Delta Lupi (δ Lupi, δ Lup) is a star in the southern circumpolar constellation of Lupus. In traditional Chinese astronomy, it is "the 2nd (star) of the Cavalry Officer" (騎官二). With an apparent visual magnitude of 3.2, it is the fourth-brightest star in the constellation. The distance to this star has been measured using the parallax technique, yielding an estimate of roughly 900 light-years with a 15% margin of error.

The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of B1.5 IV, which indicates this star has entered the subgiant stage and is in the process of evolving into a giant star. It is radiating around 10,000 times the luminosity of the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 23,000 K, giving it a blue-white hue. This star has nearly 12 times the mass of the Sun and is roughly 15 million years old.

Delta Lupi is a Beta Cephei variable star that undergoes periodic pulsations. It has a single period of variability lasting 0.1655 days, or six cycles per day. This is a proper motion member of the Upper Centaurus–Lupus sub-group in the Scorpius–Centaurus OB association, the nearest such co-moving association of massive stars to the Sun.

See also
 Traditional Chinese star names#Lupus

References

Lupi, Delta
Lupus (constellation)
Beta Cephei variables
B-type subgiants
Upper Centaurus Lupus
5695
075141
136298
CD-40 09538

Delta Lupi


Zhang Zhongjing (; 150–219), formal name Zhang Ji (), was a Chinese pharmacologist, physician, inventor, and writer of the Eastern Han dynasty and one of the most eminent Chinese physicians during the later years of the Han dynasty. He established medication principles and summed up the medicinal experience until that time, thus making a considerable contribution to the development of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Biography
Though well known in modern Chinese medicine and considered one of the finest Chinese physicians in history, very little is known about his life. According to later sources, he was born in Nanyang, held an official position in Changsha and lived from approximately 150 to 219 AD. Exact dates regarding his birth, death and works vary, but an upper limit of 220 AD is generally accepted.

It is also speculated that he created jiaozi ( - gyoza/dumplings/potstickers) to help people with frostbitten ears.

During his time, with warlords fighting for their own territories, many people fell victim to infectious diseases. Zhang's family was no exception. He learned medicine by studying from his towns fellow and later teacher Zhang Bozu, assimilating from previous medicinal literature such as Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic
Huangdi Neijing (), and collecting many prescriptions elsewhere, finally writing the medical masterpiece Shanghan Zabing Lun (, lit. "Treatise on Cold Pathogenic and Miscellaneous Diseases"). Shortly after its publication, the book was lost during the wars that ravaged China during the period of the Three Kingdoms. Because of Zhang's contribution to traditional Chinese medicine, he is often regarded as the sage of Chinese medicine.

Zhang's masterpiece, Shanghan Zabing Lun, was collected and organised later by physicians, notably Wang Shuhe () from the Jin Dynasty () and various court physicians during the Song Dynasty () into two books, namely for the former, the Shang Han Lun (, lit. "On Cold Damage"), which was mainly on a discourse on how to treat epidemic infectious diseases causing fevers prevalent during his era, and the latter, the Jingui Yaolue (, lit. "Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Coffer"), a compendium of various clinical experiences which was regarded as a main discourse on internal diseases. These two texts have been heavily reconstructed several times up to the modern era. Revered for authoring the Shāng Hán Zá Bìng Lùn, Zhang Zhongjing is considered to have founded the Cold Damage or "Cold Disease" school of Chinese medicine and is widely considered the seminal expert to this day.

Influence
Zhang Zhongjing left behind Zhang Zhongjing Liu Wei Di Huang Wan. There is also the Medical Sage Temple(医圣祠) in Nanyang , which is a place to commemorate Zhang Zhongjing.Zhang Zhongjing's treatment of diseases has unique effects. The key points of his medication are to be precise, concise, and straight to the condition. Unlike modern Chinese medicine, which uses Western medicine's way of thinking and logic to treat diseases. Zhang Zhongjing is a role model and model of learning for later generations of Chinese medicine.

See also
Chinese herbology
Traditional Chinese medicine

References

Bibliography

External links

150 births
219 deaths
3rd-century Chinese physicians
Ancient pharmacologists
Chinese inventors
Chinese medical writers
Chinese pharmacologists
Deified Chinese people
Han dynasty science writers
Herbalists
Physicians from Henan
Writers from Nanyang, Henan
2nd-century Chinese physicians

Zhang Zhongjing


Queen Street is the northernmost east-west street in Edinburgh's First New Town. It begins in the east, at the Scottish National Portrait Gallery. It links York Place with the Moray Estate.

It was named "Queen Street" after Queen Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the wife of George III of the United Kingdom and was so named on James Craig's plan of the New Town issued by the Town Council in 1768. Most early maps repeat this name but others misname it Queen's Street or Queens Street.

History

The street forms part of James Craig's plan of 1768 for a New Town to the north of Edinburgh's Old Town and the North Loch. This had three main east-west streets: Princes Street; George Street; and Queen Street.

Queen Street was planned as a one-sided street, facing north over then fields towards the Firth of Forth. The first 30 metres beyond the road itself was originally laid out as private individual gardens to some of the Queen Street residents. Not until the opposite side was developed was there pressure to combine these gardens as a communal (but private) garden serving both Queen Street to the south and Heriot Row and Abercromby Place to the north. From 1840 this was known as Queen Street Gardens, which form part the collection of New Town Gardens.

The street is planned as four terraces of equal length, originally all three storey and basement in form. Building began at the east end in 1769, one of the first being No 8 which was designed for Baron Orde by Robert Adam, completed in 1771. Feuing continued piecemeal and was complete by 1792.

The skew on the final two blocks at the west end (leading to North Charlotte Street and from there to Charlotte Square) result from an unresolved feuing argument with Lord Moray, who later built the Moray Estate on the land west of Queen Street.

When Leith amalgamated with Edinburgh in 1920, the city gained a second Queen Street. This was renamed Shore Place in 1966.

Buildings of note
1  - Scottish National Portrait Gallery
10 - Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh
28 - Scotch Malt Whisky Society
43 - Former St Andrew's and St George's Church Halls, the streets only Gothic frontage
Yotel - on the site of The Mary Erskine School

Notable residents

 2 - Patrick Wilson (architect) and his son Robert Wilson (demolished)
 2 - John McLachlan (architect) (demolished)
 3 - Patrick Dudgeon
 8 - Robert Ord (special commission by Robert Adam)
 8 - Robert Lee, Lord Lee
 12 - Hugh Cameron RSA and George Hay RSA
 18 - James Jardine (engineer)
 21 - Alexander Keiller (physician)
 22 - James Lorimer (advocate)
 22 - William Bindon Blood
 22 - Rev K. M. Phin
 22 - Prof Simon Somerville Laurie
 22 - Rev Aeneas Francon Williams and his family
 43 - Alexander Moody Stuart
 47 - Charles Neaves, Lord Neaves
 48 - Francis Brodie Imlach
 51 - James Miller (surgeon)
 51 - Arthur Mitchell (physician)
 51 - John Sibbald
 52 - James Young Simpson
 52 - Alexander Russell Simpson
 53 - James Dunsmure (physician)
 55 and 59 - Dionysius Wielobycki
 62 - Robert Frier artist
 64 - Robert Wemyss the Earl of Wemyss and March (special Commission)
 66 - General Ralph Abercromby (special commission)
 68 - George Joseph Bell
 69 - Patrick Dalmahoy WS and his daughters
 73 - John Henderson (architect)

References

External links

New Town, Edinburgh
Streets in Edinburgh

Queen Street, Edinburgh


The Fort of Arrifana, or Fortress of Arrifana, () is situated on the Vicentine Coast of the Algarve region of Portugal, on a promontory close to the town of Aljezur. It was originally constructed in 1635 with the intention of protecting fishing grounds for tuna as well as defending the coast. Its location provides a natural lookout over Arrifana Beach and the Vicentine Coast.

History
The fort consisted of two parts linked by a narrow corridor of rock. The front part, immediately behind the entrance, consisted of a guardhouse and lodgings. The battery, with two artillery pieces, faced the sea. On the entrance door was placed a stone that included the date of construction of the fortress, as well as the national coat of arms and the coat of arms of D. Gonçalo Coutinho, Governor of the Algarve.

By 1654 the fort was reported to be unguarded. It was reconstructed in 1670 but there is little information available about its fortunes until it was destroyed by the 1755 earthquake and accompanying tsunami. According to a report of the parish priest of Aljezur, "the sea reached 30 fathoms (54 metres) and returned three times, crashing against the walls of the fortress with such impetus…., [leaving] standing only the battery and the walled curtain of the entrance door".

Due to its strategic position the fort was rebuilt in 1762 by orders of the Governor of the Kingdom of the Algarve, the Marquis of Louriçal. At the time it had two cannons and was garrisoned with 7 soldiers.  In the winter of 1765 was again damaged by heavy seas. Repairs were carried out in 1771. By 1792 it was occupied by a corporal and six soldiers, but its condition was bad.

During the Portuguese Civil War (1828-1834) the fort was rebuilt and rearmed. By October 1831 it was equipped with 204 12-caliber bullets, 40 fuses, 40 charged cartridges and around 90 kg of gunpowder.
The fort was subsequently abandoned for around a century before being turned over to the Ministry of Finance in 1940. Attempts by that ministry to get the Portuguese Navy to take responsibility for it failed, the navy arguing that "...the dismantled ruins of an old stronghold [are] without the slightest interest, either historical or artistic, [with] nothing justifying their conservation in the possession of the State."

From 2007 the front wall and entrance were reconstructed by the Municipality of Aljezur at a cost of around €100,000. The work also included a parking area, a new fence and walkways and provision of drainage. A small archaeological study was carried out in 2011, identifying that the original construction involved walls of stone and mortar built directly on  top of the rock.

References

Arrifana
Aljezur
Coastal fortifications in Portugal

Fort of Arrifana


Photographic lighting refers to how a light source, artificial or natural, illuminates the scene or subject that is photographed. Photographers can manipulate the positioning and the quality of a light source to create visual effects, potentially changing aspects of the photograph such as clarity, tone and saturation to create an accurate rendition of the scene.

