Cahir mac Art Kavanagh, "The MacMurrough" and King of Leinster, also Lord of St. Molyns, and baron of Ballyann (died 1554), was an Irish magnate of the Tudor period.

Biography
Cahir was the eldest son of Art Kavanagh of St. Molyns (Teach Molyns), and chief of his sept. He took part in the rebellion of the Leinster Geraldines, but submitted to Lord Leonard Grey in 1538. He renewed his submission to Sir Anthony St. Leger in November 1540, and preferred a request to be allowed to hold his land in feudal tenure. He was anxious, he declared, to imitate his ancestor, Diarmait Mac Murchada, king of Leinster, who had introduced the English into Ireland, and by adopting English customs to assist in the re-establishment of the English authority in the island.

Though not a baron of parliament, he was allowed to sit in the Parliament of Ireland held by St. Leger in Dublin in 1541, and in 1543 he obtained a grant of the lordship of St. Molyns to himself and his heirs, 'without any division or partition to be made therein between his kinsmen', on condition of building himself a house or mansion at Pollmounty, of maintaining the accustomed fairs there, and of exercising a vigilant watch over the pass. In 1544 he furnished nineteen kern (soldiers), under the command of Captain Edmond Mac Cahir Kavanagh, to the Irish contingent employed at the siege of Boulogne; and in the following year he defeated his rival, Gerald Mac Cahir Kavanagh, with great slaughter, in the neighbourhood of Hacketstown.

His assumption of the title of Mac Murrough aroused the suspicion of Sir Edward Bellingham, which was further increased by his refusal, 'sticking to the Brehon law of restitution', to hang one of his followers for horse-stealing. His explanations were, however, deemed sufficient, and the Lord Deputy expressed himself satisfied with his 'good conformity and constancy in the king's service'.

In 1550 he surprised the castle of Ferns, and Sir James Croft, regarding it as an act of rebellion, invaded his country. He acknowledged his offence, and at a great council held in Dublin on 4 November publicly renounced his title of Mac Murrough. His possessions were considerably restricted, and he obtained permission to make his explanations in person to Edward VI. On 8 February 1553–4, he was created baron of Ballyann for life, but died shortly afterwards.

He married Cecilia, daughter of Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare, and had six sons, viz.: Brian, who married a daughter of Hugh Mac Shane O'Byrne; Tirrelagh, who married a sister of Robert Browne of Mulrankan, in the barony of Bargy, Co. Wexford, whose tragic fate is narrated in Holinshed; Crean, Moriertagh, Art, and Dermot, who for his good and faithful services was, on 18 March 1555, appointed tanist to the chieftaincy of the clan. Cahir Mac Art Caomhánach is an interesting figure in Irish history as the founder of an estate which, notwithstanding the vicissitudes of land tenure in Ireland, still remains in the possession of his lineal descendants.

References

Attribution

Year of birth unknown
1554 deaths
16th-century Irish monarchs
MacMorrough Kavanagh dynasty
People from County Wexford
People from County Laois
Ballyann, Cahir mac Art Kavanagh, Baron of
Peers of Ireland created by Mary I

Cahir mac Art Kavanagh


The London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR) B2 class was a class of small 4-4-0 steam locomotives intended for express passenger work on the LB&SCR London to Portsmouth line.  They were designed by R. J. Billinton and built at Brighton works from 1895 to 1897.  They proved to be reliable locomotives but barely adequate for the heaviest trains and acquired the nickname Grasshoppers.  As a result the B3 class was developed from the B2, and the B2X class was later rebuilt from these locomotives with larger boilers.

History
When R. J. Billinton took over as chief mechanical engineer of the LB&SCR in 1890, following the sudden death of William Stroudley, the London to Brighton trains were adequately served by Stroudley's Gladstone class but the lighter Portsmouth expresses were beginning to struggle behind his G class singles. Billinton therefore designed a small 4-4-0, specifically for these services. However, during the course of 1892-1893 the London-to-Brighton trains began to increase in weight, and the board of governors of the railway agreed to invest money in larger turntables and so Billinton was able to enlarge his design further to make them more generally useful.

