The College of Idaho (C of I) is a private liberal arts college in Caldwell, Idaho. Founded in 1891, it is the state's oldest private liberal arts college and has an enrollment of over 1,000 students. The college's alumni include eight Rhodes Scholars, three governors, four professional football players, and one professional baseball player. Its PEAK Curriculum allows students to study in four knowledge areas - humanities, natural sciences, social sciences, and a professional field - and earn a major and three minors in four years.

History
The college was conceived in 1884 when the Presbyterian Church's Wood River Presbytery, meeting in Shoshone, formed a commission to examine the possibility of establishing a Presbyterian college somewhere in the Idaho Territory. The commission found support for such a venture and in 1890 the Presbytery accepted an offer from a group of Caldwell citizens led by William Judson Boone, to locate the institution in that community.

The college was founded  in 1891 by Dr. Rev. William Judson Boone with the support of the Wood River Presbytery. The college first opened its doors to students on October 7, 1891. Nineteen students showed up at The College of Idaho for the first classes in 1891. The first classes were held downtown in the Caldwell Presbyterian Church. A year later the college moved into its own downtown building before moving to its present site on the east side of town in 1910 when Henry and Carrie Blatchley donated  of land. Sterry Hall, a classroom and administration building, and Finney Hall, the first residence hall, were built that year. Two years later Voorhees residence hall was built, which would be the second of five total residents halls.

In 1893, it was incorporated under the laws of the State of Idaho and placed in the hands of a self-perpetuating board of trustees. Dr. Boone served as president of the college for 45 years until his death in 1936.

In 1991, the college's board of trustees unanimously voted to change its name to Albertson College of Idaho to honor alumnus and long-time donor Joe Albertson  and his wife Kathryn  The couple, who founded one of the country's largest supermarket chains, Albertson's Inc., met in a chemistry class at C of I and were generous benefactors of the college. At the time of the name change, the enrollment was

On October 10, 2007, college president Bob Hoover announced that the name would revert to The College of Idaho, with the mutual agreement of the J.A. and Kathryn Albertson Foundation, to promote acceptance and gain financial backing from alumni who were unhappy about the original name change. This coincided with a  donation by the foundation to the college.

Academics
The college offers 26 undergraduate majors, 58 undergraduate minors, three graduate programs, and a variety of collaborative programs through 16 departments. Popular majors include Biology, Business, History, Psychology, and Political Economy.

Academic departments

Biology
Chemistry
Health & Human Performance
Mathematical and Physical Sciences
Art
English
Modern Languages
Music
Philosophy and Religion
Theatre & Speech Arts
Anthropology & Sociology
Business & Accounting
Education
History
Political Economy
Psychology

Accreditation
The college has been accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities since 1922. Its teacher education program has been approved by the Idaho State Department of Education since 1913, and its graduates are eligible for certification in all states participating in the Interstate Certification Compact. The college is accepted by, and the alumnae are eligible for, membership in the American Association of University Women (AAUW).

Collaborative programs
Collaborative programs between The College of Idaho and other institutions offer degrees from both with students spending three to four years at C of I and two to three years at the cooperating university.

Collaborative programs in health professions include: nursing, clinical lab science, speech and language pathology and audiology, physical therapy, occupational therapy, pharmacy, pharmaceutical science and public health.

Other collaborative programs include engineering and law.

PEAK undergraduate curriculum
PEAK is the college's unique undergraduate curriculum. It is intended to allow students to graduate with an academic major and three minors in four years or two majors and minors if they choose. The curriculum was implemented in the fall of 2010. It is made up of four different peaks: humanities & fine arts, social sciences & history, natural sciences & mathematics, and professional studies & enhancement. Each student under this curriculum is required to major in one of the four peaks, while minoring in the other three allowing a broad base of study with limited general education requirements.

Academic calendar
The academic calendar provides opportunities for experimental as well as conventional approaches to learning. During the fall and spring terms traditionally formatted courses are offered over a twelve-week term. Between the fall and spring terms, a four-week winter session is offered that stresses experimentation, innovation, creative teaching, and imaginative learning using tutorials, seminars, or independent research methods.

Student life
The college has more than 50 student clubs and organizations, with an active student government, the Associated Students of The College of Idaho and emphasizes diversity in cultures(ASCI) and strong intramural and club sports programs. Intramural sports include: basketball, soccer, softball and flag football.

The college's Outdoor Program takes advantage of Idaho's geography and include backpacking, hiking, fly fishing, camping, winter camping, snowshoeing, kayaking, rafting, rock climbing, backcountry skiing, inner tubing, and stargazing. The Outdoor Program leads week-long trips during the breaks between terms and after midterms.

The college has one fraternity and three sororities.

Athletics
The College of Idaho athletic teams are called the Coyotes (or Yotes). The college is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Cascade Collegiate Conference (CCC) for most of its sports since the 1993–94 academic year; while its football team competes in the Frontier Conference, its men's lacrosse team competes in the Pacific Northwest Collegiate Lacrosse League (PNCLL), its men's and women's skiing competes in the Northwest Collegiate Ski Conference (NWCSC) of the United States Collegiate Ski and Snowboard Association (USCSA), and its competitive swimming team competes as an Independent.

CofI competes in 20 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, lacrosse, skiing, soccer, swimming & diving and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, skiing, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball.

Football
In 2014, The College of Idaho re-instated its football program after a 37-year hiatus. The program is led by head coach Mike Moroski, who has posted a record of 53-38 since taking over the program and was voted the 2019 Frontier Conference Coach of the Year. From 2019-2022, the Yotes have posted a record of 29-7 and have won a at least a share of the Frontier Conference each year. The Yotes even posted their longest winning streak in school history from 2018-2019 (17 games). Even so, the Yotes have only reached the NAIA playoffs once in those four years (2019).  In 2019, the Yotes posted their best record of 11-1 and achieved their highest rank in program history at #5 in the NAIA postseason poll. Since 2014, the Yotes have had a total of 8 All-Americans, 56 all-conference selections, and 26 NAIA All-Academic selections. In 2022, the Yotes split the conference title with rival Carroll College and finished the season ranked 18th in the nation after posting an 8-2 record.

Mascot
The Coyote is the school's mascot, and CofI teams are often referred to as the "Yotes."

Accomplishments
Since 2011, CofI student-athletes have won 23 national championships. The men's and women's ski teams have won 48 individual and team national championships while competing in the NWCSC of the USCSA. The college's track and cross country teams have won 13 individual and relay national titles. The men's baseball team has qualified for postseason play every year since 1987, winning the NAIA national championship in 1998. The men's basketball team won the 1996 NAIA Division II national championship. In 2014, the CofI football team ranked No. 2 in the NAIA for attendance with more than 4,500 fans per game. The men's lacrosse team has also won back to back PNCLL D II conference championships, in 2018 and 2019.

All 19 of the College of Idaho's NAIA teams were honored as NAIA Scholar Team for 2008–2009 season. Each team maintained an average GPA of at least 3.0. This set an all-time NAIA record for number of Scholar Teams in one season. CofI student-athletes continue to earn high marks in the class room and are among the annual leaders in scholar-athlete and academic All-America honorees.

During 2019–2021, the College of Idaho football team won three straight Frontier Conference championships in the NAIA. This includes the unprecedented "COVID" season in the spring of 2021 where the "Yotes" played just four games.

In 2023, the College of Idaho's men's basketball team, under head coach Colby Blaine, won its second NAIA national championship, defeating Indiana Tech 73-71 in Kansas City, Missouri. The 2022-2023 team went 36-1 and 22-0 in Cascade Conference play, winning 36 straight games after losing its opening game of the season.

National Championships

Orma J. Smith Museum of Natural History
The College of Idaho houses the Orma J. Smith Museum of Natural History in William Judson Boone Science Hall. It is the only natural history museum for southwestern Idaho, southeastern Oregon, and northern Nevada. The natural history museum serves three main purposes: to support the educational programs at The College of Idaho, to provide a resource to the community, and to house resources for scientific research.

Orma J. Smith taught chemistry, zoology, and geology in the early 1900s. A small museum was established in the 1930s to house his collections but was closed in 1963. It was reopened in 1976 in the basement of Boone Hall, driven by the need to house collections from the College of Idaho expeditions led by Dr. Robert Bratz and the current director, William H. Clark.

Since the '70s, the Museum has been staffed primarily by volunteers, many the College of Idaho alums, and students. The first Saturday is dedicated to Museum Workdays, where the museum is open for work with Museum staff. A monthly education seminar takes place at noon on Workdays.

The museum is a repository for some very large regional collections.

The students in the Gipson Honors Program utilize the museum every year for a first semester project, writing research papers which are supposed to offer a unique perspective on one item in the extensive collections.

Archives
The personal papers of Robert E. Smylie and the legislative papers of former senator Steve Symms are located at the college. The Steunenberg Papers, detailing Idaho's Trial of the Century, were recently donated to the Archives.

Idaho's Gem and Mineral Collection is located at the Orma J. Smith Natural History Museum at the college.

Community involvement
Jewett Auditorium hosts the Caldwell Fine Arts Series which was founded in 1961 as a co-operative effort between the college and community leaders to present cultural events. The performances sponsored by the Caldwell Fine Arts Series have included a wide variety of disciplines: solo artists, chamber music, orchestra, theater, opera, ballet, ethnic dance and jazz. Jewett Auditorium was built to house a three manual pipe organ. The interior of the auditorium seats 850 people. The building was completed in 1962.