Lighting determines exposure and can be used to create effects such as low-key and high-key lighting, both of which involve the contrast between darker and lighter elements in a scene. Lighting is especially important for monochrome photography, where there is limited to no color information, and exclusively includes the interplay of highlights and shadows.

Main sources
The main sources of light for photography are:
Daylight, which is determined via the weather as well as the time. Different techniques are necessary to take full advantage of bright sunshine and an overcast evening.
 Continuous artificial light, also known as normal lighting, produced by special photoflood lights. The properties of different light sources vary; sources such as household incandescent lighting, fluorescent lighting, and sodium discharge street lighting produce a wide range of results and require different correction if a subjectively neutral rendition of colors is required.
 A bright and very brief photographic flash from a single position (close to the camera generally), typically used in a studio environment.
 Candid sources including lightning, electric sparks, fireworks, and moonlight.

Basic lighting patterns

 Loop lighting produces a small shadow of the subject's nose on the shadow side of the face.
 Butterfly lighting, named for the butterfly-shaped shadow under the nose, the butterfly lighting pattern is created when the light is above and in line with the camera.
 Split lighting, where the main light is placed off to the side of the subject at about 90 degrees and positioned at face height or slightly above. The subject looks straight on at the camera.
 Rembrandt lighting, which entails a contrast of dramatic lighting coming from the top and the side, thus giving specific light spot on the other cheek.

Perceptual cause and effect

Lighting creates the 2D pattern of contrast that the brain interprets in order to recognize 3D objects in photographs. When viewing something in-person, the brain relies on stereoscopic vision, parallax, shifting focal in addition to the clues created by the highlight and shadow patterns the light on the object creates. When viewing a photo, however, the brain tries to match the patterns of contrast and color it sees to other sensory memories.

The baseline for what seems "normal" in lighting is often the direction and character of natural and artificial light as well as the context provided by other clues. In the picture above, the photographer added a warming gel on the flash of the woman standing in a field in late afternoon light. The viewer knows the time of day from the angle of the shadows; therefore, neutral color balance would have seemed odd in that context. However, if masked out and put on a plain white or neutral gray background, the image of the woman would seem abnormally yellow.

While the goal of photography is not necessarily to create an impression of normality, knowing what the audience normally expects to see is required to pull off a lighting strategy that fools the brain. Light direction relative to the camera can make a round ball appear to be a flat disk or a sphere. The position of highlights and direction and length of shadows will provide other clues to shape and can even indicate the time of day. The tone of the shadows on an object also can provide contextual clues about the time of day, the environment in which the photo was taken, and even the mood of the person.

A skilled photographer can manipulate how a viewer is likely to react to the content of a photo by manipulating the lighting. When shooting outdoors, changing locations may be required, as well as waiting for the ideal time of day (or even the ideal time of year in some cases) for the lighting to create the desired impression in the photo. Photographers may also manipulate natural lighting by using reflectors or flash. In a studio setting, however, there is no limit to the options a photographer has for lighting. Objects can be made to either look normal as "seen by the eye" or surreal as the goals for the photograph require. Usually, the viewer's reaction will depend on whether or not the lighting seems normal/natural compared to other clues.

Mixing natural and artificial light can be a difficult process. A mistake less-skilled photographers often make when mixing flash and natural lighting is not matching the light from the flash with the highlight and shadow clues seen in a background lit with ambient light. For example, if the background is illuminated by the setting sun, but the face in the foreground appears to have been photographed at noon, it will not seem normal, as the lighting clues do not match.

The natural light baseline

The sun hitting the front of objects facing the camera acts as a "key light," creating highlights and casting shadows. Detail in shadows can be seen due to the reflection of sunlight off water vapor and dust in the atmosphere creating omni-directional "fill". In open shade, 3D objects will also usually cast shadows because the downward vector of skylight is usually stronger than the sideways vectors illuminating the sides. When a photographer puts the sun behind an object, however, its role in the lighting strategy changes from modeling the front of the object to defining its outline (silhouette) and creating the impression of physical separation and 3D space that a frontally illuminated scene normally lacks. To differentiate that role from that of "key" modeling in which a lighting source is place behind the subject, it is typically called a "rim" or "accent" light. In portrait lighting, it also called a "hair" light because it is used to create the appearance of physical separation between the subject's head and background. In natural lighting, the tone of the background is influenced by its reflective qualities and whether it is illuminated by the sun directly or skylight indirectly. Therefore, either the sun or sky, or a combination of both, can be considered "background" lighting.

Midday sunlight can be challenging to use, as light may be too bright and shadows too dark. The degree of overexposure depends on the film and the camera used, as well as their different dynamic features. These characteristics are particularly important for portrait photography, in which an extra flash is often used to balance the light on the face or other parts of the body and to soften contrasting shadows in order to properly balance photographic exposure.

Creating natural-looking artificial lighting

Artificial lighting strategies that seem most "natural" duplicate the same contrast pattern clues seen on 3D objects in various lighting conditions. A typical studio lighting configuration will consist of a fill source to control shadow tone, a single frontal key light to create the highlight modeling clues on the front of objects facing the camera over the shadows the fill illuminates, one or more rim/accent lights to create separation between foreground and background, and one or more background lights to control the tone of the background and separation between it and the foreground.

There are two significant differences between natural lighting and artificial sources: the character of the fill and the fall-off in intensity. In nature, light from the sky is omni-directional and usually brighter from above. That "wrap around" characteristic is difficult to duplicate with a directional artificial source. In a fixed studio location, it is possible to bounce fill backwards off a white wall to flood the space with indirect reflected light similar to how the sun reflects off the atmosphere. Another way is to supplement a fill source from the direction of the camera with reflectors placed near the sides of the foreground subject.

The Inverse-Square Law describes the predictable way a point light source radiates and changes in intensity with distance. As the distance from a source doubles, the area of the footprint of light increases by a factor of four, the square ^2 of the distance. Because the same number of photons are spread over four times the area when distance is doubled, the intensity at any point will be 1/ distance ^2 or 1/4 the strength. Photographic light sources are not point light sources, so the law does not strictly apply. However, it does explain why the distance of artificial sources affects the character of lighting and lighting strategies in ways not seen in nature.

If the distance of a light source is changed in the following distance increments 1, 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, 45, 64 the intensity will decrease by one f/stop. Notice how each step increases by the square root of 2. In practical terms, it means that if one face in a group portrait is 4 metres from the "key" light and another is 5.6 m away, the face further from the light will be one f/stop darker. In an outdoor portrait of a group of 200 people taken on an overcast day, the lighting of all the faces will be equal. The same group photographed indoors would be far more difficult to light evenly. The simplest strategy requiring the least flash equipment would be to get above the group with the camera, have them look up, and bounce the lighting off the ceiling. This way every face is as equidistant as possible to the apparent source of the light, much as with an overcast day.

Even something as basic as a head and shoulders portrait must take inverse-square fall-off into account by posing the front of the subject's face as close or closer to the "key" light than the shoulder or any other body part if the goal is to make the front of the face the most strongly contrasting focal point on a darker background. The position of the fill source relative to the face will also affect whether the nose shadow is the lightest (when fill is centered near camera) or darkest (when fill is placed to the side) one on the face. The distance of the key light and fill sources to the face will affect the rate at which the shadows transition from light to dark on the face.

Creating surreal lighting

Natural and surreal lighting are different sides of the same coin. Understanding what makes lighting seem natural makes it easier to understand how to create other desired reactions. Natural light usually comes from above, so strategies which place the key light below the face will appear to be unusual or unnatural. The brain adapts color perception in a way that makes color balance seem neutral on white clothing and faces. The eyes also adapt to brightness as they scan and usually perceive a full range of detail in most environments. Lighting a scene with a tonal range or color cast which is out of context with what would typically be expected will cause the viewer to notice the environment and make other than normal assumptions about it. It is also possible to create the impression of environmental context where none is seen in the photograph, such as the look of a person standing under a streetlight at night by using a grid flash attached to the ceiling of the studio with no fill source.

Three light setup

The three light setup is a common method used in photography. This method uses three separate lighting positions to give the photographer a great deal of control in illuminating the subject. It is formed by a main light known as the "key", the fill light, and the backlight.

Reflected light
This is when a flash is directed upwards or sideways. The light is reflected from a wall, the ceiling, or a reflector, and gives more nuances to the subject. The main advantage is that the subject does not face the light source.

References

External links
 Properly lighting Black people's faces in film and still photography, from Mic

Photographic lighting


Sri Vyasaraja Math  () (formerly known as Poorvadi Math) is one of the three premier Dvaita Vedanta monasteries (matha) descended from Jagadguru Śrī Madhvācārya through Jayatirtha and Rajendra Tirtha (a disciple of Vidyadhiraja Tirtha)  and their disciples.

Vyasaraja Math, along with Uttaradi Math and Raghavendra Math , are considered to be the three premier apostolic institutions of Dvaita Vedanta and are jointly referred as Mathatraya . It is the pontiffs and pandits of the Mathatraya that have been the principle architects of post-Madhva Dvaita Vedanta through the centuries. Among the mathas outside of Tulu Nadu region,  Vyasaraja Matha is the largest.

Guru Parampara

 Śrī Madhvacharya
 Śrī Padmanabha Tirtha
 Śrī Naraharitirtha
 Śrī  Madhava Tirtha
 Śrī Akshobhya Tirtha
 Śrī Jayatirtha
 Śrī Vidyadhiraja Tirtha
 Śrī Rajendra Tīrtha
 Śrī Jayadwaja Tīrtha
 Śrī Purushothama Tīrtha
 Śrī Bramhanya Tīrtha
 Śrī Śrī Vyasa Tīrtha (or Sri Chandrikacharya)
 Śrī Srinivasa Tīrtha
 Śrī Rama Tīrtha
 Śrī Lakshmikantha Tīrtha
 Śrī Sripathi Tīrtha
 Śrī Ramachandra Tīrtha
 Śrī Lakshmivallabha Tīrtha
 Śrī Lakshminatha Tīrtha
 Śrī Lakshmipathi Tīrtha
 Śrī Lakshminarayana Tīrtha
 Śrī Raghunatha Tīrtha (or Sri Sheshachandrikacharya)
 Śrī Jagannatha Tīrtha (or Sri Bhashyadeepikacharya)
 Śrī Srinatha Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyanatha Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyapathi Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyavallabha Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyakaantha Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyanidhi Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyapurna Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyasrisindhu Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyasridhara Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyasrinivasa Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyasamudra Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyaratnakara Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyavaridhi Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyaprasanna Tirtha
 Śrī Vidyapayonidhi Tīrtha
 Śrī Vidyavachaspathi Tīrtha
 Śri Vidyamanohara Tirtha (Peeta Thyaga)
 Śri Vidyasreesha Tirtha (present pontiff)

Present Pontiff
Mahamahopadhya Prof. D.Prahladacharya, Former Vice-Chancellor of Rashtreeya Samskrit Vidyapeeta, Tirupati was crowned as the new with the pontifical name of Sri VidyaSrisha Tirtharu on 2 July 2017 at Tirumakudalu, Mysore, Karnataka.