Three locomotives appeared in 1895, with a further eight in 1896 and fourteen in 1897. They were named after famous politicians, bankers and railway engineers. The new design was clearly influenced by the locomotives of Samuel Waite Johnson on the Midland Railway, for whom Billinton had previously worked, and were the first LB&SCR locomotives to have leading bogie wheels. It incorporated Billinton's C2 class boiler. They proved to be adequate for the lightly loaded Portsmouth express trains but barely so for heavier trains. They also tended to ride unevenly and consequently acquired the nickname of grasshoppers by their crews.

B3 and B2X classes
As a result of the complaints about the use of the class on the Brighton line, Billinton fitted the last locomotive in the class No. 213 Bessemer, with a larger boiler when new, which thereafter became known as the B3  class. This caused a slight improvement in performance but not one significant enough to alter the entire class at that time. However, once the original boilers were worn out, it became more of an economic proposition to do so. Thus between October 1907 and 1910, Billinton's successor Douglas Earle Marsh rebuilt the entire class (including 213 Bessemer) with the improved boiler used on his C3 class, thereby creating the B2X class.

The rebuilt locomotives were a significant improvement in both looks and performance and were used on the heaviest expresses to Portsmouth and Hastings and semi-fast trains on the Brighton line.

Post-grouping

All 25 locomotives were still in regular use in December 1922, at the grouping of the railways of southern England to form the Southern Railway. The class continued to find useful work on secondary passenger services between London and the south coast until 1929, when the impending electrification of the Brighton line began to make them redundant. They were thus all withdrawn between June 1929 and March 1933, and none have survived in preservation.

Accidents and incidents
On 9 July 1928, B2X locomotive No. B210 was in a sidelong collision with an electric multiple unit at  due to the driver misreading signals. Two people were killed and nine were injured, six seriously.

Locomotive summary

References

4-4-0 locomotives
B2
Railway locomotives introduced in 1895
Scrapped locomotives
Standard gauge steam locomotives of Great Britain

LB&SCR B2 class


A rain gauge is an instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to measure  liquid precipitation (rain) in a certain amount of time. It is usually measured in millimetres and inches. Rain gauge is a meteorological instrument for determining the depth of precipitation (usually in mm) that occurs over a unit area (usually one metre square) and thus measuring rainfall amount. One millimetre of measured precipitation is the equivalent to one litre of rainfall per metre square.

Usually a tapering funnel of [mercury] or polyester of standard dimension allows the rain water to collect in an enclosed bottle or cylinder for subsequent measurement. The gauge is set in open ground with the funnel rim up to 30 cm above the ground surface. Some gauges are calibrated to allow the amount of rainfall to be read directly; with others it must be calculated from the depth of water in the container and the dimensions of the funnel.

The second type of rain gauge is the autographic gauge which can be either of the tilting type or the tipping type. The recording chart on an autographic rain gauge is mounted on a drum which is driven by clockwork and typically rotates round a vertical axis once per day. For a tilting-siphon rain gauge, the rainwater in a collector displaces a float so that a marking pen attached to the float makes a continuous trace on the paper. The two buckets in a tipping-bucket rain gauge rest on a pivot so that when one bucket has received 0.2 (or 0.5 mm) of rain it tips by gravity, empties the rainwater and allows the other bucket to start collection. During the tip, an electrical switch is closed and triggers a nearby autographic recorder to register each 'tilt', thus giving a fairly continuous record of precipitation and, in a more sophisticated form, even rainfall intensity. Rain gauges must be sited in as representative a location as possible, but the choice of location is difficult, since many precipitation events are highly aggregate. King Sejong the Great was the man who introduced rain gauge to the world. There are advantages and disadvantages of this instrument.

Measuring tools

Rain gauge


Abdiel Colberg (born December 20, 1957) is a Puerto Rican television producer and movie director. Among the movies which he directed and co-wrote is Los Díaz de Doris (1999), a drama starring Cordelia González, Braulio Castillo, Jr., Raul Davila and Alba Raquel Barros.