Notable alumni
 Joe Albertson, founder of Albertson's supermarkets and philanthropist
 Kathryn Albertson, wife of the founder of the Albertsons chain of grocery stores; philanthropist and founder of local sorority Sigma Epsilon
 Elgin Baylor, Basketball Hall of Fame inductee
 Andy Benoit, sports journalist; covers the NFL for Sports Illustrated
 Cary Coglianese, University of Pennsylvania Law School faculty leader and author
 Christopher Farnsworth, novelist
 Warren Jones , justice of the Idaho Supreme Court
 Larry Lujack, Chicago radio host
 Butch Otter, 32nd governor of Idaho (2007 to 2019)
 R.C. Owens, NFL wide receiver for the San Francisco 49ers, Baltimore Colts, and New York Giants
Alison Rabe, attorney and member of the Idaho Senate
 Klaus Scharioth, former German ambassador to the United States
 Gerald Schroeder, former chief justice of the Idaho Supreme Court
 Mary Shaw Shorb, research scientist, invented first method to assay Vitamin B-12
 Elmo Smith, 27th governor of Oregon (1956 to 1957)
 Paul Smith, Academy Award-winning composer
 Robert Smylie, 24th governor of Idaho (1955 to 1967)
 Kristine Tompkins, co-founder of Patagonia and founder of Conservacion Patagonica

References

External links

 Official athletics website

Liberal arts colleges in Idaho
Universities and colleges established in 1891
Cascade Collegiate Conference
Presbyterianism in Idaho
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Presbyterian Church (USA)
Buildings and structures in Canyon County, Idaho
Tourist attractions in Canyon County, Idaho
1891 establishments in Idaho
Private universities and colleges in Idaho

College of Idaho


Zeenat  is a 1945 Indian Muslim social melodrama film directed by Syed Shaukat Hussain Rizvi and starring Noor Jehan, Yakub, Majid, Himalayawala, and Karan Dewan. It was produced by Shirazali Hakim and Ramzanali S. Lakhani. The film's story and dialogue was written by Wajahat Mirza Changezi. The music was composed by Meer Saheb and Hafiz Khan while the background music was provided by Rafiq Ghaznavi.

It is the story of a young girl who loses her husband a few days after her wedding as a result of a fall from a horse but not before they have spent a night together unbeknownst to others, leaving her pregnant. Her travails following the death of her husband and the music of the film made it the highest grossing Indian film of 1945. Zeenat was the highest-grossing movie of the year 1945 and is known for its famous Quawwsli "Aahen Na Bharin Shikwe Na Kiye".

Story
Zeenat (Noor Jehan) is marrying the youngest of the Hussain brothers, Sharafat. During Rukhsati (departure of the bride) the horse on which the bridegroom Sharafat is sitting shies away from the sound of firecrackers, causing the groom to fall and sustain critical head injuries. The groom is put in a room with his middle brother Liaqat Hussain (Yakub) but somehow manages to spend that night with Zeenat without anyone knowing. The only person to see him there is Liaqat who leads a wandering life and only visits the house because of his younger brother. Next day Sharafat suffers a paralytic attack from cerebral haemorrhage and exhaustion, but not before he writes about the night he passed with his new bride in his diary. He finally succumbs to his injuries leaving Zeenat a young and helpless widow. Liaqat leaves the house following his younger brother's death as now there is no reason for him to stay there. He takes Sharafat's diary with him.

When it is found that Zeenat is pregnant no one believes her story of being with her husband on their wedding night. She is asked to leave the house by the oldest Hussain brother who doubts her morality. She gives birth to a daughter who she leaves on her husband's grave following disturbing comments by people and tries to commit suicide. However, the cry of her child, Sayida, makes her return to the grave only to find her missing.

The child has been picked up by Liaqat who regularly visits his brother's grave. He has no idea of the child's parents but decides to look after her to the extent of giving up his idle life and taking up a job in order to stay put in one place. A friend of his, Hakim Sahib, suggests that Yakub give the child to him and his wife as they've been childless even after fifteen years of marriage. Liaqat agrees. Zeenat sees the child in a pram in the park and insists it's her child. Hakim Sahib calls Liaqat to settle the issue. Zeenat recognises Liaqat and though he finds her face familiar he cannot remember her. Faced with Liaqat and her past history Zeenat denies that the baby is hers but stays on in the house as an ayah (domestic help) in order to be close to her daughter.

Fifteen years later Sayida (Nasseem) is a young girl in love with Akhtar Hussain (Karan Dewan), who comes to study Persian from her teacher father, Hakim Sahib. Akhtar is also the son of Liaqat and Sharafat's older brother. Sayida's friend Jamila has a brother, Afzal (Himalayawala) who is also enchanted by Sayida. Soon, a marriage is fixed between Akhtar and Sayida. During the wedding Hakim and his wife find out about Zeenat being the real mother of Sayida and she tells them the father's name. At the wedding the bridegroom's family discover that Sayida is not Hakim's real daughter. However they agree to continue with the wedding but the Qazi needs to know the name of the girl's father. By the time Liaqat shows the family Sharafat's diary as proof of Zeenat's purity and morality, she has consumed poison. She lives just long enough to hear her daughter call her 'Mother'.

Cast

Male Cast
Yakoob as Liyaqat Hussain
Karan Diwan as Akhtar Hussain
Dixit as Hakim
Majeed as Sharafat Hussain
Himalayawala as Afzal, Liyaqat's Brother
Salim Raza
Laddan
Aga
Sainger
Nazeer
Amir
Munee Aga as Young Akhtar
Shah Nawaz

Female Cast
Noor Jehan as Zeenat
Nasseem as Sahida
Shanta Rin as Hakim's Wife
Bibboo as Jamila, Akhtar's Sister
Lila Mishra as Liyaqat's Mom
Chanda Bai
Amir Banoo
Jilloobai

Qawwali
The qawwali "Aahein Na Bhari Shikve Na Kiye" sung by Zohrabai Ambalewali, Noor Jehan, and Kalyani was very popular then and remains so even today. It was the first all-female qawwali and picturised on the then very young Shashikala, Baby Khurshid, Rehana, Zohrabai, Zebunnissa, Yasmin and the singer Kalyani herself. The qawwali was written by Nakhshab Jarchavi and music was composed by Meer Saheb and Hafiz Khan.

Music
The film credits two music directors: Meer Sahib and Hafiz Khan.  There were four lyricists: Nakshab Jarchvi, Mahir Ul Qadri, Shewan Rizvi, Anjum Pilibhiti. However the qawwali 'Aahein Na Bharin' was written by Nakshab.

References

External links

1945 films
1940s Hindi-language films
1940s Urdu-language films
Melodrama films
Indian black-and-white films
Indian romantic drama films
1945 drama films
Hindi-language drama films
Urdu-language Indian films

Zeenat (1945 film)


British rock and roll, or sometimes British rock 'n' roll, is a style of popular music based on American rock and roll, which emerged in the late 1950s and was popular until the arrival of beat music in 1962. It was important in establishing British youth and popular music culture and was a key factor in subsequent developments that led to the British Invasion of the mid-1960s. Since the 1960s, some stars of the genre, most notably Cliff Richard, have managed to sustain successful careers and there have been periodic revivals of this form of music.

Origins

In the 1950s, Britain was well placed to receive American rock and roll music and culture. It shared a common language, had been exposed to American culture through the stationing of American troops in the country, and, although not enjoying the same economic prosperity as the US, had many similar social developments, not least of which was the emergence of distinct youth leisure activities and sub-cultures. This was most evident in the rise of the Teddy Boys among working-class youths in London from about 1953, who adopted a version of the Edwardian styles of their grandfathers' generation.

British audiences were accustomed to American popular music and British musicians had already been influenced by American musical styles, particularly in trad jazz, which also exposed some to the precursors of rock and roll, including boogie-woogie and the blues. From this emerged the skiffle craze in 1955, led by Lonnie Donegan, whose version of "Rock Island Line" reached the Top 10 in the UK Singles Chart. Skiffle produced an Anglicised and largely amateur form of American folk song, chiefly notable for inspiring many individuals to take up music.   These included many of the subsequent generation of rock and roll, folk, R&B and beat performers, among them John Lennon and Paul McCartney, who first performed together in the Quarrymen skiffle group in 1957.

At the same time, British audiences were beginning to encounter American rock and roll. For many, this was initially through American films, including Blackboard Jungle (1955) and Rock Around the Clock (1955). Both films contained the Bill Haley & His Comets hit "Rock Around the Clock" and helped it to top the UK chart in 1955 and again in 1956. It also set off a moral panic as young cinema goers ripped up seats to dance, which helped identify rock and roll with delinquency.  This led to it being almost banned by TV and radio stations, making it something of an underground youth movement, which was widely adopted by the Teddy Boy sub-culture. In the 1950s, Radio in the UK was almost exclusively in the hands of the BBC.  Popular music was only played on the Light Programme, and the playing of records was heavily restricted by "needle time" arrangements. Nevertheless, American rock and roll acts became a major force in the UK chart. Elvis Presley reached number 2 in the UK chart with "Heartbreak Hotel" in 1956 and had nine more singles in the Top 30 that year. His first number 1 was "All Shook Up" in 1957 and there would be more chart-toppers for him and for Buddy Holly and the Crickets and Jerry Lee Lewis in the next two years.

