Anaphylaxis is a serious, potentially fatal allergic reaction and medical emergency that is rapid in onset and requires immediate medical attention regardless of use of emergency medication on site. It typically causes more than one of the following: an itchy rash, throat closing due to swelling that can obstruct or stop breathing; severe tongue swelling that can also interfere with or stop breathing; shortness of breath, vomiting, lightheadedness, loss of consciousness, low blood pressure, and medical shock. These symptoms typically start in minutes to hours and then increase very rapidly to life-threatening levels. Urgent medical treatment is required to prevent serious harm and death, even if the patient has used an epipen or has taken other medications in response, and even if symptoms appear to be improving.

Common causes include allergies to insect bites and stings, allergies to foods – including nuts, milk, fish, shellfish, eggs and some fresh fruits or dried fruits; allergies to sulfites – a class of food preservatives and a byproduct in some fermented foods like vinegar; allergies to medications – including some antibiotics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like aspirin; allergy to general anaesthetic (used to make people sleep during surgery); allergy to contrast agents – dyes used in some medical tests to help certain areas of the body show up better on scans; allergy to latex – a type of rubber found in some rubber gloves and condoms. Other causes can include physical exercise, and cases may also occur in some people due to escalating reactions to simple throat irritation or may also occur without an obvious reason. The mechanism involves the release of inflammatory mediators in a rapidly escalating cascade from certain types of white blood cells triggered by either immunologic or non-immunologic mechanisms. Diagnosis is based on the presenting symptoms and signs after exposure to a potential allergen or irritant and in some cases, reaction to physical exercise.

The primary treatment of anaphylaxis is epinephrine injection into a muscle, intravenous fluids, then placing the person "in a reclining position with feet elevated to help restore normal blood flow". Additional doses of epinephrine may be required. Other measures, such as antihistamines and steroids, are complementary. Carrying an epinephrine autoinjector, commonly called an "epipen" and identification regarding the condition is recommended in people with a history of anaphylaxis. Immediately contacting ambulance / EMT services is always strongly recommended, regardless of any on site treatment. Getting to a doctor or hospital as soon as possible is absolutely required in all cases, even if it appears to be getting better.

Worldwide, 0.05–2% of the population is estimated to experience anaphylaxis at some point in life. Globally, as underreporting declined into the 2010s, the rate appeared to be increasing. It occurs most often in young people and females. About 99.7% of people hospitalized with anaphylaxis in the United States survive.

Etymology
The word is derived from , and φύλαξις
romanized: phylaxis lit. 'protection'.

Signs and symptoms

Anaphylaxis typically presents many different symptoms over minutes or hours with an average onset of 5 to 30 minutes if exposure is intravenous and up to 2 hours if from eating food. The most common areas affected include: skin (80–90%), respiratory (70%), gastrointestinal (30–45%), heart and vasculature (10–45%), and central nervous system (10–15%) with usually two or more being involved.

Skin

Symptoms typically include generalized hives, itchiness, flushing, or swelling (angioedema) of the affected tissues. Those with angioedema may describe a burning sensation of the skin rather than itchiness. Swelling of the tongue or throat occurs in up to about 20% of cases. Other features may include a runny nose and swelling of the conjunctiva. The skin may also be blue tinged because of lack of oxygen.

Respiratory
Respiratory symptoms and signs that may be present include shortness of breath, wheezes, or stridor. The wheezing is typically caused by spasms of the bronchial muscles while stridor is related to upper airway obstruction secondary to swelling. Hoarseness, pain with swallowing, or a cough may also occur.

Cardiovascular
While a fast heart rate caused by low blood pressure is more common, a Bezold–Jarisch reflex has been described in 10% of people, where a slow heart rate is associated with low blood pressure. A drop in blood pressure or shock (either distributive or cardiogenic) may cause the feeling of lightheadedness or loss of consciousness. Rarely very low blood pressure may be the only sign of anaphylaxis.

Coronary artery spasm may occur with subsequent myocardial infarction, dysrhythmia, or cardiac arrest. Those with underlying coronary disease are at greater risk of cardiac effects from anaphylaxis. The coronary spasm is related to the presence of histamine-releasing cells in the heart.

Other
Gastrointestinal symptoms may include severe crampy abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. There may be confusion, a loss of bladder control or pelvic pain similar to that of uterine cramps. Dilation of blood vessels around the brain may cause headaches. A feeling of anxiety or of "impending doom" has also been described.

Causes
Anaphylaxis can occur in response to almost any foreign substance. Common triggers include venom from insect bites or stings, foods, and medication. Foods are the most common trigger in children and young adults, while medications and insect bites and stings are more common in older adults. Less common causes include: physical factors, biological agents such as semen, latex, hormonal changes, food additives and colors, and topical medications. Physical factors such as exercise (known as exercise-induced anaphylaxis) or temperature (either hot or cold) may also act as triggers through their direct effects on mast cells. Events caused by exercise are frequently associated with cofactors such as the ingestion of certain foods or taking an NSAID. In aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), alcohol is a common trigger. During anesthesia, neuromuscular blocking agents, antibiotics, and latex are the most common causes. The cause remains unknown in 32–50% of cases, referred to as "idiopathic anaphylaxis." Six vaccines (MMR, varicella, influenza, hepatitis B, tetanus, meningococcal) are recognized as a cause for anaphylaxis, and HPV may cause anaphylaxis as well.

Food and alcohol
Many foods can trigger anaphylaxis; this may occur upon the first known ingestion.  Common triggering foods vary around the world due to cultural cuisine.  In Western cultures, ingestion of or exposure to peanuts, wheat, nuts, certain types of seafood like shellfish, milk, fruit and eggs are the most prevalent causes. Sesame is common in the Middle East, while rice and chickpeas are frequently encountered as sources of anaphylaxis in Asia. Severe cases are usually caused by ingesting the allergen, but some people experience a severe reaction upon contact. Children can outgrow their allergies.  By age 16, 80% of children with anaphylaxis to milk or eggs and 20% who experience isolated anaphylaxis to peanuts can tolerate these foods. Any type of alcohol, even in small amounts, can trigger anaphylaxis in people with AERD.

Medication
Any medication may potentially trigger anaphylaxis. The most common are β-lactam antibiotics (such as penicillin) followed by aspirin and NSAIDs. Other antibiotics are implicated less frequently. Anaphylactic reactions to NSAIDs are either agent specific or occur among those that are structurally similar meaning that those who are allergic to one NSAID can typically tolerate a different one or different group of NSAIDs. Other relatively common causes include chemotherapy, vaccines, protamine and herbal preparations. Some medications (vancomycin, morphine, x-ray contrast among others) cause anaphylaxis by directly triggering mast cell degranulation.

The frequency of a reaction to an agent partly depends on the frequency of its use and partly on its intrinsic properties. Anaphylaxis to penicillin or cephalosporins occurs only after it binds to proteins inside the body with some agents binding more easily than others. Anaphylaxis to penicillin occurs once in every 2,000 to 10,000 courses of treatment, with death occurring in fewer than one in every 50,000 courses of treatment. Anaphylaxis to aspirin and NSAIDs occurs in about one in every 50,000 persons. If someone has a reaction to penicillin, his or her risk of a reaction to cephalosporins is greater but still less than one in 1,000. The old radiocontrast agents caused reactions in 1% of cases, while the newer lower osmolar agents cause reactions in 0.04% of cases.

Venom
Venom from stinging or biting insects such as Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps) or Triatominae (kissing bugs) may cause anaphylaxis in susceptible people. Previous reactions that are anything more than a local reaction around the site of the sting, are a risk factor for future anaphylaxis; however, half of fatalities have had no previous systemic reaction.

Risk factors
People with atopic diseases such as asthma, eczema, or allergic rhinitis are at high risk of anaphylaxis from food, latex, and radiocontrast agents but not from injectable medications or stings. One study in children found that 60% had a history of previous atopic diseases, and of children who die from anaphylaxis, more than 90% have asthma. Those with mastocytosis or of a higher socioeconomic status are at increased risk.