Early years
Colberg (birth name: Abdiel Colberg Birriel) was born in the town of Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. He began his career in 1975, as a coordinator for a local television program called Sábado de Estrellas (Saturday of Stars). In 1980, he went to work for Badillo/Compton, a public relations agency, where he produced and directed television commercials for companies such as Pepsi-Cola, Banco Popular de Puerto Rico, Procter & Gamble, Nabisco and many others.

Movie director

1987 marked Colberg's film directing debut, with the musical Sueño de Navidad (Christmas Dream) which was presented at San Juan's Centro de Bellas Artes for two weeks. Guede Films recruited his services in 1989, where he produced commercials for TLD, Kentucky Fried Chicken and Pizza Hut. In 1990, he produced the musical video musical Un amor como el mío (A love like mine) for Puerto Rican singer Lunna. It was during this era that Colberg  directed 26 chapters of the local television comedy "No hay cama pa' tanta gente" which was transmitted through WIPR, Canal 6 in Puerto Rico. In 1996, the Government of Puerto Rico required his services for the production of "Terremoto en Puerto Rico" (Earthquake in Puerto Rico) a documentary which was distributed by Blockbuster Inc. In 1995, he directed and produced "Milagro en Yauco" (A miracle in Yauco), a Christmas story  which was transmitted via Telemundo.

Amongst the movies he directed and co-wrote is Los Díaz de Doris (1999), a drama starring Cordelia González, Braulio Castillo, Jr., Raul Davila and Alba Raquel Barros. The drama deals with the problems that a divorced mother of three has to face in her daily life. Colberg also produced musical videos for the group LimiT XXI, Melina León and for Luis Fonsi. In 2001, Colberg directed Casos Inesperados, a series which treats social themes and which was broadcast locally by WAPA TV.

On March 18, 2010 Colberg released the film Aventura Verde (Green Adventure), which he created and co-produced with Puerto Rican actor Junior Alvarez. The story is about five children from three different families and the conflicts between them and their parents. It includes the emergence of magical characters in a mysterious forest during the night. Colberg's projects under development include a movie based on the life of Puerto Rican actor Braulio Castillo.

Films
The list of films by Colberg include:

Milagro en Yauco (1995)
Los Díaz de Doris (1999–2000)
Fire in the Soul (2002–2003)
Aventura Verde (2010)

See also

List of Puerto Ricans

Notes

References

External links

Living people
1957 births
Puerto Rican dramatists and playwrights
Puerto Rican male writers
People from Mayagüez, Puerto Rico

Abdiel Colberg


Ravindra Kalakshetra is a cultural centre in Bangalore which provides a home for musical and theatrical performances. Located in heart of Bangalore city, it was built to commemorate the birth centenary of Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. Many well known theatre and film personalities like Umashree, Mukhyamantri Chandru, T. S. Nagabharana, Master Hirannaiah, C. R. Simha, T. N. Seetharam, and Prakash Rai among others have performed at Kalashektra.

History
In 1959, a high-level committee was formed to build the Kalakshetra under the chairmanship of then chief minister B. D. Jatti, with cultural stalwarts like Shivaram Karanth, Mallikarjuna Mansur, Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar, T. Chowdaiah and Vimala Rangachar as members. The auditorium was to commemorate the birth centenary of the great poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. They began to collect funds towards the purpose. Famous personalities like Sivaji Ganesan, a popular Tamil cine actor and others came forward to contribute for the construction of the Kalakshetra. The foundation stone for the Kalakshetra was laid on 16 September 1960. It was designed by architect Charles Wilson and chief engineer BR Manikyam. The Kalakshetra was eventually inaugurated on 9 March 1963 by Dr Humayun Kabir, the then Union Minister for Education of Karnataka.

Facilities
The Kalakshetra has a modern and technically developed auditorium with 900-seat capacity, including 400 in balcony, lighting systems, an acoustics and many other facilities. In the entrance stands a statue of the poet in a glass showcase that greets the audience visiting the kalakshetra. Audio system, imported from France,  includes special front speakers for VIP members in the front row and monitor speakers for the performers on the stage. The entire theatre is equipped with computerized lighting system, with around 120 lights. It also has proper communication system between backstage and control system using Production Intercom Communication System. It also has an open air theatre called 'Samsa Bayalu Rangamandira', named after famous Kannada playwright Samsa.

