to return her feelings. When he realized his feelings, was when Mayu went on a date with Yuuki Kakeru to make him jealous. He confronted Mayu about him and when he saw the flower he put in her hair, he congratulated her and it upset Mayu; she thought he didn't care about her. In the end, he confessed to her and kissed her. At the end of the manga, Shinya and Mayu marry each other.

Konoha first appears at the end of volume one. She is Shinya's first love. She appears perfect at everything, and gets very jealous of Mayu when she is around her and is persistent in overdoing her in everything. She lived abroad in America for six years before finally returning to Japan. Konoha is the "princess" of the Hiiragi family business and is a bit spoiled at times. Noted perfectionist. She is never seen without Pamo-chan, who is very important to her. In volume 3, she tried to take Shinya to America but he told Konoha that he has fallen in love with Mayu and wishes to stay with her. She accepted the fact that her childhood friend had changed and left Japan. At the end of the book, she returns to Japan to attend Mayu and Shinya's wedding.

Minor
Pamo-chan
An elephant stuff toy that talks and has a mind of its own. He was given by Shinya to Hiiragi eight years ago, and Hiiragi has kept him close to her ever since then. He considers Mayu Kousaka's rival and often makes bad comments on her. He once fell down on a tree, and Mayu transformed into a ninja to save him as he is noted to be Hiiragi's most important thing from Shinya, however, that did not change how he thinks of Mayu.

Nazuna Hayase
Nazuna is Mayu's best friend. She asked Amamiya-kun to meet Mayu at the playground and persuaded Mayu to confirm her love to him. Of course it didn't work out. Ryouta has a major crush on her. Mayu and Amamiya-kun both tried to help get Nazuna and Ryouta together. In volume 3, she gathered her courage and confessed to Ryouta.

Ryouta Minigawa
Ryouta is Amamiya's best friend. He obviously has a huge crush on Mayu's best friend, Nazuna. In volume 2 they were voted as best couple even though they weren't a couple. Ryouta confessed his love for Nazuna when they had a wedding for winning best couple. After that Nazuna was too shy to speak with him about it. In volume 3 Nazuna confirmed her love to him.

Kakeru Yuuki
Yuuki appears in volume 3. Mayu used him to make Shinya jealous, but she thought it was the power of the 7 colored drink that made him like her-but he actually had a real crush on her for a long time. Mayu felt bad and cried for him, and he explains that he is happy that she was finally looking at him instead of Shinya and kissed her forehead. His affection caused the 7 colored drink to appear, and Mayu to realize his true feelings. He asks her out and Mayu doesn't think she can reject him since he loves her so much. Mayu passes out in a bush, embarrassing Yuuki-while trying to hide from Shinya, from a fever and he carries her to the nurse. Shinya finds them and thinks they are skipping class to be together and tries to take her back to class and gets in an argument with him. When Mayu drinks Vitamin 0, she loses her love for Shinya and completely falls in love with Yuuki. The transformation is undone since her transformations are weak from only having two colors left and her feelings for Shinya come flooding back. Yuuki sees this and tells Mayu to go after him and gives up on her.

External links
About anime at Anime

Romance anime and manga
Fantasy anime and manga
Shōjo manga
2004 manga
Tokyopop titles
Ema Tōyama
Magical girl anime and manga

Pixie Pop


Hell's Backbone Road is a 38-mile (61 km) gravel road that was built by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s, and connects the towns of Boulder, Utah and Escalante, Utah.  Halfway along the road is Hell's Backbone Bridge, which is  long, and  wide. A  drop is on either side.  Near the bridge are views of the Box-Death Hollow Wilderness.  From late spring to autumn, the road, which climbs to more than 9,000 feet (2,750 m) elevation, is passable by ordinary passenger vehicles, but it is very narrow and winding.

Hell's Backbone Road is a high-country alternative to the paved Utah Scenic Byway 12, which also connects Boulder and Escalante, 27 road miles (44 km) apart.

Images

References

Roads in Utah
Civilian Conservation Corps in Utah
Gravel roads

Hell's Backbone Road


Park Street is a small Hertfordshire village on the southern outskirts of, and around  south of the city centre of, St Albans in England; it is separated from the much of (the rest of) the latter's contiguous built-up area by a buffer to the north.

Park Street has a petrol station, several tyre and automotive service businesses and two food-serving public houses; it is of late and initially disparate medieval origin. The village is also home to the penultimate station on the Abbey Line from Watford Junction, which opened in 1858.

