The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is a dynamic rainfall–runoff–subsurface runoff simulation model used for single-event to long-term (continuous) simulation of the surface/subsurface hydrology quantity and quality from primarily urban/suburban areas. It can simulate the Rainfall- runoff, runoff, evaporation, infiltration and groundwater connection for roots, streets, grassed areas, rain gardens and ditches and pipes, for example. The hydrology component of SWMM operates on a collection of subcatchment areas divided into impervious and pervious areas with and without depression storage to predict runoff and pollutant loads from precipitation, evaporation and infiltration losses from each of the subcatchment. Besides, low impact development (LID) and best management practice areas on the subcatchment can be modeled to reduce the impervious and pervious runoff. The routing or hydraulics section of SWMM transports this water and possible associated water quality constituents through a system of closed pipes, open channels, storage/treatment devices, ponds, storages, pumps, orifices, weirs, outlets, outfalls and other regulators.

SWMM tracks the quantity and quality of the flow generated within each subcatchment, and the flow rate, flow depth, and quality of water in each pipe and channel during a simulation period composed of multiple fixed or variable time steps. The water quality constituents such as water quality constituents can be simulated from buildup on the subcatchments through washoff to a hydraulic network with optional first order decay and linked pollutant removal, best management practice and low-impact development (LID) removal and treatment can be simulated at selected storage nodes. SWMM is one of the hydrology transport models which the EPA and other agencies have applied widely throughout North America and through consultants and universities throughout the world. The latest update notes and new features can be found on the EPA website in the download section. Recently added in November 2015 were the EPA SWMM 5.1 Hydrology Manual (Volume I) and in 2016 the EPA SWMM 5.1 Hydraulic Manual (Volume II) and EPA SWMM 5.1 Water Quality (including LID Modules) Volume (III) + Errata.

Program description
The EPA storm water management model (SWMM) is a dynamic rainfall-runoff-routing simulation model used for single event or long-term (continuous) simulation of runoff quantity and quality from primarily urban areas. The runoff component of SWMM operates on a collection of subcatchment areas that receive precipitation and generate runoff and pollutant loads. The routing portion of SWMM transports this runoff through a system of pipes, channels, storage/treatment devices, pumps, and regulators. SWMM tracks the quantity and quality of runoff generated within each subcatchment, and the flow rate, flow depth, and quality of water in each pipe and channel during a simulation period divided into multiple time steps.

SWMM accounts for various hydrologic processes that produce runoff from urban areas. These include:

 time-varying rainfall
 evaporation of standing surface water
 snow accumulation and melting
 rainfall interception from depression storage
 infiltration of rainfall into unsaturated soil layers
 percolation of infiltrated water into groundwater layers
 interflow between groundwater and the drainage system
 nonlinear reservoir routing of overland flow
 capture and retention of rainfall/runoff with various types of low impact development (LID) practices.
SWMM also contains a flexible set of hydraulic modeling capabilities used to route runoff and external inflows through the drainage system network of pipes, channels, storage/treatment units and diversion structures. These include the ability to:

 handle networks of unlimited size·
 use a wide variety of standard closed and open conduit shapes as well as natural channels·
 model special elements such as storage/treatment units, flow dividers, pumps, weirs, and orifices·
 apply external flows and water quality inputs from surface runoff, groundwater interflow, rainfall-dependent infiltration/inflow, dry weather sanitary flow, and user-defined inflows
 utilize either kinematic wave or full dynamic wave flow routing methods·
 model various flow regimes, such as backwater, surcharging, reverse flow, and surface ponding·
 apply user-defined dynamic control rules to simulate the operation of pumps, orifice openings, and weir crest levels.

Spatial variability in all of these processes is achieved by dividing a study area into a collection of smaller, homogeneous subcatchment areas, each containing its own fraction of pervious and impervious sub-areas. Overland flow can be routed between sub-areas, between subcatchments, or between entry points of a drainage system.

Since its inception, SWMM has been used in thousands of sewer and stormwater studies throughout the world. Typical applications include:

 design and sizing of drainage system components for flood control
 sizing of detention facilities and their appurtenances for flood control and water quality protection·
 flood plain mapping of natural channel systems, by modeling the river hydraulics and associated flooding problems using prismatic channels·
 designing control strategies for minimizing Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) and Sanitary Sewer Overflow (SSO)·
 evaluating the impact of inflow and infiltration on sanitary sewer overflows·
 generating non-point source pollutant loadings for waste load allocation studies·
 evaluating the effectiveness of BMPs and Subcatchment LID's for reducing wet weather pollutant loadings. Rainfall-runoff modeling of urban and rural watersheds
 hydraulic and water quality analysis of storm, sanitary, and combined sewer systems
 master planning of sewer collection systems and urban watersheds
 system evaluations associated with USEPA's regulations including NPDES permits, CMOM, and TMDL
 1D and 2D (surface ponding) predictions of flood levels and flooding volume

EPA SWMM is public domain software that may be freely copied and distributed. The SWMM 5 public domain consists of C engine code and Delphi SWMM 5 graphical user interface code. The C code and Delphi code are easily edited and can be recompiled by students and professionals for custom features or extra output features.

History
SWMM was first developed between 1969–1971 and has undergone four major upgrades since those years. The major upgrades were: (1) Version 2 in 1973-1975, (2) Version 3 in 1979-1981, (3) Version 4 in 1985-1988 and (4) Version 5 in 2001-2004. A list of the major changes and post-2004 changes are shown in Table 1. The current SWMM edition, Version 5.2.3, is a complete re-write of the previous Fortran releases in the programming language C, and it can be run under Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10 and also with a recompilation under Unix. The code for SWMM5 is open source and public domain code that can be downloaded from the EPA website.

EPA SWMM 5 provides an integrated graphical environment for editing watershed input data, running hydrologic, hydraulic, real time control and water quality simulations, and viewing the results in a variety of graphical formats. These include color-coded thematic drainage area maps, time series graphs and tables, profile plots, scatter plots and statistical frequency analyses.

The last rewrite of EPA SWMM was produced by the Water Supply and Water Resources Division of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Risk Management Research Laboratory with assistance from the consulting firm of CDM Inc under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA). SWMM 5 is used as the computational engine for many modeling packages plus components of SWMM5 are in other modeling packages. The major modeling packages that use all or some of the SWMM5 components are shown in the Vendor section. The update history of SWMM 5 from the original SWMM 5.0.001 to the current version SWMM 5.2.3 can be found at the EPA website. SWMM 5 was approved FEMA Model Approval Page in May 2005, with a note about the versions that are approved on the FEMA Approval Page SWMM 5 Version 5.0.005 (May 2005) and up for NFIP modeling. SWMM 5 is used as the computational engine for many modeling packages (see the SWMM 5 Platform Section of this article) and some components of SWMM5 are in other modeling packages (see the SWMM 5 Vendor Section of this article).

SWMM conceptual model
SWMM conceptualizes a drainage system as a series of water and material flows between several major environmental compartments. These compartments and the SWMM objects they contain include:

The Atmosphere compartment, from which precipitation falls and pollutants are deposited onto the land surface compartment. SWMM uses Rain Gage objects to represent rainfall inputs to the system. The rain gage objects can use time series, external text files or NOAA rainfall data files. The Rain Gage objects can use precipitation for thousands of years. Using the SWMM-CAT Addon to SWMM5 climate change can now be simulated using modified temperature, evaporation or rainfall.

The Land Surface compartment, which is represented by one or more Subcatchment objects. It receives precipitation from the Atmospheric compartment in the form of rain or snow; it sends outflow in the form of infiltration to the Groundwater compartment and also as surface runoff and pollutant loadings to the Transport compartment. The Low Impact Development (LID) controls are part of the Subcatchments and store, infiltrate or evaporate the runoff.

The groundwater compartment receives infiltration from the Land Surface compartment and transfers a portion of this inflow to the Transport compartment. This compartment is modeled using Aquifer objects. The connection to the Transport compartment can be either a static boundary or a dynamic depth in the channels. The links in the Transport compartment now also have seepage and evaporation.

The Transport compartment contains a network of conveyance elements (channels, pipes, pumps, and regulators) and storage/treatment units that transport water to outfalls or to treatment facilities. Inflows to this compartment can come from surface runoff, groundwater interflow, sanitary dry weather flow, or from user-defined hydrographs. The components of the Transport compartment are modeled with Node and Link objects.

Not all compartments need to appear in a particular SWMM model. For example, one could model just the transport compartment, using pre-defined hydrographs as inputs. If kinematic wave routing is used, then the nodes do not need to contain an outfall.

Model parameters
The simulated model parameters for subcatchments are surface roughness, depression storage, slope, flow path length; for Infiltration: Horton: max/min rates and decay constant; Green-Ampt: hydraulic conductivity, initial moisture deficit and suction head; Curve Number: NRCS (SCS) Curve number; All: time for saturated soil to fully drain; for Conduits: Manning's roughness; for Water Quality: buildup/washoff function coefficients, first-order decay coefficients, removal equations. A study area can be divided into any number of individual subcatchments, each of which drains to a single point. Study areas can range in size from a small portion of a single lot up to thousands of acres. SWMM uses hourly or more frequent rainfall data as input and can be run for single events or in a continuous fashion for any number of years.

Hydrology and hydraulics capabilities
SWMM 5 accounts for various hydrologic processes that produce surface and subsurface runoff from urban areas. These include:

 Time-varying rainfall for an unlimited number of rain gages for both design and continuous hyetographs
 evaporation of standing surface water on watersheds and surface ponds
 snowfall accumulation, plowing, and melting
 rainfall interception from depression storage in both impervious and pervious areas
 infiltration of precipitation into unsaturated soil layers
 percolation of infiltrated water into groundwater layers
 interflow between groundwater and pipes and ditches
 nonlinear reservoir routing of watershed overland flow.

Spatial variability in all of these processes is achieved by dividing a study area into a collection of smaller, homogeneous watershed or subcatchment areas, each containing its fraction of pervious and impervious sub-areas. Overland flow can be routed between sub-areas, between subcatchments, or between entry points of a drainage system.