Emergence and development

The initial response of the British music industry was to attempt to produce exact copies of American records. These were often recorded with session musicians and, even if note perfect, lacked the energy and spontaneity that characterised American rock and roll. They were often fronted by teen idols co-opted in an attempt to break into the suddenly emerging youth market. More grassroots British rock and rollers soon began to appear, many of them out of the declining skiffle craze, including Wee Willie Harris (usually credited as the first) and Tommy Steele, who proved the most successful of this first wave, and one of the first to be tagged as "the British Elvis". He reached the Top 20 with "Rock with the Caveman" and number 1 with "Singing the Blues" in 1956. Another response was to treat rock and roll as a joke – "Bloodnok's Rock and Roll Call", recorded by The Goons, reached number 3 in the chart in late 1956.

The bland, jokey, or wholly imitative style of much British rock and roll in this period meant that the American product remained dominant. However, this process was important in the orientation of the British record industry towards the youth market and group based music in general. In 1958, Britain produced its first "authentic" rock and roll song and star, when Cliff Richard and the Drifters reached number 2 in the chart with "Move It", which managed to combine a bluesy rock and roll riff with respectable lyrics and attitude.

The success of "Move It" was partly due to an appearance on Independent Television's Oh Boy! (1958–9).  This followed the BBC's tentative first attempt at youth music programming, Six-Five Special (1957–58), with a much more music-orientated show that did much to promote the careers of British rock and rollers like Marty Wilde, Johnny Gentle, Vince Eager, Adam Faith and Duffy Power, all managed by Larry Parnes who also gave them their stage names.

These and other British acts had a series of hits in the late 1950s. Cliff Richard, and as instrumental artists his new backing band The Shadows, were the most successful home grown rock and roll based acts of the era. The Shadows, and particularly guitarist Hank Marvin, were highly influential on a subsequent generation of musicians, helping to cement the line-up of drums, bass, rhythm and lead guitars for British bands. However, in retrospect their work tends to be seen as a bland imitation of American rock and roll. Notably, Cliff Richard rapidly dropped much of his sub-Elvis, rock and roll image for a softer mainstream style, as can be seen in his first number 1, "Living Doll" and a subsequent series of ballads that owed little to rock and roll.

Amid the limited vitality of late 1950s and early 1960s British rock and roll, there were some more dynamic acts. These included Billy Fury, whose rockabilly-style compositions, aided by the guitar of Joe Brown, on his "masterpiece" 1960 LP Sound of Fury are considered some of the best work of the era. Tony Sheridan, Vince Taylor and Screaming Lord Sutch and the Savages also produced some work that could be compared with American rock and roll.  Other singers who issued records of note included Terry Dene, "a fine rock'n'roll vocalist"; Johnny Brandon, who toured the US in 1956 billed as "the King of Rock & Roll"; Dickie Pride, Roy Young, and Helen Shapiro.  The only act to create what has been described as "a pre-Beatle rock classic", were Johnny Kidd & the Pirates, whose song "Shakin' All Over" managed to become a rock and roll standard.

Several of the most lasting and innovative British records of the period were produced by Joe Meek. These included "Johnny Remember Me" by John Leyton, a UK number one record in 1961, and "Telstar" by the Tornados in 1962, which was number one in the UK and became the first record by a British group to reach number one in the US Hot 100.

Decline and revivals

British rock and roll declined sharply in the face of the new beat music after 1962. While some of the most successful acts, most notably Cliff Richard, were able to hang on to positions in the chart, British rock and roll virtually disappeared from the chart, as beat and then R&B based groups began to dominate. Many British rock and rollers continued their careers, and occasional bands specialised in the form, but mainstream success for the genre was rare.

There have been periodic revivals of British rock and roll, with a successful revival starting in the mid 1970s, that saw highly nostalgic pop acts like Showaddywaddy and Alvin Stardust (who, as Shane Fenton, had enjoyed chart success in the early 1960s), enjoy a number of Top Ten hits in the UK charts. These acts were joined in the charts by other retro acts in the late 1970s, including Darts and Matchbox.  The revival continued in the 1980s, mainly due to the popularity of Shakin' Stevens, who became the UK's "most successful singles chart act of the 1980s", and appeared frequently on children's television shows such as The Basil Brush Show and Razzmatazz.  In 1981, British rockabilly band The Jets also had two hit singles in the UK charts. However, since then a wider revival has been elusive.

Influence
In general, early British rock and roll was a second-class product and made little impact on the American market, where British acts before 1963 were almost unknown. In Britain too their significance was limited. British rhythm and blues bands like the Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds deliberately turned away from rock and roll towards its sources in America, and even the subsequent generation of beat bands that owed much more to rock and roll, frequently covered songs by American artists like Chuck Berry, but rarely used material from British acts. Early British rock and roll was undoubtedly an inspiration and influence on the instrumentation and shape of the beat music that spearheaded the British Invasion, but it had to be changed significantly into something new and vital in order to have any impact outside of its own borders.

See also
List of British rock and roll musicians
List of British rock and roll music groups

References

20th-century music genres
British music history
British rock music genres
British styles of music
Rock and roll

British rock and roll


Wrexham University (; ) is a public research university in the north-east of Wales, with campuses in Wrexham, Northop and St Asaph. It offers both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, as well as professional courses. The university had  students in .

The earliest predecessor of the university was the Wrexham School of Science and Art (WSSA), established in 1887, which after several mergers became the North East Wales Institute of Higher Education (NEWI) in 1975. The institute became a full member of the University of Wales in 2004. In 2008 it was granted full university status and renamed Glyndŵr University () after Owain Glyndŵr, a fifteenth-century Welsh leader who was born near Wrexham and suggested the establishment of universities in Wales. The term "Wrexham" was later added to the existing name in 2016, until the university adopted its current name in late 2023.

The university's School of Creative Arts operates the Wall Recording Studio on its Plas Coch campus, the former home of Calon FM community radio station.

History
The university's origins date back to the opening of Wrexham School of Science and Art (WSSA) in 1887. At this time John Viriamu Jones called for a University of Wales. The WSSA began offering University of London-validated degrees in science in 1924. The original name of Wrexham School of Science and Art was changed several times. In 1927, it became Denbighshire Technical Institute, becoming Denbighshire Technical College in 1939 and North East Wales Institute of Higher Education in 1975 by the merger of Denbighshire Technical College, Cartrefle Teacher Training College and Kelsterton College of Connah's Quay, Deeside. Initially, its degrees were validated by the University of Salford. Some famous alumni include Andrew Gwynne (when it was North East Wales Institute of Higher Education), Gavin Roberts, and Brian Percival (as North Wales School of Art and Design).

In 1993, NEWI became an associate member of the University of Wales and all further education courses in Wrexham were moved to Yale College, Wrexham (now part of Coleg Cambria). In 2004, NEWI became a full member of the University of Wales, with "University of Wales, Wrexham" touted as a potential future name, and in 2006 became accredited by the University of Wales and exercised devolved powers to validate and deliver its own degrees. The university was officially renamed "Glyndŵr University" in July 2008 after being granted degree awarding powers. The university was visited by the Queen in 2003 and by Birgitte, Duchess of Gloucester in 2005.

In June 2014, the Home Office suspended the University's authorisation to sponsor international students.

On 24 November 2014 Glyndŵr University has had its right to sponsor international students reinstated by the Home Office.

In 2016, the university underwent a minor name change and is now called "Wrexham Glyndŵr University" in English, and "Prifysgol Glyndŵr Wrecsam" in Welsh.

Between 2008 and 2019, the main Wrexham campus of the University hosted Wales Comic Con, reduced to one-day events from 2022 following a brief absence.

In August 2022, the university announced it was considering re-naming itself to "Wrexham University" () dropping "Glyndŵr" from its name. On 27 April 2023, the university confirmed its plans to rename to "Wrexham University", following consultations with staff, students and other organisations, and approval by the Privy Council. The university stated the increased attention of Wrexham due to Wrexham A.F.C., Welcome to Wrexham and Wrexham's awarded city status, as reasons for the move. The university also made plans to "continue celebrat[ing] [Glyndŵr's] legacy". The name change became official in September 2023, and the university maintains links with the Owain Glyndŵr Society to offer one of its top graduate awards.

Campuses
The university has various sites in Wrexham and north east Wales. From 2011 to 2018 it ran a campus in London.

Wrexham

The university has two sites in Wrexham. The main site at Plas Coch covers , and was inherited from the former Cartrefle TTC which moved there in 1953. It houses over 70 seminar suites, conference suites, lecture theatres, workshops and laboratories, complemented with a library (the Edward Llwyd Centre) and learning resource facilities, as well as a sports centre, a Centre for the Creative Industries, the Centre for the Child, Family and Society, the Glyndŵr University Racecourse Stadium, a human performance lab, the Terry Hands studio, the Catrin Finch Centre, William Aston Hall, the Oriel Sycharth Gallery and the Welsh international hockey team.