Park Street is also a larger local government ward (the largest settlement of which is How Wood and which includes part of Bricket Wood).  The area falls within the Metropolitan Green Belt.  Residents are mainly employed in nearby cities; east of the street in Frogmore is a substantial business centre and light industrial estate.

Location
Park Street is approximately  miles by road from St Albans via Watling Street (the old Roman road from London to Chester and Holyhead) and then a post-Roman offshoot, St Stephen's Hill, into the medieval city centre.

Just south of the A405/A414 North Orbital Road, Hertfordshire which has a direct spur to the M25 (J21A) and Watford, the A405, road links and rail links are within the village boundaries.

The A405, A414, A5183 (formerly A5, Watling Street) and the former M10 motorway (now numbered as part of the A414 as of 1 May 2009), join at Park Street Roundabout.

To the east and south-east of the village lies the disused Handley Page aerodrome.

Origin of the name
It is thought unlikely the name 'Park' comes from the usual meaning of an enclosure of land for the purpose of hunting but rather simply designates an enclosure of some kind, derived from the Saxon word for enclosure which is  'pearroc'.

The village lies on the Roman Road of Watling Street which forms the main street and continued as a trunk route for travellers going to and from the north from London during Saxon and Norman times.

History
The immediate village has fourteen heritage-listed buildings, one of which on Watling Street is half-timbered – the majority of the rest being brick built early Victorian buildings –  although Toll Cottage on Bury Dell just to the east is 17th century. Most significant to this area would have been the passing trade for villagers to sell ale and produce along Watling Street, and easy access to the markets in St Albans.

Queen Elizabeth I's spy master Sir Francis Walsingham lived at nearby Old Parkbury, south of the village which was the manor house.

There used to be a Sub Post-Office and more shops, however many of these have closed as both How Wood and St Albans provide a larger range of shops.

Landmarks
The main landmark in the village is a mill, which was converted into offices in 1984. During the conversion, a World War II bomb was found in the "Old Smithy's" garden.

There is a village hall, accessed from the A5183. Opened in 1936, it operates as the polling station when required.

Park Street Baptist Church is in Penn Road.

Railway station

Park Street railway station is the first station after St Albans Abbey on the Abbey Line. The railway was built in 1858 as a branch line from the London & Birmingham Railway, and Park Street station has been on its current site since 1890. Before being moved to its current position, on Watling Street, it was situated just near Hyde Lane off Park Street Lane, near the current How Wood station.

There was another railway line, built in 1866, which linked the above London & North Western Railway branch line to St Albans, to the newly constructed Midland Main Line from Bedford to St Pancras at Napsbury. It was a goods line in brief use but closed by 1910, called the Park Street Branch and was operated by the Midland Railway.
The railway bridge near Sycamore Drive was demolished around 1948 after being damaged by a giant propeller being delivered to the Handley Page aircraft works. It is still possible to see some of the bridge brickwork here which is just by The Overdraught pub. Another, over the River Ver at the back of Sycamore Drive, still survives. Beyond the bridge over the River Ver this line crossed what became the Handley Page aircraft factory runway. This runway was in use until the mid-1960s for the maintenance and testing of the V bomber fleet.

A 1960s metal bridge carries the Abbey Line trains, sometimes affectionately dubbed the Abbey Flyer, over the main road, replacing a previous brick one.

Schools
Park Street has two primary schools: Park Street Church of England Primary School, and How Wood Primary School.

The nearest secondary school is Marlborough School.

Public houses

There are now two pubs in the village: The Falcon, and The Overdraught (which used to be called The White Horse). There were previously seven other pubs in Park Street/Frogmore/Colney Street: The Red Lion closed in 2009, and The Swan closed in 2008. In Frogmore, The Red Cow closed in 2001/02, and The Lamb closed in the early 1970s. In Colney, The Black Horse was demolished in 2003; The George and Dragon closed in the early 1990s and The Jolly Farmer, closed in the 1930s.

Until the early 1970s, The Lamb was situated opposite the entrance to the Handley Page aircraft factory (now Frederick Place). Once the factory closed the pub became uneconomic to run and, so legend has it (widely-held story in the village at the time), the landlord and his wife closed the pub, locked themselves in and drank the pub dry before being ordered out by the brewery. The pub's building still exists as a private residence, divided into three flats.

The Falcon is reputed to be on the site of a "Pilgrim's Rest", which was a series of places used to house the pilgrims to St Alban's shrine.

Parks and sport
Park Street has three parks:
Recreation Ground by sports fields on Park Street Lane: Park Street Football Club and the cricket (sport) ground and pavilion.
Mayflower Road Park
Frogmore Lakes Park, to the south of the village just past the gravel pits, popular for fishing.
There was also a large park along Burydell/ Bury Dell Lane; replaced by the vegetable allotments, this was in use at least until 1900.