SWMM also contains a flexible set of hydraulic modeling capabilities used to route runoff and external inflows through the drainage system network of pipes, channels, storage/treatment units and diversion structures. These include the ability to:

 Simulate drainage networks of unlimited size
 use a wide variety of standard closed and open conduit shapes as well as natural or irregular channels
 model special elements such as storage/treatment units, outlets, flow dividers, pumps, weirs, and orifices
 apply external flows and water quality inputs from surface runoff, groundwater interflow, rainfall-dependent infiltration/inflow, dry weather sanitary flow, and user-defined inflows
 utilize either steady, kinematic wave or full dynamic wave flow routing methods
 model various flow regimes, such as backwater, surcharging, pressure, reverse flow, and surface ponding
 apply user-defined dynamic control rules to simulate the operation of pumps, orifice openings, and weir crest levels

Infiltration is the process of rainfall penetrating the ground surface into the unsaturated soil zone of pervious subcatchments areas. SWMM5 offers four choices for modeling infiltration:

Classical infiltration method
This method is based on empirical observations showing that infiltration decreases exponentially from an initial maximum rate to some minimum rate over the course of a long rainfall event. Input parameters required by this method include the maximum and minimum infiltration rates, a decay coefficient that describes how fast the rate decreases over time, and the time it takes a fully saturated soil to completely dry (used to compute the recovery of infiltration rate during dry periods).

Modified Horton Method

This is a modified version of the classical Horton Method that uses the cumulative infiltration in excess of the minimum rate as its state variable (instead of time along the Horton curve), providing a more accurate infiltration estimate when low rainfall intensities occur. It uses the same input parameters as does the traditional Horton Method.

Green–Ampt method
This method for modeling infiltration assumes that a sharp wetting front exists in the soil column, separating soil with some initial moisture content below from saturated soil above. The input parameters required are the initial moisture deficit of the soil, the soil's hydraulic conductivity, and the suction head at the wetting front. The recovery rate of moisture deficit during dry periods is empirically related to the hydraulic conductivity.

Curve number method
This approach is adopted from the NRCS (SCS) curve number method for estimating runoff. It assumes that the total infiltration capacity of a soil can be found from the soil's tabulated curve number. During a rain event this capacity is depleted as a function of cumulative rainfall and remaining capacity. The input parameters for this method are the curve number and the time it takes a fully saturated soil to completely dry (used to compute the recovery of infiltration capacity during dry periods).

SWMM also allows the infiltration recovery rate to be adjusted by a fixed amount on a monthly basis to account for seasonal variation in such factors as evaporation rates and groundwater levels. This optional monthly soil recovery pattern is specified as part of a project's evaporation data.

In addition to modeling the generation and transport of runoff flows, SWMM can also estimate the production of pollutant loads associated with this runoff. The following processes can be modeled for any number of user-defined water quality constituents:

 Dry-weather pollutant buildup over different land uses
 pollutant washoff from specific land uses during storm events
 direct contribution of wet and dry rainfall deposition
 reduction in dry-weather buildup due to street cleaning
 reduction in washoff load due to BMPs and LIDs
 entry of dry weather sanitary flows and user-specified external inflows at any point in the drainage system
 routing of water quality constituents through the drainage system
 reduction in constituent concentration through treatment in storage units or by natural processes in pipes and channels.

Rain Gages in SWMM5 supply precipitation data for one or more subcatchment areas in a study region. The rainfall data can be either a user-defined time series or come from an external file. Several different popular rainfall file formats currently in use are supported, as well as a standard user-defined format. The principal input properties of rain gages include:
 rainfall data type (e.g., intensity, volume, or cumulative volume)
 recording time interval (e.g., hourly, 15-minute, etc.)
 source of rainfall data (input time series or external file)
 name of rainfall data source

The other principal input parameters for the subcatchments include:
 assigned rain gage
 outlet node or subcatchment and routing fraction
 assigned land uses
 tributary surface area
 imperviousness and zero percent imperviousness
 slope
 characteristic width of overland flow
 Manning's n for overland flow on both pervious and impervious areas
 depression storage in both pervious and impervious areas
 percent of impervious area with no depression storage.
 infiltration parameters
 snowpack
 groundwater parameters
 LID parameters for each LID Control Used

Routing options

Steady-flow routing represents the simplest type of routing possible (actually no routing) by assuming that within each computational time step flow is uniform and steady. Thus it simply translates inflow hydrographs at the upstream end of the conduit to the downstream end, with no delay or change in shape. The normal flow equation is used to relate flow rate to flow area (or depth).

This type of routing cannot account for channel storage, backwater effects, entrance/exit losses, flow reversal or pressurized flow. It can only be used with dendritic conveyance networks, where each node has only a single outflow link (unless the node is a divider in which case two outflow links are required). This form of routing is insensitive to the time step employed and is really only appropriate for preliminary analysis using long-term continuous simulations. Kinematic wave routing solves the continuity equation along with a simplified form of the momentum equation in each conduit. The latter requires that the slope of the water surface equal the slope of the conduit.

The maximum flow that can be conveyed through a conduit is the full normal flow value. Any flow in excess of this entering the inlet node is either lost from the system or can pond atop the inlet node and be re-introduced into the conduit as capacity becomes available.

Kinematic wave routing allows flow and area to vary both spatially and temporally within a conduit. This can result in attenuated and delayed outflow hydrographs as inflow is routed through the channel. However this form of routing cannot account for backwater effects, entrance/exit losses, flow reversal, or pressurized flow, and is also restricted to dendritic network layouts. It can usually maintain numerical stability with moderately large time steps, on the order of 1 to 5 minutes. If the aforementioned effects are not expected to be significant then this alternative can be an accurate and efficient routing method, especially for long-term simulations.

Dynamic wave routing solves the complete one-dimensional Saint Venant flow equations and therefore produces the most theoretically accurate results. These equations consist of the continuity and momentum equations for conduits and a volume continuity equation at nodes.

With this form of routing it is possible to represent pressurized flow when a closed conduit becomes full, such that flows can exceed the full normal flow value. Flooding occurs when the water depth at a node exceeds the maximum available depth, and the excess flow is either lost from the system or can pond atop the node and re-enter the drainage system.

Dynamic wave routing can account for channel storage, backwater, entrance/exit losses, flow reversal, and pressurized flow. Because it couples together the solution for both water levels at nodes and flow in conduits it can be applied to any general network layout, even those containing multiple downstream diversions and loops. It is the method of choice for systems subjected to significant backwater effects due to downstream flow restrictions and with flow regulation via weirs and orifices. This generality comes at a price of having to use much smaller time steps, on the order of a minute or less (SWMM can automatically reduce the user-defined maximum time step as needed to maintain numerical stability).

Integrated hydrology/hydraulics

One of the great advances in SWMM 5 was the integration of urban/suburban subsurface flow with the hydraulic computations of the drainage network. This advance is a tremendous improvement over the separate subsurface hydrologic and hydraulic computations of the previous versions of SWMM because it allows the modeler to conceptually model the same interactions that occur physically in the real open channel/shallow aquifer environment. The SWMM 5 numerical engine calculates the surface runoff, subsurface hydrology and assigns the current climate data at either the wet or dry hydrologic time step. The hydraulic calculations for the links, nodes, control rules and boundary conditions of the network are then computed at either a fixed or variable time step within the hydrologic time step by using interpolation routines and the simulated hydrologic starting and ending values. The versions of SWMM 5 greater than SWMM 5.1.007 allow the modeler to simulate climate changes by globally changing the rainfall, temperature, and evaporation using monthly adjustments.

An example of this integration was the collection of the different SWMM 4 link types in the runoff, transport and Extran blocks to one unified group of closed conduit and open channel link types in SWMM 5 and a collection of node types (Figure 2).

SWMM contains a flexible set of hydraulic modeling capabilities used to route runoff and external inflows through the drainage system network of pipes, channels, storage/treatment units, and diversion structures. These include the ability to do the following:

Handle drainage networks of unlimited size. Use a wide variety of standard closed and open conduit shapes as well as natural channels. Model special elements, such as storage/treatment units, flow dividers, pumps, weirs, and orifices. Apply external flows and water quality inputs from surface runoff, groundwater interflow, rainfall-dependent infiltration/inflow, dry weather sanitary flow, and user-defined inflows. Utilize either kinematic wave or full dynamic wave flow routing methods. Model various flow regimes, such as backwater, surcharging, reverse flow, and surface ponding. apply user-defined dynamic control rules to simulate the operation of pumps, orifice openings, and weir crest levels. Percolation of infiltrated water into groundwater layers. Interflow between groundwater and the drainage system. Nonlinear reservoir routing of overland flow. Runoff reduction via LID controls.

Low-impact development components

The low-impact development (LID) function was new to SWMM 5.0.019/20/21/22 and SWMM 5.1+ It is integrated within the subcatchment and allows further refinement of the overflows, infiltration flow and evaporation in rain barrel, swales, permeable paving, green roof, rain garden, bioretention and infiltration trench. The term Low-impact development (Canada/US) is used in Canada and the United States to describe a land planning and engineering design approach to managing stormwater runoff. In recent years many states in the US have adopted LID concepts and standards to enhance their approach to reducing the harmful potential for storm water pollution in new construction projects. LID takes many forms but can generally be thought of as an effort to minimize or prevent concentrated flows of storm water leaving a site. To do this the LID practice suggests that when impervious surfaces (concrete, etc.) are used, they are periodically interrupted by pervious areas which can allow the storm water to infiltrate (soak into the earth)

A variety of sub-processes in each LID can be defined in SWMM5 such as: surface, pavement, soil, storage, drainmat and drain.