The educational charity North Wales Science, owned by the university, operated a science discovery centre on the Plas Coch campus. The centre was open to schools and the general public, and in a partnership with Techniquest in Cardiff, was branded as 'Techniquest@NEWI' and later 'Techniquest Glyndŵr', from 2003 to 2020. In 2019, the charity decided to relocate to a site in Wrexham city centre, with their Henblas Street site opening on 3 October 2020, rebranding as 'Xplore! Science Discovery Centre'.

The other Wrexham site on Regent Street, is near to Wrexham city centre and is home to its North Wales School of Art and Design (NWSAD). It formerly housed the Denbighshire Technical College, who moved to the site in 1927 (under their previous name of Denbighshire Technical Institute).
In 2011, the university acquired the Racecourse Ground, the home of Wrexham FC, renaming it the Glyndŵr University Racecourse Stadium. The university sold the stadium back to the club on 29 June 2022.

The university has its own music recording facilities, notably The Wall Recording Studio.

Northop

The university shares the former  Welsh College of Horticulture in Northop, Flintshire, with Coleg Cambria.

Academic profile

The university runs 150 programmes, offering foundation, HND/Cs, honours and master's degrees and doctorates over a broad variety of qualifications. In addition to professional courses such as nursing and social work, the university offers a range of postgraduate and undergraduate qualifications in Art & Design, Engineering, Science, Humanities, Health and Social Care, Criminology and Criminal Justice, Sports Sciences, Computing and Communication Technology, Music technology and Business. Although all courses are offered in English there are options to study or to be assessed in Welsh. A foundation degree in professional Welsh is also available.

The North Wales School of Art and Design at Wrexham Glyndŵr University was named as the best place to study Art in Wales in the Guardian University League Tables 2017 and also ranked 12th out of all UK universities.

Wrexham Glyndwr University is also number one in North Wales for getting its students jobs after graduation. The institution achieved an employability figure of 92.1% and is also above the sector average for graduate level employment, according to the latest Destination of Leavers Survey (DLHE).

International links
The University has international partnerships across Europe, Africa and Asia and is a member of the Fair Trade Coalition.

Administration
WGU's first principal (then as NEWI) was Glyn O. Phillips. He retired in 1991 and was replaced by John O. Williams. Following the retirement of Williams in 2000, NEWI appointed Michael Scott, a former student of the University of Wales, Lampeter in 2001. He was succeeded by Professor Graham Upton in January 2015 who served as interim Vice-Chancellor until 31 March 2016. The current Vice-Chancellor is Professor Maria Hinfelaar who was the President of the Limerick Institute of Technology.

Companies
Wrexham Glyndwr University has two subsidiary companies: Glyndŵr Innovations Ltd and North Wales Science (Techniquest Glyndŵr – "TQG").

Collaborative partners include: Coleg Cambria : (Yale College & Deeside College), Coleg Menai, Coleg Llandrillo Cymru, Coleg Powys

Student life
Wrexham Glyndwr University's students come from all over the United Kingdom and the European Union. WGU is also popular with mature students. Around 54% of Wrexham Glyndwr University students are over twenty-one with 17% over the age of forty.

Accommodation
There are three main halls of residence in Wrexham, namely the Student village, Wrexham Village and Snowdon Hall as well as Corbishley Hall at Northop. The main student village is separated into houses and the houses into flats. Snowdon Hall, Bath Road and Clwyd House are near Wrexham city. The student village and Snowdon Hall are en suite and the rest are shared facilities. All of Wrexham Glyndwr University's accommodation is self-catering. Snowdon Hall is separated into five separate blocks of lockable flats and is currently leased from and run by the Opal Group.

Sports, clubs and traditions
Wrexham Glyndŵr University sport teams compete in British Universities & Colleges Sport (BUCS). In the 2017 – 18 academic year, Glyndŵr University have 9 teams competing in the BUCS structure. Team sports played at the university are; Men's Rugby Union, Women's Netball, Men's Basketball, Men's Hockey, Men's and Women's Football, Men's and Women's Futsal.

Wrexham Glyndŵr University Sports Centre houses a 1000sq. m. hall.
The hall is overlooked by an open balcony and an enclosed spectator area on the first floor. The facility complies with national competition standards for badminton, netball, basketball, volleyball, futsal and handball.
There is also provision for table tennis and matting for martial arts.

On the first floor of the facility is a purpose-built sprung floor dance studio.

Wrexham Glyndwr University has a radio studio, sound recording studio, engineering laboratories, art gallery, IT facilities, theatre studios, motor racing team, a dedicated scene of crime lab and notably the unusual asset of a Chinese medicine clinic.

The Plas Coch site hosts an active student union as well as the student union bar, now housed in the football stadium's Centenary Club. Wrexham Glyndwr University has its own car racing team which is run by the engineering school's Car Performance degree course students. The North Wales Clinical School opened in 2007 at Wrexham Glyndŵr University's Plas Coch campus.

Also in the Plas Coch area of Wrexham are Wrexham A.F.C., North Wales Crusaders and the North Wales Regional Hockey Stadium. In August 2011, the university agreed a deal to buy Wrexham FC's Racecourse Ground.

In October 2014, former Welsh international footballer Robbie Savage was given an honorary fellowship at the university for services to sport.

See also
Armorial of UK universities
Education in Wales
List of universities in Wales
List of UK universities

References

External links

 Wrexham University

Universities and colleges in North Wales
Wrexham
Educational institutions established in 2008
2008 establishments in Wales
Education in Wrexham County Borough
Universities UK

Wrexham University


The Phillips curve is an economic model, named after William Phillips, that correlates reduced unemployment with increasing wages in an economy.  While Phillips did not directly link employment and inflation, this was a trivial deduction from his statistical findings. Paul Samuelson and Robert Solow made the connection explicit and subsequently Milton Friedman and Edmund Phelps put the theoretical structure in place.

While there is a short-run tradeoff between unemployment and inflation, it has not been observed in the long run. In 1967 and 1968, Friedman and Phelps asserted that the Phillips curve was only applicable in the short run and that, in the long run, inflationary policies would not decrease unemployment. Friedman correctly predicted the Stagflation of the 1970's.

In the 2010s the slope of the Phillips curve appears to have declined and there has been controversy over the usefulness of the Phillips curve in predicting inflation. A 2022 study found that the slope of the Phillips curve is small and was small even during the early 1980s. Nonetheless, the Phillips curve is still used by central banks in understanding and forecasting inflation.

History

William Phillips, a New Zealand born economist, wrote a paper in 1958 titled "The Relation between Unemployment and the Rate of Change of Money Wage Rates in the United Kingdom, 1861–1957", which was published in the quarterly journal Economica. In the paper Phillips describes how he observed an inverse relationship between money wage changes and unemployment in the British economy over the period examined. Similar patterns were found in other countries and in 1960 Paul Samuelson and Robert Solow took Phillips' work and made explicit the link between inflation and unemployment: when inflation was high, unemployment was low, and vice versa.

In the 1920s, an American economist Irving Fisher had noted this relationship between unemployment and prices. However, Phillips' original curve described the behavior of money wages.

In the years following Phillips' 1958 paper, many economists in advanced industrial countries believed that his results showed a permanently stable relationship between inflation and unemployment. One implication of this was that governments could control unemployment and inflation with a Keynesian policy. They could tolerate a reasonably high inflation as this would lead to lower unemployment – there would be a trade-off between inflation and unemployment. For example, monetary policy and/or fiscal policy could be used to stimulate the economy, raising gross domestic product and lowering the unemployment rate. Moving along the Phillips curve, this would lead to a higher inflation rate, the cost of enjoying lower unemployment rates. Economist James Forder disputes this history and argues that it is a 'Phillips curve myth' invented in the 1970s.

Since 1974, seven Nobel Prizes have been given to economists for, among other things, work critical of some variations of the Phillips curve. Some of this criticism is based on the United States' experience during the 1970s, which had periods of high unemployment and high inflation at the same time. The authors receiving those prizes include Thomas Sargent, Christopher Sims, Edmund Phelps, Edward Prescott, Robert A. Mundell, Robert E. Lucas, Milton Friedman, and F.A. Hayek.

Stagflation
In the 1970s, many countries experienced high levels of both inflation and unemployment also known as stagflation. Theories based on the Phillips curve suggested that this would not occur, and the curve came under attack from a group of economists headed by Milton Friedman. Friedman argued that the Phillips curve relationship was only a short-run phenomenon. This followed eight years after Samuelson and Solow [1960] wrote "All of our discussion has been phrased in short-run terms, dealing with what might happen in the next few years.  It would be wrong, though, to think that our Figure 2 menu that related obtainable price and unemployment behavior will maintain its same shape in the longer run.  What we do in a policy way during the next few years might cause it to shift in a definite way." As Samuelson and Solow had argued 8 years earlier, Friedman said that in the long run, workers and employers will take inflation into account, resulting in employment contracts that increase pay at rates near anticipated inflation. Unemployment would then begin to rise back to its previous level, but with higher inflation. This implies that over the longer-run there is no trade-off between inflation and unemployment. This is significant because it implies that central banks should not set unemployment targets below the natural rate.

More recent research suggests that there is a moderate trade-off between low-levels of inflation and unemployment. Work by George Akerlof, William Dickens, and George Perry, implies that if inflation is reduced from two to zero percent, unemployment will be permanently increased by 1.5 percent because workers have a higher tolerance for real wage cuts than nominal ones. For example, a worker will more likely accept a wage increase of two percent when inflation is three percent, than a wage cut of one percent when the inflation rate is zero.