References

External links
 http://www.dvaita.org

Dvaita Vedanta
History of Karnataka
Vaishnavism
Vedanta
Hindu monasteries in India
Madhva mathas

Vyasaraja Math


Puzur-Sin was an Assyrian king in the 18th century BC, during the Old Assyrian period. One of the few known Assyrian rulers to be left out of the Assyrian King List, Puzur-Sin was responsible for ending the rule of the dynasty of Shamshi-Adad I, whom he considered to be foreign usurpers.

References

Ancient Assyrians
18th-century BC Assyrian kings

Puzur-Sin


Jacques Carelman (born 1929, Marseille – 28 March 2012, Argenteuil) was a French painter, illustrator and designer.

Biography
In 1966, Jacques Carelman adapted Raymond Queneau's novel Zazie in the Metro in bandes dessinées. He is also the undiscovered author of one of the most famous posters of May 1968 events in France showing a threatening CRS brandishing a truncheon.

But Carelman is best known for his Catalog of fantastic things (Catalogue d'objets introuvables) also known as Catalogue of Unfindable Objects, made in 1969 as a parody of the catalog of the French mail order company Manufrance. This work has been translated into 19 languages (including Korean, Hebrew and Finnish). Among these imaginary objects are, for instance, a "Kangaroo gun" whose "barrel is extensively studied ... to give the bullet a sinusoidal trajectory which follows the animal in its leaps", or a disposable "Plaster anvil ... (sold by the dozen) to be discarded after use, allowing you to make substantial savings." The most famous item in this catalog was Carelman's "Coffeepot for Masochists", a coffeepot with a backwards facing spout that would scald the user. This design became a symbol for the critique of everyday things and was featured on the cover of Don Norman's book on the topic, The Design of Everyday Things.

Jacques Carelman had some of the objects of this catalog created and exhibited (from November 1974 to January 1975) in La Vieille Charité, Marseille. He designed in 1972 a catalog of unfindable postage-stamps ("Catalogue de timbres-poste introuvables")., portraying for instance la Semeuse, the sowing woman which symbolizes France on coins and stamps, swinging a tennis racket in her majestic gesture, or Papa Doc, the dictator of Haiti, as Père Ubu.

In recognition of the role played in the rebuilding of the OuPeinPo in 1980, Carelman bore the title of Régent of the Collège de Pataphysique, and was in charge of the chair of "Hélicologie", which purpose is to study the Gidouille, i.e. Père Ubu's belly, which is decorated with a spiral.

Main publications
 Catalog of fantastic things, published 1971 by Ballantine Books in New York, americanized by Amram M. Ducovny, translated by Barbara and George Davidson from Catalogue d'objets introuvables et cependant indispensables aux personnes telles que acrobates, ajusteurs, amateurs d'art, alpinistes... Balland, Paris, 1969 - Livre de poche, 1975 - Le Cherche Midi, Paris, 1999, 2010.
 A Catalogue of Unfindable Objects, Objets Introuvables, published September 27, 1984 by Century Hutchinson.

Other works in French:
 Saroka la géante, tale, Le Terrain vague, 1965
 Zazie dans le métro, comic book based on Raymond Queneau's novel, Gallimard, 1966
 Petit supplément à l'Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers de Diderot et d'Alembert, recueil de planches sur quelques sciences, métiers et arts mécaniques du XXe siècle, avec leur explication, Balland, Paris, 1971
 Catalogue de timbres-poste introuvables, Balland, Paris, 1972 - Les éditions Cartouche, Paris, 2011
 La Peinture au quart de tour, Paris, Au crayon qui tue, 2000

References

1929 births
2012 deaths
20th-century French painters
20th-century French male artists
French male painters
21st-century French painters
21st-century French male artists
French illustrators
Artists from Marseille

Jacques Carelman


Bunnicula: A Rabbit-Tale of Mystery is a children's novel written by Deborah Howe and James Howe, illustrated by Alan Daniel, and published by Atheneum Books in 1979. It inaugurated the Bunnicula series. Based on a 2007 online poll, the National Education Association listed the novel as one of the "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children". The series chronicles the adventures of the Monroe family and their pets, Harold the dog, Chester the cat, and Bunnicula the rabbit. The novels are narrated by Harold the family dog.

Deborah Howe died in June 1978, about ten months before the book was released, and James Howe wrote the sequels alone. It has been reissued numerous times, perhaps all with the original illustrations by Alan Daniel.

According to publisher Simon & Schuster sometime before 2002, James Howe dreamed up "a vampire rabbit named Bunnicula" in the mid-1970s and he thinks he was inspired by "movie versions of Dracula". Deborah suggested that he writes a children's book.

Plot summary
The novel introduces the Monroes, including the boys, Pete and Toby, as they return home from the movies on a dark and stormy night. Harold, the dog, notices that they return with a small bundle. The bundle turns out to be a rabbit they found at the theater, with a note tied around his neck written in an ancient Carpathian dialect. The rabbit has two tiny fangs and a black pattern on his back that looks like a cape. After some discussion the family decides to adopt him, and since they found him at the movie Dracula they decide to name him Bunnicula.

Shortly after adopting Bunnicula, the family notices vegetables mysteriously turning white. Chester, the cat, notices that in each of the vegetables there are two tiny holes. After reading a book on vampires, a jealous Chester becomes convinced that Bunnicula is a vampire. He notes that Bunnicula sleeps all day, appears to be able to get out of his cage on his own, and has tiny fangs, which Chester believes he uses to suck vegetables dry. Chester then convinces Harold to help him prove this by catching Bunnicula in the act. He strews himself, and Bunnicula's cage with garlic. This succeeds only in causing Mrs. Monroe to give him a bath. Later, after reading about killing vampires with a stake through the heart, Chester tries to punch a (meat) steak through the sleeping rabbit's heart. It doesn't do anything but confuse the poor rabbit, since it is just steak/meat. Finally, he tries to drown the rabbit by tossing his water dish on him. This behavior results in Chester being locked outside.

As the story progresses Harold refuses to cooperate in Chester's antics. With Chester no longer speaking to him, he begins to take a liking to Bunnicula. After a few days he notices that Bunnicula is beginning to look ill. He stays up late one night and discovers that Chester is putting on garlic and blocking Bunnicula from feeding, essentially starving the poor rabbit. Harold decides to act, and that evening before Chester awakes he takes Bunnicula out of his cage and places him in the family's dinner salad. But before the rabbit can feast Chester chases him off, and lands in the salad himself. Finally fed up with Chester's behavior, Harold confronts his friend and exposes him by barking loudly, alerting the entire family. At this point the family decides to take Chester to the vet to address his strange behavior. They also decide to take Bunnicula to the vet as they notice he seems ill. At the vet Chester is prescribed cat therapy. Bunnicula is put on a diet of vegetable juice. He takes to this so well, that the family decides to keep him on it permanently, at which point the mysterious white vegetables stop turning up. However, the Monroes attribute the strange white vegetables to a vegetable blight at their supermarket, and change stores. The novel ends with the Monroes remaining blissfully unaware of Bunnicula's strange feeding habits, and the danger Chester believes them to be in.

References

External links

1979 American novels
1979 children's books
American children's novels
American vampire novels
Collaborative novels
Novels published posthumously
Atheneum Books books
Children's novels about rabbits and hares
Children's novels about cats
Children's novels about dogs

Bunnicula: A Rabbit-Tale of Mystery


Temple Bar was the principal ceremonial entrance to the City of London from the City of Westminster. In the middle ages, London expanded city jurisdiction beyond its walls to gates, called 'bars', which were erected across thoroughfares. To the west of the City of London, the bar was located adjacent to the area known as the Temple. Temple Bar was situated on the historic royal ceremonial route from the Tower of London to the Palace of Westminster, the two chief residences of the medieval English monarchs, and from the Palace of Westminster to St Paul's Cathedral. The road east of the bar within the City was Fleet Street, while the road to the west, in Westminster, was The Strand.

At the bar, the Corporation of the City of London erected a barrier to regulate trade into the City. The 19th century Royal Courts of Justice are located to its north, having been moved from Westminster Hall. To its south is Temple Church, along with the Inner Temple and Middle Temple Inns of Court. As the most important entrance to the City of London from Westminster, it was formerly long the custom for the monarch to halt at the Temple Bar before entering the City of London, in order for the Lord Mayor to offer the Corporation's pearl-encrusted Sword of State as a token of loyalty.

'Temple Bar' strictly refers to a notional bar or barrier across the route near The Temple precinct, but it is also used to refer to the 17th-century ornamental, English Baroque arched gateway building attributed Christopher Wren, which spanned the roadway at the bar for two centuries. After Wren's gateway was removed in 1878, the Temple Bar Memorial topped by a dragon symbol of London, and containing statues of Queen Victoria and Edward VII, was erected to mark the location. Wren's archway was preserved and was re-erected in 2004 in the City, in a redeveloped Paternoster Square next to St Paul's Cathedral. In September 2022, the preserved Wren gateway and an adjacent building were officially opened by the Duke of Gloucester as the home of the Worshipful Company of Chartered Architects.

Background
In the Middle Ages, the authority of the City of London Corporation reached beyond the City's ancient defensive walls in several places, known as the Liberties of London. To regulate trade into the City, barriers were erected on the major entrance routes wherever the true boundary was a substantial distance from the nearest ancient gatehouse in the walls. Temple Bar was the most used of these, since traffic between the City of London (England's prime commercial centre) and the Palace of Westminster (the political centre) passed through it. It was located where Fleet Street now meets The Strand, which is outside London's old boundary wall.