Each type of LID has limitations on the type of sub-process allowed by SWMM 5. It has a good report feature and a LID summary report can be in the rpt file and an external report file in which the surface depth can be seen, soil moisture, storage depth, surface inflow, evaporation, surface infiltration, soil percolation, storage infiltration, surface outflow and the LID continuity error. There can be multiple LID's per subcatchment and no issues have been had because of having many complicated LID sub networks and processes inside the Subcatchments of SWMM 5 or any continuity issues not solvable by a smaller wet hydrology time step. The types of SWMM 5 LID compartments are: storage, underdrain, surface, pavement and soil. a bio-retention cell has storage, underdrain and surface compartments. an infiltration trench lid has storage, underdrain and surface compartments. A porous pavement LID has storage, underdrain and pavement compartments. A rain barrel has only storage and underdrain compartments and a vegetative swale LID has a single surface compartment. Each type of LID shares different underlying compartment objects in SWMM 5 which are called layers.

This set of equations can be solved numerically at each runoff time step to determine how an inflow hydrograph to the LID unit is converted into some combination of runoff hydrograph, sub-surface storage, sub-surface drainage, and infiltration into the surrounding native soil. In addition to Street Planters and Green Roofs, the bio-retention model just described can be used to represent Rain Gardens by eliminating the storage layer and also Porous Pavement systems by replacing the soil layer with a pavement layer.

The surface layer of the LID receives both direct rainfall and runon from other areas. It loses water through infiltration into the soil layer below it, by evapotranspiration (ET) of any water stored in depression storage and vegetative capture, and by any surface runoff that might occur. The soil layer contains an amended soil mix that can support vegetative growth. It receives infiltration from the surface layer and loses water through ET and by percolation into the storage layer below it. The storage layer consists of coarse crushed stone or gravel. It receives percolation from the soil zone above it and loses water by either infiltration into the underlying natural soil or by outflow through a perforated pipe underdrain system.

New , the EPA's National Stormwater Calculator is a Windows desktop application that estimates the annual amount of rainwater and frequency of runoff from a specific site anywhere in the United States. Estimates are based on local soil conditions, land cover, and historic rainfall records. The Calculator accesses several national databases that provide soil, topography, rainfall, and evaporation information for the chosen site. The user supplies information about the site's land cover and selects the types of low impact development (LID) controls they would like to use on-site. The LID Control features in SWMM 5.1.013 include the following among types of Green infrastructure:

 StreetPlanter: Bioretention cells are depressions that contain vegetation grown in an engineered soil mixture placed above a gravel drainage bed. They provide storage, infiltration and evaporation of both direct rainfall and runoff captured from surrounding areas. Street planters consist of concrete boxes filled with an engineered soil that supports vegetative growth. Beneath the soil is a gravel bed that provides additional storage. The walls of a planter extend 3 to 12 inches above the soil bed to allow for ponding within the unit. The thickness of the soil growing medium ranges from 6 to 24 inches while gravel beds are 6 to 18 inches in depth. The planter's capture ratio is the ratio of its area to the impervious area whose runoff it captures.

 Raingarden: Rain gardens are a type of bio-retention cell consisting of just the engineered soil layer with no gravel bed below it. Rain Gardens are shallow depressions filled with an engineered soil mix that supports vegetative growth. They are usually used on individual home lots to capture roof runoff. Typical soil depths range from 6 to 18 inches. The capture ratio is the ratio of the rain garden's area to the impervious area that drains onto it.

 GreenRoof: Green roofs are another variation of a bio-retention cell that have a soil layer laying atop a special drainage mat material that conveys excess percolated rainfall off of the roof. Green Roofs (also known as Vegetated Roofs) are bio-retention systems placed on roof surfaces that capture and temporarily store rainwater in a soil growing medium. They consist of a layered system of roofing designed to support plant growth and retain water for plant uptake while preventing ponding on the roof surface. The thickness used for the growing medium typically ranges from 3 to 6 inches.

 InfilTrench: infiltration trenches are narrow ditches filled with gravel that intercept runoff from upslope impervious areas. They provide storage volume and additional time for captured runoff to infiltrate the native soil below.

 PermPave or Permeable Pavements: Continuous Permeable Pavement systems are excavated areas filled with gravel and paved over with a porous concrete or asphalt mix. Continuous Permeable Pavement systems are excavated areas filled with gravel and paved over with a porous concrete or asphalt mix. Modular Block systems are similar except that permeable block pavers are used instead. Normally all rainfall will immediately pass through the pavement into the gravel storage layer below it where it can infiltrate at natural rates into the site's native soil. Pavement layers are usually 4 to 6 inches in height while the gravel storage layer is typically 6 to 18 inches high. The Capture Ratio is the percent of the treated area (street or parking lot) that is replaced with permeable pavement.
 Cistern: Rain Barrels (or Cisterns) are containers that collect roof runoff during storm events and can either release or re-use the rainwater during dry periods. Rain harvesting systems collect runoff from rooftops and convey it to a cistern tank where it can be used for non-potable water uses and on-site infiltration. The harvesting system is assumed to consist of a given number of fixed-sized cisterns per 1000 square feet of rooftop area captured. The water from each cistern is withdrawn at a constant rate and is assumed to be consumed or infiltrated entirely on-site.
 VegSwale: Vegetative swales are channels or depressed areas with sloping sides covered with grass and other vegetation. They slow down the conveyance of collected runoff and allow it more time to infiltrate the native soil beneath it. Infiltration basins are shallow depressions filled with grass or other natural vegetation that capture runoff from adjoining areas and allow it to infiltrate into the soil.
 Wet ponds are frequently used for water quality improvement, groundwater recharge, flood protection, aesthetic improvement or any combination of these. Sometimes they act as a replacement for the natural absorption of a forest or other natural process that was lost when an area is developed. As such, these structures are designed to blend into neighborhoods and are viewed as an amenity.
 Dry ponds temporarily store water after a storm, but eventually empties out at a controlled rate to a downstream water body.
 Sand filters generally control runoff water quality, providing very limited flow rate control. A typical sand filter system consists of two or three chambers or basins. The first is the sedimentation chamber, which removes floatables and heavy sediments. The second is the filtration chamber, which removes additional pollutants by filtering the runoff through a sand bed. The third is the discharge chamber. Infiltration trench, is a type of best management practice (BMP) that is used to manage stormwater runoff, prevent flooding and downstream erosion, and improve water quality in an adjacent river, stream, lake or bay. It is a shallow excavated trench filled with gravel or crushed stone that is designed to infiltrate stormwater though permeable soils into the groundwater aquifer.
 A Vegatated filter strip is a type of buffer strip that is an area of vegetation, generally narrow and long, that slows the rate of runoff, allowing sediments, organic matter, and other pollutants that are being conveyed by the water to be removed by settling out. Filter strips reduce erosion and the accompanying stream pollution, and can be a best management practice.

Other LID like concepts around the world include sustainable drainage system (SUDS). The idea behind SUDS is to try to replicate natural systems that use cost effective solutions with low environmental impact to drain away dirty and surface water run-off through collection, storage, and cleaning before allowing it to be released slowly back into the environment, such as into watercourses.

In addition the following features can also be simulated using the features of SWMM 5 (storage ponds, seepage, orifices, Weirs, seepage and evaporation from natural channels): constructed wetlands, wet ponds, dry ponds, infiltration basin, non-surface sand filters, vegetated filterstrips, vegetated filterstrip and infiltration basin. A WetPark would be a combination of wet and dry ponds and LID features. A WetPark is also considered a constructed wetland.

SWMM5 components
The SWMM 5.0.001 to 5.1.022 main components are rain gages, watersheds, LID controls or BMP features such as Wet and Dry Ponds, nodes, links, pollutants, landuses, time patterns, curves, time series, controls, transects, aquifers, unit hydrographs, snowmelt and shapes (Table 3). Other related objects are the types of Nodes and the Link Shapes. The purpose of the objects is to simulate the major components of the hydrologic cycle, the hydraulic components of the drainage, sewer or stormwater network, and the buildup/washoff functions that allow the simulation of water quality constituents. A watershed simulation starts with a precipitation time history. SWMM 5 has many types of open and closed pipes and channels: dummy, circular, filled circular, rectangular closed, rectangular open, trapezoidal, triangular, parabolic, power function, rectangular triangle, rectangle round, modified baskethandle, horizontal ellipse, vertical ellipse, arch, eggshaped, horseshoe, gothic, catenary, semielliptical, baskethandle, semicircular, irregular, custom and force main.

The major objects or hydrology and hydraulic components in SWMM 5 are:

 GAGE rain gage
 SUBCATCH subcatchment
 NODE conveyance system node
 LINK conveyance system link
 POLLUT pollutant
 LANDUSE land use category
 TIMEPATTERN, dry weather flow time pattern
 CURVE generic table of values
 TSERIES generic time series of values
 CONTROL conveyance system control rules
 TRANSECT irregular channel cross-section
 AQUIFER groundwater aquifer
 UNITHYD RDII unit hydrograph
 SNOWMELT snowmelt parameter set
 SHAPE custom conduit shape
 LID LID treatment units

The major overall components are called in the SWMM 5 input file and C code of the simulation engine: gage, subcatch, node, link, pollute, landuse, timepattern, curve, tseries, control, transect, aquifer, unithyd, snowmelt, shape and lid. The subsets of possible nodes are: junction, outfall, storage and divider. Storage Nodes are either tabular with a depth/area table or a functional relationship between area and depth. Possible node inflows include: external_inflow, dry_weather_inflow, wet_weather_inflow, groundwater_inflow, rdii_inflow, flow_inflow, concen_inflow, and mass_inflow. The dry weather inflows can include the possible patterns: monthly_pattern, daily_pattern, hourly_pattern, and weekend_pattern.