References

Theatrical organisations in India
Buildings and structures in Bangalore
Culture of Bangalore
Theatres in India

Website: http://kalakshetra1.kannadasiri.co.in/

Ravindra Kalakshetra


The All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (transl. All India Anna Dravidian Progressive Federation; abbr. AIADMK) is an Indian political party. The party has a large amount of influence in the state of Tamil Nadu and union territory of Puducherry. It is a Dravidian party. The party was founded by former chief minister of Tamil Nadu M. G. Ramachandran. Edappadi K. Palaniswami is the current General Secretary of the Party.

Elections
The party has won a seven-time majority in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly. It is the most successful political outfit in the state's history. It is currently the main opposition party in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly. It is also a part of the India-ruling National Democratic Alliance.

Location
The headquarters of the party is called Puratchi Thalaivar M.G.R. Maaligai. It is located at Avvai Shanmugam Salai, Royapettah, Chennai. The building was givento the party in 1986 by the wife of Ramachandran,   V. N. Janaki Ramachandran. She was a former chief minister of Tamil Nadu and the second president of the party.

History
M. G. Ramachandran (M.G.R.) founded the party at Madurai on 17 October 1972. It was created as a seperate faction of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. This was done after M. Karunanidhi forcted Ramachandran to leave the party for asking for accounts as party treasurer.  From 9 February 1989 to 5 December 2016, AIADMK was led by former chief minister of Tamil Nadu J. Jayalalithaa. She was the general secretary of the party. Jayalathaa was known as the "Mother of AIADMK" . She was very well liked by the people of Tamil  until her death in 2016.

Puducherry
Political parties in Tamil Nadu


Arthur Henry "Harry" Kingscott (2 March 1890 – 17 November 1956) was the referee of the 1931 FA Cup Final and son of Arthur Kingscott, twice a Cup Final referee himself and FA Treasurer at the time of his son's appointment.

Harry Kingscott was an international referee taking charge of the Wales v Scotland Home International played at Wrexham in 1927 as well as the return fixture the following year in Glasgow.

He was on the Football League list from 1921 until 1933.

From "The Football Who's Who"  edited by Frank Johnston (1935):
A. H. Kingscott needs no introduction to Derbyshire football fans. In fact, he needs no introduction to football followers in any part of the British Isles, for on April 25, 1931, Mr Kingscott was in charge of the FA Cup Final at Wembley. Thus, in realising the ambition which every referee must cherish,Mr Kingscott created a remarkable record - he had followed right in his father's footsteps as a Cup Final referee. Mr A. G. Kingscott had held the reins in 1900 and 1901. "AH", a Long Eaton man, born and bred, was a keen footballer himself, and played for 15 years, mainly with Sawley United and the 7th Hussars (in India) before embarking on his career as referee. In 1920, he was placed on the linesmen's list of the Football League and acted as linesman at the FA Cup Final of 1925. His big chance came when he was acting as linesman in the match, Sheffield Wednesday v. Bristol City. Just before half-time the referee became too ill to continue. Mr. Kingscott stepped into the breach and conducted the game in such fine style that shortly afterwards his name appeared on the referees' list. Apart from the Cup Final of 1931, the following games stand out among the high spots of his brilliant career: two FA Cup semi-finals; Holland v. Uruguay; Spain v. Italy; France v. Spain; Belgium v. Holland (twice) and the Amateur Cup Final of 1923.

References
      The Football Who's Who  -  edited by Frank Johnston (Associated Sporting Press Ltd) 1935.

1890 births
1956 deaths
People from Long Eaton
Sportspeople from Derbyshire
English football referees
FA Cup final referees

Harry Kingscott


Soul music is a kind of music that mixes rhythm and blues, gospel music and pop music. It started in the 1960s in the United States. Features of Soul Music are call and response, hand claps, body movement and a tense vocal sound.