Modern application

Most economists no longer use the Phillips curve in its original form because it was too simplistic. A cursory analysis of US inflation and unemployment data from 1953 to 1992 shows no single curve will fit the data, but there are three rough aggregations—1955–71, 1974–84, and 1985–92—each of which shows a general, downwards slope, but at three very different levels with the shifts occurring abruptly. The data for 1953–54 and 1972–73 do not group easily, and a more formal analysis posits up to five groups/curves over the period.

However, modified forms of the Phillips curve that take inflationary expectations into account remain influential. The theory has several names, with some variation in its details, but all modern versions distinguish between short-run and long-run effects on unemployment. Modern Phillips curve models include both a short-run Phillips Curve and a long-run  Phillips Curve. This is because in the short run, there is generally an inverse relationship between inflation and the unemployment rate; as illustrated in the downward sloping short-run Phillips curve. In the long run, that relationship breaks down and the economy eventually returns to the natural rate of unemployment regardless of the inflation rate.

The "short-run Phillips curve" is also called the "expectations-augmented Phillips curve", since it shifts up when inflationary expectations rise, Edmund Phelps and Milton Friedman argued. In the long run, this implies that monetary policy cannot affect unemployment, which adjusts back to its "natural rate", also called the "NAIRU".  The popular textbook of Blanchard gives a textbook presentation of the expectations-augmented Phillips curve.

An equation like the expectations-augmented Phillips curve also appears in many recent New Keynesian dynamic stochastic general equilibrium models. As Keynes mentioned: "A Government has to remember, however, that even if a tax is not prohibited it may be unprofitable, and that a medium, rather than an extreme, imposition will yield the greatest gain". In these macroeconomic models with sticky prices, there is a positive relation between the rate of inflation and the level of demand, and therefore a negative relation between the rate of inflation and the rate of unemployment. This relationship is often called the "New Keynesian Phillips curve".  Like the expectations-augmented Phillips curve, the New Keynesian Phillips curve implies that increased inflation can lower unemployment temporarily, but cannot lower it permanently. Two influential papers that incorporate a New Keynesian Phillips curve are Clarida, Galí, and Gertler (1999), and Blanchard and Galí (2007).

Mathematics
There are at least two different mathematical derivations of the Phillips curve. First, there is the traditional or Keynesian version. Then, there is the new Classical version associated with Robert E. Lucas Jr.

The traditional Phillips curve
The original Phillips curve literature was not based on the unaided application of economic theory. Instead, it was based on empirical generalizations. After that, economists tried to develop theories that fit the data.

Money wage determination
The traditional Phillips curve story starts with a wage Phillips Curve, of the sort described by Phillips himself. This describes the rate of growth of money wages (gW). Here and below, the operator g is the equivalent of "the percentage rate of growth of" the variable that follows.

The "money wage rate" (W) is shorthand for total money wage costs per production employee, including benefits and payroll taxes. The focus is on only production workers' money wages, because (as discussed below) these costs are crucial to pricing decisions by the firms.

This equation tells us that the growth of money wages rises with the trend rate of growth of money wages (indicated by the superscript T) and falls with the unemployment rate (U). The function f is assumed to be monotonically increasing with U so that the dampening of money-wage increases by unemployment is shown by the negative sign in the equation above.

There are several possible stories behind this equation. A major one is that money wages are set by bilateral negotiations under partial bilateral monopoly: as the unemployment rate rises, all else constant worker bargaining power falls, so that workers are less able to increase their wages in the face of employer resistance.

During the 1970s, this story had to be modified, because (as the late Abba Lerner had suggested in the 1940s) workers try to keep up with inflation. Since the 1970s, the  equation has been changed to introduce the role of inflationary expectations (or the expected inflation rate, gPex). This produces the expectations-augmented wage Phillips curve:

The introduction of inflationary expectations into the equation implies that actual inflation can feed back into inflationary expectations and thus cause further inflation. The late economist James Tobin dubbed the last term "inflationary inertia", because in the current period, inflation exists which represents an inflationary impulse left over from the past.

It also involved much more than expectations, including the price-wage spiral. In this spiral, employers try to protect profits by raising their prices and employees try to keep up with inflation to protect their real wages. This process can feed on itself, becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy.

The parameter λ (which is presumed constant during any time period) represents the degree to which employees can gain money wage increases to keep up with expected inflation, preventing a fall in expected real wages. It is usually assumed that this parameter equals 1 in the long run.

In addition, the function f() was modified to introduce the idea of the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU) or what's sometimes called the "natural" rate of unemployment or the
inflation-threshold unemployment rate:

Here, U* is the NAIRU. As discussed below, if U < U*, inflation tends to accelerate. Similarly, if U > U*, inflation tends to slow. It is assumed that f(0) = 0, so that when U = U*, the f term drops out of the equation.

In equation (), the roles of  gWT and gPex seem to be redundant, playing much the same role. However, assuming that λ  is equal to unity, it can be seen that they are not. If the trend rate of growth of money wages equals zero, then the case where U equals U* implies that gW equals expected inflation. That is, expected real wages are constant.

In any reasonable economy, however, having constant expected real wages could only be consistent with actual real wages that are constant over the long haul.  This does not fit with economic experience in the U.S. or any other major industrial country. Even though real wages have not risen much in recent years, there have been important increases over the decades.

An alternative is to assume that the trend rate of growth of money wages equals the trend rate of growth of average labor productivity (Z). That is:

Under assumption (), when U equals U* and λ equals unity, expected real wages would increase with labor productivity. This would be consistent with an economy in which actual real wages increase with labor productivity. Deviations of real-wage trends from those of labor productivity might be explained by reference to other variables in the model.

Pricing decisions
Next, there is price behavior. The standard assumption is that markets are imperfectly competitive, where most businesses have some power to set prices. So the model assumes that the average business sets a unit price (P) as a mark-up (M) over the unit labor cost in production measured at a standard rate of capacity utilization (say, at 90 percent use of plant and equipment) and then adds in the unit materials cost.

The standardization involves later ignoring deviations from the trend in labor productivity. For example, assume that the growth of labor productivity is the same as that in the trend and that current productivity equals its trend value:

 gZ = gZT and Z = ZT.

The markup reflects both the firm's degree of market power and the extent to which overhead costs have to be paid. Put another way, all else equal, M rises with the firm's power to set prices or with a rise of overhead costs relative to total costs.

So pricing follows this equation:

P = M × (unit labor cost) + (unit materials cost)

 = M × (total production employment cost)/(quantity of output) + UMC.

UMC is unit raw materials cost (total raw materials costs divided by total output). So the equation can be restated as:

P  =  M  × (production employment cost per worker)/(output per production employee) +  UMC.

This equation can again be stated as:

P = M×(average money wage)/(production labor productivity) + UMC

 = M×(W/Z) + UMC.

Now, assume that both the average price/cost mark-up (M) and UMC are constant. On the other hand, labor productivity grows, as before.  Thus, an equation determining the price inflation rate (gP) is:

 gP = gW − gZT.

Price
Then, combined with the wage Phillips curve [equation 1] and the assumption made above about the trend behavior of money wages [equation 2], this price-inflation equation gives us a simple expectations-augmented price Phillips curve:

 gP = −f(U − U*) + λ·gPex.

Some assume that we can simply add in gUMC, the rate of growth of UMC, in order to represent the role of supply shocks (of the sort that plagued the U.S. during the 1970s). This produces a standard short-term Phillips curve:

 gP = −f(U − U*)  + λ·gPex + gUMC.

Economist Robert J. Gordon has called this the "Triangle Model" because it explains short-run inflationary behavior by three factors: demand inflation (due to low unemployment), supply-shock inflation (gUMC), and inflationary expectations or inertial inflation.

In the long run, it is assumed, inflationary expectations catch up with and equal actual inflation so that gP = gPex. This represents the long-term equilibrium of expectations adjustment. Part of this adjustment may involve the adaptation of expectations to the experience with actual inflation. Another might involve guesses made by people in the economy based on other evidence. (The latter idea gave us the notion of so-called rational expectations.)

Expectational equilibrium gives us the long-term Phillips curve. First,  with λ less than unity:

gP = [1/(1 − λ)]·(−f(U − U*) + gUMC).

This is nothing but a steeper version of the short-run Phillips curve above. Inflation rises as unemployment falls, while this connection is stronger. That is, a low unemployment rate (less than U*) will be associated with a higher inflation rate in the long run than in the short run. This occurs because the actual higher-inflation situation seen in the short run feeds back to raise inflationary expectations, which in turn raises the inflation rate further. Similarly, at high unemployment rates (greater than U*) lead to low inflation
rates. These in turn encourage lower inflationary expectations, so that inflation itself drops again.

This logic goes further if λ is equal to unity, i.e., if workers are able to protect their wages completely from expected inflation, even in the short run. Now, the Triangle Model equation becomes:

- f(U − U*) = gUMC.

If we further assume (as seems reasonable) that there are no long-term supply shocks, this can be simplified to become:

 −f(U − U*) = 0 which implies that  U = U*.

All of the assumptions imply that in the long run, there is only one possible unemployment rate, U* at any one time. This uniqueness explains why some call this unemployment rate "natural".