The SWMM 5 component structure allows the user to choose which major hydrology and hydraulic components are using during the simulation:
 Rainfall/runoff with infiltration options: horton, modified horton, green ampt and curve number
 RDII
 Water Quality
 Groundwater
 Snowmelt
 Flow Routing with Routing Options: Steady State, Kinematic Wave and Dynamic Wave

SWMM 3 and 4 to 5 converter

The SWMM 3 and SWMM 4 converter can convert up to two files from the earlier SWMM 3 and 4 versions at one time to SWMM 5. Typically one would convert a Runoff and Transport file to SWMM 5 or a Runoff and Extran File to SWMM 5. If there is a combination of a SWMM 4 Runoff, Transport and Extran network then it will have to be converted in pieces and the two data sets will have to be copied and pasted together to make one SWMM 5 data set. The x,y coordinate file is only necessary if there are not existing x, y coordinates on the D1 line of the SWMM 4 Extran input data[ set. The command File=>Define Ini File can be used to define the location of the ini file. The ini file will save the conversion project input data files and directories.

The SWMMM3 and SWMM 3.5 files are fixed format. The SWMM 4 files are free format. The converter will detect which version of SWMM is being used. The converted files can be combined using a text editor to merge the created inp files.

SWMM-CAT Climate Change AddOn
The Storm Water Management Model Climate Adjustment Tool (SWMM-CAT) is a new addition to SWMM5 (December 2014). It is a simple to use software utility that allows future climate change projections to be incorporated into the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). SWMM was recently updated to accept a set of monthly adjustment factors for each of these time series that could represent the impact of future changes in climatic conditions. SWMM-CAT provides a set of location-specific adjustments that derived from global climate change models run as part of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) archive (Figure 4). SWMM-CAT is a utility that adds location-specific climate change adjustments to a Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) project file. Adjustments can be applied on a monthly basis to air temperature, evaporation rates, and precipitation, as well as to the 24-hour design storm at different recurrence intervals. The source of these adjustments are global climate change models run as part of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) archive. Downscaled results from this archive were generated and converted into changes with respect to historical values by USEPA's CREAT project.

The following steps are used to select a set of adjustments to apply to SWMM5:

1) Enter the latitude and longitude coordinates of the location if available or its 5-digit zip code. SWMM-CAT will display a range of climate change outcomes for the CMIP3 results closest to the location.

2) Select whether to use climate change projections based on either a near-term or far-term projection period. The displayed climate change outcomes will be updated to reflect the chosen choice.

3) Select a climate change outcome to save to SWMM. There are three choices that span the range of outcomes produced by the different global climate models used in the CMIP3 project. The Hot/Dry outcome represents a model whose average temperature change was on the high end and whose average rainfall change was on the lower end of all model projections. The Warm/Wet outcome represents a model whose average temperature change was on the lower end and whose average rainfall change was on the wetter end of the spectrum. The Median outcome is for a model whose temperature and rainfall changes were closest to the median of all models.

4) Click the Save Adjustments to SWMM link to bring up a dialog form that will allow the selection of an existing SWMM project file to save the adjustments to. The form will also allow the selection of which type of adjustments (monthly temperature, evaporation, rainfall, or 24-hour design storm) to save. Conversion of temperature and evaporation units is automatically handled depending on the unit system (US or SI) detected in the SWMM file.

EPA stormwater calculator based on SWMM5

Other external programs that aid in the generation of data for the EPA SWMM 5 model include: SUSTAIN, BASINS, SSOAP, and the EPA's National Stormwater Calculator (SWC) which is a desktop application that estimates the annual amount of rainwater and frequency of runoff from a specific site anywhere in the United States (including Puerto Rico). The estimates are based on local soil conditions, land cover, and historic rainfall records (Figure 5).

SWMM platforms
The SWMM5 engine is used by a variety of software packages, including many commercial software packages. Some of these software packages include:
EPA-SWMM from EPA
InfoWorks ICM SWMM, InfoDrainage, and InfoSWMM Developed by Innovyze An Autodesk Company by Autodesk
InfoWorks ICM which has RDII, Water Quality, and Hydrology Components from SWMM5. Developed by Innovyze An Autodesk Company by Autodesk
Autodesk Storm and Sanitary Analysis from Autodesk
PCSWMM
MIKE URBAN
SewerGEMS and CivilStorm from Bentley Systems, Inc.
Fluidit Sewer and Fluidit Storm
Flood Modeller by Jacobs
GeoSWMM
Giswater
GISpipe GIS-based EPANET and SWMM integration software.
PySWMM by OpenWaterAnalytics
AquaTwin-Sewer by Aquinuity

See also
SWAT model
Stochastic empirical loading and dilution model
WAFLEX
Hydrology
Hydraulics
Surface runoff
Precipitation (meteorology)
Antecedent moisture
Evapotranspiration
EPANET
Rainfall
Hydrological transport model
Computer simulation
Water pollution
Water quality
Surface-water hydrology

References

External links
EPA SWMM 5.2 Download
EPA National Stormwater Calculator - SWMM 5 Based

United States Environmental Protection Agency
Water resource management in the United States
Stormwater management
Public-domain software with source code
Hydrology models

Storm Water Management Model


Travis Releford (born February 22, 1990) is an American professional basketball player for AEK Larnaca of the Cypriot Division A. He played college basketball at the University of Kansas and has previously represented the United States at the international level.

High school career
Releford attended Bishop Miege where he was a two-time high school All-American. As a senior, he averaged 24.1 points, 6.0 rebounds and 4.0 assists, earning the Eastern Kansas League (EKL) and Gatorade Player of the Year after guiding the Stags to a 19–3 record.

College career
After graduating, Releford attended the University of Kansas where he was a starter his junior and senior seasons. In five seasons at Kansas, he won five Big 12 regular-season titles, three league tournament titles, advanced to four Sweet 16s, two Elite Eights, one Final Four and was 158–27 with KU. He ended his college career with 965 points and ranked 10th all-time in games played (138) and tied for 27th in steals (114) in school history.

Professional career
After going undrafted in the 2013 NBA draft, Releford signed with Okapi Aalstar of the Ethias League on June 28, 2013. In 42 games, he averaged 7.2 points and 1.9 rebounds per game, helping them win the supercup and make it to league final. Releford also played 3 games in the EuroChallenge where he had averages of 5.3 points, 2.7 rebounds and 2.3 assists per game.

A year later, Releford signed with the Mississauga Power of the Canadian league, where he averaged 21.5 points, 6.0 rebounds, 4.1 assists and 1.3 steals in 15 games. On February 11, 2015, he left Mississauga to play for Maccabi Kiryat Gat of Israel.

On October 31, 2015, Releford was selected by the Idaho Stampede in the third round of the 2015 NBA Development League draft. On November 13, he made his debut for Idaho in a 110–106 loss to the Rio Grande Valley Vipers, recording four points, one rebound, two assists, one steal and two blocks in 23 minutes off the bench. On January 6, 2016, he was waived by Idaho after averaging 4.6 points, 1.6 rebounds and 0.9 assists in 16 games. On March 15, he signed with the Niagara River Lions of the NBL Canada.

On October 14, 2016, Releford signed with Polish club Siarka Tarnobrzeg. On February 27, 2017, he moved to Wilki Morskie Szczecin for the rest of the season.

On November 6, 2017, Releford signed with Limburg United of the Belgian League. In 2018, he signed in Cyprus with AEK Larnaca.

Personal life
The son of Venita Vann, Releford is the second-oldest child in a family of four boys and two girls, including his younger brother, point guard Trevor Releford, whom he has previously faced on the court. He graduated from Kansas with a degree in African and African American studies.

References

External links
 Kansas Jayhawks bio
 Travis Releford on USBasket.com

1990 births
Living people
AEK Larnaca B.C. players
American expatriate basketball people in Belgium
American expatriate basketball people in Canada
American expatriate basketball people in Cyprus
American expatriate basketball people in France
American expatriate basketball people in Israel
American expatriate basketball people in Poland
American men's basketball players
Siarka Tarnobrzeg (basketball) players
Basketball players from Kansas City, Missouri
Bishop Miege High School alumni
Helsinki Seagulls players
Idaho Stampede players
Kansas Jayhawks men's basketball players
Limburg United players
Maccabi Kiryat Gat B.C. players
Mississauga Power players
Niagara River Lions players
Okapi Aalstar players
Shooting guards
Sudbury Five players
Wilki Morskie Szczecin players

Travis Releford


Elisabeth Olin née Lillström (December 1740 – 26 March 1828) was a Swedish opera singer and a music composer.  She performed the leading female role in the inauguration performance of the Royal Swedish Opera in 1773, and is referred to as the first Swedish opera prima donna.  She was the first female to be made Hovsångerska (1773), and the first woman to become a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music (1782).

Life
Elisabeth Olin was the daughter of the musician Petter Lillström and the actress and singer Elisabeth Lillström. Her parents were both engaged at the opera theater of Bollhuset, Sweden's first professional national stage, where her father was an organist in the theater orchestra, and her mother was one of the first professional actresses in Sweden, the prima donna of the theater and a member of the theater's board of directors.

Early career

Elisabeth Olin, then called Betty Lillström, debuted at the age of seven at Bollhuset in 1747 the part of Alfhild in Syrinx, called Sweden's first native Opera comique.  She was a popular child actor and described as a valuable member of the theater.  After the season of 1754–54, the Swedish language opera theater was dissolved when the royal Bollhuset localities were given to the French theater which was favored by the queen.  The Swedish theater split into two travelling theaters, and Elisabeth Olin and her parents joined the Stenborg Troupe.

She was given singing lessons by Petter Stenborg, the leading actor of the Stenborg Troupe, and lessons in clavecin and music theory by Ferdinand Zellbell the Younger, conductor of the Royal orchestra.  Elisabeth Olin is believed to have been active as a professional concert singer since at least the late 1750s.  She was a popular singer at the concerts regularly performed at the Riddarhuset during the 1760s, where her earliest performance is noted to have taken place in a concert by her mentor Zellbell in 1761.  A noted performance was on a concert directed by Francesco Uttini in 1769, when she was described as a very popular concert singer, who was appreciated by the nobility, often performing on private concerts.

On 19 November 1769, Johan Gabriel Oxenstierna commented:
"I visited the Cavalier's concert today, so called as it was performed exclusively by music lovers and not by someone from the Royal Orchestra. Mrs Olin sang. :I dare say no one in Italy has a sweeter voice. Uncertain whether one should love her for her beauty or her divine voice, she gains love and admiration in parallel."