Its name derives from the Temple Church, adjoining to the south, which has given its name to a wider area south of Fleet Street, the Temple, once belonging to the Knights Templar but now home to two of the legal profession's Inns of Court, and within the City's ancient boundaries.

The historic ceremony of the monarch halting at Temple Bar and being met by the Lord Mayor has often featured in art and literature. It is commented on in televised coverage of modern-day royal ceremonial processions.

History

City jurisdiction and The Temple
A City bar at The Temple is first mentioned in 1293 and was probably only a chain or bar between a row of posts. More substantial structures with arches followed. After the Battle of Evesham of 1265, Prince Edward punished the rebellious Londoners, who had befriended Simon de Montfort, by taking away all their street chains and bars, and storing them in the Tower of London. By 1351, a timber archway had been built housing a small prison above it. The earliest known documentary and historical notice of Temple Bar is in 1327, concerning a hearing before the mayor regarding a right of way in the area. In 1384, Richard II granted a licence for paving the Strand Street from Temple Bar to the Savoy, and collecting tolls to cover the expense.

On 5 November 1422, the corpse of Henry V was borne to Westminster Abbey by the chief citizens and nobles, and every doorway from Southwark to Temple Bar had a torch-bearer. In 1503 the hearse of Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII, halted at Temple Bar, on its way from the Tower to Westminster, and at the Bar the Abbots of Westminster and Bermondsey blessed the corpse, and the Earl of Derby and a large company of nobles joined the funeral procession. Anne Boleyn passed through the Bar on May 31, 1534, the day before her coronation, on her way to the Tower. On that occasion Temple Bar was new painted and repaired, and near it stood singing men and children—the Fleet Street conduit all the time running claret.

In 1554, Thomas Wyatt led an uprising in opposition to Queen Mary I's proposed marriage to Philip II of Spain. When he had fought his way down Piccadilly to The Strand, Temple Bar was thrown open to him, or forced open by him; but when he had been repulsed at Ludgate he was hemmed in by cavalry at Temple Bar, where he surrendered. This revolt persuaded the government to go through with the verdict against Lady Jane Grey.

The notable Scottish bookseller Andrew Millar owned his first London shop at Temple Bar, taken over from the ownership of James McEuen in 1728, to whom Millar had been apprenticed.

Wren's Temple Bar Gate

Although the then existing Bar Gate at the Temple escaped damage by the Great Fire of London of 1666, it was decided to rebuild it as part of the general improvement works made throughout the City after that devastating event. Commissioned by King Charles II, and attributed to Sir Christopher Wren, the fine arch of Portland stone was constructed between 1669 and 1672, by Thomas Knight, the City Mason, and Joshua Marshall, Master of the Mason's Company and King's Master Mason, while John Bushnell carved the statues.

Rusticated, it is a two-story structure consisting of one wide central arch for the road traffic, flanked on both sides by narrower arches for pedestrians. On the upper part, four statues celebrate the 1660 Restoration of the Stuart monarchy: on the west side King Charles II is shown with his father King Charles I whose parents King James I and Anne of Denmark are depicted on the east side.
During the 18th century the heads of convicted traitors were frequently mounted on pikes and exhibited on the roof, as was the case on London Bridge. The other seven principal gateways to London, (Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Moorgate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate) were all demolished in the 1760s, but Temple Bar remained despite its impediment to the ever-growing traffic. The upper-storey room was leased to the neighbouring banking house of Child & Co for storage of records.

In the 1853 novel, Bleak House, Charles Dickens described it as "that leaden-headed old obstruction, appropriate ornament for the threshold of a leaden-headed old corporation". It was also the subject of jokes, "Why is Temple Bar like a lady's veil? Both must be raised (razed) for "busses" ('buses). It was noted in jest "as a weak spot in our defences", since one could walk through the adjoining  barbershop where one door opened on to the City and the other in the area of Westminster.

In 1874 it was discovered that the keystones had dropped and the arches were propped up with timbers. The steady increase in horse and cart traffic led to complaints that Temple Bar was becoming a bottleneck, holding back the City trade. In 1878 the City of London Corporation, eager to widen the road but unwilling to destroy so historic a monument, dismantled it piece-by-piece over an 11-day period and stored its 2,700 stones carefully. In 1880 the brewer Henry Meux, at the instigation of his wife Valerie Susan Meux, bought the stones and re-erected the arch as the facade of a new gatehouse in the park of his mansion house Theobalds Park in Hertfordshire, the site of a former substantial prodigy house of James VI and I. There it remained, positioned in a woodland clearing, until 2003. A plaque now marks the site.

The Gate's present location

In March 1938 Theobalds Park was sold by Sir Hedworth Meux to Middlesex County Council, but the Temple Bar Gatehouse was excluded from the sale and retained by the Meux trustees. In 1984 it was bought by the Temple Bar Trust from the Meux Trust for the sum of £1. In December 2001 the City's Court of Common Council resolved to contribute funds for the return of Temple Bar Gate to the City. On 13 October 2003 the first stone was dismantled at Theobalds Park and all were placed on 500 pallets for storage. In 2004 it was returned to the City of London where it was painstakingly re-erected as an entrance to the Paternoster Square redevelopment immediately north of St Paul's Cathedral, opening to the public on 10 November 2004. The total cost of the project was over £3 million, funded mainly by the City of London, with donations from the Temple Bar Trust and several City Livery Companies.

In September 2022, Temple Bar London, consisting of the gateway and an adjacent building (Paternoster Lodge), was officially reopened by the Duke of Gloucester and the Lord Mayor of London Vincent Keaveny as the home of a livery company, the Worshipful Company of Chartered Architects, providing space for meetings and dining and an education centre funded by the Corporation of London's CIL Neighbourhood fund.

The top of one of the gates was offered for sale by Dreweatts Auctioneers in a London sale of surplus stock from LASSCO on 15 June 2013.

Temple Bar Memorial

Following the removal of Wren's gate, Horace Jones, Architect and Surveyor to the City of London, designed a memorial to mark Temple Bar, which was unveiled in 1880. The Temple Bar Memorial stands in the street in front of the Royal Courts of Justice.

The elaborate pedestal in a neo-Renaissance style serves as the base for a sculpture by Charles Bell Birch of a dragon supporter (sometimes erroneously referred to as a griffin) bearing a shield of the arms of the City of London. The pedestal is decorated with statues by Joseph Boehm of Queen Victoria and her son the then Prince of Wales, the last royals to have entered the City through Wren's gate, which event is depicted in one of the reliefs which also decorate the structure.

In the 1960s, similar but smaller and more subdued dragon sculptures were set at other entry points to the City. Two were originally created in 1849 by J. B. Bunning for the entrance to the Coal Exchange (and were relocated to Victoria Embankment following that building's demolition in 1962), while the others are smaller-scale versions of Bunning's design.

In fiction

Charles Dickens mentioned Temple Bar in A Tale of Two Cities (Book II, Chapter I), noting its proximity to the fictional Tellson's Bank on Fleet Street. This was in fact Child & Co., which used the upper rooms of Temple Bar as storage space. Whilst critiquing the moral poverty of late 18th-century London, Dickens wrote that in matters of crime and punishment, "putting to death was a recipe much in vogue," and illustrated the horror caused by severed heads "exposed on Temple Bar with an insensate brutality and ferocity..."

In Herman Melville's The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids, he contrasts the beauty of the Temple Bar gateway at the highest point on the road leading to the hellish paper factory, which he calls a "Dantean Gateway" (in his Inferno, Dante describes the gateway to Hell, over which are written the words, "Abandon hope, all ye who enter here.")

The dragon on top of the Temple Bar monument comes to life in Charlie Fletcher's children's book about London, Stoneheart.

The dragon also features in Virginia Woolf's The Years, in which one of the main characters, Martin, points "at the splayed-out figure at Temple Bar; it looked as ridiculous as usual – something between a serpent and a fowl."

See also
 Dragon boundary mark
 Temple Bar, Dublin, a district of the same name in Dublin, Ireland

Notes

References

External links

Temple Bar London website
Victorian Web
The Return of Temple Bar to the City of London website
 City of London website with history of Temple Bar

Christopher Wren buildings in London
Buildings and structures in the City of London
History of the City of London
Grade I listed gates
Buildings and structures completed in 1672
Relocated buildings and structures in the United Kingdom
Tourist attractions in the City of London
1672 establishments in England
Bar

Temple Bar, London


Frank Andrew Ribar (born Hribar) (January 15, 1917 – October 1, 1976) was an American football guard in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins.  He played high school football at Aliquippa High School, in Aliquippa, Pennsylvania, and college football at Duke University, where he was an All-American and a member of the 1938 Blue Devils team that was unscored upon during regular season (Claassen).  He was a member of the Southern team during the 1939 Blue and Gray football game.  He also competed in varsity boxing while at Duke (Chanticleer, 1940).  He was drafted by the Detroit Lions in the 18th round of the 1940 NFL Draft.  He also played for the Norfolk Shamrocks of the Dixie League, and on military teams.  He was inducted into the Aliquippa Sports Hall of Fame in 1975, and Beaver County Sports Hall of Fame in 2001.

References

Sources
Claassen, H. 1963. Football's Unforgettable Games. Ronald Press.

External links
Short biography at Beaver County Sports Hall of Fame web page
Duke University Chanticleer 1940
Spartanburg Herald Journal, December 10, 1939

1917 births
1976 deaths
Sportspeople from Fayette County, Pennsylvania
American football guards
Players of American football from Pennsylvania
Duke Blue Devils football players
Washington Redskins players

Frank Ribar


In electrical engineering, a transmission line is a specialized cable or other structure designed to conduct electromagnetic waves in a contained manner. The term applies when the conductors are long enough that the wave nature of the transmission must be taken into account.  This applies especially to radio-frequency engineering because the short wavelengths mean that wave phenomena arise over very short distances (this can be as short as millimetres depending on frequency).  However, the theory of transmission lines was historically developed to explain phenomena on very long telegraph lines, especially submarine telegraph cables.