Ray Charles is said to be inventor of Soul with his song "I Got a Woman".
Soul is energetic music with main subjects of lyrics being love, dance and life.
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame states that soul is "music that arose out of the black experience in America through the transmutation of gospel and rhythm & blues into a form of funky, secular testifying."
Recently, singers like Christina Aguilera, Amy Winehouse and Adele are known as Blue Eyed Soul singers.
In some variations of soul brass and saxophones are used a lot.

Notable artists
Ray Charles
James Brown
Wilson Picket
Marvin Gaye
Smokey Robinson
Aretha Franklin
Major Lance

Related pages
Funk
R&B
Reggae
Hip Hop

References

Music genres

Soul music


WRID-LD (RF channel 36) is a low-power television station in Richmond, Virginia, United States. Owned by Gray Television, it serves as a translating repeater of the main channels of its two sister stations—NBC affiliate WWBT (channel 12) and Ashland-licensed CW affiliate WUPV (channel 65). WRID-LD's transmitter is located behind Gray's Richmond studio on Midlothian Turnpike (US 60) in Richmond, sharing the same tower with WWBT (WUPV transmits from west of Enfield, northeast of Richmond).

As an artifact of its former ownership, the station continues to carry Daystar on its virtual channel of 48; WWBT and WUPV otherwise identify as alternative digital subchannels of their own channel positions using WRID-LD's spectrum.

History

Early history
The station signed on June 2, 1992 as W48BI, owned by VVILPTV, Inc. Because of a lack of stations in the market after WUPV, then known as WAWB, dropped The WB for UPN in 1998, it was thought that W48BI was in position to become the market's WB affiliate after the empty channel 19 allocation originally intended for Richmond was moved to Charlottesville, but the network instead shifted to WWBT's overnight hours from 1999 until 2006 out of fear of lack of cable carriage for their programming, even in a non-prime time period, and providers resistant to carrying the network via its cable-only WB 100+ service. Fox affiliate WRLH-TV (channel 35) carried select Kids' WB programs from 1998 to 2001. W48BI continued to program minor networks and brokered local programming until 2003, when it took an affiliation with ShopNBC.

Daystar ownership
In 2004, the station was purchased by Daystar's commercial station arm, Word of God Fellowship, changing their call letters to WRID-LP (later WRID-LD), carrying the national network feed without any local deviation outside required station identification.

Gray ownership
On August 27, 2021, Gray Television filed to purchase WRID-LD from Daystar for $630,000. The sale was completed on January 4, 2022. It soon became a UHF repeater of the main channels of WWBT and WUPV within the inner ring of the Richmond market; both stations broadcast on VHF and are currently unable to shift to the UHF band. As with all Daystar station sales to other broadcasters, Daystar will retain control of one WRID-LD subchannel indefinitely to continue serving as the market's outlet for their network.

Technical information

Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:

Analog-to-digital transition
On January 12, 2007, the FCC granted Word of God Fellowship's request for permission to flash-cut to a digital transmitter on channel 51, extending the request several times with a transfer to channel 48 until it went on the air on November 8, 2014, though the FCC did not issue a final digital license for the station until December 5, 2016.

References

RID-LD
Television channels and stations established in 1998
1998 establishments in Virginia
NBC network affiliates
Daystar Television Network affiliates
The CW affiliates
RID-LD
Gray Television

WRID-LD


The Great Western and Great Central Joint Railway was a railway built and operated jointly by the Great Western Railway (GWR) and Great Central Railway (GCR) between Northolt (in north west London) and Ashendon Junction (west of Aylesbury). It was laid out as a trunk route with gentle curves and gradients and spacious track layouts. The two companies each needed approach railways at both ends of the line to connect their respective systems; these were built as part of a single project.

The joint line opened in 1905 and gave the GCR a better route than previously for its London Extension from Nottingham and Leicester. When the GWR completed its "Bicester Cut-off", combined with the Joint Line itself the GWR had a much shorter and better route for its Birmingham and Birkenhead traffic.

Most of the GCR's London Extension was closed in 1966 but the Joint Line, the GCR approach through Wembley and the GWR Bicester Cut-off are still in use as a secondary main line from London to Birmingham, in intensive use by Chiltern Railways.