Elisabeth Olin was also active as a composer. In 1768, she was one of the Swedish composers who contributed with her own composition to the collection Gustaviade. En hjältedikt i tolv sånger ('Gustaviade. A heroic poem of twelve songs'), where she contributed with her own song for composition number eight.

Elisabeth Olin married the official Gabriel Olin (1728–1794) in 1760, with whom she had six children.  Her husband is described as proud of her and supportive of her career.

Career at the Royal Opera

After the dissolution of the French language theater of Stockholm in 1771, the new monarch, Gustav III of Sweden, decided to establish a Swedish language theater and opera.  The Stenborg Troupe, which was by then the remains of the former Swedish language opera theater that had been dissolved in 1754 and had been a travelling theater ever since, was called to perform before the monarch at Bollhuset in 1772, but when they did not prove to be up to his standards, he decided to compose an entirely new royal Swedish language opera.

As the stage profession had a low social status at the time, the king had difficulties in assembling educated native talents willing to form the pioneer staff of the opera.  Elisabeth Olin, as a highly regarded and well educated professional singer, was early on considered.  However, she was by then married to an official and performing professionally on stage was not considered proper for a woman of her new social class.  Consequently, the king had "hardly dared to hope" of her participation, when she herself offered to participate on her own initiative without having been asked.  This gave her a great advantage in the negotiations.  In an attempt to solve the issue of status, King Gustav III named his opera the 'Royal Swedish Opera', made its staff formally a part of the Royal Household and jurisdiction of the king, gave the women employees (who as stage artists had lower status than men) higher salaries than their male colleagues, and named Elisabeth Olin Singer of the Royal Court of the First Rank. She was granted the highest salary of any member of the Opera regardless of sex or position, and the king remarked, after the negotiations where finished: "She holds herself very expensive."  Her sister and her daughter were also given positions at the opera.

Elisabeth Olin performed the role of the Sea Goddess Thetis in Francesco Uttini's opera Thetis och Pélée in the inauguration of the Royal Swedish Opera on 18 January 1773, opposite Carl Stenborg as Pélée and her daughter Betty Olin as Amor.

The performance was a legendary success.  The French ambassador Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes expressed his surprise to see opera performed so fully upon its very foundation, and the Italian abbé Domenico Michelessi commented about the performance: "It is surprising to see eight actors, and nine of their retinue, who has never before seen opera, played with such insight of it, among them a youth [Carl Stenborg] and a lady [Elisabeth Olin], both of whom are worthy one of the best stage in Italy."  King Gustav III himself commented:
"Mrs Olin, who plays Thetis, which is the main part, has much nobility in her acting, a pleasing figure and more stage habit than one would expect from one who :shows herself there the first time. You no her voice, and in which high degree she is capable in the area of music. She acts with much art and grace in the :first act as well as in the third and fifth, particularly in every piece in which some fierté or contempt is to be displayed. One may confidently expect her to :become a great actress with more training. Chancellor Stenborg, who plays Pelée, joins a quite pleasing figure with much musical knowledge, a sufficient amount :of grace in his acting and a fine feeling of his character."
The paper Nya allmänna tidningar commented:
"Mrs Olin and Mrs Carl Stenborg played the main roles and should play them. Their acting and voices delighted everyone to hear them play, the former Thetis and :the later Pelée. The others took care to fulfill their roles, and the gentlemen Lalin, Nordén, Björkman and Lising have been given much praise. :But how should one express the grace which was displayed in the acting of young mamsell Olin, who played the god of love? She did so undoubtedly :well. Choir and ballets varied and illuminated the performances in a way never before seen in Sweden. Mr Gallodier and Mrs Soligny displayed their excellent art, and among Swedish talents is noted a young mamsell Slottsberg, who will with no doubt become a great ornament to our stage."

Elisabeth Olin managed to raise her salary two years later by threatening to resign, and after five years she demanded (and subsequently received) full salary as pension whenever she chose to retire.  She is likely to have received the highest salary any woman ever had been paid in 18th-century Sweden regardless of profession.  She made an occasional guest appearance in the Stenborg theatre, the theatre of Carl Stenborg and his father Petter Stenborg, her former mentor.

Olin, reportedly, did not like rivals and disliked to be substituted by her rival Lovisa Augusti, who played her parts when she was indisposed by illness or childbirth (she had six children).  From the early 1780s, she was met with serious competition from Caroline Frederikke Müller, who was so favored by the king that he asked her to return to her employment after having fled abroad to escape her creditors, and gave her immunity from repaying her debts: when Olin announced her retirement in 1782, it was said that she had done so because she refused to compete with Müller.  Her last performance was as Clytemnestra in Iphigenia in Aulis in the 1783–84 season.

In parallel, her relationship with Carl Stenborg was discontinued in 1782, when he became engaged to her daughter, the opera singer Betty Olin (1761–1816), also called Elisabeth Olin the Younger.  This was reportedly traumatic: Elisabeth Olin did not approve of the engagement of her former lover and her daughter, and Betty Olin and Carl Stenborg did in fact not marry until 1793, after an eleven-year-long engagement.

In 1782 she was inducted into the Royal Swedish Academy of Music, and in 1788 she became a member of the academy committee.

Estimation and roles

Elisabeth Olin was described as a beauty with a fine figure and suggestive eyes, with a musical and dramatic talent which was described as passionate and noble.
Elisabeth Olin was compared to Francesca Cuzzoni, Faustina Bordoni and Caterina Gabrielli.  She has been referred to as "Sweden's first dramatic artist", "The Swedish Mara" (after Gertrud Elisabeth Mara).  As a member of the pioneer generation of the Royal Swedish Opera, she has been called one of the "matriarchs of the Opera."

Elisabeth Olin was for many years in a long term relationship with her colleague the opera singer Carl Stenborg, who was the son of her former mentor Petter Stenborg.  As the leading female and male opera star of the Royal Swedish Opera, the frequently played the main male and female roles and acted as lovers onstage, and the fact that they were also lovers in private attracted great attention and engaged the critics.  In the inauguration performance of the Royal Swedish Opera, Thetis och Pélée, Elisabeth Olin was praised for her beauty, her grace and her engaging voice, and Carl Stenborg as a beautiful blonde youth with a not strong but skillfully handled voice with the ability to give the Swedish "a new pleasure", and that they were able to portray lovers convincingly.  It was noted that "everyone knew of the tender relationship he [Stenborg] had with Mrs Olin", and this was reputed to be the reason as to why Olin had finally accepted to participate in the opera.  The opera was a success and ran for a full house twice a week during a period of fourteen weeks.  On one occasion, when Olin fell sick, Carl Stenborg was reportedly unwilling to play lover to her replacement Charlotte Eckerman until he was forced to by royal command.

On a couple of occasions prior to the founding of the Royal Dramatic Theatre, the artists of the opera was asked to participate in speaking theater drama plays.  As theater had lower social status than opera, Elisabeth Olin initially refused to participate when she was asked to take a speaking role in Athalie by Jean Racine (1776), as speaking drama had not been included in her contract.  At this occasion, her relationship to Carl Stenborg was used to persuade her. Her contract as the most privileged member of the opera, and her social status as being a member of the upper class and only participating after having all her terms met in the contract, meant that she could not be forced, but as director Zibet informed the king: "She is with no doubt too tender to wish to humiliate her lover by refusing to take part in a performance, in which he could not refuse to participate."

Among her best known performances were Galatea in Acis och Galathea by Händel with Carl Stenborg (1773), Eurydice in Orfeus and Eurydice by Glück with Stenborg, Iphigenia in Iphigenia on Tauris by Gluck and the title characters in Athalie by Jean Racine, Silvie by Berton and Trial with Stenborg (season 1773–74), Aline, drottning av Golconda by Uttini with Stenborg (1775–76), and Procris och Cephal by Gretry with Stenborg (1777–78), Clytemnestra in Iphigenie in Aulis by Glück with Stenborg (1778–79) and Zulma in Cora och Alonzo by Naumann (1782–83).

She also performed privately for the royal court. She played the role of Mechtild in Birger jarl opposite Stenborg in Rikssalen in the Royal Palace, Stockholm during the wedding between Duke Charles and Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp in 1774.

Later life

Elisabeth Olin remained formally listed in the opera register until 1803.  After 1788, however, she only made very few guest performances.  Her most noted was at the wedding between King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden and Frederica of Baden, when she performed the role of Svea on the king's request.

She made her last performance at a concert in Riddarhuset in 1809, when she participated in the farewell concert for Carl Stenborg, which was also his last performance before his retirement.  Her voice was described as unchanged.

During Angelica Catalani's visit in Sweden in 1828, Elisabeth Olin performed privately for her to demonstrate her voice, just a couple of weeks before her death.