Pathophysiology
Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction of rapid onset affecting many body systems. It is due to the release of inflammatory mediators and cytokines from mast cells and basophils, typically due to an immunologic reaction but sometimes non-immunologic mechanism.

Interleukin (IL)–4 and IL-13 are cytokines important in the initial generation of antibody and inflammatory cell responses to anaphylaxis.

Immunologic
In the immunologic mechanism, immunoglobulin E (IgE) binds to the antigen (the foreign material that provokes the allergic reaction). Antigen-bound IgE then activates FcεRI receptors on mast cells and basophils. This leads to the release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine. These mediators subsequently increase the contraction of bronchial smooth muscles, trigger vasodilation, increase the leakage of fluid from blood vessels, and cause heart muscle depression. There is also a non-immunologic mechanism that does not rely on IgE, but it is not known if this occurs in humans.

Non-immunologic
Non-immunologic mechanisms involve substances that directly cause the degranulation of mast cells and basophils. These include agents such as contrast medium, opioids, temperature (hot or cold), and vibration. Sulfites may cause reactions by both immunologic and non-immunologic mechanisms.

Diagnosis
Anaphylaxis is diagnosed on the basis of a person's signs and symptoms. When any one of the following three occurs within minutes or hours of exposure to an allergen there is a high likelihood of anaphylaxis:
 Involvement of the skin or mucosal tissue plus either respiratory difficulty or a low blood pressure causing symptoms
 Two or more of the following symptoms after a likely contact with an allergen:
 a. Involvement of the skin or mucosa
 b. Respiratory difficulties
 c. Low blood pressure
 d. Gastrointestinal symptoms
 Low blood pressure after exposure to a known allergen

Skin involvement may include: hives, itchiness or a swollen tongue among others. Respiratory difficulties may include: shortness of breath, stridor, or low oxygen levels among others. Low blood pressure is defined as a greater than 30% decrease from a person's usual blood pressure. In adults a systolic blood pressure of less than 90 mmHg is often used.

During an attack, blood tests for tryptase or histamine (released from mast cells) might be useful in diagnosing anaphylaxis due to insect stings or medications. However these tests are of limited use if the cause is food or if the person has a normal blood pressure, and they are not specific for the diagnosis.

Classification
There are three main classifications of anaphylaxis.
 Anaphylactic shock is associated with systemic vasodilation that causes low blood pressure which is by definition 30% lower than the person's baseline or below standard values.
 Biphasic anaphylaxis is the recurrence of symptoms within 1–72 hours after resolution of an initial anaphylactic episode. Estimates of incidence vary, between less than 1% and up to 20% of cases. The recurrence typically occurs within 8 hours. It is managed in the same manner as anaphylaxis.
 Anaphylactoid reaction, non-immune anaphylaxis, or pseudoanaphylaxis, is a type of anaphylaxis that does not involve an allergic reaction but is due to direct mast cell degranulation. Non-immune anaphylaxis is the current term, as of 2018, used by the World Allergy Organization with some recommending that the old terminology, "anaphylactoid", no longer be used.

Allergy skin testing

Allergy testing may help in determining the trigger. Skin allergy testing is available for certain foods and venoms. Blood testing for specific IgE can be useful to confirm milk, egg, peanut, tree nut and fish allergies.

Skin testing is available to confirm penicillin allergies, but is not available for other medications. Non-immune forms of anaphylaxis can only be determined by history or exposure to the allergen in question, and not by skin or blood testing.

Differential diagnosis
It can sometimes be difficult to distinguish anaphylaxis from asthma, syncope, and panic attacks. Asthma however typically does not entail itching or gastrointestinal symptoms, syncope presents with pallor rather than a rash, and a panic attack may have flushing but does not have hives. Other conditions that may present similarly include: scrombroidosis and anisakiasis.

Post-mortem findings
In a person who died from anaphylaxis, autopsy may show an "empty heart" attributed to reduced venous return from vasodilation and redistribution of intravascular volume from the central to the peripheral compartment. Other signs are laryngeal edema, eosinophilia in lungs, heart and tissues, and evidence of myocardial hypoperfusion. Laboratory findings could detect increased levels of serum tryptase, increase in total and specific IgE serum levels.

Prevention

Avoidance of the trigger of anaphylaxis is recommended. In cases where this may not be possible, desensitization may be an option. Immunotherapy with Hymenoptera venoms is effective at desensitizing 80–90% of adults and 98% of children against allergies to bees, wasps, hornets, yellowjackets, and fire ants. Oral immunotherapy may be effective at desensitizing some people to certain food including milk, eggs, nuts and peanuts; however, adverse effects are common. For example, many people develop an itchy throat, cough, or lip swelling during immunotherapy. Desensitization is also possible for many medications, however it is advised that most people simply avoid the agent in question. In those who react to latex it may be important to avoid cross-reactive foods such as avocados, bananas, and potatoes among others.

Management
Anaphylaxis is a medical emergency that may require resuscitation measures such as airway management, supplemental oxygen, large volumes of intravenous fluids, and close monitoring. Passive leg raise may also be helpful in the emergency management.

Administration of intravenous fluid bolus and epinephrine is the treatment of choice with antihistamines used as adjuncts. A period of in-hospital observation for between 2 and 24 hours is recommended for people once they have returned to normal due to concerns of biphasic anaphylaxis.

Epinephrine

Epinephrine (adrenaline) (1 in 1,000) is the primary treatment for anaphylaxis with no absolute contraindication to its use. It is recommended that an epinephrine solution be given intramuscularly into the mid anterolateral thigh as soon as the diagnosis is suspected. The injection may be repeated every 5 to 15 minutes if there is insufficient response. A second dose is needed in 16–35% of episodes with more than two doses rarely required. The intramuscular route is preferred over subcutaneous administration because the latter may have delayed absorption. It is recommended that after diagnosis and treatment of anaphylaxis, the patient should be kept under observation in an appropriate clinical setting until symptoms have fully resolved. Minor adverse effects from epinephrine include tremors, anxiety, headaches, and palpitations.

People on β-blockers may be resistant to the effects of epinephrine. In this situation if epinephrine is not effective intravenous glucagon can be administered which has a mechanism of action independent of β-receptors.

If necessary, it can also be given intravenously using a dilute epinephrine solution. Intravenous epinephrine, however, has been associated both with dysrhythmia and myocardial infarction. Epinephrine autoinjectors used for self-administration typically come in two doses, one for adults or children who weigh more than 25 kg and one for children who weigh 10 to 25 kg.

Adjuncts
Antihistamines (both H1 and H2), while commonly used and assumed effective based on theoretical reasoning, are poorly supported by evidence. A 2007 Cochrane review did not find any good-quality studies upon which to base recommendations and they are not believed to have an effect on airway edema or spasm. Corticosteroids are unlikely to make a difference in the current episode of anaphylaxis, but may be used in the hope of decreasing the risk of biphasic anaphylaxis. Their prophylactic effectiveness in these situations is uncertain.  Nebulized salbutamol may be effective for bronchospasm that does not resolve with epinephrine. Methylene blue has been used in those not responsive to other measures due to its presumed effect of relaxing smooth muscle.

Preparedness
People prone to anaphylaxis are advised to have an allergy action plan. Parents are advised to inform schools of their children's allergies and what to do in case of an anaphylactic emergency. The action plan usually includes use of epinephrine autoinjectors, the recommendation to wear a medical alert bracelet, and counseling on avoidance of triggers. Immunotherapy is available for certain triggers to prevent future episodes of anaphylaxis. A multi-year course of subcutaneous desensitization has been found effective against stinging insects, while oral desensitization is effective for many foods.