Notes

References

External links

Villages in Hertfordshire
City of St Albans

Park Street, Hertfordshire


Eric Arturo Delvalle Cohen-Henríquez (2 February 1937 – 2 October 2015) was a Panamanian politician. He served as Vice President under Nicolás Ardito Barletta. Following the disputed 1984 election, and after Barletta's forced resignation, Delvalle served as President of Panama from 28 September 1985 until 26 February 1988.

In 1988, he attempted to remove Manuel Noriega as head of the armed forces, but was himself deposed by the Legislative Assembly, going into hiding and eventually exile.

Background
Delvalle was born in Panama City. His brother Raúl is a former member of the National Assembly (1984–1989). His uncle Max Delvalle was the first Jewish president in Latin America (both were members of Kol Shearit Israel Synagogue). He belonged to the Republican Party founded by his family.

Presidency
Delvalle was elected as Nicolás Ardito Barletta's Vice President in the disputed 1984 election, and after Barletta's forced resignation he served as President of Panama from 28 September 1985 to 26 February 1988. Delvalle's presidency occurred during Manuel Noriega's de facto military rule of the country, and he was a loyal ally of Noriega for much of his administration.

In 1986, US Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs Elliot Abrams openly called on the Panamanian military to overthrow Noriega and suggested that it could lead to the restoration of military aid. The Delvalle government protested, filing a complaint with the Organization of American States; sixteen Latin American states joined Panama in condemning the US statement.

After Noriega's indictment on 4 February 1988 by the US Drug Enforcement Administration, Delvalle unsuccessfully attempted to remove Noriega from his formal post as head of the Panamanian Defense Forces. Instead, Noriega's allies in the Legislative Assembly voted on 22 February to oust Delvalle as president, appointing Education Minister Manuel Solis Palma in his place. Delvalle then went into hiding with the help of the American government. Though initially stating that he intended to remain in Panama,

Before his declaration against Noriega, Delvalle first made sure that his extended family was safe in the US embassy compound in Panama City.  Delvalle did not warn his colleagues about what he was about to do, which placed them and their families at great risk from retribution from Noriega.  With help from dissidents, led by Kurt Muse, Second Vice President Roderick Esquival was able to get his family belatedly into protection at the US embassy, but Esquival chose to stay behind in Panama to continue to lead resistance efforts against Noriega.

Delvalle soon went into the exile in the US. The administration of US President Ronald Reagan refused to recognize the legitimacy of Delvalle's successors and continued to officially support the legitimacy of Delvalle's presidency until his term's official ending in late 1989.

Delvalle and his Noriega-appointed successors are nicknamed the "Kleenex presidents" in Panama due to their "disposability".

In 1994, he was pardoned by President Guillermo Endara for any crimes committed during the Noriega years.  Delvalle was shunned by Panamanian anti-Noriega organizations in Panama before and after the 1989 US invasion of Panama, because of the manner in which he had left the country in 1988.

Personal life and death
Delvalle was married to Mariela Delvalle. He died on 2 October 2015 at the age of 78 in Cleveland, Ohio. He was given a State Funeral by the Government of Panama which was held at the Kol Shearith Israel Synagogue in Panama City.

References

Bibliography

1937 births
2015 deaths
Panamanian Sephardi Jews
Presidents of Panama
Vice presidents of Panama
Politicians from Panama City
Jewish Panamanian politicians
Republican Party (Panama) politicians
North American Sephardi Jews

Eric Arturo Delvalle


The Juan De Fuca Plate is a small tectonic plate. It was created from the Juan de Fuca Ridge which is sinking underneath the western side of the North American Plate.

The plate is west of the American states of Washington and Oregon and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Both the plate and ridge are named after the explorer of the same name. It is the smallest tectonic plate in the world. The second smallest tectonic plate (the Scotia plate) is 6.6 times larger.

References

Tectonic plates

Juan de Fuca Plate


Meyrick Buchanan (born 15 September 1993) is an Australian cricketer. After being considered a strong junior prospect in both cricket & Australian Rules Football, Buchanan withdrew from the 2011 AFL draft to pursue his cricketing opportunities.

He played one Twenty20 match for the Melbourne Renegades in the 2011–12 Big Bash. After losing his Cricket Victoria rookie contract after 2012/13 season, Buchanan switched his focus from cricket to football.

Buchanan represented Geelong Falcons in the 2013 TAC Cup competition. He then played in the VFL for Werribee Tigers in 2014 then Footscray Bulldogs in 2015.