To truly understand and criticize the uniqueness of U*, a more sophisticated and realistic model is needed. For example, we might introduce the idea that workers in different sectors push for money wage increases that are similar to those in other sectors. Or we might make the model even more realistic. One important place to look is at the determination of the mark-up, M.

New classical version
The Phillips curve equation can be derived from the (short-run) Lucas aggregate supply function. The Lucas approach is very different from that of the traditional view. Instead of starting with empirical data, he started with a classical economic model following very simple economic principles.

Start with the aggregate supply function:

where Y is log value of the actual output,  is log value of the "natural" level of output,  is a positive constant,  is log value of the actual price level, and  is log value of the expected price level. Lucas assumes that  has a unique value.

Note that this equation indicates that when expectations of future inflation (or, more correctly, the future price level) are totally accurate, the last term drops out, so that actual output equals the so-called "natural" level of real GDP.  This means that in the Lucas aggregate supply curve, the only reason why actual real GDP should deviate from potential—and the actual unemployment rate should deviate from the "natural" rate—is because of incorrect expectations of what is going to happen with prices in the future. (The idea has been expressed first by Keynes, General Theory, Chapter 20 section III paragraph 4).

This differs from other views of the Phillips curve, in which the failure to attain the "natural" level of output can be due to the imperfection or incompleteness of markets, the stickiness of prices, and the like. In the non-Lucas view, incorrect expectations can contribute to aggregate demand failure, but they are not the only cause. To the "new Classical" followers of Lucas, markets are presumed to be perfect and always attain equilibrium (given inflationary expectations).

We re-arrange the equation into:

Next we add unexpected exogenous shocks to the world supply :

Subtracting last year's price levels  will give us inflation rates, because

and

where  and  are the inflation and expected inflation respectively.

There is also a negative relationship between output and unemployment (as expressed by Okun's law). Therefore, using

where  is a positive constant,  is unemployment, and  is the natural rate of unemployment or NAIRU, we arrive at the final form of the short-run Phillips curve:

This equation, plotting inflation rate  against unemployment  gives the downward-sloping curve in the diagram that characterizes the Phillips curve.

New Keynesian version
The New Keynesian Phillips curve was originally derived by Roberts in 1995, and since been used in most state-of-the-art New Keynesian DSGE models like the one of Clarida, Galí, and Gertler (2000).

where

The current expectations of next period's inflation are incorporated as .

NAIRU and rational expectations

In the 1970s, new theories, such as rational expectations and the NAIRU (non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment) arose to explain how stagflation could occur. The latter theory, also known as the "natural rate of unemployment", distinguished between the "short-term" Phillips curve and the "long-term" one. The short-term Phillips Curve looked like a normal Phillips Curve but shifted in the long run as expectations changed. In the long run, only a single rate of unemployment (the NAIRU or "natural" rate) was consistent with a stable inflation rate. The long-run Phillips Curve was thus vertical, so there was no trade-off between inflation and unemployment. Milton Friedman in 1976 and Edmund Phelps in 2006 won the Nobel Prize in Economics  in part for this work.

However, the expectations argument was in fact very widely understood (albeit not formally) before Friedman's and Phelps's work on it.

In the diagram, the long-run Phillips curve is the vertical red line. The NAIRU theory says that when unemployment is at the rate defined by this line, inflation will be stable. However, in the short-run policymakers will face an inflation-unemployment rate trade-off marked by the "Initial Short-Run Phillips Curve" in the graph. Policymakers can, therefore, reduce the unemployment rate temporarily, moving from point A to point B through expansionary policy. However, according to the NAIRU, exploiting this short-run trade-off will raise inflation expectations, shifting the short-run curve rightward to the "new short-run Phillips curve" and moving the point of equilibrium from B to C.  Thus the reduction in unemployment below the "Natural Rate" will be temporary, and lead only to higher inflation in the long run.

Since the short-run curve shifts outward due to the attempt to reduce unemployment, the expansionary policy ultimately worsens the exploitable trade-off between unemployment and inflation. That is, it results in more inflation at each short-run unemployment rate. The name "NAIRU" arises because with actual unemployment below it, inflation accelerates, while with unemployment above it, inflation decelerates. With the actual rate equal to it, inflation is stable, neither accelerating nor decelerating. One practical use of this model was to explain stagflation, which confounded the traditional Phillips curve.

The rational expectations theory said that expectations of inflation were equal to what actually happened, with some minor and temporary errors. This, in turn, suggested that the short-run period was so short that it was non-existent: any effort to reduce unemployment below the NAIRU, for example, would immediately cause inflationary expectations to rise and thus imply that the policy would fail. Unemployment would never deviate from the NAIRU except due to random and transitory mistakes in developing expectations about future inflation rates. In this perspective, any deviation of the actual unemployment rate from the NAIRU was an illusion.

However, in the 1990s in the U.S., it became increasingly clear that the NAIRU did not have a unique equilibrium and could change in unpredictable ways. In the late 1990s, the actual unemployment rate fell below 4% of the labor force, much lower than almost all estimates of the NAIRU. But inflation stayed very moderate rather than accelerating. So, just as the Phillips curve had become a subject of debate, so did the NAIRU.

Furthermore, the concept of rational expectations had become subject to much doubt when it became clear that the main assumption of models based on it was that there exists a single (unique) equilibrium in the economy that is set ahead of time, determined independently of demand conditions. The experience of the 1990s suggests that this assumption cannot be sustained.

Theoretical questions

The Phillips curve started as an empirical observation in search of a theoretical explanation. Specifically, the Phillips curve tried to determine whether the inflation-unemployment link was causal or simply correlational. There are several major explanations of the short-term Phillips curve regularity.

To Milton Friedman there is a short-term correlation between inflation shocks and employment. When an inflationary surprise occurs, workers are fooled into accepting lower pay because they do not see the fall in real wages right away. Firms hire them because they see the inflation as allowing higher profits for given nominal wages. This is a movement along the Phillips curve as with change A. Eventually, workers discover that real wages have fallen, so they push for higher money wages. This causes the Phillips curve to shift upward and to the right, as with B. Some research underlines that some implicit and serious assumptions are actually in the background of the Friedmanian Phillips curve. This information asymmetry and a special pattern of flexibility of prices and wages are both necessary if one wants to maintain the mechanism told by Friedman. However, as it is argued, these presumptions remain completely unrevealed and theoretically ungrounded by Friedman.

Economists such as Edmund Phelps reject this theory because it implies that workers suffer from money illusion. According to them, rational workers would only react to real wages, that is, inflation adjusted wages. However, one of the characteristics of a modern industrial economy is that workers do not encounter their employers in an atomized and perfect market. They operate in a complex combination of imperfect markets, monopolies, monopsonies, labor unions, and other institutions. In many cases, they may lack the bargaining power to act on their expectations, no matter how rational they are, or their perceptions, no matter how free of money illusion they are. It is not that high inflation causes low unemployment (as in Milton Friedman's theory) as much as vice versa: Low unemployment raises worker bargaining power, allowing them to successfully push for higher nominal wages. To protect profits, employers raise prices.

Similarly, built-in inflation is not simply a matter of subjective "inflationary expectations" but also reflects the fact that high inflation can gather momentum and continue beyond the time when it was started, due to the objective price/wage spiral.

However, other economists, like Jeffrey Herbener, argue that price is market-determined and competitive firms cannot simply raise prices. They reject the Phillips curve entirely, concluding that unemployment's influence is only a small portion of a much larger inflation picture that includes prices of raw materials, intermediate goods, cost of raising capital, worker productivity, land, and other factors.

Gordon's triangle model
Robert J. Gordon of Northwestern University has analyzed the Phillips curve to produce what he calls the triangle model, in which the actual inflation rate is determined by the sum of

demand pull or short-term Phillips curve inflation,
cost push or supply shocks, and
built-in inflation.

The last reflects inflationary expectations and the price/wage spiral. Supply shocks and changes in built-in inflation are the main factors shifting the short-run Phillips curve and changing the trade-off. In this theory, it is not only inflationary expectations that can cause stagflation. For example, the steep climb of oil prices during the 1970s could have this result.

Changes in built-in inflation follow the partial-adjustment logic behind most theories of the NAIRU:

 Low unemployment encourages high inflation, as with the simple Phillips curve. But if unemployment stays low and inflation stays high for a long time, as in the late 1960s in the U.S., both inflationary expectations and the price/wage spiral accelerate. This shifts the short-run Phillips curve upward and rightward, so that more inflation is seen at any given unemployment rate. (This is with shift B in the diagram.)
 High unemployment encourages low inflation, again as with a simple Phillips curve. But if unemployment stays high and inflation stays low for a long time, as in the early 1980s in the U.S., both inflationary expectations and the price/wage spiral slow. This shifts the short-run Phillips curve downward and leftward, so that less inflation is seen at each unemployment rate.

In between these two lies the NAIRU, where the Phillips curve does not have any inherent tendency to shift, so that the inflation rate is stable.  However, there seems to be a range in the middle between "high" and "low" where built-in inflation stays stable. The ends of this "non-accelerating inflation range of unemployment rates" change over time.

See also

Goodhart's law
MONIAC Computer
New Keynesian economics
Wage curve
Shapiro–Stiglitz theory

Notes

References
Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, "Understanding Inflation and the Implications for Monetary Policy: A Phillips Curve Retrospective" , FRBB Conference Series 53, June 9–11, 2008, Chatham, Massachusetts.