Transmission lines are used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas (they are then called feed lines or feeders), distributing cable television signals, trunklines routing calls between telephone switching centres, computer network connections and high speed computer data buses.  RF engineers commonly use short pieces of transmission line, usually in the form of printed planar transmission lines, arranged in certain patterns to build circuits such as filters.  These circuits, known as distributed-element circuits, are an alternative to traditional circuits using discrete capacitors and inductors.

Overview
Ordinary electrical cables suffice to carry low frequency alternating current (AC), such as mains power, which reverses direction 100 to 120 times per second, and audio signals.  However, they cannot be used to carry currents in the radio frequency range, above about 30 kHz, because the energy tends to radiate off the cable as radio waves, causing power losses.  Radio frequency currents also tend to reflect from discontinuities in the cable such as connectors and joints, and travel back down the cable toward the source.  These reflections act as bottlenecks, preventing the signal power from reaching the destination.  Transmission lines use specialized construction, and impedance matching, to carry electromagnetic signals with minimal reflections and power losses.  The distinguishing feature of most transmission lines is that they have uniform cross sectional dimensions along their length, giving them a uniform impedance, called the characteristic impedance, to prevent reflections.  Types of transmission line include parallel line (ladder line, twisted pair), coaxial cable, and planar transmission lines such as stripline and microstrip. The higher the frequency of electromagnetic waves moving through a given cable or medium, the shorter the wavelength of the waves.  Transmission lines become necessary when the transmitted frequency's wavelength is sufficiently short that the length of the cable becomes a significant part of a wavelength.

At microwave frequencies and above, power losses in transmission lines become excessive, and waveguides are used instead, which function as "pipes" to confine and guide the electromagnetic waves.  Some sources define waveguides as a type of transmission line; however, this article will not include them.  At even higher frequencies, in the terahertz, infrared and visible ranges, waveguides in turn become lossy, and optical methods, (such as lenses and mirrors), are used to guide electromagnetic waves.

History
Mathematical analysis of the behaviour of electrical transmission lines grew out of the work of James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin, and Oliver Heaviside. In 1855, Lord Kelvin formulated a diffusion model of the current in a submarine cable. The model correctly predicted the poor performance of the 1858 trans-Atlantic submarine telegraph cable. In 1885, Heaviside published the first papers that described his analysis of propagation in cables and the modern form of the telegrapher's equations.

The four terminal model

For the purposes of analysis, an electrical transmission line can be modelled as a two-port network (also called a quadripole), as follows:

In the simplest case, the network is assumed to be linear (i.e. the complex voltage across either port is proportional to the complex current flowing into it when there are no reflections), and the two ports are assumed to be interchangeable.  If the transmission line is uniform along its length, then its behaviour is largely described by a single parameter called the characteristic impedance, symbol Z0.  This is the ratio of the complex voltage of a given wave to the complex current of the same wave at any point on the line. Typical values of Z0 are 50 or 75 ohms for a coaxial cable, about 100 ohms for a twisted pair of wires, and about 300 ohms for a common type of untwisted pair used in radio transmission.

When sending power down a transmission line, it is usually desirable that as much power as possible will be absorbed by the load and as little as possible will be reflected back to the source.  This can be ensured by making the load impedance equal to Z0, in which case the transmission line is said to be matched.

Some of the power that is fed into a transmission line is lost because of its resistance.  This effect is called ohmic or resistive loss (see ohmic heating).  At high frequencies, another effect called dielectric loss becomes significant, adding to the losses caused by resistance.  Dielectric loss is caused when the insulating material inside the transmission line absorbs energy from the alternating electric field and converts it to heat (see dielectric heating). The transmission line is modelled with a resistance (R) and inductance (L) in series with a capacitance (C) and conductance (G) in parallel. The resistance and conductance contribute to the loss in a transmission line.

The total loss of power in a transmission line is often specified in decibels per metre (dB/m), and usually depends on the frequency of the signal.  The manufacturer often supplies a chart showing the loss in dB/m at a range of frequencies.  A loss of 3 dB corresponds approximately to a halving of the power.

High-frequency transmission lines can be defined as those designed to carry electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are shorter than or comparable to the length of the line.  Under these conditions, the approximations useful for calculations at lower frequencies are no longer accurate.  This often occurs with radio, microwave and optical signals, metal mesh optical filters, and with the signals found in high-speed digital circuits.

Telegrapher's equations

The telegrapher's equations (or just telegraph equations) are a pair of linear differential equations which describe the voltage () and current () on an electrical transmission line with distance and time. They were developed by Oliver Heaviside who created the transmission line model, and are based on Maxwell's equations.

The transmission line model is an example of the distributed-element model. It represents the transmission line as an infinite series of two-port elementary components, each representing an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line:

 The distributed resistance  of the conductors is represented by a series resistor (expressed in ohms per unit length).
 The distributed inductance  (due to the magnetic field around the wires, self-inductance, etc.) is represented by a series inductor (in henries per unit length).
 The capacitance  between the two conductors is represented by a shunt capacitor (in farads per unit length).
 The conductance  of the dielectric material separating the two conductors is represented by a shunt resistor between the signal wire and the return wire (in siemens per unit length).

The model consists of an infinite series of the elements shown in the figure, and the values of the components are specified per unit length so the picture of the component can be misleading. , , , and  may also be functions of frequency. An alternative notation is to use , ,  and  to emphasize that the values are derivatives with respect to length.  These quantities can also be known as the primary line constants to distinguish from the secondary line constants derived from them, these being the propagation constant, attenuation constant and phase constant.

The line voltage  and the current  can be expressed in the frequency domain as

(see differential equation, angular frequency ω and imaginary unit )

Special case of a lossless line
When the elements  and  are negligibly small the transmission line is considered as a lossless structure. In this hypothetical case, the model depends only on the  and  elements which greatly simplifies the analysis. For a lossless transmission line, the second order steady-state Telegrapher's equations are:

These are wave equations which have plane waves with equal propagation speed in the forward and reverse directions as solutions. The physical significance of this is that electromagnetic waves propagate down transmission lines and in general, there is a reflected component that interferes with the original signal. These equations are fundamental to transmission line theory.

General case of a line with losses
In the general case the loss terms,  and , are both included, and the full form of the Telegrapher's equations become:

where  is the (complex) propagation constant. These equations are fundamental to transmission line theory. They are also wave equations, and have solutions similar to the special case, but which are a mixture of sines and cosines with exponential decay factors. Solving for the propagation constant  in terms of the primary parameters , , , and  gives:

and the characteristic impedance can be expressed as

The solutions for  and  are:

The constants  must be determined from boundary conditions. For a voltage pulse , starting at  and moving in the positive  direction, then the transmitted pulse  at position  can be obtained by computing the Fourier Transform, , of , attenuating each frequency component by , advancing its phase by , and taking the inverse Fourier Transform. The real and imaginary parts of  can be computed as

with

the right-hand expressions holding when neither , nor  , nor  is zero, and with

where atan2 is the everywhere-defined form of two-parameter arctangent function, with arbitrary value zero when both arguments are zero.

Alternatively, the complex square root can be evaluated algebraically, to yield:

and

with the plus or minus signs chosen opposite to the direction of the wave's motion through the conducting medium. (  is usually negative, since  and  are typically much smaller than  and , respectively, so    is usually positive.  is always positive.)

Special, low loss case
For small losses and high frequencies, the general equations can be simplified: If  and  then

Since an advance in phase by  is equivalent to a time delay by ,  can be simply computed as

Heaviside condition

The Heaviside condition is a special case where the wave travels down the line without any dispersion distortion. The condition for this to take place is

Input impedance of transmission line

The characteristic impedance  of a transmission line is the ratio of the amplitude of a single voltage wave to its current wave. Since most transmission lines also have a reflected wave, the characteristic impedance is generally not the impedance that is measured on the line.

The impedance measured at a given distance  from the load impedance  may be expressed as

,

where  is the propagation constant and  is the voltage reflection coefficient measured at the load end of the transmission line. Alternatively, the above formula can be rearranged to express the input impedance in terms of the load impedance rather than the load voltage reflection coefficient:

.

Input impedance of lossless transmission line
For a lossless transmission line, the propagation constant is purely imaginary, , so the above formulas can be rewritten as

where  is the wavenumber.

In calculating  the wavelength is generally different inside the transmission line to what it would be in free-space. Consequently, the velocity factor of the material the transmission line is made of needs to be taken into account when doing such a calculation.

Special cases of lossless transmission lines

Half wave length
For the special case where  where n is an integer (meaning that the length of the line is a multiple of half a wavelength), the expression reduces to the load impedance so that

for all  This includes the case when , meaning that the length of the transmission line is negligibly small compared to the wavelength. The physical significance of this is that the transmission line can be ignored (i.e. treated as a wire) in either case.

Quarter wave length

For the case where the length of the line is one quarter wavelength long, or an odd multiple of a quarter wavelength long, the input impedance becomes

Matched load
Another special case is when the load impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance of the line (i.e. the line is matched), in which case the impedance reduces to the characteristic impedance of the line so that

for all  and all .

Short

For the case of a shorted load (i.e. ), the input impedance is purely imaginary and a periodic function of position and wavelength (frequency)

Open

For the case of an open load (i.e. ), the input impedance is once again imaginary and periodic

Practical types

Coaxial cable

Coaxial lines confine virtually all of the electromagnetic wave to the area inside the cable. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and twisted (subject to limits) without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them.
In radio-frequency applications up to a few gigahertz, the wave propagates in the transverse electric and magnetic mode (TEM) only, which means that the electric and magnetic fields are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation (the electric field is radial, and the magnetic field is circumferential). However, at frequencies for which the wavelength (in the dielectric) is significantly shorter than the circumference of the cable other transverse modes can propagate. These modes are classified into two groups, transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) waveguide modes. When more than one mode can exist, bends and other irregularities in the cable geometry can cause power to be transferred from one mode to another.

The most common use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with bandwidth of multiple megahertz. In the middle 20th century they carried long distance telephone connections.

Planar lines

Planar transmission lines are transmission lines with conductors, or in some cases dielectric strips, that are flat, ribbon-shaped lines.  They are used to interconnect components on printed circuits and integrated circuits working at microwave frequencies because the planar type fits in well with the manufacturing methods for these components. Several forms of planar transmission lines exist.