He is the brother of former Victorian Bushrangers cricketer Liam Buchanan and AFL player Amon Buchanan.

References

External links

1993 births
Living people
Australian cricketers
Melbourne Renegades cricketers
Sportsmen from Victoria (state)

Meyrick Buchanan


In linguistics, a subject pronoun is a personal pronoun that is used as the subject of a verb. Subject pronouns are usually in the nominative case for languages with a nominative–accusative alignment pattern. On the other hand, a language with an ergative-absolutive pattern usually has separate subject pronouns for transitive and intransitive verbs: an ergative case pronoun for transitive verbs and an absolutive case pronoun for intransitive verbs.

In English, the commonly used subject pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, one, we, they, who and what. With the exception of you, it, one and what, and in informal speech who, the object pronouns are different: i.e. me, him, her, us, them and whom (see English personal pronouns).

In some cases, the subject pronoun is not used for the logical subject. For example, exceptional case marking (ECM) constructions involve the subject of a non-finite clause which appears in the object form (e.g., I want him to go.) In colloquial speech, a coordinated first person subject will often appear in the object form even in subject position (e.g., Me and James went to the store.) This is corrected so often that it has led to cases of hypercorrection, where the subject pronoun is used even in object position under coordination (e.g., ''Marie gave Susana and I a piece of cake.)

See also
 Disjunctive pronoun
 Object pronoun
 Subject complement
 Subject (grammar)

References

Personal pronouns

Subject pronoun


Bahia Adair or Adair Bay is a bay at the northern end of the Gulf of California in the municipality of San Luis Río Colorado in the state of Sonora in Mexico. It is 40 kilometers from east to west and 15 kilometres from north to south. It contains basins with sizable deposits of salts. The shore area consists of  of  wetlands which were designated a conservation zone under the Ramsar Convention in 2009. There are three different habitats: the wetlands, artesian wells, and the salt pans. Endangered animals live in the area, including one endemic species, the desert pupfish. Portions of the area have been zoned for natural resource extraction. Bahia Adair is part of the Alto Golfo de California Biosphere Reserve is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (1995).

It was named by British explorer Robert William Hale Hardy and noted in his Travels in the Interior of Mexico in 1825 – 1828 originally published in London in 1829.  Hardy thought it marked the entrance to the Colorado River.

References

Bays of Mexico on the Pacific Ocean
Ramsar sites in Mexico
Landforms of Sonora

Bahia Adair


Tephrosia arenicola is a plant in the Fabaceae family, native to the north of Western Australia. The species has no synonyms.

Description
Tephrosia arenicola is shrub covered with dense intertwined hairs (tomentose). The shrub consists of several stems which arise from the base growing to about 50 cm high. The leaves are unifoliolate (compound leaves reduced to single leaflet - and recognizable by the jointed 'petiole'). Their shape is elliptical to ovate, and the edges are entire. They have a dense covering of curved intertwined hairs, are about 0.3-0.5 mm long), and have 6 to 8 lateral veins below. The stipules are inconspicuous or absent. The flowers are axillary, solitary, stalkless and about 5-6 mm long. The calyx, too, is densely tomentose, with lobes which are narrow and which gradually taper to a fine apex, and are about 4 mm long. The standard is orbicular (5x6 mm) and densely covered with short weak hairs on the back. It is orange and has a yellow "eye" at its base. The wings are orange, and 4 x 1.5 mm. The keel is a dark orange (4 x 1.5 mm). The stamens are 9+1, and the style is flattened with  a brush-like beard along the adaxial side. The stigma has a bearded tip. The ovary is densely covered with short, weak, soft hairs.

It flowers from April to May.

Distribution and habitat
It is found in the IBRA regions of the Central Kimberley, the Gascoyne, the Gibson Desert, the Great Sandy Desert, the Little Sandy Desert, and the Pilbara, growing on sandplains, sand ridges, and drainage lines, on red sand, sandy gravel, and alluvium.

Conservation status
It has been declared as "not threatened" under the state conservation act.

References

External links
Tephrosia arenicola occurrence data from Australasian Virtual Herbarium

arenicola
Flora of Western Australia
Plants described in 1980

Tephrosia arenicola


The musado is a modern martial art which is divided into two branches: the traditional musado destined for civil persons and the Musado MCS (Military Combat System) destined for the army and the police. The term musado (from Korean language) means "the way of warrior". Nevertheless, the musado is a German martial art, based on the Korean arts.

The international centre of the musado is in Dortmund.

The grand master of the musado is Herbert Grudzenski (1947-September 20, 2012)  from Germany, the main instructors for the Czech Republic are Oldřich Šelenberk and Antonín Sokol.