John Komlos, "The Real U.S. Unemployment Rate is Twice the Official Rate, and the Phillips Curve," Challenge: The Magazine of Economic Affairs 64 (2021) 1: 54-74; CesIfo working paper No 7859, (2019); https://[https://www.cesifo.org/DocDL/cesifo1_wp7859.pdf www.cesifo.org/DocDL/cesifo1_wp7859.pdf].
M Friedman, 'The Role of Monetary Policy' (1968) 58(1) American Economic Review 1

E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2018) SSRN, part 2(1)
RD Gabriel, 'Monetary Policy and the Wage Inflation-Unemployment Tradeoff' (2021)
A. W. Phillips, 'The Relation between Unemployment and the Rate of Change of Money Wage Rates in the United Kingdom 1861–1957' (1958) 25 Economica 283

External links
Left critique of Phillips Curve from Dollars & Sense magazine
A Critique of the Phillips Curve by Charles Oliver, Ludwig von Mises Institute, February 9, 1999 (includes the article "Who's Afraid Of A Red-Hot Economy?", Investor's Business Daily, February 9, 1999)
Audio speech by Jeffery Herbener at the Ludwig Von Mises Institute.
"Of Hume, Thornton, the Quantity Theory, and the Phillips Curve." by Thomas M. Humphrey. Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Review, 1982.

Economics models
Economics curves
Monetary policy
Unemployment
1958 in economics

Phillips curve


Arthur Scherbius (30 October 1878 – 13 May 1929) was a German electrical engineer who invented the mechanical cipher Enigma machine. He patented the invention and later sold the machine under the brand name Enigma.

Scherbius offered unequalled opportunities and showed the importance of cryptography to both military and civil intelligence.

Biography

Early life and work
Scherbius was born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. His father was a businessman.

He studied electrical engineering at the Technical University Munich and then went on to study at the Leibniz University Hannover, finishing in March 1903. The next year he completed a dissertation entitled "Proposal for the Construction of an Indirect Water Turbine Governor" and was awarded a doctorate in engineering (Dr.-Eng.).

Career
Scherbius subsequently worked for a number of electrical firms in Germany and Switzerland. In 1918 he founded the firm of Scherbius & Ritter. He made a number of inventions including asynchronous motors, electric pillows and ceramic heating parts. His research contributions led to his name being associated with the Scherbius principle for asynchronous motors.

Scherbius applied for a patent (filed 23 February 1918) for a cipher machine based on rotating wired wheels that is now known as a rotor machine.

The Enigma machine
His first design of the Enigma was called Model A and was about the size and    shape of a cash register (50 kg). Then followed Model B and Model C, which was a portable device in which the letters were indicated by lamps. The Enigma machine looked like a typewriter in a wooden box.

He called his machine Enigma which is the Greek word for "riddle". Combining three rotors from a set of five, each of the 3 rotor setting with 26 positions, and the plug board with ten pairs of letters connected, the military Enigma has 158,962,555,217,826,360,000 (nearly 159 quintillion) different settings. (5 × 4 × 3) × (263) × [26! / (6! × 10! × 210)] = 158,962,555,217,826,360,000.

The firm's cipher machine, marketed under the name "Enigma", was initially pitched at the commercial market. There were several commercial models; one of them was adopted by the German Navy (in a modified version) in 1926. The German Army adopted the same machine (also in a modified version somewhat different from the Navy's) a few years later.

Scherbius initially had to contend with the lack of interest in his invention, but he was convinced that his Enigma would be marketable. However, the German Army did become interested in a new cryptographic device despite several disappointments in the past. The serial production of the Enigma started in 1925 and the first machines came into use in 1926.

Scherbius' Enigma provided the German Army with one of the strongest cryptographic ciphers at the time. German military communications were protected using Enigma machines during World War II until they were eventually cracked by Bletchley Park due to a fatal flaw in the encryption algorithm whereby characters were never encrypted as themselves.

Scherbius however did not live to see the widespread use of his machine. In 1929, Scherbius died in a horse carriage accident in Berlin-Wannsee, where he had lived since 1924.

Patents

References

Notes

Bibliography
 David Kahn, Seizing the Enigma: The Race to Break the German U-Boats Codes, 1939–1943 (Houghton Mifflin 1991) ()

1878 births
1929 deaths
Technical University of Munich alumni
University of Hanover alumni
Cipher-machine cryptographers
German information theorists
German logicians
20th-century German inventors
20th-century German mathematicians
Businesspeople from Frankfurt

Arthur Scherbius


Subhash Kak is an Indian-American computer scientist and historical revisionist. He is the Regents Professor of Computer Science Department at Oklahoma State University–Stillwater, an honorary visiting professor of engineering at Jawaharlal Nehru University, and a member of the Indian Prime Minister's Science, Technology and Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC).

Kak has published on the history of science, the philosophy of science, ancient astronomy, and the history of mathematics. Kak has also published on archaeoastronomy, and advocated the idea of Indigenous Aryans. Many scholars have rejected his theories on these topics in entirety, and his writings have been heavily criticized.

In 2019, the Government of India awarded him the Padma Shri, the fourth highest civilian award in India, for his contributions on the history of mathematics, science, ancient astronomy and philosophy of science.

Early life and education
Kak was born to Ram Nath Kak, a government veterinary doctor and Sarojini Kak in Srinagar, India. His brother is the computer scientist Avinash Kak and his sister is the literary theorist Jaishree Odin.

Kak received a Bachelor of Engineering degree from the Regional Engineering College, Srinagar (now the National Institute of Technology, Srinagar) and a Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi in 1970.

Academic career
During 1975–1976, Kak was a visiting faculty at Imperial College, London, and a guest researcher at Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill. In 1977, he was a visiting researcher at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay. In 1979, he joined Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, where he was appointed the Donald C. and Elaine T. Delaune Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering. In 2007, he joined the Computer Science department at Oklahoma State University–Stillwater.

Kak proposed an efficient three-layer feed-forward neural network architecture and developed four corner classification algorithms for training it. Despite being criticized for scalability issues; it gained the attention of the electronic hardware community. Kak has argued that there are limits to artificial intelligence and that it cannot match biological intelligence. Kak has been critical of the generalization of the quantum computing to commercial scale; he argues error correction is a significant challenge for scalability although it's fundamental to multi-purpose computing.

Kak is the Regents Professor of Computer Science Department at Oklahoma State University–Stillwater and an honorary visiting professor of engineering at Jawaharlal Nehru University. He is also an honorary visiting professor of media studies at Jawaharlal Nehru University.

On 28 August 2018, he was appointed member of the Prime Minister's Science, Technology and Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC) in India.

Indology

Indigenous Aryanism
Kak primarily advocates for an autochthonous origin of the Indo-Aryans from Punjab ("Indigenous Aryans" hypothesis) in contradiction of the scholarly consensus about the validity of Indo-Aryan migration theory; Kak reads the promotion of the latter theory to stem from racist tendencies. Scholars have noted his charges to be without any basis, lacking in any critical examination and primarily intended to promote Hindu supremacy.

Ancient astronomy in the Rig Veda
Kak has also claimed to find evidences of advanced computing and astronomy in the Rig Veda, in what Noretta Koertge deems to be a "social constructivist and postmodern attack on modern science". He insists that Vedic scientists discovered the physical laws by Yogic meditation and that it is a valid scientific method which can be only evaluated within the paradigm of Vedic assumptions and by those who have attained Yogic enlightenment. According to Meera Nanda, Kak believes in the superiority of Hindus over Muslims. In a 2004 critique, she summarized some of Kak's views on the matter: according to Kak, Hindus built "cultural empires" without military conquest, in contrast to Muslim "military empires" reliant on conquest.

Reviewed works

Archaeoastronomy – The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda
In the book, Kak proposes that the organization of hymns in the Rig Veda was dictated by an astronomic code concerning the courses of planets—length of solar year and lunar year, the distance between sun and earth et al. He then leverages the proposition to argue for the existence of a tradition of sophisticated observational astronomy as far back as 3000 or 4000 BCE. Kak also states that the construction of fire-altars were a coded representation of their astronomic knowledge and that the Vedic civilisation were aware of the speed of light. He prepared the section on archaeoastronomical sites in India for the thematic study on Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention prepared for UNESCO by the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Astronomical Union (IAU).

While Kak's interpretation has been included in recent overviews of astronomy in the Vedic period in India and the West, his chronology and astronomical calculations have been critiqued by several Indologists, such as Michael Witzel, and the noted historian of mathematics Kim Plofker.

Kim Plofker rejected Kak's probabilistic analysis of the presence of planetary period numbers in the Rigveda's hymn number combinations, showing that Kak's apparent matches have "no statistical significance whatever". Witzel has rejected his analysis to be suffering from several shortcomings and questioned his usage of arbitrary multiplication factors to lead to the results. Kak's method depends on the structure of the Rigveda as redacted by the shakhas in the late Brahmana period, well within the Indian Iron Age, when it was organized into mandalas ("books"). According to Witzel, this leaves Kak's approach attempt to date the text flawed, because this process of redaction took place long after the composition of the individual hymns during the samhita prose period. Witzel concludes that the entire issue boiled down to an over-interpretation of some facts that were internally inconsistent and more, to the creativeness of Kak who was pre-motivated to find evidence of astronomy at every verse of Rig Veda. Meera Nanda criticized the arbitrary and absurd nature of Kak's analysis at length and noted his method to be "breathtakingly ad hoc" which "reads like numerology." M A Mehendale, in a review over Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, criticized the book for its many shortcomings which did not stand the scrutiny of rigor and remarked it to contain inaccurate and misleading statements. S. G. Dani, a Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar prize recipient rejected Kak's hypothesis as unscientific and highly speculative with extremely vague details and whose results were statistically insignificant.