Prognosis
In those in whom the cause is known and prompt treatment is available, the prognosis is good. Even if the cause is unknown, if appropriate preventive medication is available, the prognosis is generally good. Usually death occurs usually due to either respiratory failure (typically involving asphyxia) or cardiovascular complications, such as cardiovascular shock, with 0.7–20% of cases causing death. There have been cases of death occurring within minutes. Outcomes in those with exercise-induced anaphylaxis are typically good, with fewer and less severe episodes as people get older.

Epidemiology
The number of people who get anaphylaxis is 4–100 per 100,000 persons per year, with a lifetime risk of 0.05–2%. About 30% of people get more than one attack. Exercise-induced anaphylaxis affects about 1 in 2000 young people.

Rates appear to be increasing: the numbers in the 1980s were approximately 20 per 100,000 per year, while in the 1990s it was 50 per 100,000 per year. The increase appears to be primarily for food-induced anaphylaxis. The risk is greatest in young people and females.

Anaphylaxis leads to as many as 500–1,000 deaths per year (2.7 per million) in the United States, 20 deaths per year in the United Kingdom (0.33 per million), and 15 deaths per year in Australia (0.64 per million). Another estimate from the United States puts the death rate at 0.7 per million. Mortality rates have decreased between the 1970s and 2000s. In Australia, death from food-induced anaphylaxis occur primarily in women while deaths due to insect bites primarily occur in males. Death from anaphylaxis is most commonly triggered by medications.

History
The conditions of anaphylaxis has been known since ancient times. French physician François Magendie had described how rabbits were killed by repeated injections of egg albumin in 1839. However, the phenomenon was discovered by two French physiologists Charles Richet and Paul Portier. In 1901, Albert I, Prince of Monaco requested Richet and Portier join him on a scientific expedition around the French coast of the Atlantic Ocean, specifically to study on the toxin produced by cnidarians (like jellyfish and sea anemones). Richet and Portier boarded Albert's ship Princesse Alice II for ocean exploration to make collections of the marine animals.

Richet and Portier extracted a toxin called hypnotoxin from their collection of jellyfish (but the real source was later identified as Portuguese man o' war) and sea anemone (Actinia sulcata). In their first experiment on the ship, they injected a dog with the toxin in an attempt to immunise the dog, which instead developed a severe reaction (hypersensitivity). In 1902, they repeated the injections in their laboratory and found that dogs normally tolerated the toxin at first injection, but on re-exposure, three weeks later with the same dose, they always developed fatal shock. They also found that the effect was not related to the doses of toxin used, as even small amounts in secondary injections were lethal. Thus, instead of inducing tolerance (prophylaxis) which they expected, they discovered effects of the toxin as deadly.

In 1902, Richet introduced the term aphylaxis to describe the condition of lack of protection. He later changed the term to anaphylaxis on grounds of euphony. The term is from the Greek  ἀνά-, ana-, meaning "against", and φύλαξις, phylaxis, meaning "protection". On 15 February 1902, Richet and Portier jointly presented their findings before the Societé de Biologie in Paris. The moment is regarded as the birth of allergy (the term invented by Clemens von Pirquet in 1906) study (allergology). Richet continued to study on the phenomenon and was eventually awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on anaphylaxis in 1913.

Research
There are ongoing efforts to develop sublingual epinephrine to treat anaphylaxis. Trials of sublingual epinephrine, currently called AQST-108 (dipivefrin) and sponsored by Aquestive Therapeutics, are in phase 1 trials as of December 2021. Subcutaneous injection of the anti-IgE antibody omalizumab is being studied as a method of preventing recurrence, but it is not yet recommended.

References

External links

  and Anaphylaxis pathway

Allergology
Complications of surgical and medical care
Medical emergencies
Respiratory diseases
Type I hypersensitivity
Urticaria and angioedema
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate (full)
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate

Anaphylaxis


Time Flies...but Aeroplanes Crash is the fifth EP by the anarcho-punk band Subhumans. Unlike their previous EP's, "Time Flies..." was released as a 12" record, and features both live and studio tracks - the live tracks being taken from an aborted live album, recorded at Feltham Football Club. The record also features the piano-based song "Susan", written by Steve Hamilton - a friend of vocalist Dick.

In 1990, this EP, along with the band's sixth EP "Rats" was compiled as the "Time Flies + Rats" record, therefore collecting all of the band's remaining EP's (bar 1998's "Unfinished Business") that weren't featured on the "EP-LP" compilation.

Track listing
 "Get Out of My Way"
 "First Aid"
 "Word Factory"
 "People are Scared" (Live)
 "Susan"
 "I Don't Wanna Die" (Live)
 "Everyday Life" (Live)
 "Work. Rest. Play. Die"

Further track information
Both "Get Out of My Way" and "First Aid" were songs originally written by the Stupid Humans - the band that guitarist Bruce (plus original Subhumans drummer Andy) played in before the band's formation.

Personnel
Dick Lucas - vocals, piano
Bruce - guitar
Grant Jackson - bass
Trotsky - drums
Steve Collinson - engineer
Steve Hamilton - lyrics to "Susan"

External links
AGM Review

1983 EPs
Subhumans (British band) albums

Time Flies... but Aeroplanes Crash


The 2013 RideLondon–Surrey Classic (also known as the 2013 Prudential RideLondon–Surrey Classic for sponsorship reasons) was the inaugural running of the RideLondon–Surrey Classic one-day cycling race. It was held on 4 August 2013 as a 1.1 category event within the 2013 UCI Europe Tour.

The race was won by  rider Arnaud Démare in a sprint finish from a large main group of 96 riders. Sacha Modolo of  finished second, having also finished second on The Mall in the 2011 London-Surrey Cycle Classic. The podium was completed by Yannick Martinez of .

Pre-race favourite Peter Sagan () failed to finish together with Matthew Goss (). The highest place Briton was Ben Swift () who having been edged out in the final sprint, rolled in tenth, ahead of Gerald Ciolek () - winner of the 2013 Milan – San Remo.

Route

The  route chosen for the 2013 edition of the RideLondon–Surrey Classic was a variation of the course used for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The route featured five categorised climbs and three intermediate sprint points.

Riders started from the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park close to the Olympic Velodrome before passing close to Canary Wharf and the Tower of London on the way through central London. Leaving London by the A4 the route passed through Richmond Park, Kingston upon Thames and Hampton Court Palace.

In Surrey the route passed through Weybridge and Ripley on the way to the first categorised climb of Newlands Corner near Guildford before heading along the A25 to Abinger Hammer. The route then featured three  laps of a hilly section routed through Holmbury St Mary, Forest Green and Ockley which included the climb of Leith Hill - the highest point in South-East England.

The route back to London travelled through Dorking and included a single ascent of Box Hill before the largely flat run-in via Cobham, Kingston upon Thames, Wimbledon and Putney. The final kilometres followed the Embankment, past the Palace of Westminster, along Whitehall and turned right through Admiralty Arch 400m from the finish on The Mall.

Sprints classification
There were three Intermediate Sprints that counted towards the sprints classification:

Note that points were not awarded at the finish line.

King of the Mountains classification
There were five categorised climbs that counted towards the King of the Mountains classification:

Teams
25 teams were invited to the 2013 RideLondon–Surrey Classic: 8 UCI ProTeams, 6 UCI Pro Continental Teams, 10 UCI Continental Teams along with the British national team.

Each of the 25 teams were due to enter six riders to the race, making up a starting peloton of 150 riders.  and  both entered teams of five riders, and Vegard Breen of  did not start, making a starting field of 147 riders.

The 25 teams that competed in the race were:

Race report
A breakaway of eight riders formed after 44 km, although their advantage did not increase beyond five minutes. The breakaway contained Ramon Sinkeldam of  who would subsequently amass enough points at the intermediate sprints and on the categorised climbs to win both the Sprints Classification and the King of the Mountains Classification.