Traditional musado
The traditional musado derives from Korean traditional martial arts such as taekwondo, hapkido  & Kuk Sool Won. Many of the techniques tailored more for European physical capabilities while maintaining the Korean martial arts mindset  though Grudzenski himself was also a black belt in Judo & Jujitsu.

The beginning of the musado is dated as from 1968.

Technical levels in the traditional musado
The traditional musado has 6 levels (1.-6. kup) of student which are marked by colour (see the table). Differently from the majority of the martial arts the student does not have a belt since the beginning. Only to the term of the course which lasts 2–4 months there is capacity to pass examination for the white belt.

The belts go up until ninth dan, dan is marked on the belt with Roman numeration written with golden letters. In the Czech Republic, the most graduated is Antonín Sokol (4. dan).

Code of honour of the practitioners of musado
The code of honour is a modern version of the code of ancient Korean units Hwarang.

Oath
 Loyalty to own country
 Loyalty to the teaching and to the instructors, with respect to the parents
 Confidence and fraternity among friends
 Courage when facing an enemy
 Never kill without cause

Moral and ethical principles
After taking oath the student must adhere to these moral and ethical principles (kyohun; Korean terms):
 in – humanity
 oui – justice
 ye – courtesy
 ji – wisdom
 shin – confidence
 sum – goodness
 duk – virtue
 chung – loyalty
 yong – courage

Musado Military Combat System
The Musado MCS is a military system of personal defence and of body-to-body combat, designed especially for training of the army, of the police and of other forces of security.

The musado also is used in training of the special units, for example of the units of aerial war, of the brigades of rapid reaction and of the brigades of the UNO.

In the army of the Czech Republic this system was introduced in 1993.

Musado MCS does not have any rules precisely given. However, with its vast extension it provides more than 4000 techniques and skills which with good mastery enable the warrior to stop an attack.

References

Other websites
  Official page of the musado
  Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic History of the musado
  German organization of the musado

European martial arts
Dortmund

Musado


A weaving shed is a distinctive type of mill developed in the early 1800s in Lancashire, :Derbyshire and Yorkshire to accommodate the new power looms weaving cotton, silk, woollen and worsted. A weaving shed can be a stand-alone mill, or a component of a combined mill. Power looms cause severe vibrations requiring them to be located on a solid ground floor. In the case of cotton, the weaving shed needs to remain moist. Maximum daylight is achieved, by the sawtooth "north-facing roof lights".

History
The early textile trade relied on domestic outworking. Handloom weavers would take the yarn to their cottage loom shops, and return the completed fabric to the mill. Reliable power looms that could be worked from an overhead line shaft were not available before Kenworthy and Bulloughs weft stop motion, the roller temple and the loose reed which appeared in the 1840s. The first weaving floors were on the ground floor of the existing narrow mills, where the workpiece was lit by tall exterior windows. The weaving shed appeared around this time. They initially adjoined existing mills, and then were built as standalone mills by speculating investors or by industrial cooperatives of former handloom weavers. Either group would run the looms themselves or operate the shed as a room and power mill. Here as the name suggests, space was rented to other companies who could specialise in weaving without the skills needed to finance, build and maintain a building.  Weaving sheds were cheap to build and fireproof having no wooden beams. They were also safer, because their north-facing roof windows meant they were not as dependent on gas-lighting as were spinning mills.

Function
The purpose of a weaving shed was to provide spaces for rows and rows of identical looms. A standard shed would house 1200 looms, and it was common to think in multiples of 400 looms. These looms would be tentered by weavers who worked from four to eight looms each and were paid on piece-rate. The looms would be maintained by a skilled tackler who would be on hand to gait the looms and effect instant repairs or adjustments. There would be four tacklers for 400 looms. The looms were powered by leather belts from overhead cross-shafts, on bevel gears from the line shaft that ran the length of the shed.

Attached to the weaving shed in a typical mill would be a boiler house where the steam was raised, an engine room housing a stationary steam engine and a two or three-storey building where the preparatory processes were done below and above would be the warehouse. This also housed the offices. Weaving was not possible without a continuous supply of weft on pirns, and beams carrying the warp. Starting with the warp, it had to be warped from creels of thread, in a multistage process onto the weavers' beam. This could be done in the mill or the warp could be bought in and delivered on the tapers beam. The beam of thread had to be sized in a tape sizing machine by sizers.