References

Sources
 Henrikson, Alf, Fram till Nybroplan: om Kungliga Dramatiska teatern, Wiken, Höganäs, 1988
 Österberg, Carin, Lewenhaupt, Inga & Wahlberg, Anna Greta, Svenska kvinnor: föregångare nyskapare, Signum, Lund, 1990(Swedish women; Predecessors, pioneers) Signum, Lund 1990.
 Flodmark, Johan, Elisabeth Olin och Carl Stenborg: två gustavianska sångargestalter : bilder från svenska operans första tider, Fröhléen & Comp., Stockholm, 1903 (Elisabeth Olin and Carl Stenborg)
 Riddarhuset Som Mötesplats För Vetenskap Och Konst Riddarhuset Som Mötesplats För Vetenskap Och Konst [The house of nobles as a place of meeting between science and art]
 Stålberg, Wilhelmina & P. G. Berg. , Anteckningar om svenska qvinnor 1864–1866, 290. (Notes on Swedish women)
 Nordensvan, Georg, Svensk teater och svenska skådespelare från Gustav III till våra dagar. Förra delen, 1772–1842, Bonnier, Stockholm, 1917(Swedish theatre and Swedish actors from Gustav III to our days. First book 1772–1842)
 Kungliga teaterns repertoar 1773–1973 (The repertoire of the Royal Theatre) 1974
 Jonsson, Leif & Ivarsdotter, Anna (red.), Musiken i Sverige. 2, Frihetstid och gustaviansk tid 1720–1810, Fischer, Stockholm, 1993 (Music in Sweden. The age of Liberty and the Gustavian age 1720–1810)
 Levertin, Oscar, Teater och drama under Gustaf III: literaturhistorisk studie, Geber, Stockholm, 1889 (Theatre and drama during the reign of Gustav III) Albert Bonniers förlag, Stockholm. Fjärde Upplagan (1920)
 Forser, Tomas & Heed, Sven Åke (red.), Ny svensk teaterhistoria. 1, Teater före 1800, Gidlund, Hedemora, 2007 (New Swedish theatre-history. Theatre before 1800)(
 Flodmark, Johan, Stenborgska skådebanorna: bidrag till Stockholms teaterhistoria, Norstedt, Stockholm, 1893 (The Stenborg stages)

Further reading

1740 births
1828 deaths
18th-century classical composers
19th-century classical composers
18th-century Swedish women opera singers
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music
Swedish operatic sopranos
Swedish child actresses
Swedish classical composers
Women classical composers
Gustavian era people
Swedish women composers
19th-century Swedish women opera singers
19th-century women composers
18th-century women composers

Elisabeth Olin


The environmental impact of concrete, its manufacture, and its applications, are complex, driven in part by direct impacts of construction and infrastructure, as well as by CO2 emissions; between 4-8% of total global CO2 emissions come from concrete. Many depend on circumstances. A major component is cement, which has its own environmental and social impacts and contributes largely to those of concrete.

The cement industry is one of the main producers of carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas. Concrete causes damage to the most fertile layer of the earth, the topsoil.
Concrete is used to create hard surfaces which contribute to surface runoff that may cause soil erosion, water pollution and flooding. Conversely, concrete is one of the most powerful tools for proper flood control, by means of damming, diversion, and deflection of flood waters, mud flows, and the like. Light-colored concrete can reduce the urban heat island effect, due to its higher albedo. However, original vegetation results in even greater benefit. Concrete dust released by building demolition and natural disasters can be a major source of dangerous air pollution. The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns due to toxicity and (usually naturally occurring) radioactivity. Wet concrete is highly alkaline and should always be handled with proper protective equipment. Concrete recycling is increasing in response to improved environmental awareness, legislation, and economic considerations. Conversely, the use of concrete mitigates the use of alternative building materials such as wood, which is a natural form of carbon sequestering.

Carbon dioxide emissions and climate change
The cement industry is one of the two largest producers of carbon dioxide (CO2), creating up to 5% of worldwide man-made emissions of this gas, of which 50% is from the chemical process and 40% from burning fuel.  The  produced for the manufacture of structural concrete (using ~14% cement) is estimated at 410 kg/m3 (~180 kg/tonne @ density of 2.3 g/cm3) (reduced to 290 kg/m3 with 30% fly ash replacement of cement). The CO2 emission from the concrete production is directly proportional to the cement content used in the concrete mix; 900 kg of CO2 are emitted for the fabrication of every ton of cement, accounting for 88% of the emissions associated with the average concrete mix. Cement manufacture contributes greenhouse gases both directly through the production of carbon dioxide when calcium carbonate is thermally decomposed, producing lime and carbon dioxide, and also through the use of energy, particularly from the combustion of fossil fuels.

One area of the concrete life cycle worth noting is its very low embodied energy per unit mass. This is primarily because the materials used in concrete construction, such as aggregates, pozzolans, and water, are relatively plentiful and can often be drawn from local sources. This means that transportation only accounts for 7% of the embodied energy of concrete, while cement production accounts for 70%. Concrete has a total embodied energy of 1.69 GJ/tonne, lower per unit mass than most common building materials besides wood. However, concrete structures often have high masses, so this comparison is not always directly relevant to decision making. Additionally, this value is based only on mix proportions of up to 20% fly ash. It is estimated that a 1% replacement of cement with fly ash represents a 0.7% reduction in energy consumption. With some proposed mixes containing as much as 80% fly ash, this could represent a considerable energy saving.

A 2022 report from the Boston Consulting Group found that investments in greener forms of cement would lead to greater greenhouse gas reductions, per dollar, than investments in many other green technologies—though investments in plant-based meat alternatives would reap considerably greater reductions than even this.

Mitigation

Design improvements
There is a growing interest in reducing carbon emissions related to concrete from both the academic and industrial sectors, especially with the possibility of future carbon tax implementation. Several approaches to reducing emissions have been suggested.

Cement production and use
One reason why the carbon emissions are so high is because cement has to be heated to very high temperatures in order for clinker to form. A major culprit of this is alite (Ca3SiO5), a mineral in concrete that cures within hours of pouring and is therefore responsible for much of its initial strength. However, alite also has to be heated to 1,500 °C in the clinker-forming process. Some research suggests that alite can be replaced by a different mineral, such as belite (Ca2SiO4). Belite is also a mineral already used in concrete. It has a roasting temperature of 1,200 °C, which is significantly lower than that of alite. Furthermore, belite is actually stronger once concrete cures. However, belite takes on the order of days or months to set completely, which leaves concrete weak for longer. Current research is focusing on finding possible impurity additives, like magnesium, that might speed up the curing process. It is also worthwhile to consider that belite takes more energy to grind, which may make its full life of impact similar to or even higher than alite.

Another approach has been the partial replacement of conventional clinker with such alternatives as fly ash, bottom ash, and slag, all of which are by-products of other industries that would otherwise end up in landfills. Fly ash and bottom ash come from thermoelectric power plants, while slag is a waste from blast furnaces in the ironworks industry. These materials are slowly gaining popularity as additives, especially since they can potentially increase strength, decrease density, and prolong durability of concrete.

The main obstacle to wider implementation of fly ash and slag may be largely due to the risk of construction with new technology that has not been exposed to long field testing. Until a carbon tax is implemented, companies are unwilling to take the chance with new concrete mix recipes even if this reduces carbon emissions. However, there are some examples of "green" concrete and its implementation. One instance is a concrete company called Ceratech that has started manufacturing concrete with 95% fly ash and 5% liquid additives.  Another is the I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge, which was constructed with a novel mixture of concrete that included different compositions of Portland cement, fly ash, and slag depending on the portion of the bridge and its material properties requirements. Several startup companies are developing and testing alternative cement production methods. Sublime of Somerville, Massachusetts uses a no-kiln electrochemical process, and Fortera of San Jose, California captures carbon dioxide from conventional plants to make a new kind of cement. Blue Planet of Los Gatos, California captures emitted carbon dioxide to produce synthetic concrete. CarbonCure Technologies of Halifax, Nova Scotia has retrofitted its carbon mineralization systems at hundreds of concrete plants around the world, injecting and permanently storing carbon dioxide in concrete as it is being mixed.

Furthermore, the production of concrete requires large amounts of water, and global production accounts for almost a tenth of worldwide industrial water use. This amounts to 1.7 percent of total global water withdrawal. A study that appeared in Nature Sustainability in 2018 predicts that concrete production will in the future increase pressure on water resources in regions susceptible to drought conditions, writing, "In 2050, 75% of the water demand for concrete production will likely occur in regions that are expected to experience water stress".

Carbon concrete
Carbonatation, sometimes called carbonation, is the formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) by chemical reaction, which, if used in concrete, can sequester carbon dioxide. The speed of carbonation depends primarily on the porosity of the concrete and its moisture content. Carbonation in concrete pores happens only at a relative humidity (RH) of 40-90%—when RH is higher than 90%, carbon dioxide cannot enter the concrete pores, and when RH is lower than 40%,  cannot be dissolved in water.

Concrete can be carbonated by two main methods: weathering carbonation and early age carbonation.

Weathering carbonation occurs in concrete when calcium compounds react with carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and water (H2O) in the concrete pores. The reaction is as follows. First, through chemical weathering,  reacts with water in the concrete pores to form carbonic acid:
CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3
Carbonic acid then reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate and water:
Ca(OH)2 + H2CO3 <=> CaCO3 + 2H2O
Once the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) has sufficiently carbonated, the main component of cement, calcium silicate hydrate gel (C-S-H), can be decalcified, i.e., liberated calcium oxide (CaO) can carbonate:H2CO3 + CaO <=> CaCO3 + H2O

Early age carbonation is when  is introduced to the early stages of fresh premix concrete or upon initial curing, which can occur both naturally through exposure or be artificially accelerated by augmenting a direct intake of . Gaseous carbon dioxide is converted to solid carbonates and can be permanently stored in concrete. The reactions of CO2 and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) in cement was described in 1974 in cement chemist notation (CCN) as:
C3S + 3CO2 + H2O -> CSH + 3CaCO3 + 347 kJ/molC2S + 2CO2 + H2O -> CSH + 2CaCO3 + 184 kJ/mol
A Canadian company patented and commercialized a novel technology that uses early age carbonation to sequester . This is achieved by directly injecting recycled liquid carbon dioxide from third-party industrial emitters into the concrete wet-mix stage during the manufacturing process.  is then chemically mineralized, sequestering the greenhouse gas pollutant in concrete infrastructure, buildings, roads, etc. for long periods of time.

In a study published in the Journal of Cleaner Production, the authors created a model showing that sequestered  improved the compressive strength of concrete while reducing  emissions, thus allowing for a cement loading reduction while also having a "4.6% reduction in the carbon footprint".

Another proposed method of capturing emissions is to absorb CO2 in the curing process through the use of an admixturespecifically, a dicalcium silicate in  phaseas the concrete cures. The use of fly ash or another suitable substitute could theoretically bring CO2 emissions below 0 kg/m3, compared to Portland cement concrete emissions of 400 kg/m3. The most effective method of production of this concrete would use the exhaust gas of a power plant, where an isolated chamber could control temperature and humidity.