With ,  and  controlling the peloton the gap to the breakaway reduced to a little over two minutes after the three laps of the Leith Hill circuit. The peloton briefly splintered on the last categorised climb of Box Hill as David Millar of  set a furious pace which led to the escape of his teammate Jack Bauer together with Yoann Offredo () and Simon Yates (Great Britain Cycling Team) - who eventually caught the early breakaway.

With the peloton approaching Yoann Offredo and Zico Waeytens () attacked the remnants of the breakaway on the approach to Kingston upon Thames and built a lead of over a minute with 20 km left to race, however on the approach to London (within the final 6 km) they too were caught by the peloton — resulting in the widely expected bunch sprint on The Mall.

David Millar led the peloton through Westminster, but as the teams passed under the flamme rouge with 1 km to go it was  who were the better organised, delivering Arnaud Démare to the line to win by a bike length from Sacha Modolo.

Results

General classification
Of the 147 starters 131 completed the course within the time limit and 96 riders finished on the same time. The top 10 finishers were:

Sprints classification
The results of the Sprints Classification were:

King of the Mountains classification
The results of the King of the Mountains Classification were:

References

External links

2013 UCI Europe Tour
2013 in British sport
2013
2013 in English sport
2013 sports events in London
August 2013 sports events in the United Kingdom

2013 RideLondon–Surrey Classic


Lee Charles Philip Harper (born 30 October 1971) is an English former footballer, and manager who played as a goalkeeper.

After beginning his career with Eltham Town he went on to play in the Football League for Queens Park Rangers, Walsall, Northampton Town and Milton Keynes Dons. He finished his career as a player-manager at Conference National side Kettering Town.

Playing career
Born in Chelsea, London, Harper started his career at non-League club Eltham Town, signing for Sittingbourne after featuring against them, before being signed by Arsenal in June 1994. He cost Arsenal £150,000 – one of the biggest fees paid for a non-league player at the time.

He was third-choice goalkeeper at the club, behind Vince Bartram and David Seaman, and only made one first team appearance for the Highbury side, in a 2–0 FA Premier League win over Southampton on 15 March 1997. In the summer of 1997 he moved to Queens Park Rangers (QPR), and in four seasons made 118 league appearances. He moved to Walsall in 2001 after QPR were relegated to the Second Division, but made only three appearances in his single season there. He moved to Northampton Town in 2002 and became first-choice goalkeeper there, recording over 150 league appearances.

He moved to League Two team Milton Keynes Dons on loan in October 2006, where he helped to repair the team's poor defending record, with a significant reduction in goals conceded. This successful loan spell resulted in Harper signing a permanent deal in January 2007. He was released at the end of the 2006–07 season in May. He signed for Conference North team Kettering Town in August 2007. He made 40 appearances in all competitions in the 2007–08 season as Kettering won the Conference North title. He made 54 appearances in all competitions in the 2008–09 season and he signed a new contract with the club in July 2009.

Managerial career
He was appointed as player-manager of Kettering Town on 16 November 2009 on a contract until the end of the 2009–10 season following the departure of Mark Cooper. On 8 December 2009 Harper was given the Man of the Match award by ITV commentator Andy Townsend for his performance in Kettering Town's 5–1 defeat to Leeds United at Elland Road in the second round of the FA Cup. His assistant John Deehan was sacked after the final whistle and Harper said in the press conference after the game he was considering his own future due to Deehan's sacking. Due to a long-term back problem he was ruled out of action until he had treatment, which resulted in him signing goalkeeper Nathan Abbey in January 2010. He said he was unsure over his future at the club in April 2010 before being appointed full-time manager on 17 May, with Tommy Jaszczun returning to the club as his assistant manager. He left the club by mutual consent on 20 September 2010 after Kettering had won one game in nine up to that point in the 2010–11 season.

Managerial statistics

Honours
Individual

 PFA Fans' Player of the Year: 2003–04 Third Division

References

External links

1971 births
Living people
Footballers from Chelsea, London
English men's footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
Sittingbourne F.C. players
Arsenal F.C. players
Queens Park Rangers F.C. players
Walsall F.C. players
Northampton Town F.C. players
Milton Keynes Dons F.C. players
Kettering Town F.C. players
Premier League players
English Football League players
National League (English football) players
English football managers
Kettering Town F.C. managers

Lee Harper


President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers were the militia of the loyal U.S. states called up on April 15, 1861 following the attack on Fort Sumter by the forces of the Confederate States of America. This was the beginning the American Civil War. President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for a period of 90 days. These limits were established by laws that had been passed in the late eighteenth century and were not necessarily a reflection of the number of troops or the amount of time Lincoln actually thought it would take to put down the rebellion.

The proclamation
Lincoln wrote the proclamation himself showing his lawyer's style of writing:

Background
There was a great deal of tension over the issue of slavery in the Western territories during the presidency of James Buchanan (1857-61). People were taking sides in the issue as never before. When open war broke out in the Kansas Territory (called Bleeding Kansas), Southern slaveholders, Northern abolitionists and Free-soilers flooded into Kansas. Each was trying to influence the vote whether Kansas would join the Union as a slave state or a free state. President Buchanan sent part of the Regular Army to stop the violence but they were too few and too scattered to stop the fighting.

The abolitionist John Brown who played a part in Bleeding Kansas, seized the Harpers Ferry Armory in 1859. He intended to use the weapons to start a slave uprising in the South. Federal troops were called on to put down the outbreak and capture Brown.

On November 6, 1860, when Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the United States. South Carolina seceded from the Union. Followed by six more Southern states, on February 18, 1861, at Montgomery, Alabama they formed the Confederate States of America. Their elected president, Jefferson Davis, called for 100,000 volunteers to serve for one year. In less than six weeks, other Southern states seceded. The Confederates seized federal property in the South including several military posts. The exceptions were Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina and Fort Pickens near Pensacola, Florida.

When these seven states seceded, it caused a breakup in the U.S. Army. Many were from the South and felt they had a responsibility to resign from the U.S. Army and join the Confederate Army. In April of 1861, the United States Army had only 16,000 men organized into fewer than 200 companies. Most of them were at posts west of the Mississippi River. While the army was made up of trained professional soldiers, Lincoln realized he could not put down a rebellion of this size with the army he had.

State Militias before 1861
During the Colonial Period in North America, each colony had the right to summon all able-bodied white males to provide for the defense of that colony. Colonies had militia laws that required every able-bodied man to be available for militia duty and to provide his own arms. In 1774 and 1775, the British government, which now had a larger presence, attempted to disarm American colonists. This caused the colonists to form private militias, independent of any control by the governors who were appointed by the British government. The Minutemen who fought the British Army at the Battles of Lexington and Concord were an independent militia. The American colonies saw standing armies as tools of a despotic monarch.

After the formation of the United States, the founding fathers saw state militias as the main force to defend the new country. They were controlled by the individual states and not by a central government. When the United States Constitution was ratified, it gave the federal government the right to raise a standing army but the feeling at the time was that such an army was to be kept small. This was the prevailing thought up to the 20th century. The Second Amendment to the United States Constitution and other laws of 1792 gave the President the power to call out the state militias to put down rebellion and to fight against any foreign invaders. But, the call for militias had to be authorized by the state legislatures, the militias themselves could only serve for three months in any given year and the size of the militia the President was allowed to call up was limited to 75,000.

During the War of 1812 militia units had the reputation of being poorly trained and poorly disciplined. Massachusetts and Connecticut refused to call out their militias during this time. Vermont would not allow its militia to serve outside of state borders. From 1815 until 1845, many of the Northern states did not require militia service by their citizens. The Mexican-American War was fought mainly by the regular army and volunteers served for one year terms of service. Very few state militias participated. By the 1840s, with no state laws requiring militia service in many states, the militias were replaced by voluneteer groups who served on weekends and provided their own weapons. In exchange for state-supplied weapons and uniforms, many agreed to become part of their respective state militias, especially in Northern states.