Microstrip

A microstrip circuit uses a thin flat conductor which is parallel to a ground plane. Microstrip can be made by having a strip of copper on one side of a printed circuit board (PCB) or ceramic substrate while the other side is a continuous ground plane. The width of the strip, the thickness of the insulating layer (PCB or ceramic) and the dielectric constant of the insulating layer determine the characteristic impedance. Microstrip is an open structure whereas coaxial cable is a closed structure.

Stripline

A stripline circuit uses a flat strip of metal which is sandwiched between two parallel ground planes. The insulating material of the substrate forms a dielectric. The width of the strip, the thickness of the substrate and the relative permittivity of the substrate determine the characteristic impedance of the strip which is a transmission line.

Coplanar waveguide

A coplanar waveguide consists of a center strip and two adjacent outer conductors, all three of them flat structures that are deposited onto the same insulating substrate and thus are located in the same plane ("coplanar"). The width of the center conductor, the distance between inner and outer conductors, and the relative permittivity of the substrate determine the characteristic impedance of the coplanar transmission line.

Balanced lines

A balanced line is a transmission line consisting of two conductors of the same type, and equal impedance to ground and other circuits.  There are many formats of balanced lines, amongst the most common are twisted pair, star quad and twin-lead.

Twisted pair

Twisted pairs are commonly used for terrestrial telephone communications.  In such cables, many pairs are grouped together in a single cable, from two to several thousand.  The format is also used for data network distribution inside buildings, but the cable is more expensive because the transmission line parameters are tightly controlled.

Star quad

Star quad is a four-conductor cable in which all four conductors are twisted together around the cable axis.  It is sometimes used for two circuits, such as 4-wire telephony and other telecommunications applications.  In this configuration each pair uses two non-adjacent conductors.  Other times it is used for a single, balanced line, such as audio applications and 2-wire telephony.  In this configuration two non-adjacent conductors are terminated together at both ends of the cable, and the other two conductors are also terminated together.

When used for two circuits, crosstalk is reduced relative to cables with two separate twisted pairs.

When used for a single, balanced line, magnetic interference picked up by the cable arrives as a virtually perfect common mode signal, which is easily removed by coupling transformers.

The combined benefits of twisting, balanced signalling, and quadrupole pattern give outstanding noise immunity, especially advantageous for low signal level applications such as microphone cables, even when installed very close to a power cable. The disadvantage is that star quad, in combining two conductors, typically has double the capacitance of similar two-conductor twisted and shielded audio cable. High capacitance causes increasing distortion and greater loss of high frequencies as distance increases.

Twin-lead

Twin-lead consists of a pair of conductors held apart by a continuous insulator.  By holding the conductors a known distance apart, the geometry is fixed and the line characteristics are reliably consistent.  It is lower loss than coaxial cable because the characteristic impedance of twin-lead is generally higher than coaxial cable, leading to lower resistive losses due to the reduced current.  However, it is more susceptible to interference.

Lecher lines

Lecher lines are a form of parallel conductor that can be used at UHF for creating resonant circuits.  They are a convenient practical format that fills the gap between lumped components (used at HF/VHF) and resonant cavities (used at UHF/SHF).

Single-wire line
Unbalanced lines were formerly much used for telegraph transmission, but this form of communication has now fallen into disuse.  Cables are similar to twisted pair in that many cores are bundled into the same cable but only one conductor is provided per circuit and there is no twisting.  All the circuits on the same route use a common path for the return current (earth return).  There is a power transmission version of single-wire earth return in use in many locations.

General applications

Signal transfer

Electrical transmission lines are very widely used to transmit high frequency signals over long or short distances with minimum power loss.  One familiar example is the down lead from a TV or radio aerial to the receiver.

Transmission line circuits

A large variety of circuits can also be constructed with transmission lines including impedance matching circuits, filters, power dividers and directional couplers.

Stepped transmission line

A stepped transmission line is used for broad range impedance matching. It can be considered as multiple transmission line segments connected in series, with the characteristic impedance of each individual element to be . The input impedance can be obtained from the successive application of the chain relation

where  is the wave number of the -th transmission line segment and  is the length of this segment, and  is the front-end impedance that loads the -th segment.

Because the characteristic impedance of each transmission line segment  is often different from the impedance  of the fourth, input cable (only shown as an arrow marked  on the left side of the diagram above), the impedance transformation circle is off-centred along the  axis of the Smith Chart whose impedance representation is usually normalized against .

Stub filters

If a short-circuited or open-circuited transmission line is wired in parallel with a line used to transfer signals from point A to point B, then it will function as a filter. The method for making stubs is similar to the method for using Lecher lines for crude frequency measurement, but it is 'working backwards'. One method recommended in the RSGB's radiocommunication handbook is to take an open-circuited length of transmission line wired in parallel with the feeder delivering signals from an aerial. By cutting the free end of the transmission line, a minimum in the strength of the signal observed at a receiver can be found. At this stage the stub filter will reject this frequency and the odd harmonics, but if the free end of the stub is shorted then the stub will become a filter rejecting the even harmonics.

Wideband filters can be achieved using multiple stubs.  However, this is a somewhat dated technique.  Much more compact filters can be made with other methods such as parallel-line resonators.

Pulse generation

Transmission lines are used as pulse generators. By charging the transmission line and then discharging it into a resistive load, a rectangular pulse equal in length to twice the electrical length of the line can be obtained, although with half the voltage. A Blumlein transmission line is a related pulse forming device that overcomes this limitation. These are sometimes used as the pulsed power sources for radar transmitters and other devices.

Sound

The theory of sound wave propagation is very similar mathematically to that of electromagnetic waves, so techniques from transmission line theory are also used to build structures to conduct acoustic waves; and these are called acoustic transmission lines.

See also

 Artificial transmission line
 Longitudinal electromagnetic wave
 Propagation velocity
 Radio frequency power transmission
 Time domain reflectometer

References
Part of this article was derived from Federal Standard 1037C.

Further reading

  (May need to add "http://www.keysight.com" to your Java Exception Site list.)

External links

Signal cables
Telecommunications engineering
Transmission lines
Distributed element circuits

Transmission line


D'Arcy Raymond "Jake" Flowers  (March 16, 1902 – December 27, 1962) was an American professional baseball player, coach and manager. A reserve infielder, primarily a second baseman and shortstop, he appeared in 583 Major League games over ten seasons between  and  for the St. Louis Cardinals, Brooklyn Robins and Dodgers, and Cincinnati Reds. The native of Cambridge, Maryland, attended Washington College, where he played football and basketball in addition to baseball. He batted and threw right-handed and was listed at  tall and .

Baseball career

As a player
In the majors, Flowers played in over 100 games only once: in , for the Robins. He also had his finest offensive season for Brooklyn during the lively-ball  season, when Flowers batted .320 and reached career highs in doubles (18) and runs batted in (50) in only 86 games played. During his two terms with the Cardinals he was a member of two world championship teams, in 1926 and 1931, collecting one hit and one base on balls in 15 World Series plate appearances. During his regular-season big-league career, Flowers batted .256; his 433 hits included 75 doubles, 18 triples and 16 home runs.

As a manager, coach, executive and scout
After his professional playing career ended in 1936, Flowers returned to the Eastern Shore of Maryland and turned to managing. In his first season, 1937, he won The Sporting News' Minor League Manager of the Year Award. His Salisbury Indians won the Class D Eastern Shore League regular-season pennant with a 59–37 win–loss record, then prevailed over the Centreville Colts in the league playoffs for the undisputed league championship. Salisbury roared off to a 21–5 record during the season's early weeks, but when an ineligible player was discovered on the Indians' roster, the team was forced to forfeit all 21 wins. Undeterred, Flowers' club then won 59 of its last 70 games without the banned player to finish 3 games ahead of the second-place Easton Browns.  Had the 21 early-season wins not been forfeited, Salisbury would have compiled a winning percentage of .833, good for 135 wins during a 162-game season.

After three seasons in the Eastern Shore League, Flowers returned to the majors to coach under two former Cardinal teammates: Frankie Frisch with the Pittsburgh Pirates (1940–45) and Billy Southworth with the Boston Braves (1946). Flowers then was general manager of the Braves' top farm system affiliate, the Milwaukee Brewers of the American Association, from 1947 to 1950 and a Cleveland Indians coach in 1951–52.  He later scouted for the Baltimore Orioles.  He suffered a fatal heart attack at age 60 in Clearwater, Florida.

Jake Flowers is a member of the Washington College and Eastern Shore Baseball Foundation halls of fame.

See also
Salisbury Indians

References

External links

 Jake Flowers at SABR (Baseball BioProject)

1902 births
1962 deaths
Baltimore Orioles scouts
Baseball players from Maryland
Boston Braves coaches
Brooklyn Dodgers players
Brooklyn Robins players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Cambridge Canners players
Cincinnati Reds players
Cleveland Indians coaches
Fort Smith Twins players
Indianapolis Indians players
Jersey City Skeeters players
Major League Baseball second basemen
Major League Baseball shortstops
Minneapolis Millers (baseball) players
Minor league baseball executives
Minor league baseball managers
Oakland Oaks (baseball) players
People from Cambridge, Maryland
Pittsburgh Pirates coaches
Rochester Red Wings players
St. Louis Cardinals players
Washington College Shoremen baseball players

Jake Flowers


Archosaurs are a group o diapsid amniotes whase livin representatives consist o birds an crocodilians. This group includes aw extinct dinosaurs an aa, extinct crocodilian relatives, an pterosaurs. Archosauria, the archosaur clade, is a croun group that includes the maist recent common auncestor o livin birds an crocodilians. It includes twa main clades: Pseudosuchia, whilk includes crocodilians an thair extinct relatives, an Avemetatarsalia, whilk includes birds an thair extinct relatives (lik non-avian dinosaurs an pterosaurs).

Extant Early Triassic first appearances
Taxa named bi Edward Drinker Cope

Archosaur


The Dragon and Saint George is the fifth EP by the melodic hard rock band Ten, released on September 4, 2015. As with the previous two albums, the cover of the EP was illustrated by Gaetano Di Falco. It is the first EP release for the band since 1999's Fear the Force and also the first to be released in 12 inch format.