Each thread had to pass through the correct eye in the heddle, and through the reed. This was done on a drawing-in frame by loomers. The beam, heddles and reed would be carried through into the weaving-shed and gaited to the loom by the tackler.s  The pirns used for the weft in the shuttles were wound by a pirner, on a pirning machine  in the shed or be bought shuttle ready from the spinners.  The completed pieces would be cut off the loom, (it was on a takeup beam), and this left the shed to go back to the warehouse where it would be examined for faults by the cloth looker, and if it was of satisfactory quality, folded and forwarded to the client. The payroll and paper work was done by office staff.

Construction
The early weaving sheds were simple working industrial buildings and the external materials generally used in their construction are robust and there was little in the way of ornamentation.  External walls were generally in coursed rubble, stone or brick. The few openings or windows were in simple detailed timber joinery. Internal materials comprised stone flag floors, exposed cast iron structure, timber joinery and boarded partitions and lime plaster on lath soffits to the south facing roof slopes. The sheds were often built into the hillside so the wall would benefit from contact with damp earth that would maintain the moisture levels in the shed required by cotton weaving.

The shed would be modular using a 3m by 6m bay, the beams of the roof being supported by cast iron columns. The ground to beam clearance was 3.5m and the ground to ridge height was 4.6m. Later sheds used a longitudinal beam under the gutter beam eliminating the need for a row of columns, creating a 6m by 6m lattice. The modular nature enable sheds to infill on irregularly shaped sites.

The north light roofs to the majority of weaving sheds were constructed with simple 30-degree pitched roofs, comprising a simple structure of common rafters with slate roof coverings facing south and glazed lights to the north. The cast iron beams that support these rows of north lights are ingeniously designed as inverted channel sections such that they both carry the load of the roofs and act as rainwater gutters. The rainwater would exit to identical drainpipes on the east and west exterior walls.

The gutter beams were laid flat with joints aligned over column heads.  The end of each gutter section has an external flange enabling sections to be bolted together over a bracket to the head of the column.  The brackets were designed to collect any resulting leak at the joint and channelled it down the inside of the hollow columns. Cast iron tie rods running from the columnheads, at right angles to the gutterbeams, gave lateral rigidity. The columns were the mounting points for the lineshaft bearings.

Regional variations
Though the North Light Roof Shed predominated in Lancashire and Yorkshire, there were always variations caused by local needs. In Brazil in the southern hemisphere the south lit roof was more appropriate.
Domed vault were used in Leeds, United Kingdom and Issenheim, France but were expensive to build and were dark. Flat roofs on vaults with monitor lights were chosen in Italy, parts of the United States and India because they helped to reduce the heat. Brick vaulting was used in Catalunya, and in settlements that were short of land, two-storey building were erected with the weaving below and the spinning above. Similar two-storey mills were built in 1865 in Angus, Scotland. At Salts Mill in Bradford and in Dundee the power was from below rather than above giving greater headroom while the lace mills of Nottingham and the woollen tweed mills in Roxburghshire had higher roofs to allow for overhead supervision gantries. The Tonnendach mills of central and northern Europe, used a curved broad span with raised transverse rooflights, a system patented by Sequin-Brunner of Switzerland in 1885. Wrought-iron lattice trusses were favoured in France after 1870, while in Ireland the curved light timber Belfast truss was used by Barbour Threads in Hilden, Ulster.

Restoration and reuse
By the 1980s the final weaving companies were woven out (closed), and in a few cases the mills were mothballed. Most however had already been converted for alternative use- and in 2010 a report was written detailing possible ways that the weaving sheds could be renovated and put to alternative uses.

The challenge lies in having 1000m² of top lit shed with no exterior windows, having structural columns every 3.6m. There are successful schemes which convert the shed into covered parking, and divided retail space, offices and business start up units. When part of the centre is opened up to form an inner court, the bays round the edge have been converted into a primary school, residential units and student accommodation.

See also
Cotton mill
Queen Street Mill

References

Notes

Bibliography

External links

Weaving
Textile mills
Cotton production
History of the textile industry
Industrial Revolution in England
Textile mills in Derbyshire
Textile mills in Lancashire
Textile mills in Yorkshire
Textile mills completed in the 18th century

Weaving shed


Aurelio Tiratelli (1842 in Rome – 1900) was an Italian painter, mainly of country scenes with animals.

He was born in Rome. He studied at the Accademia di San Luca in Rome, under Minardi, Alessandro Capalti, and Francesco Podesti for design and painting, while Giulio Tadolini and Pietro Tenerani mentored him as a sculptor. He created some sculpture in his first years as an artist, but then became a painter.