State militias had several shortcomings. During the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, they developed a reputation as poor fighters and frequent deserters.

Lincoln's volunteers
When Lincoln called for 75,000 men for federal service, members of his cabinet had advised him to ask for as many as 200,000. However, Lincoln knew that he would be breaking the law if he tried to call up that many men, and on a more practical note he probably also recognized the army did not have the arms or supplies to equip a larger number and so he settled for the legal limit of 75,000. This was still four times the size of the regular army. Each state was given a quota it had to meet based on its population. New York's quota was 17 regiments (13,280 men). Pennsylvania was to send 16 regiments. Other states were given their quotas as well. The slave states refused to send any men, with four of them joining the Confederacy instead. The free states filled out their quotas quickly. Some states did not send any more than their quota required while other states sent more so that Lincoln still got the 75,000 men he asked for. Rhode Island sent four times their quota. Connecticut and Missouri each sent three times their quota. Massachusetts sent two and a half times their quota.

All the new officers and soldiers had to undergo military training. Officers spent their evenings learning tactics and other military matters from books and field manuals. Soldiers spent their days learning to drill and shoot their weapons. Many quickly found that military life was not as romantic as they had pictured it. None realized that training could be the difference between life and death on a battlefield. So training suffered, but the Confederate army had the same problems with their militia units. When the war started, both sides had to depend on their militias.

Congress soon changed the militia law to allow the President to call up serve for longer periods of time.

Notes

References

Other websites
 Abraham Lincoln's Call for 75,000 Troops to Fight in the U.S. Civil War, 1861 - Hear and Read; YouTube

Origins of the American Civil War

President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers


John Conduitt (; c. 8 March 1688 – 23 May 1737), of Cranbury Park, Hampshire, was a British landowner and Whig politician.  He sat in the House of Commons from 1721 to 1737.  He was married to the half-niece of Sir Isaac Newton, whom Conduitt succeeded as Master of the Mint.

Early life
The son of Leonard and Sarah Conduitt, John was baptised at St Paul's, Covent Garden, London, on 8 March 1688. In June 1701 he was admitted to St Peter's College, Westminster School, as a King's scholar.  In 1705, while at Westminster, he was elected a Queen's scholar to Trinity College, Cambridge, with three others.  He was admitted there in June of that year and matriculated to the University, but did not graduate, staying only two years.

Career
By 1707, based on his own account, he was "travelling" in Holland and Germany.  In September 1710, he became judge advocate with the British forces in Portugal.  He was a "very pretty gentleman" according to James Brydges. From October 1710, he acted as the Earl of Portmore's secretary when the latter arrived in Portugal (N&Q). During this time, he kept the Earl of Dartmouth informed about the Portuguese court. He returned to London by October 1711 with Lord Portmore. During the following year, he was made a captain in a regiment of the dragoons serving in Portugal, but by September 1713 he had been appointed Deputy Paymaster General to the British forces in Gibraltar. Those posts appear to have been remunerative, and in May 1717 he returned home to England a rich man.  In 1720, Conduitt acquired the estate and house at Cranbury Park, near Winchester.

Parliament and Mint
In June 1721, Conduitt was elected, on petition, as a Member of Parliament for Whitchurch, Hampshire, which he represented during the 1720s as a loyal supporter of Robert Walpole's Whig government.  Conduitt took an active interest in the running of Isaac Newton's office of Master of the Mint in the latter years of Newton's life, and after Newton's death in March 1727 Conduitt succeeded him to the post.

Isaac Newton having died intestate, Conduitt was appointed by Newton's heirs to serve as executor of Newton's estate.  Conduitt collected materials for a life of Newton, some of which he forwarded to Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle, who used them to prepare Newton's obituary as a foreign member of the French Academy of Sciences.  John Newton, who as his most direct living descendant was heir to Isaac Newton's real estate, had to resort to the Chancery courts to get satisfaction from Conduitt.

By the early 1730s, Conduitt had become a relatively prominent parliamentary speaker, defending the government on a number of issues, including Walpole's maintenance of the Septennial Act. In 1734, he was re-elected to his seat, but chose to represent Southampton. Conduitt, together with fellow MP's Sir John Crosse and George Heathcote, introduced the Witchcraft Act 1735, an enlightened piece of legislation that abolished the death penalty for witchcraft.  The Act marked the definitive end of witch-hunting in Great Britain, introducing instead a maximum penalty of one year's imprisonment for pretending to exercise magical powers.

Personal life
Shortly after his arrival back in England, he became acquainted with Sir Isaac Newton and his half-niece Catherine Barton. After what must have been a whirlwind romance, they applied to the Faculty Office for a licence, which was granted on 23 August 1717, to marry at St Paul's, Covent Garden. Catherine, then aged 38 years, described herself as 32 years old, Conduitt more correctly as about 30. Despite the licence, they instead married three days later on 26 August in her uncle's parish in the Russell Court Chapel in the church of St Martin in the Fields.  Perhaps in an effort to dignify himself for his impending marriage to one of London's famous daughters, Conduitt obtained for himself a grant of arms from the College of Heralds on 16 August.

The couple had one daughter, named after her mother, born 23 May 1721 and baptised in the same parish of St Martin's on 8 June. Partly as a result of his antiquarian interests, Conduitt was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 1 December 1718, proposed by the president, and his uncle by marriage, Sir Isaac Newton. Sir Isaac Newton took up residence at Cranbury with his niece and her husband until his death in 1727 towards the end of his life.

Death and descendants
Conduitt died on 23 May 1737 at age 49, and was buried on 29 May in Westminster Abbey, next to Sir Isaac Newton. His wife Catherine died in 1739 and was buried with him. In his will, dated 1732, he had left his estate to his wife and made her guardian of their underage daughter Catherine. Upon his death, the trustees sold the estate at Cranbury Park as well as estates at Weston and Netley, near Southampton, to Thomas Lee Dummer, who succeeded Conduitt as MP for Southampton.

In 1740 his daughter Catherine married John Wallop, Viscount Lymington, the eldest son of the Earl of Portsmouth.  Catherine's son John Wallop succeeded his grandfather to the peerage.

References

Dictionary of National Biography

External links

 The Condy/Condie Surname

1688 births
1737 deaths
People educated at Westminster School, London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
British MPs 1715–1722
British MPs 1722–1727
British MPs 1727–1734
British MPs 1734–1741
Isaac Newton
Masters of the Mint
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Fellows of the Royal Society

John Conduitt


Christoph Baumer (born June 23, 1952) is a Swiss explorer and historian of Central Asia. Starting in 1984, he has conducted explorations in Central Asia, China, Tibet and the Caucasus, the results of which have been published in numerous books, scholarly publications, TV and radio programs.

Life

Baumer grew up in the Swiss Canton of Thurgau. His father was a businessman; his mother had been a war correspondent for the French national press agency and reported during the Finnish-Russian war in the winter of 1939–1940.  Sven Hedin, the renowned explorer of Asia, aided her return to occupied Belgium, at that time her home. As an adolescent, Baumer was already fascinated by the travel reports of Hedin, and these likely laid the foundation for Baumer's later development. After obtaining a PhD at the University of Zurich, he first worked in business until he became a freelance author and photographer with emphasis on the cultural history of Central Asia and the Caucasus. His books have been published in five languages.

Christoph Baumer is, together with Therese Weber, a Founding Member and President of the archaeological Society for the Exploration of EurAsia. The Society makes scientific contributions to the exploration of the cultures of Eurasia. It promotes archaeological fieldwork in six to eight countries and the scientific exchange of ideas and experience through publications and international conferences.

Exploration in the Taklamakan Desert

In 1994, Baumer led the First Sino-Swiss Taklamakan Expedition, and was the first Westerner to reach the ancient oasis of Niya and Loulan since the 1930s.