Track listing
All songs written by Gary Hughes.
 "The Dragon And Saint George" – 5:16
 "Musketeers: Soldiers Of The King" – 4:07
 "Is There Anyone With Sense" – 5:15
 "The Prodigal Saviour" – 4:12
 "Albion Born" - 5:24
 "Good God In Heaven What Hell Is This" - 4:00 (12 inch Picture Disc exclusive)
 "We Can Be As One" (European Exclusive track to Isla De Muerta – 3:28

The tracks "Musketeers: Soldiers Of The King", "The Prodigal Saviour" and "Is There Anyone With Sense" are previously unreleased.

Personnel
Gary Hughes – vocals, guitars, backing vocals
 Dann Rosingana – Lead guitars
 Steve Grocott - Lead guitars
John Halliwell – Rhythm Guitars
Darrel Treece-Birch – keyboards, Programming
Steve Mckenna – Bass guitar
 Max Yates – drums and percussion

Production
Written and produced by Gary Hughes
Mixing and Mastering by Dennis Ward

References

Ten (band) albums
2015 EPs
Saint George and the Dragon

The Dragon and Saint George


Warner Bros. Family Entertainment was the family division label of Warner Bros. Entertainment. It released numerous theatrical and direct-to-video family-oriented films and television shows.

History
The division was founded in 1992 to produce more family-friendly films. The first theatrical film released under the Family Entertainment label was Dennis the Menace, released in the summer of 1993. The film proved to be a huge hit at the box office, grossing over $50 million at the domestic box office despite receiving negative reviews from critics. Following it was Free Willy, which was also released in the summer of 1993 and would also be a huge box office hit, grossing over $75 million domestically.

Other 1993 releases included a live-action film adaptation of the book The Secret Garden, which didn't perform as well as the previous two films but still garnered over $30 million at the domestic box office, and George Balanchine's The Nutcracker. The last 1993 WBFE theatrical release was Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, and it wasn't a success at the box office, getting only $5 million at the box office compared to its $6 million budget, due to a lack of promotion from Warner Bros.

In 1994, it was the worst year for WBFE, where it was home to numerous box-office bombs. In the early part of 1994, Warner released Thumbelina, which was a major box-office bomb. Another 1994 film was a live-action rendition of the book Black Beauty, which was another box-office bomb for the studio, grabbing only nearly $5 million at the box office. Following it was A Troll in Central Park, which garnered less than $1 million at the box office. The last two films in 1994 were Little Giants, which performed better, but only received nearly $20 million domestically and Richie Rich, which was only a minor box-office bomb, grossing over $38 million for its $40 million budget.

In 1995, it brought a live-action rendition of the book A Little Princess, which only got over $10 million in its domestic release. Other films that year included international distribution of The Pebble and the Penguin, which was a box-office bomb, grossing nearly $4 million, and Born to Be Wild, which also garnered nearly $4 million. However, the biggest success of 1995 for the company was the sequel to Free Willy, Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home, which, although not nearly as successful as the first film, was a minor success, garnering over $30 million.

In 1996, it saw WBFE's biggest hit yet, Space Jam, which garnered over $90 million domestically. The following year, the division released Turner Feature Animation's Cats Don't Dance (inherited from Turner Pictures as a result of Time Warner's merger with Turner Broadcasting), which bombed at the box office with over $3 million earned stemming from a lack of promotion. The next 1997 film was a sequel to The Swan Princess, The Swan Princess: Escape from Castle Mountain, but it performed poorly at the box office mainly because of a limited theatrical release. The final 1997 film was the third Free Willy film, Free Willy 3: The Rescue, which performed poorly, grossing over $3 million.

In 1998, it released Warner Bros. Feature Animation's Quest for Camelot, which would be a box-office bomb, but grossed more than previous films released by the company, grossing nearly $23 million domestically. In 1999, WBFE released two more films, the poorly performed The King and I, which only grossed nearly $12 million, and Brad Bird's The Iron Giant, which was also a box-office bomb, grossing over $23 million. The Iron Giant would, however, go on to become a cult classic through video releases and TV airings. The only film released under WBFE in 2000 was My Dog Skip, which became the company's first major box-office success in nearly four years, grossing nearly $35 million.

Two more family films were released in 2001 through WBFE. Cats & Dogs was proved to be one of the biggest successes of the company's history, grossing over $200 million worldwide. The next film, Osmosis Jones, was hoped to follow the previous two films in the success line-up, but flopped, only grossing nearly $15 million.

Warner Bros. continued to release family films later in the 2000s as well as the 2010s, but the logo for its Family Entertainment subsidiary was no longer used in the USA.

WBFE continued operations in Germany until 2009, after releasing Laura's Star and the Mysterious Dragon Nian.

Though made before Warner Bros. created the label, it also covers the VHS releases of Calamity Jane, Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory, Superman, Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales, The NeverEnding Story, The Goonies, Daffy Duck's Quackbusters, All Dogs Go to Heaven (the 1996 UK VHS release only), The NeverEnding Story II: The Next Chapter, Rover Dangerfield, Curly Sue and Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman.

Notable theatrical films
 Dennis the Menace (1993, co-production with Hughes Entertainment)
 Free Willy (1993, co-production with Regency Enterprises)
 The Secret Garden (1993)
 George Balanchine's The Nutcracker (1993)
 Batman: Mask of the Phantasm (1993, co-production with DC Entertainment)
 Thumbelina (1994, produced by Don Bluth Entertainment)
 Black Beauty (1994)
 A Troll in Central Park (1994, produced by Don Bluth Entertainment)
 Little Giants (1994, co-production with Amblin Entertainment)
 The Pagemaster (1994, non-US distribution only)
 The NeverEnding Story III: Escape from Fantasia (1994, non-US distribution only)
 Richie Rich (1994, co-production with Silver Pictures, Davis Entertainment and The Harvey Entertainment Company)
 Born to Be Wild (1995)
 A Little Princess (1995)
 Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home (1995, co-production with Regency Enterprises)
 The Amazing Panda Adventure (1995)
 The Pebble and the Penguin (1995, non-US distribution only, produced by Don Bluth Entertainment)
 It Takes Two (1995, co-production with Rysher Entertainment)
 Gumby: The Movie (1995, German distribution only, produced by Premavision, Inc.)
 Space Jam (1996)
 Shiloh (1996)
 Cats Don't Dance (1997, co-production with Turner Entertainment Co.)
 A Rat's Tale (1997, co-production with Augsburger Puppenkiste and Monty Film)
 The Fearless Four (1997, co-production with Munich Animation, Stardust Pictures London, and Bioskop Film)
 Air Bud (1997, UK distribution only)
 Wild America (1997, co-production with Morgan Creek Entertainment)
 The Swan Princess: Escape from Castle Mountain (co-distribution with Legacy Releasing)
 Free Willy 3: The Rescue (1997, co-production with Regency Enterprises)
 Quest for Camelot (1998)
 The King and I (1999, co-production with Morgan Creek Entertainment)
 The Iron Giant (1999)
 Tobias Totz and his Lion (1999) (co-production with Munich Animation, Stardust Pictures London, and Bioskop Film)
 My Dog Skip (2000, co-production with Alcon Entertainment)
 The Little Polar Bear (2001)
 Laura's Star (2004)
 The Little Polar Bear 2: The Mysterious Island (2005)
 Laura's Star and the Mysterious Dragon Nian (2009)

Notable direct-to-video films

Notable television shows
 Tiny Toon Adventures (1990–1992, with Amblin Entertainment)
 Taz-Mania (1991-1994)
 Animaniacs (1993-1998, with Amblin Entertainment)
 The Adventures of Batman & Robin (1994–1995, with DC Comics)
 Free Willy (1994, with Nelvana and Regency)
 Freakazoid! (1995–1997, with Amblin Entertainment)
 Pinky and the Brain (1995–1998, with Amblin Entertainment)
 The Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries (1995–2002)
 Road Rovers (1996–1997)
 Superman: The Animated Series (1996–1997, with DC Comics)
 Waynehead (1996–1997, with Nelvana)
 The Legend of Calamity Jane (1997-1998)
 The New Batman/Superman Adventures (1997–2000, with DC Comics)
 The New Batman Adventures (1997–1999, with DC Comics)
 Histeria! (1998–2000)
 Pinky, Elmyra & the Brain (1998–1999, with Amblin Entertainment)
 Batman Beyond (1999–2001)
 Detention (1999–2000)
 Static Shock (2000–2004, with DC Comics)
 Justice League (2001–2004, with DC Comics)
 The Zeta Project (2001–2002, with DC Comics)
 Baby Looney Tunes (2002–2005)
 ¡Mucha Lucha! (2002–2005)
 Ozzy & Drix (2002–2004)
 What's New, Scooby-Doo? (2002–2006)
 Duck Dodgers (2003–2005)
 Teen Titans (2003–2006, with DC Comics)
 Xiaolin Showdown (2003–2006)
 The Batman (2004–2008, with DC Comics)
 Justice League Unlimited (2004–2006, with DC Comics)
 Coconut Fred's Fruit Salad Island (2005–2006)
 Johnny Test (2005–2014; first season only)
 Firehouse Tales (2005–2006)
 Krypto the Superdog (2005–2006, with DC Comics)
 Loonatics Unleashed (2005–2007)
 Legion of Super Heroes (2006–2008, with DC Comics)
 Shaggy & Scooby-Doo Get a Clue! (2006–2008)
 Tom and Jerry Tales (2006–2008, with Turner Entertainment Co.)

References

Warner Bros.
Entertainment companies established in 1992
Entertainment companies disestablished in 2009
Children's mass media
Defunct film and television production companies of the United States

Warner Bros. Family Entertainment


Chaurasi Temple is a temple complex consisting of 84 different shrines, located in the center of Bharmour town of Chamba district. It holds immense religious importance because of temples built around 1400 years ago. Life of people in Bharmour centers around the temple complex-Chaurasi, named so because of 84 shrines built in the periphery of Chaurasi Temple. Chaurasi is the Hindi word for number eighty four. The beautiful valabhi-Shikhara style architecture of Manimahesh occupies the center of the complex. Chaurasi Temple Complex was built approximately in 7th century, although repairs of many temples have been carried out in later period. There are 84 big and small temples in Chaurasi temple complex.

Chaurasi is a spacious level ground in center of Bharmour where the galaxy of temples mostly in the form of 84 Shivlingas exists. The Chaurasi Temple Complex offers a delightful, clean and a scenic view. Another temple built in the same style is that of Lord Vishnu cast in his Narsimha avatar.