In August 2019, reduced CO2 cement was announced which "reduces the overall carbon footprint in precast concrete by 70%". The base of the cement is primarily wollastonite (CaSiO3) and rankinite (3CaO . 2SiO2), in contrast to traditional Portland cement, based on alite (3CaO . SiO2) and belite (2CaO . SiO2). The patented process of reduced-emissions concrete manufacture begins with the bonding of particles through liquid phase sintering, also referred to as reactive hydrothermal liquid-phase densification (rHLPD). A solution of water and  penetrates the particles, reacting in ambient conditions to form a bond which creates reduced-lime, non-hydraulic calcium silicate cement (CSC). The difference between traditional Portland concrete and these carbonated calcium silicate concrete (CSC-C) lies in the final curing process reaction between a water- solution and a family of calcium-silicate. According to a study of one reduced-emissions cement, called Solidia, "CSC-C curing is a mildly exothermic reaction in which the low-lime calcium silicates in the CSC react with CO2 in the presence of water to produce calcite (CaCO3) and silica () as follows:

CaSiO3 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + SiO2"

However, as early age carbonation methods have gained recognition due to their substantial carbon sequestration proficiencies, some authors have argued that the effect of early-age carbonation curing may succumb to weathering carbonation later on. For example, a 2020 article writes, "Experimental results suggest that early-age carbonated concretes with high w/c ratios (>0.65) are more likely to be affected by weathering carbonation". The article cautions that this may weaken its strength abilities in the corrosion stages during life service.

Italian company Italcementi designed a kind of cement that is supposedly alleviating air pollution by breaking down pollutants that come in contact with the concrete, through the use of titanium dioxide absorbing ultraviolet light. Some environmental experts nevertheless remain skeptical and wonder if the special material can "eat" enough pollutants to make it financially viable. Jubilee Church in Rome is built from this kind of concrete.

Another aspect to consider in carbon concrete is surface scaling due to cold climatic conditions and exposure to de-icing salt and freeze-thaw cycles (frost weathering). Concrete produced by carbonation curing also shows superior performance when subject to physical degradations, e.g., freeze-thaw damage, particularly due to a pore densification effect enabled by the precipitation of carbonation products

The vast majority of CO2 emissions from concrete come from cement manufacturing. Therefore, methods to reduce cement materials in each concrete mix are the only known methods to reduce the emissions.

Photocatalysis to reduce smog
Titanium dioxide (TiO2), a semiconductor material shown to exhibit photocatalytic behavior, has been used to remove nitrogen oxides (denoted NOx) from the atmosphere. NOx species, i.e., nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, are atmospheric gases that contribute to acid rain and smog formation, both of which are the result of urban pollution. Since NOx formation only occurs at high temperatures, nitrogen oxides are typically produced as a byproduct of hydrocarbon combustion. In addition to contributing to urban pollution events, NOx has been demonstrated to cause a wide variety of adverse health and environmental effects, including triggering respiratory distress, reacting with other atmospheric chemicals to form harmful products such as ozone, nitroarenes, and nitrate radicals, and contributing to the greenhouse effect. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended a maximum NOx concentration of 40 g/m3. One proposed route of decreasing NOx concentrations, especially in urban settings, is to use photocatalytic TiO2 mixed into concrete to oxidize NO and NO2 to form nitrate. In the presence of light, TiO2 generates electrons and holes that allow for NO to oxidize into NO2 and NO2 to then form HNO3 (nitric acid) via a hydroxyl radical attack. The molecule adsorption reactions are given below:
O2 + ⬚ → Oads
H2O + ⬚ → H2Oads
NO + ⬚ → NOads
NO2 + ⬚ → NO2ads
Generation of holes and electrons via TiO2 activation is described below:
TiO2 + hν → e− + h+
Trapping of electron/hole:
h+ + H2Oads → OH· + H+
e− + O2ads → O2−
Hydroxyl radical attack:
NOads + OH· → HNO2
HNO2 + OH· → NO2ads + H2O
NO2ads + OH· → NO3− + H+
Electron and hole recombination:
e− + h+ → heat
Another pathway for the oxidation of nitrogen uses UV irradiation to form NO3.

Embedded solar cells
Dye-sensitized solar cells embedded in concrete has been proposed as a method of reducing the carbon and energy footprints of buildings. The usage of embedded solar cells allows for on-site energy generation, which when coupled with batteries, would provide constant power throughout the day. The top layer of the concrete would be a thin layer of dye-sensitized solar cells. Dye-sensitized solar cells are particularly attractive due to its ease of mass production, either via roll-printing or painting, and a reasonably high efficiency of 10%. One example of the commercialization of this concept is the German company Discrete, which produces a dye-sensitized solar cell embedded concrete product. Their process uses a spray-coating method to apply organic dyes that generate electricity onto concrete.

Energy storage
Energy storage has become an important consideration for many renewable energy generation methods, especially for popular methods such as solar or wind energy, both of which are intermittent energy producers that require storage for constant use. Currently, 96% of the world's energy storage comes from pumped hydro, which uses excess generated electricity to pump water up a dam and then allowed to fall and turn turbines that produce electricity when the demand exceeds generation. The problem with pumped hydro, however, is that the setup requires specific geographies that can be difficult to find. A similar concept that uses cement instead of water has been realized by Energy Vault, a Swiss startup. They created a setup that uses an electric crane surrounded by stacks of 35-ton concrete blocks, which can be produced using waste products, to store energy by using excess energy generation to power the crane to lift and stack the concrete blocks. When energy is needed, the blocks are allowed to fall and the rotated motor would send energy back to the grid. The setup would have a storage capacity of 25-80 MWh.

Other improvements
There are many other improvements to concrete that do not deal directly with emissions. Recently, much research has gone into "smart" concretes: concretes that use electrical and mechanical signals to respond to changes in loading conditions. One variety uses carbon fiber reinforcement which provides an electrical response that can be used to measure strain. This allows for monitoring the structural integrity of the concrete without installing sensors.

The road construction and maintenance industry consumes tons of carbon-intensive concrete every day to secure road-side and urban infrastructure. As populations grow this infrastructure is becoming increasingly vulnerable to impact from vehicles, creating an ever increasing cycle of damage and waste and ever increasing consumption of concrete for repairs (roadworks are now seen around our cities on almost a daily basis). A major development in the infrastructure industry involves the use of recycled petroleum waste to protect the concrete from damage and enable infrastructure to become dynamic, able to be easily maintained and updated without disturbance to the existing foundations. This simple innovation preserves the foundations for the entire lifespan of a development.

Another area of concrete research involves the creation of certain "waterless" concretes for use in extraplanetary colonization. Most commonly, these concretes use sulfur to act as a non-reactive binder, allowing for construction of concrete structures in environments with no or very little water. These concretes are in many ways indistinguishable from normal hydraulic concrete: they have similar densities, can be used with currently existing metal reinforcement, and they actually gain strength faster than normal concrete This application has yet to be explored on Earth, but with concrete production representing as much as two-thirds of the total energy usage of some developing countries, any improvement is worth considering.

Changes in use

Concrete is one of the world's oldest man-made building materials. Over the years, significant environmental limitations have been placed on the creation and use of concrete due to its carbon footprint. Manufacturers responded to these limitations by altering concrete's production processes, and recycling old concrete rubble to use as aggregate in new concrete mixtures to reduce these emissions. Concrete has immersed from natural resources into man-made processes; evidence of the use of concrete dates back over 8,000 years ago. Today, many construction companies and concrete manufacturers have cut the use of Portland cement in their mixtures due to its production process emitting significant amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Alternatives to concrete

There are in fact many alternatives to concrete. One being Green concrete that is produced by recycled waste materials from various industries  , another being Ashcrete, a material made from a mix of lime and water that acts similar to cement. Black furnace slag is also a strong alternative made from molten iron slag into water, along with Micro Silica, Papercrete, composite cement, and post-consumer glass.

Depending on the amounts required or used overall and the amounts needed, in combination with other materials, for structural stability per building, many other materials also have a substantial negative impact on the environment. For instance, while research and development to reduce these emissions are ongoing, steel accounted for ~8 % of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions as of 2021.

Clay

Mixtures of clay are an alternative construction material to concrete that have a lower environmental footprint. In 2021, the first prototype 3D printed house, Tecla, printed from locally-sourced soil and water as well as fibers from rice husks and a binder was completed. Such buildings could be very inexpensive, well-insulated, stable and weatherproof, climate-adaptable, customizable, get produced rapidly, require only very little easily-learnable manual labor, require less energy, produce very little waste and reduce carbon emissions from concrete.

Surface runoff
Surface runoff, when water runs off impervious surfaces, such as non-porous concrete, can cause severe soil erosion and flooding. Urban runoff tends to pick up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, trash and other pollutants from sidewalks, roadways and parking lots. Without attenuation, the impervious cover in a typical urban area limits groundwater percolation and causes five times the amount of runoff generated by a typical woodland of the same size. A 2008 report by the United States National Research Council identified urban runoff as a leading source of water quality problems.

In an attempt to counteract the negative effects of impervious concrete, many new paving projects have begun to use pervious concrete, which provides a level of automatic stormwater management. Pervious concrete is created by careful laying of concrete with specifically designed aggregate proportions, which allows for surface runoff to seep through and return to the groundwater. This both prevents flooding and contributes to groundwater replenishment. If designed and layered properly, pervious concrete and other discreetly paved areas can also function as an automatic water filter by preventing certain harmful substances like oils and other chemicals from passing through. Unfortunately there are still downsides to large scale applications of pervious concrete: its reduced strength relative to conventional concrete limits use to low-load areas, and it must be laid properly to reduce susceptibility to freeze-thaw damage and sediment buildup.