The Second International Taklamakan Expedition followed in 1998. Christoph Baumer was the first visitor to the ancient ruined city Dandan Oilik in the Taklamakan Desert since Emil Trinkler and Walter Bosshard in 1928. The results of this expedition were, among other things, the rediscovery and excavation of unknown ruins in Dandan Oilik and Buddhist murals dating from the mid-8th century AD, the discovery of a paper document from the 7th/8th century set in the Khotanese language and Brahmi script, the discovery of a very rare stone inscription in Kharoshthi from the 3rd century AD in the ruined city Endere, and the rediscovery of a Tibetan inscription from 790. From this expedition stemmed the ZDF (Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen) TV-documentary The Lost City of Taklamakan.

In 2003, Baumer conducted the Third International Taklamakan Expedition in collaboration with the Archaeological Institute of Ürümqi, Xinjiang and a representative of the University of London, during which he made finds north of Qiemo from the Neolithic Age (4th–3rd millennium BC).

In 2007, he led the Fourth International Taklamakan Expedition into unexplored regions of the Lop Nor Desert. There he discovered, among other things, a  previously unknown settlement, dating from approximately 100 BC–400 AD.

In 2009, he led the Fifth International Taklamakan Expedition into the unexplored ancient delta of the River Keriya in the centre of the desert, and discovered two unknown graveyards: Satma Mazar (Iron Age) and Ayala Mazar (Bronze Age).

Other explorations

Further expeditions took Baumer to southern Tibet in 1996, where he rediscovered in the former monastery Sekar Guthok forgotten murals from the 13th century; and in 1997 again to southern Tibet, where he discovered in the Pa-Lha-Puk Monastery the oldest existing murals of the Bön religion – from the early 15th century – in all of Tibet.

In the years 2000 to 2005 he researched and documented most of the relevant cultural monuments of the Assyrian Church of the East, from southeastern Turkey to Mongolia, China and southern India.

In the years 1993, 2006 and 2007 he visited and documented all the Buddhist monasteries of Mount Wutai Shan, northwestern China.

From 2013 to 2019 he explored on six journeys the Caucasus region in view of a forthcoming publication on the history of the Caucasus.

Bibliography
Tibet's Ancient Religion: Bön, Weatherhill and Orchid Press, 2002.  (Asia & Europe),  (Americas)
 Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin, 2nd revised edition, Orchid Press, 2004. 974-8304-39-6 (Paperback)  (Hardback)
 The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity, I.B. Tauris, London, 2006, revised 2016.
 Traces in the Desert: Journeys of Discovery across Central Asia, I.B.Tauris, London, 2008.
 China's Holy Mountain: An Illustrated Journey into the Heart of Buddhism, I.B. Tauris, London, 2011.
 The History of Central Asia (Volume One): The Age of the Steppe Warriors, I.B. Tauris, London, 2012.
 The History of Central Asia (Volume Two): The Age of the Silk Roads, I.B. Tauris, London 2014.
 The History of Central Asia (Volume Three): The Age of Islam and the Mongols, I.B. Tauris, London, 2016.
 The History of Central Asia (Volume Four): The Age of Decline and Revival, I.B. Tauris, London, 2018.
 History of the Caucasus (Volume One): At the Crossroads of Empires, I.B. Tauris/Bloomsbury, London, 2021.
 History of the Caucasus (Volume Two): In the Shadow of Great Powers, I.B. Tauris/Bloomsbury, London, 2023.

 Co-author with Therese Weber: Eastern Tibet: Bridging Tibet and China, Orchid Press, 2005.

 Co-editor with Mirko Novák: Urban Cultures of Central Asia from the Bronze Age to the Karakhanids, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 2019.
 Co-editor with Mirko Novák and Susanne Rutishauser: Cultures in Contact Central Asia as Focus of Trade, Cultural Exchange and Knowledge Transmission, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 2022.

References

External links
 The Society for the Exploration of EurAsia

1952 births
Living people
People from Zürich
Swiss explorers
Swiss photographers
Swiss non-fiction writers
Swiss male writers
Explorers of Tibet
Male non-fiction writers
Swiss historians

Christoph Baumer


EMPAR (European Multifunction Phased Array Radar) is a rotating C band multifunction passive electronically scanned array radar that reached IOC in 2006 and was initially built by Selex ES (previously SELEX Sistemi Integrati, since 2016 merged in Finmeccanica, then Leonardo S.p.A.). It is designed to be the principal radar system aboard naval vessels of medium and large sizes. The radar offers full volumetric search coverage, low altitude and surface search, the tracking of multiple targets, and the capability to uplink information for missile guidance.

Details

EMPAR's principal function is 3D volumetric air search, providing a bearing, range and altitude for air traffic out to ranges of . It is capable of tracking aircraft or smaller targets such as missiles. The system employs a single narrow beam for transmission, plus multiple beams for reception. These can be steered electronically, allowing the EMPAR to scan very rapidly across a wide angle of bearing and/or elevation. It thus provides the simultaneous monitoring of an entire hemisphere. The flat face of the radar is rotated at 60 rpm, allowing it to sweep across the whole sky very rapidly. The system therefore provides an almost continuous 360 degree view, in contrast to earlier rotating radar systems which often took ten seconds or more to sweep the sky. This capability is important to air defence systems given the great speed of modern anti ship missiles such as the P-270 Moskit or BrahMos.

EMPAR continuously analyses the data it receives and will automatically adapt the frequency and waveform it is using as necessary. As with all phased array radars it is difficult to jam or interfere with and can work in the presence of intense clutter. EMPAR is compatible with the PAAMS system, providing guidance to Aster 15 or 30 missiles for medium or long range air defence.

Employment

 Algeria - Algerian National Navy
 1 x BDSL Kalaat Béni Abbès class

 France - Marine Nationale
 2 x Forbin-class destroyers

 Italy - Italian Navy
 1 x Cavour-class aircraft carrier
 2 x Andrea Doria-class destroyers
 1 x Taranto training center

Development

MFRA (Multi Functional Radar Active)

EMPAR (European Multifunction Phased Array Radar) is evolved to MFRA (Multi Functional Radar Active), an AESA rotating C band multifunction active electronically scanned array radar built by Selex ES.

MFRA is embarked on the Italian FREMM Frigate Bergamini class (10 units with 10 radar).

References

Military radars of Italy
Naval radars
Military equipment introduced in the 2000s

EMPAR


New Formalism is an architectural style that emerged in the United States during the mid-1950s and flowered in the 1960s. Buildings designed in that style exhibited many Classical elements including "strict symmetrical elevations" building proportion and scale, Classical columns, highly stylized entablatures and colonnades. The style was used primarily for high-profile cultural, high tech, institutional and civic buildings. Edward Durrell Stone's New Delhi American Embassy (1954), which blended the architecture of the east with modern western concepts, is considered to be the symbolic start of New Formalism architecture.

Common features of the New Formalism style include:
 Use of traditionally rich materials such as travertine, marble, and granite or man-made materials that mimic their luxurious qualities
 Buildings usually set on a podium
 Designed to achieve modern monumentality
 Embraces classical precedents, such as arches, colonnades, classical columns and entablatures
 Smooth wall surfaces
 Delicacy of details
 Formal landscape; use of pools, fountains, and a sculpture within a central plaza

Notable architects
 Welton Becket
 Philip Johnson
 Edward Durell Stone
 Minoru Yamasaki

Notable examples

 McGregor Memorial Conference Center, Detroit, Michigan (1958)
 Pacific Science Center, Seattle, Washington (1962)
 Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, New York City (1962/69)
 Memphis International Airport, Memphis, Tennessee (1963)
 Uptown Campus, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, New York (1964)
 2 Columbus Circle, New York City (1964)
 Dorothy Chandler Pavilion, Los Angeles, California (1964)
 Cambridge Tower, Austin, Texas (1965)
 Old World Trade Center, Lower Manhattan, New York City (1966)
 Ahmanson Theater, Los Angeles, California (1967)
 United States Confluence Theater - now John H. Wood Federal Courthouse, San Antonio, Texas (1968)
 The Forum, Inglewood, California (1967)
 Wilshire Colonnade, Los Angeles, California (1970)
 John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Washington, D.C. (1971)
 Teacher Retirement System of Texas Headquarters, Austin, Texas (1973)
 Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta, Indonesia (1978)
 Weber County Main Library, Ogden, Utah (1968)

References

20th-century architectural styles
Architectural styles
American architectural styles

Architectural history

New Formalism (architecture)


The Three Kingdoms of Korea or Samhan (Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla) competed for hegemony over the Korean Peninsula during the ancient period of Korean history. During the Three Kingdoms period (), many states and statelets consolidated until, after Buyeo was annexed in 494 and Gaya was annexed in 562, only three remained on the Korean Peninsula: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The "Korean Three Kingdoms" contributed to what would become Korea; and the Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla peoples became the Korean people.