Among his major works: A Cattle Herd at Ostia was acquired by King Vittorio Emanuele; A railroad Disaster; A Cart pulled by Buffalo in the Pontine Marshes, exhibited at the Museo Revoltella of Trieste; Work in oil in Ceccano; Herd of bulls in the Roman Countryside; Un carro alla Marchegiana, vulgarly known as Mambrucca, (surroundings of Rome), exhibited at the 1889 Universal Exposition of Paris. Tiratelli sold paintings to the Khedive of Egypt. However many of his masterworks, he did not apply a title, including canvases that depicted un cavadenti in mezzo and una fiera nella Valle del Sacco (1884 Exhibition). He exhibited in Chile, South America. Tiratelli was knighted and an officer of the Order of the Crown of Italy, and orphanages wished him to become inspector, and many societies made him honorary associate. His son, Cesare Tiratelli, was also a landscape painter. Among his pupils was Giuseppe Signorini.

References

1842 births
1900 deaths
19th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Painters from Rome
Italian painters of animals
19th-century Italian male artists

Aurelio Tiratelli


Dexter is an unincorporated community in Lane County, Oregon, United States. It is located near Dexter Reservoir, a.k.a. Dexter Lake, a reservoir of the Middle Fork Willamette River along Oregon Route 58.

A post office was established in the locality in 1872 and named "Butte Disappointment", after a local landmark named in 1848. The post office was renamed "Dexter" in 1875, apparently after the "Dexter" brand cook stove owned by the postmaster's family.

Access to Dexter Lake, a popular fishing and boating site, is available at Dexter State Recreation Site. The nearby Dexter Lake Club was used in the filming of the road trip scene in the movie Animal House.

The Lost Valley Educational Center is an intentional community near Dexter.

The Parvin Bridge, a covered bridge near Dexter, was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. It carries Parvin Road over Lost Creek, which flows by Dexter.

In 2002, despite not having a city government, Dexter residents opened a public library, the Cascades Foothills Library, that as of August 2006 they are hoping to expand into a regional library.

Demographics

References

External links

Parvin Bridge from Lane County, Oregon Web site

Unincorporated communities in Lane County, Oregon
1872 establishments in Oregon
Populated places established in 1872
Unincorporated communities in Oregon
Populated places on the Willamette River

Dexter, Oregon


Akaflieg Karlsruhe is one of ten flying groups (Akaflieg) attached to German universities. Akaflieg is an abbreviation for Akademische Fliegergruppe, an academic group of students  working with a German University. The Akademische Fliegergruppe Karlsruhe e.V. (Akaflieg Karlsruhe) - (Academic Aviator Group Karlsruhe) is a group of students enrolled at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, who are involved with the development and the design of gliders, as well as research in aerodynamics.

History

Akaflieg Karlsruhe from 1928 to 1933

In the winter semester of 1927/28 a glider group was founded by Karl Töpfer, Assistant at the chair for motor vehicles with a teaching assignment for aircraft technology. The association was registered as Academic Flying Club Karlsruhe 1928. The hang-glider, a large wing equipped with a passenger harness called "Brigant"/"Bandit" was taken over from the Glider Club Karlruhe, which had just been dissolved. Until 1933 three glider planes were built, named "Zögling"/"Pupil", "Hol's der Teufel"/"Let the devil get it" and "Karlsruhe". On May 13, 1933, the Akaflieg Karlsruhe was dissolved. The entire equipment was repossessed to the Karlsruhe grouping of the German Aviation Federation.

Re-foundation 1951

Glider flying was allowed in Germany on May 22, 1951, on which the new Academic Flying Group of Karlruhe was officially founded.
on its first day it 78 members. Thanks to the support of many friends and sponsors, the fleet rapidly expanded. In 1954 a two-seater (model Kranich III) was purchased and got the name "Walter". In 1955 a new Doppelraab V6 named "Studiosus" and a motor-plane Bücker 181 "Bestmann" were added to the fleet.
A self-built L-Spatz 55 was soon built by the Akaflieg.
Mid Sixties work on the project AK-1 started. On January 9, 1971, at 12:31 Central European Time AK-1 was airborne on its own propulsion. The first Prototype of Akaflieg Karlsruhe after the war had proven itself.

The Seventies to Eighties
Flight trials of the Ak-1 were undertaken in the beginning of the seventies. On October 27, 1973, the assemblee decided to launch a new project. AK-2 should be a powerful motor-glider out of Fiberglas. The project was never finished. In parallel flight data calculators for glider flying had been conceived and constructed. AK-3 became a project and a finished flight computer with electric variometer and glide slope indicator was borne, which was even produced in a small series. AK-3R was completed as approach slope calculator
The Ak-4 project was a in cooperation with the Institute for climate research and meteorology at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. Climatic data over the Upper Rhine Region was measured with an airplane purpose built with special equipment for in flight data collection.