The Chaurasi temple was built by Raja Sahil Verman of Bharmour, in honor of the 84 Siddhas or yogis who had come from Kurukshetra and had meditated there, while they were passing Bharmour on their way to Manimahesh Lake. They blessed the King with ten sons and a daughter, Champavati, as he had no heir. It is said that the pilgrimage to Manimahesh Lake is incomplete without paying obeisance in these temples due to the Dharmeshvar Mahadev (Dharamraj) Temple as one of the most revered by Hindus, and bathing in the Bharmani Mata temple pool of Goddess Brahmani, 4 km from Bharmour, Himachal Pradesh. The entire area and the temples, are dedicated to the worship of God Shiva and Shakti, due to the belief of Manimahesh Kailash Peak, being their abode and the promise of Moksha.

References

See also
 Manimahesh Kailash Peak
 Ātman (Hinduism)
 Brahman

Hindu temples in Himachal Pradesh
Buildings and structures in Chamba district

Chaurasi Temple Bharmour


The Imperial Federation was a series of proposals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to create a federal union to replace the existing British Empire, presenting it as an alternative to colonial imperialism. No such proposal was ever adopted, but various schemes were popular in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and other colonial territories. The project was championed by Unionists such as Joseph Chamberlain as an alternative to William Gladstone's proposals for home rule in Ireland.

Many proposals were put forward, but none commanded majority support.  The Imperial Federation League, the main advocacy group, split into two factions in 1893, with one group promoting imperial defence and the other encouraging imperial trade. Various proposals were put forward, with most of them calling for a single state with an imperial parliament headquartered in London. Eventually, such proposals were never put into effect, and decolonisation would eventually happen to a vast majority of Britain's colonies beginning from the mid 20th century.

The new parliament was envisioned to cooperatively deal with internal trade, foreign relations, defence and other issues that affected the entire federation. The new parliament would have representatives from India that would rule the latter directly, while the dominions such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland, and South Africa as well as crown colonies such as Cyprus, Gibraltar, Malta, and Singapore would have internal self-government, although still accountable to this new parliament in London, similar to devolution that was granted to Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales during the late 20th century. In the Imperial Federation, Ireland would also have self-government, which was expected to reduce demand for independence in Ireland.

Motivations
By the 1880s the British Empire covered a quarter of the world's land area, and included a fifth of the world's population. There was no doubt about the vastness of the potential, and there was agreement that opportunities were largely wasted because politically and constitutionally there was no unity, no common policies, no agreed central direction, no "permanent binding force" said Alfred Milner. Associations were formed and discussions were held to come up with a solution.

The British Empire consisted of many colonies, several of which were largely self-governing dominions (Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Straits Settlements). Most were ruled by colonial officials including India, the West Indies, and Fiji. The future of the empire remained uncertain, as it was unclear what the result would be if all colonies eventually became self-governing. Among other concerns, it would be very difficult for British interests to be maintained if every colony was essentially already sovereign.

New national identities emerging throughout the dominions was also a cause for concern. Growing autonomy for Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa led to each of them adopting coats of arms of their own rather than continuing to use those of the United Kingdom. Some felt that the growing status of the dominions was not reflected in British symbols such as the Union Jack, and this led to calls for the creation of unifying symbols such as a British Empire flag to represent a new multinational reality.

Creating an Imperial Federation thus became a popular alternative proposal to colonial imperialism. The plan was never firm, but the general proposal was to create a single federal state among all colonies of the British Empire. The federation would have a common parliament and would be governed as a superstate. Thus, Imperial unity could be maintained while still allowing for democratic government. The colonies would increase their influence while Britain would be able to share the costs of imperial defence. The best features of large states could be combined with the best features of small states. It was seen as a method of solving the Home Rule problem in Ireland, as England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland (along with the other members of the Old Commonwealth) would have their own Parliaments. Westminster would become a purely Imperial body.

Supporters of the Imperial Federation regarded the United Kingdom as having two possible futures: imperial union of its colonies consisting of different ethnic groups and continued long-term importance in global affairs, or imperial dissolution and the reduction of the status of the country to a second-class nation with little to no power projection. In response to claims that geography was against federation on such a large scale, it was said that scientific advancements would solve the difficulty. Edward Ellis Morris reminded listeners to his lecture in 1885 that it was now as easy to reach London from Melbourne or Singapore as it had been to reach London from Orkney at the time of the Acts of Union 1707, or to reach Washington, D.C. from San Francisco  before 1869.

Albert Venn Dicey in 1897 proposed an Anglo-Saxon "intercitizenship" during an address to the Fellows of All Souls at Oxford.

Organisation
The Imperial Federation League was founded in London in 1884 and subsequent branches were established in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Barbados, and British Guiana. While the proposal was often associated with segments of the British Conservative Party, it was also popular among Liberal Imperialists (proponents of New Imperialism) such as William Edward Forster. Several members of the Imperial Federation League were motivated by ethnonationalism, drawing inspiration from the writing of theorists such as Sir Charles Dilke and John Robert Seeley to call for a "Greater Britain" which would also encompass the predominantly white self-governing colonies and dominions. The League could not agree on its primary role of focusing on either defence or trade, and was dissolved in 1893.

Canadian advocates of imperial federation were termed "Canadian Imperialists" and their ideology was "Canadian Imperialism" in Canadian historiography since Carl Berger's 1970 book The Sense of Power identified this as a separate ideology from Canadian nationalism. Noted Canadian Imperialists included George Monro Grant, Sir George Robert Parkin, Stephen Leacock, Sir Sam Hughes and George Taylor Denison III.

In 1900, Thomas Hedderwick, a Scottish Liberal Party MP, raised the issue in the British House of Commons. Recalling to the House the contributions of Dadabhai Naoroji and Mancherjee Bhownagree, Indian MPs serving in the House of Commons, Hedderwick mooted the possibility that an autonomous India might one day be represented in an Imperial Parliament.

Obstacles
One of the main obstacles to the scheme was what one of its proponents, Richard Jebb, called colonial nationalism. The granting of authority to a super-parliament composed of many competing interests was seen by opponents as a compromise to the powers of the local parliaments. Leading colonial supporters of imperial federation, such as Australian prime minister Alfred Deakin and Canadian Minister of Militia and Defence Sir Sam Hughes, however saw the movement as a way to increase the influence of the dominions over imperial defence and foreign policy. The colonial branches of the Imperial Federation League in fact outlived the demise of the home branch in London, which collapsed in 1896 when it failed to resolve internal disputes over imperial trade policy.

While Joseph Chamberlain, Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1895 to 1903, was sympathetic to the idea, his proposals for a permanent Imperial Council or Council of the Empire which would be a kind of Imperial Parliament passing policies that would bind colonial governments, was rejected at the 1897 Colonial Conference and 1902 Colonial Conferences due to fears that such a scheme would undermine the autonomy of colonies. Similarly, proposals for centralising the Empire's armed forces were also rejected as were his proposals for an Empire customs union. At subsequent Imperial Conferences, proposals for Imperial preferential trade were rejected by the British Liberal governments due to their preference for international free trade. It would not be until the British Empire Economic Conference in 1932 that Imperial Preference would be implemented; however, the policy did not survive World War II.

Decline
Support for imperial federation waned with World War I which produced greater feelings of national identity in several dominions, Canada and Australia in particular. Defence concerns and problems of imperial cooperation were partially resolved through the system of colonial or Imperial Conferences and with growing sentiments by various dominion governments for greater independence resulting in the Balfour Declaration of 1926 and the Statute of Westminster 1931. It was last discussed seriously at the governmental level at the 1937 Imperial Conference where it was dismissed.

The idea of Imperial unity was carried on after World War I by Lionel Curtis and the Round Table movement, which continues to this day as a forum and promoter of the Commonwealth of Nations and also by the Royal Commonwealth Society which continues to promote the Commonwealth.

In recent years, following the United Kingdom's decision to leave the European Union, many of the concepts behind the Imperial Federation have found a new life within the CANZUK movement. Critics sceptical of the CANZUK movement make the argument that "distance and the size of trading partners matter more than historical links in determining trading relationships between countries". Conversely, advocates argue that technological advances now make it possible to fly from the United Kingdom to Australia in under 24 hours, seriously overcoming the limitation of distance which hampered the idea a century ago. They remark that internet and the ability to instant message/call the other side of the world has greatly increased the connectivity between these four countries. In August 2018 the Canadian Conservative Party proposed a CANZUK Treaty which aims to achieve free trade in goods and services, visa-free travel arrangements, reciprocal healthcare, increased consumer choice, increased travel protection and security co-ordination between the four countries. The CANZUK treaty has some political support in the minor political parties of other CANZUK countries, with the New Zealand ACT Party, the British Unionist Party, and the UK Libertarian Party  all explicitly stating their support for CANZUK. The Australian Liberal Democrats have not referenced CANZUK directly but have stated support for policies which align with the aims of CANZUK.

See also

Round Table movement
Commonwealth free trade
Federalism
Political union
Supranational union
External association

References

Further reading
 Agnew, Christopher Mack. 1980. The Failure of the Imperial Idea in Canada. PhD thesis, University of Delaware.

 Ewart, John Skirving. The Kingdom of Canada: Imperial Federation, the Colonial Conferences, the Alaska Boundary and Other Essays (Morang & Company, 1908). online
 Mehrotra, Sri Ram. "Imperial federation and India, 1868–1917." Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 1.1 (1961): 29–40.
 Smith, William Roy. "British Imperial Federation." Political Science Quarterly 36.2 (1921): 274–297. Online

 Cook, Terry. 1977. 'Apostle of Empire': Sir George Parkin and Imperial Federation. PhD thesis, Queen's University.
 Guthrie, Dorothy. 1940. The Imperial Federation Movement in Canada. Phd Thesis, Northwestern University.
 MacLean, Guy. 1958. The Imperial Federation Movement in Canada, 1884-1902. Phd thesis, Duke University
 Shields, Robert. 1961. The Quest for Empire Unity: The Imperial Federationists and Their Cause, 1869-93. Phd Thesis, Univ. of Pennsylvania

British Empire
Political history of Canada
Proposed countries

Imperial Federation