The three kingdoms occupied the entire peninsula and roughly half of Manchuria (modern-day Northeast China and small parts of the Russian Far East). Goguryeo controlled the northern half of the peninsula, as well as Liaodong Peninsula and Manchuria. Baekje and Silla occupied the southern half of the peninsula. The island kingdoms of Tamna and Usan were subordinated to Baekje and Silla respectively.

All three kingdoms shared a similar culture and language. Baekje and Goguryeo shared founding myths which likely originated from Buyeo. Buddhism, which arrived in Korea in 3rd century AD from India via Tibet and China, became the state religion of all constituents of the three kingdoms, starting with Goguryeo in 372 AD. The Three Kingdoms of Korea all had a warrior aristocracy in contrast to the literary elite of China.

The period ended in the 7th century, after Silla allied with Tang China and unified the peninsula for the first time in history. After the fall of Baekje and Goguryeo, the Tang dynasty established a short-lived military government to administer parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla was joined by Goguryeo and Baekje loyalists and fought the Tang for hegemony over the Korean Peninsula. Silla was eventually divided into the Later Three Kingdoms and ultimately annexed by the new Goguryeo revivalist state of Goryeo.

Nomenclature

Beginning in the 7th century, the name "Samhan" became synonymous with the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The "Han" in the names of the Korean Empire, Daehan Jeguk, and the Republic of Korea (South Korea), Daehan Minguk or Hanguk, are named in reference to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula.

According to the Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa, Silla implemented a national policy, "Samhan Unification" (), to integrate Baekje and Goguryeo refugees. In 1982, a memorial stone dating to 686 was discovered in Cheongju with an inscription: "The Three Han were unified and the domain was expanded." During the Later Silla period, the concepts of Samhan as the ancient confederacies and the Three Kingdoms of Korea were merged. In a letter to an imperial tutor of the Tang dynasty, Choe Chiwon equated Byeonhan to Baekje, Jinhan to Silla, and Mahan to Goguryeo. By the Goryeo period, Samhan became a common name to refer to all of Korea. In his Ten Mandates to his descendants, Wang Geon declared that he had unified the Three Han (Samhan), referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Samhan continued to be a common name for Korea during the Joseon period and was widely referenced in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty.

In China, the Three Kingdoms of Korea were collectively called Samhan since the beginning of the 7th century. The use of the name Samhan to indicate the Three Kingdoms of Korea was widespread in the Tang dynasty. Goguryeo was alternately called Mahan by the Tang dynasty, as evidenced by a Tang document that called Goguryeo generals "Mahan leaders" () in 645. In 651, Emperor Gaozong of Tang sent a message to the king of Baekje referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea as Samhan. Epitaphs of the Tang dynasty, including those belonging to Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla refugees and migrants, called the Three Kingdoms of Korea "Samhan", especially Goguryeo. For example, the epitaph of Go Hyeon (), a Tang dynasty general of Goguryeo origin who died in 690, calls him a "Liaodong Samhan man" ().

The name "Three Kingdoms" was used in the titles of the Korean histories Samguk sagi (12th century) and Samguk yusa (13th century), and should not be confused with the Three Kingdoms of China.

Foundation

The Three Kingdoms were founded after the fall of Wiman Joseon and gradually conquered and absorbed various other small states and confederacies. After the fall of Gojoseon, the Han dynasty established four commanderies in the northwestern Korean Peninsula and present Liaoning. Three fell quickly to the Samhan, and the last was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313.

The nascent precursors of Baekje and Silla expanded within the web of statelets during the Proto-Three Kingdoms period, and Goguryeo conquered neighboring state like Buyeo in Manchuria and chiefdoms in Okjeo, Dongye which occupied the northeastern Korean Peninsula. The three polities made the transition from walled-town state to full-fledged state-level societies between 1st – 3rd century AD.

The primary sources for this period include Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa in Korea, and the "Eastern Barbarians" section (東夷傳) from the Book of Wei (魏書) of the Records of the Three Kingdoms in China.

All three kingdoms shared a similar culture and language. The Book of Sui (Volume 81) recorded: "The customs, laws and clothes of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla are generally identical." Their original religions appear to have been shamanistic, but they were increasingly influenced by Chinese culture, particularly Confucianism and Taoism. In the 4th century, Buddhism was introduced to the peninsula and spread rapidly, briefly becoming the official religion of all three kingdoms.

According to Lisa Kay Bailey, the material culture of the Three Kingdoms can be clearly distinguished as they displayed cultural influence from different regions. Goguryeo's culture showed stronger influence from northern Chinese art, Baekche showed stronger influence from southern Chinese art, and Silla, which was more distant from China, showed greater influence from Eurasian steppe nomad cultures and greater preservation of native traditions. During this period, the Three Kingdoms had yet to unify their separate identities. Each kingdom produced their own individual histories; only in the Goryeo dynasty period was the collective history of the Korean Peninsula written together.

Kingdoms

Goguryeo

Goguryeo emerged on the north and south banks of the Yalu (Amrok) River, in the wake of Gojoseon's fall. The first mention of Goguryeo in Chinese records dates from 75 BC in reference to a commandery established by the Chinese Han dynasty, although even earlier mentions of "Guri" (구리) may be of the same state. Evidence indicates Goguryeo was the most advanced, and likely the first established, of the three kingdoms.

Goguryeo, eventually the largest of the three kingdoms, had several capitals in alternation: two capitals in the upper Yalu area, and later Nangrang (Lelang in Chinese) which is now part of Pyongyang. At the beginning, the state was located on the border with China; it gradually expanded into Manchuria and destroyed the Chinese Lelang commandery in 313. The cultural influence of the Chinese continued as Buddhism was adopted as the official religion in 372.

Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state; it was a powerful empire and one of the great powers in East Asia. The state was at its zenith in the 5th century, during the rule of King Gwanggaeto the Great and his son King Jangsu, and particularly during their campaign in Manchuria. For the next century or so, Goguryeo was the dominant nation in Manchuria and the northern Korean peninsula. Goguryeo eventually occupied the Liaodong Plains in Manchuria and today's Seoul area. Gwanggaeto achieved a loose unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Goguryeo also controlled Tungusic tribes in Manchuria. After the establishment of the Sui dynasty and later the Tang dynasty in China, the kingdom continued to take aggressive actions against China, Silla, and Baekje attacks until it was conquered by allied Silla–Tang forces in 668. Most of its territory was absorbed by the Tang dynasty of China, and the territory of Baekje was absorbed by Silla.

Baekje

Baekje was founded as a member of the Mahan confederacy. Two sons of the founder of Goguryeo are recorded to have fled a succession conflict, to establish Baekje around the present Seoul area. Baekje absorbed or conquered other Mahan chiefdoms and, at its peak in the 4th century, controlled most of the western Korean Peninsula. Buddhism was introduced to Baekje in 384 from Goguryeo, which Baekje welcomed.