Klaus Klostermaier in his book A Survey of Hinduism praised Kak, for opening up an "entirely new approach to the study of Vedic cosmology from an empirical astronomical/mathematical viewpoint". Klostermaier's books have been heavily criticized for offering pro-Hindu views that have little currency in scholarship.

Kak's work influenced Raja Ram Mohan Roy's 1999 book Vedic Physics: Scientific Origin of Hinduism, which sought to prove that the RigVeda was coded per the laws of quantum and particle physics. Kak wrote the foreword to this book commending Roy's interpretations as a new way of looking at Vedic Physics. Meera Nanda, one of Kak's foremost critics, noted the result to be a "shameful demeaning of physics as well as the Vedas" and resembling "ravings of mad men".

In Search of the Cradle of Civilization
Kak co-authored In Search of the Cradle of Civilization with Georg Feuerstein and David Frawley, equating the Vedic Aryans with the Harappans and thus, participating in the political controversy around the "Indigenous Aryans" theory. The chronology espoused in this book is based on the archaeoastronomical readings obtained by correlating textual references and archaeological remains.

A review by Indian archaeologist M. K. Dhavalikar over Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute noted it to be a "beautifully printed" contribution that made a strong case for their indigenous theory against the supposed migratory hypotheses, but chose to remain silent on certain crucial aspects which need to be convincingly explained. Guy Beck showered glowing praises on the book in his review over the Yoga Journal. Klostermaier et al. praised the book. Prema Kurien noted that the book sought to distinguish expatriate Hindu Americans from other minority groups by demonstrating their superior racial and cultural ties with the Europeans.

Reception
Edwin Bryant calls him a well read and articulate spokesman for the Indigenous Aryan hypothesis and for other issues concerning ancient Indian science and culture.

Scholars have rejected his theories in entirety and his writings have been heavily criticized. Acute misrepresentation of facts coupled with wrong observations, extremely flexible and often self-contradictory analysis, cherry picking of data and forwarding of easily disprovable hypotheses have been located. His understanding of linguistics and subsequent assertion have been challenged. Romila Thapar calls Kak an amateur historian whose views on the Indus Civilization were fringe and who was part of a group that had more to do with waging political battles at the excuse of history. Michael Witzel noted him to be a revisionist and part of a "closely knit, self-adulatory group", members of which often write together and/or profusely copy from and cite one another, thus rendering the whole scene into a virtually indistinguishable hotchpotch. Garrett G. Fagan, a noted critic of pseudoarchaeology has concurred with Witzel. Meera Nanda writes about Kak being revered as a stalwart of Hindutva and one of the leading "intellectual Kshatriyas". Similar concerns of his being a Hindutva-based revisionist have been echoed by other writers. In a critique of faulty scientific reasoning in Hindutva ideologies and theories, Alan Sokal sarcastically criticized Kak as "one of the leading intellectual luminaries of the Hindu-nationalist diaspora". Koertge as well as Meera Nanda have remarked that Kak's work advances a Hindutva-based esoteric pseudoscience narrative that seeks to find relatively advanced abstract physics in Vedic texts and assign Indian indigenousness to the Sanskrit-speaking Indic Aryans in a bid to prove the superiority of the ancient Hindu civilization.

See also

Science wars
Quantum mysticism
Archaeoastronomy and Vedic chronology
Unary coding
Number theoretic Hilbert transform

References

Sources

External links

Publications on Physics and Computer Science in the ArXiv.org e-print archive
Deccan Chronicle Interview
Times of India Interview by Aarti Tikoo Singh

20th-century Indian philosophers
21st-century Indian philosophers
Indian computer scientists
Indian emigrants to the United States
Theoretical computer scientists
American computer scientists
Indian male poets
Living people
American people of Kashmiri descent
Louisiana State University faculty
Academics of Imperial College London
American Hindus
Modern cryptographers
20th-century Indian mathematicians
IIT Delhi alumni
Oklahoma State University faculty
People from Srinagar
Indigenous Aryanists
Academic staff of Jawaharlal Nehru University
Poets from Jammu and Kashmir
American male writers of Indian descent
Scientists from Jammu and Kashmir
National Institute of Technology, Srinagar alumni
Pseudohistorians
Recipients of the Padma Shri in science & engineering
Year of birth missing (living people)

Subhash Kak


Old Compton Street is a road that runs east–west through Soho in the West End of London, named after Henry Compton who raised funds for St Anne's Church in 1686. The area, particularly this street, became home to French Protestant refugees in 1681. Known for its diverse and artistic traditions, the street housed businesses, artists, philosophers, and was frequented by communists and proto-beatniks. The Algerian Coffee Stores, one of the oldest shops on the street, was established in 1887. Post World War II, the street became a center for modern and trad jazz. Since the 1970s, Old Compton Street has been a focal point for London's gay community, with numerous gay bars, restaurants, and specialty shops. The Admiral Duncan pub, a notable gay venue, was bombed in 1999 in a hate crime attack. The street is also home to the Prince Edward Theatre.

History

The street was named after Henry Compton who raised funds for a local parish church, eventually dedicated as St Anne's Church in 1686. The area in general and this street, in particular, became the home of Huguenots, French Protestant refugees who were given asylum in England by Charles II in 1681.

The street was known simply as Compton Street until being renamed to Old Compton Street in 1896. By the end of the eighteenth century and until that renaming, the east end of the street between Greek Street and Charing Cross Road (at the time, Crown Street) was known as Little Compton Street. A street sign for Little Compton Street remains on the wall of a utility tunnel that runs beneath Charing Cross Road, and is visible through a street grate on a traffic island.

By the end of the 18th century, fewer than ten of the houses were without shop fronts. An 1818 trade directory shows that the businesses occupying premises in the street included several watch and clock makers, a bookseller, a straw hat maker, a surgeon and accoucheur, an undertaker, a mathematical instrument maker, a bedding warehouse, several grocers and two "dealers in curiosities".

In the middle of the 19th century, while there were some workshops too, as well as restaurants and public houses, the ground floors of most of the houses were still used as shops. The number of people of overseas descent continued to grow and the street became a meeting place for exiles, particularly those from France: after the suppression of the Paris Commune, the poets Arthur Rimbaud and Paul Verlaine often frequented drinking haunts here. Richard Wagner also spent time living on the street: more generally it became a home for artists, philosophers, bohemians and composers.
In 1887, M. Siari, an Algerian, established the Algerian Coffee Stores at number 52, still known as among the world's best leading suppliers of tea and coffee, and remains up to now one of the oldest shops in the street.

The street's radical and artistic traditions continued after World War II, with it being frequented by communists, proto-beatniks and existentialists, and it became a centre for modern and trad jazz.

Between 1956 and 1970 the 2i's Coffee Bar was located at number 59. Many well-known 1960s pop musicians played in its cramped surroundings.

Current

Since the 1970s, the street has become a focal point for London's lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community. It features several gay bars, gay-friendly restaurants,  cafés and specialist gay shops. Whilst a pedestrianisation project proved unpopular with local traders and was reversed, the street is closed to vehicular traffic for the Soho Pride festival one weekend each year, usually in late summer.
The Prince Edward Theatre is located at the eastern end of the street. Until 2004 the long-running production of Mamma Mia!, a musical based upon the songs of ABBA, was showing at the theatre. When Mamma Mia! moved to larger premises in another part of the West End, a production of Mary Poppins moved in, but closed in 2008. It subsequently became home to Aladdin and in 2019 a revival of Mary Poppins. London producer and director Adam Spreadbury-Maher lives at the northern end of Old Compton Street.

In 1999, the Admiral Duncan pub, a well-known gay venue, was the site of a terrorist nail bomb attack which killed three people and injured over a dozen. A neo-nazi, David Copeland, was subsequently found guilty of the bombing (intended specifically to injure members of the gay community). Previously decorated in neutral colours, Admiral Duncan was re-opened following the attack with a flamboyant pink and purple exterior with a large rainbow flag flying outside as a symbol of gay pride.

Along the street are various other gay bars including Comptons of SOHO and G-A-Y. Also on the street are a variety of cafés, tea rooms (including the original cafe that gave its name to the Patisserie Valerie chain) and restaurants (including Bincho, a yakitori restaurant and Balans, (which, unusually for the UK, is open 24 hours a day), and specialist sex shops.

Additional adjoining streets
 Wardour Street
 Greek Street
 New Compton Street

References

External links

 Panoramic view at the junction with Dean Street
 Discovering Old Compton Street and New Compton Street
 Compton Street, Old and New
 CloneZone, London's oldest Gay sex shop

Gay villages in England
Streets in the City of Westminster
Shopping streets in London
LGBT culture in London
Streets in Soho

Old Compton Street