Urban heat
Both concrete and asphalt are the primary contributors to what is known as the urban heat island effect. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 55% of the world's population reside in urban areas and 68% of the world's population is projected to be urban by 2050; also, "the world is projected to add 230 billion m2 (2.5 trillion ft2) of buildings by 2060, or an area equal to the entire current global building stock. This is the equivalent of adding an entire New York City to the planet every 34 days for the next 40 years". As a result, paved surfaces represent a major concern because of the additional energy consumption and air pollution they cause.

The potential of energy saving within an area is also high. With lower temperatures, the demand for air conditioning theoretically decreases, saving energy. However, research into the interaction between reflective pavements and buildings has found that, unless the nearby buildings are fitted with reflective glass, solar radiation reflected off pavements can increase building temperatures, increasing air conditioning demands.

Moreover, heat transfer from pavements, which cover about one-third of a typical U.S. city, can also influence local temperatures and air quality. Hot surfaces warm the city air through convection, so using materials that absorb less solar energy, such as high-albedo pavements, can reduce the flow of heat into the urban environment and moderate the UHIE. Albedos range from about 0.05 to about 0.35 for currently used pavement material surfaces. Over a typical life service, pavement materials that begin with high albedo tend to lose reflectance, while those with low initial albedo may gain reflectance

The Design Trust for Public Space found that by slightly raising the albedo value in New York City, beneficial effects such as energy savings could be achieved., by replacement of black asphalt with light-colored concrete. However, in winter this may be a disadvantage as ice will form more easily and remain longer on light colored surfaces as they will be colder due to less energy absorbed from the reduced amount of sunlight in winter.

Another aspect to consider is thermal comfort effect, as well as the need for more mitigation strategies, which don't threat the health and wellbeing of pedestrians particularly during heat waves. A study that appeared in Building and Environment in 2019 performed experiments to project the impact of heat waves and high albedo materials interactions in the northern Italian city of Milan. By calculating the "Mediterranean Outdoor Comfort Index" (MOCI) in presence of a heat wave, where high albedo materials was used in all surfaces. The study identified a deterioration of the microclimate where high amounts of high albedo materials were located. The use of the high albedo materials was found to "lead to the establishment of multiple inter-reflections and a consequent increase in micrometeorological variables such as average radiant temperatures and air temperatures. To be more detailed, these changes lead to an increase in the MOCI that in the afternoon hours can even reach 0.45 units".

Overall urban configurations should remain of concern when making decisions as people are exposed to weather and thermal confort conditions. The use of high albedo materials within an urban environment can be of positive effect with proper combination of other technologies and strategies such as: vegetation, reflective materials, etc. Urban heat mitigation measures could minimize impacts on microclimate as well as human and wildlife habitats.

Concrete dust
Building demolition and natural disasters such as earthquakes often release a large amount of concrete dust into the local atmosphere. Concrete dust was concluded to be the major source of dangerous air pollution following the Great Hanshin earthquake.

Toxic and radioactive contamination
The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns. Natural radioactive elements (K, U, Th, and Rn) can be present in various concentration in concrete dwellings, depending on the source of the raw materials used. For example, some stones naturally emit Radon, and Uranium was once common in mine refuse. Toxic substances may also be unintentionally used as the result of contamination from a nuclear accident. Dust from rubble or broken concrete upon demolition or crumbling may cause serious health concerns depending also on what had been incorporated in the concrete. However, embedding harmful materials in concrete is not always dangerous and may in fact be beneficial. In some cases, incorporating certain compounds such as metals in the hydration process of cement immobilizes them in a harmless state and prevents them from being released freely elsewhere.

Handling precautions

Handling of wet concrete must always be done with proper protective equipment. Contact with wet concrete can cause skin chemical burns due to the caustic nature of the mixture of cement and water (including rainwater). Indeed, the pH of fresh cement water is highly alkaline due to the presence of free potassium and sodium hydroxides in solution (pH ~ 13.5). Eyes, hands and feet must be correctly protected to avoid any direct contact with wet concrete and washed without delay if necessary.

Concrete recycling

Concrete recycling is an increasingly common method of disposing of concrete structures. Concrete debris was once routinely shipped to landfills for disposal, but recycling is increasing due to improved environmental awareness, governmental laws and economic benefits.

Concrete, which must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials, is collected from demolition sites and put through a crushing machine, often along with asphalt, bricks and rocks.

Reinforced concrete contains rebar and other metallic reinforcements, which are removed with magnets and recycled elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects. Aggregate base gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits strength and is not allowed in many jurisdictions. On 3 March 1983, a government-funded research team (the VIRL research.codep) approximated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was by-products of concrete-based waste.

See also
 Longship, a CCS project storing CO2 emissions from a cement factory

References

Concrete
Concrete
Construction

Environmental impact of concrete


The Battle on the Nemiga River (; ) was a battle of the Kievan Rus' feudal period that occurred on March 3, 1067 on the Niamiha River. The description of the battle is the first reference to Minsk in the chronicles of Belarusian history.

Background
At the end of the tenth century, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, then ruling over Novgorod the Great, proposed a marriage between himself and the daughter of Rogvolod, the prince of Polotsk, who had rebuffed him, saying she did not want to take off the shoes of a slave's son. In retaliation, Vladimir attacked and pillaged Polotsk, killed Rogvolod, and took his daughter Rogneda by force, adding the city to his territorial possessions. He placed his son, Izyaslav, in Polotsk. Iziaslav's son, Bryachislav of Polotsk, succeeded his father in 1001.

By 1021, Bryacheslav set his sights on Novgorod; he attacked and ransacked the city, but on the journey home, he was overtaken by Vladimir's son Yaroslav I the Wise, then ruling in Novgorod, on the banks of the Sudoma River; he was defeated and fled, leaving behind his Novgorodian captives and loot. Yaroslav pursued him and forced Bryachislav to make peace the following year, after which the Polotsk prince settled down. After Bryacheslav's death in 1044, his son Vseslav succeeded him as Prince of Polotsk. While his father had been an irritant to the Rus princes in the Middle Dnieper region, Vseslav's campaigns in the north were much more serious. He unsuccessfully besieged Pskov in 1065, but the following year he drove out the young Novgoroidan prince Mstislav Izyaslavich, son of the Grand Prince of Kiev Izyaslav Yaroslavich, and pillaged Novgorod again. The seizure of Novgorod not only was a personal insult to the grand prince, whose son fled back to Kiev, but it threatened the Middle Dnieper princes' ties to the north – to Scandinavia, the Baltic, and tribute from the north. It also threatened the political power of the Yaroslavichi, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, who had to that point been preeminent.

Progress of the battle
The three sons of Yaroslav – Iziaslav, Vsevolod, and Sviatoslav – joined forces and marched north through the winter of 1067. They burned Minsk, then held by Polotsk, and as this is the first reference to Minsk in the chronicles, it is celebrated as the founding date of the city. The Yaroslavichi army came upon Vseslav's army in the deep snow on the Niamiha River on March 3 and defeated him. The precise course of battle is unknown, though it has become legendary as a bloodbath; The Tale of Igor's Campaign referred to "the bloody banks of the Nemiga" being sown not with blessings but with bones.

Aftermath
Vseslav fled back and Polotsk and the Yaroslav princes did not pursue him. However, in June, after the battle, the Yaroslav princes called for negotiations, "kissed the cross" (took an oath) and made promises of future safety; Vseslav was invited to Iziaslav's camp to celebrate the peace and was promptly arrested together with two of his sons and taken to prison in Kiev.

References

Nemiga River
Medieval Belarus
11th century in Kievan Rus'
Nemiga River
1067 in Europe

Battle on the Nemiga River


The Maskinongé River is located north of the administrative region of Lanaudière and west of the administrative region of Mauricie, in Quebec, in  Canada.

The river has a total length of 40 km. It takes its source in Maskinongé Lake, located in Saint-Gabriel-de-Brandon. It crosses the municipalities of Saint-Gabriel-de-Brandon, Saint-Gabriel, and Saint-Didace in the region of Lanaudière; then Saint-Justin, Louiseville, and Maskinongé before pour into the north shore of Lake Saint-Pierre at the height of this municipality.

Toponymy
The name of the river comes from the muskellunge ("Esox masquinongy"), a species of pike from North America. Its name comes from the Algonquin and means "deformed pike".

Geography

Course

The Maskinongé River begins its course at an altitude of 142 m in lake of the same name. It then flows south-east for a distance of 52 km and flows into the St. Lawrence River at Maskinongé altitude of 3 m. It has two major gradients: the Lauzon Falls where it drops from 30 m and the Saint-Ursula Falls where it drops from 70 m.

Geology
The upstream section of the Sainte-Ursule Falls is part of the Laurentides, a section of the Canadian Shield. The latter formed a billion years ago and was probably as high as the Himalayas. A slow erosion process has brought it back to its current level. The downstream section is part of the St. Lawrence Platform.

Population
The basin was inhabited by a unit of 14,000 people in 2006. The largest urban agglomeration in the basin is the town of Saint-Gabriel, which is located on the shore of the Lac Maskinongé.

Natural environment
We find 52 species of fish. The main sporting species are the Salvelinus fontinalis (Salvelinus fontinalis), Salvelinus namaycush (Salvelinus namaycush) (Salvelinus namaycush) and the muskellunge (fish) (Esox masquinongy). There are also the red knight (Moxostoma macrolepidotum), Ambloplites rupestris, brown trout (Salmo trutta), Semotilus corporalis, Perca flavescens, the horned mule, 'Semotilus atromaculatus', black sucker (Catostomus commersonii) and brown bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus).

The basin is frequented by birds.

History
The Attikameks used the Maskinongé River as a route from Matawinie to Trois-Rivières. In 1700, French settlers began settling in Maskinongé. As for Lake Maskinongé, the first settlers settled there in 1818. The north of the basin was occupied from 1880 by the club Mastigouche, a private club of hunting and fishing. This was nationalized in the 1970s and integrated into the Mastigouche Wildlife Reserve and the Nymphs' Nest.

Notes and references

See also

Rivers of Lanaudière
Rivers of Mauricie
Tributaries of the Saint Lawrence River

Maskinongé River