Baekje was a great maritime power; its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan. Baekje played a fundamental role in transmitting cultural and material developments to ancient Japan, including Chinese written characters, Chinese and Korean literature, technologies such as ferrous metallurgy and ceramics, architectural styles, sericulture and Buddhism.

Baekje exerted its political influence on Tamna, a kingdom that ruled Jejudo. Baekje maintained a close relationship with and extracted tribute from Tamna. Baekje's religious and artistic culture influenced Goguryeo and Silla. Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of Geunchogo, but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto and declined.

In the late 5th century, under attack from Goguryeo, the capital of Baekje was moved south to Ungjin (present-day Gongju) and later further south to Sabi (present-day Buyeo). Baekje was conquered by Silla-Tang alliance in 660, submitting the Unified Silla.

Silla

According to Korean records, in 57 BC, Seorabeol (or Saro, later Silla) in the southeast of the peninsula unified and expanded the confederation of city-states known as Jinhan. Although Samguk Sagi records that Silla was the earliest-founded of the three kingdoms, other written and archaeological records indicate that Silla was likely the last of the three to establish a centralized government. Silla was the smallest and weakest of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage.

Renamed from Saro to Silla in 503, the kingdom annexed the Gaya confederacy (which in turn had absorbed Byeonhan earlier) in the first half of the 6th century. Goguryeo and Baekje responded by forming an alliance. To cope with invasions from Goguryeo and Baekje, Silla deepened its relations with the Tang dynasty, with her newly gained access to the Yellow Sea making direct contact with the Tang possible. After the conquest of Goguryeo and Baekje with her Tang allies, the Silla kingdom drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula and occupied the lands south of Pyongyang.

The capital of Silla was Seorabeol (now Gyeongju; "Seorabeol", "서라벌", is hypothesized to have been the ancient Korean term for "capital"). Buddhism became the official religion in 528. The remaining material culture from the kingdom of Silla including unique gold metalwork shows influence from the northern nomadic steppes, differentiating it from the cultures of Goguryeo and Baekje where Chinese influence was more pronounced.

Other states

Other smaller states or regions existed in Korea before and during this period:

The Gaya confederacy was a confederacy of small kingdoms in the Nakdong River valley of southern Korea since AD 42, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan period. Archaeologists interpret mounded burial cemeteries of the late 3rd and early 4th centuries such as Daeseong-dong in Gimhae and Bokcheon-dong in Busan as the royal burial grounds of Gaya polities. Gaya polities had economies that were based on agriculture, fishing, casting, and long-distance trade. Constantly engaged in war with the three kingdoms surrounding it, Gaya was not developed to form a unified state and was ultimately absorbed into Silla in 562.
Dongye, Okjeo, and Buyeo were all conquered by Goguryeo
Usan (Ulleung-do) tributary of Silla
Tamna (Jeju-do) tributary of Baekje

Religion
Centuries after Buddhism originated in India, the Mahayana Buddhism arrived in China through the Silk Route in 1st century AD from Tibet, then to Korean Peninsula in the 3rd century from where it transmitted to Japan. In Korea, it was adopted by the state religion by three constituent polities, first by the Goguryeo ruling tribe of Geumgwan Gaya in 372 AD, by the Silla in 528 AD, and by the Baekje in 552 AD.

Decline

Allied with China under the Tang dynasty, Silla conquered Goguryeo in 668, after having already conquered Gaya in 562 and Baekje in 660, thus ushering in the North–South states period with Later Silla to the south and Balhae to the north, when Dae Jo-young, a former Goguryeo military officer, revolted against Tang Chinese rule and began reconquering former Goguryeo territories.

Archaeological evidence

Archaeologists use theoretical guidelines derived from anthropology, ethnology, analogy, and ethnohistory to the concept of what defines a state-level society. This is different from the concept of state (guk or Sino ko: 國, walled-town state, etc.) in the discipline of Korean history.

In anthropological archaeology the presence of urban centres (especially capitals), monumental architecture, craft specialization and standardization of production, ostentatious burials, writing or recording systems, bureaucracy, demonstrated political control of geographical areas that are usually larger in area than a single river valley, etc. make up some of these correlates that define states.

Among the archaeology sites dating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, hundreds of cemeteries with thousands of burials have been excavated. The vast majority of archaeological evidence of the Three Kingdoms Period of Korea consists of burials, but since the 1990s there has been a great increase in the archaeological excavations of ancient industrial production sites, roads, palace grounds and elite precincts, ceremonial sites, commoner households, and fortresses due to the boom in salvage archaeology in South Korea.

Rhee and Choi hypothesize that a mix of internal developments and external factors lead to the emergence of state-level societies in Korea. A number of archaeologists including Kang demonstrate the role of frequent warfare in the development of peninsular states.

Foundation (c. 0 – 300/400 AD)

Some individual correlates of complex societies are found in the chiefdoms of Korea that date back to . The best evidence from the archaeological record indicates that states formed between 300 BC and 300/400 AD. However, archaeologists are not prepared to suggest that this means there were states in the BC era. The correlates of state-level societies did not develop as a package but rather in spurts and starts and at various points in time. It was some time between 100 and 400 AD that individual correlates of state societies had developed to a sufficient number and scale that state-level societies can be confidently identified using archaeological data.

Burials

Lee Sung-Joo analyzed variability in many of the elite cemeteries of the territories of Silla and Gaya polities and found that as late as the 2nd century there was intra-cemetery variation in the distribution of prestige grave goods, but there was an absence of hierarchical differences on a regional scale between cemeteries. Near the end of the 2nd century AD, interior space in elite burials increased in size, and wooden chamber burial construction techniques were increasingly used by elites.

In the 3rd century, a pattern developed in which single elite cemeteries that were the highest in status compared to all the other cemeteries were built. Such cemeteries were established at high elevations along ridgelines and on hilltops. Furthermore, the uppermost elite were buried in large-scale tombs established at the highest point of a given cemetery. Cemeteries with 'uppermost elite' mounded burials such as Okseong-ri, Yangdong-ri, Daeseong-dong, and Bokcheon-dong display this pattern.

Factory-scale production of pottery and roof-tiles

Lee Sung-Joo proposed that, in addition to the development of regional political hierarchies as seen through analysis of burials, variation in types of pottery production gradually disappeared and full-time specialization was the only recognizable kind of pottery production from the end of the 4th century A.D. At the same time the production centers for pottery became highly centralized and vessels became standardized.

Centralisation and elite control of production is demonstrated by the results of the archaeological excavations at Songok-dong and Mulcheon-ni in Gyeongju. These sites are part of what was an interconnected and sprawling ancient industrial complex on the northeast outskirts of the Silla capital. Songok-dong and Mulcheon-ri are examples of the large-scale of specialized factory-style productions in the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla Periods. The site was excavated in the late 1990s, and archaeologists found the remains of many production features such as pottery kilns, roof-tile kilns, charcoal kilns, as well as the remains of buildings and workshops associated with production.

Capital cities, elite precincts, and monumental architecture

Since the establishment of Goguryeo, its early history is well attested archaeologically: the first and second capital cities, Jolbon and Gungnae city, are located in and around today's Ji'an, Jilin. In 2004, the site was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Since 1976, continuing archaeological excavations concentrated in the southeastern part of modern Gyeongju have revealed parts of the so-called Silla Wanggyeong (Silla royal capital). A number of excavations over the years have revealed temples such as Hwangnyongsa, Bunhwangsa, Heungryunsa, and 30 other sites. Signs of Baekje's capitals have also been excavated at the Mongchon Fortress and the Pungnap Fortress in Seoul.

See also
Heavenly Horse Tomb
List of Korean monarchs
Samguk Yusa

Notes

References

Further reading

External links
 Three Kingdoms Period - World History Encyclopedia
 Korea's Three Kingdoms

50s BC establishments
57 BC
668 disestablishments

Former kingdoms

Three Kingdoms of Korea