Akaflieg Karlsruhe today
Akaflieg Karlsruhe has a workshop on the west campus of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. The students usually work off the required 300 hours per year there. The DG-1000 with a 400-N-Turbine (AK-9) is finished and in flight trials. The main project is the construction of AK-X, a pure wing 15-class glider. The flying activities, with winch hauling, are held on the glider field of Rheinstetten, close to the fair of Karlsruhe since the airport of Karlsruhe-Forchheim was closed.

Gliders/ Prototypes
Aircraft designed and/or built at Akaflieg Karlsruhe include:
 Akaflieg Karlsruhe AK-1 "Mischl" self-launching sailplane
 Single seat glider: steel tube frame construction with fiberglass hull, 15 m of wingspan fitted with a retractable 4 cylinder, two stroke, 28 HP motor, type F10A from Hirth industries.
 Akaflieg Karlsruhe AK-2
 An adaptation of a Glasflügel 604 glider with a motor remaining in the hull, which was a novelty in the Seventies.  The project was cancelled in favor of AK-5 after 16 years.
 AFK-3

 A single engine Winch was conceived as a novelty, using one engine for driving the truck on the road and hauling the gliders into the air. The winch is hydro-electric and the winch operator uses the passenger seat instead of a separate operator cabin.
 Akaflieg Karlsruhe AK-5 "Ardea"

 Single-seat standard glider in Fiberglass construction. The hull is a Glasflügel 604. The wings have the shape of a Falcon, a prototype designed by Hansjörg Streifeneder (maiden flight 1981). The aim of the project was to pass on the knowledge and incorporate modern, less expensive construction methods as fiberglass. It can be used in instruction because of easy handling. The first flight was June 1, 1990.
 Akaflieg Karlsruhe AK-5b "Otto K.K."
 This is a development of AK-5 with "winglets" and rebuild hull interior. New, easier steering mechanics allow student pilots to fly and new materials are lighter. The first flight of AK-5b was 1996.
 Akaflieg Karlsruhe AK-8
Single seat 15m standard class glider. New elliptical shaped were built with an aluminum mold. The hull is a DG-600M. Maiden flight of AK-8 was in 2003. After a crash a new left wing was finished in 2009. Improved wings with winglets and improved performance were added in 2014.
Akaflieg Karlsruhe AK-9 or DG-1000J D-KAKJ "Jet"

 A 400N turbine was installed in a two-seater DG-1000. In Cooperation with the Institute for Thermal Flowengines at the KIT the behavior of an AMT Titan Jet Engine by the Dutch producer Draline were researched and improved with a silencer.
 AK-X

 A pure wing glider-prototype with improved handling and performance is currently being built, inspired by the pure-wing conception of the Horten brothers and based on the experience of the SB-13 built by Akaflieg Braunschweig. A 1:2 model flew mid 2015.

References

Bibliography

External links
Akaflieg Karlsruhe
Akaflieg Karlsruhe homepage
sailplanedirectory.com
idaflieg.de
centennialofflight.net
ntrs.nasa.gov

Aviation in Germany
Aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Sailplanes, German
German experimental aircraft
Akaflieg Karlsruhe aircraft

Akaflieg Karlsruhe


Lucius Clodius Macer was a legatus of the Roman Empire in Africa in the time of Nero.  He revolted in May 68, cutting off the food supply of Rome, possibly at the instigation of Calvia Crispinilla.  Although encouraged by Galba, Macer raised a legion Legio I Macriana liberatrix in addition to the Legio III Augusta that he already commanded, presumably raising suspicion that Macer also harbored imperial ambitions, and in October 68 Galba had him killed by the procurator Trebonius Garutianus. Papirus, the centurion of Mucianus, was implicated in his assassination.

He produced denarii which are extremely rare today. Only about 85 are known to exist, of which only 20 bear his portrait. He uses the formulaic abbreviation S C (senatus consulto) on his denarii; this otherwise had only rarely appeared on Roman silver coins since about 40 BC. We may take this and his decision to portray himself without a laurel wreath or a diadem as evidence that he wished to portray his revolt as being against Nero, not the senate.

Sources
 Plutarch, Galba 6,1f.
 Tacitus, Histories 1,37,3; 1,7,1; 2,97,2; 4,49,4.

External links

Clodius Lucius Macer
Ancient Roman generals
1st-century Romans
Year of birth unknown
Macer, Lucius
Roman rebels
Assassinated Roman politicians

Lucius Clodius Macer