Before the Joint Line
By the final decade of the nineteenth century, the Great Western Railway had consolidated its network, and according to one point of view, had failed to develop its business further. It had acquired the epithet "the Great Way Round", as many of its principal main lines took a circuitous route to the destination. This was true of the West of England and South Wales routes, and the line from London to Birmingham and Chester took a roundabout alignment by way of Didcot and Oxford.

An alternative route from London to Oxford had been opened, by way of Maidenhead, High Wycombe, Princes Risborough and Thame, but this had been engineered as a rural branch line and was incapable of providing trunk route facilities. The GWR obtained parliamentary powers in 1897 for the Wycombe and Acton line: this was to provide a much more direct route to High Wycombe and on to Thame; but this was nevertheless designed as a rural branch rather than a future trunk railway route.

At the same time the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway had set about transforming itself from a northern industrial concern into a trunk line, and it planned to reach London. Sir Edward Watkin was the chairman of the MS&LR and also of the Metropolitan Railway, serving areas north and west of London, and he planned to join these lines. The MS&LR obtained parliamentary powers for the line, from the southern end of its network at Annesley (near Mansfield) to Quainton Road, in 1893.

In addition, there was a two-mile section of independent route at the London end, from Canfield Place (near the present-day Finchley Road station) to a new terminus at Marylebone station, and south of Neasden the Metropolitan Railway provided a pair of tracks exclusively for the MS&LR trains. The line opened in 1899; but the intermediate 40 miles from Quainton Road was over the Metropolitan Railway, already a busy railway in its own right.

Unfortunately Watkin's health failed and he resigned on 19 May 1894. His successors as the prime movers were William Pollitt (MS&LR) and John Bell (Metropolitan) and their personal relationship was not cordial. From that time relations between the MS&LR and the Metropolitan Railway cooled, and became hostile and obstructive. Excessive charges and an unrealistic proposal for working mineral traffic from Baker Street to the London, Chatham and Dover Railway started the downward trajectory of the relationship.

The Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway changed its name to the Great Central Railway from 1 August 1897.

The Metropolitan Railway had reached Aylesbury in 1892 and had taken over the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway in 1891, thereby gaining a route between Aylesbury and Verney Junction via Quainton Road. However, the Great Western Railway had sponsored the Wycombe Railway, which reached Aylesbury in 1863 with its branch from Princes Risborough. In 1898 the GCR wished to send coal trains to London over the GWR Aylesbury to Princes Risborough line, and on 30 July 1898 the first such train approached Aylesbury. This was one day earlier than the agreed start date. John Bell, the General Manager of the Metropolitan Railway and William Pollitt was General Manager of the MS&LR. Bell personally went to Quainton Road and took charge, blocking the onward journey of the train. In fact he even refused to allow the engine to draw forward to run round its train; propelling a long mineral train back wrong line was out of the question, and a major disruption occurred. The mineral traffic started the following day. He had earlier refused to allow these trains to run the relatively short distance from Quainton Road to Aylesbury until the GCR London Extension was open throughout its length. This obstruction for the sake of one day was the clearest indication that the Metropolitan Railway was not going to be a co-operative partner to the GCR. This was compounded by Bell's absolute refusal to allow mineral traffic to be worked to the GWR at Aylesbury, not to destinations south of London over its own system.

As the Great Central took stock of the Metropolitan Railway's attitude, it also re-assessed the practicality of operating a trunk main line with heavy mineral traffic as well as express passenger trains over the tracks of the Metropolitan Railway from Aylesbury southwards. As well as the congestion of a suburban passenger operation, the curvature and gradients of the Metropolitan line were unfavourable, and the GCR began to consider alternatives.

The Great Central Railway and the Great Western Railway had already collaborated successfully in the Banbury area and the GCR started to think of running some of its London traffic over the GWR via Oxford, or alternatively over the GWR Aylesbury branch to Princes Risborough and High Wycombe. The idea was discussed between the two companies, and a bold scheme for a new railway was developed, agreement being reached in September 1898. This would be constructed and operated by a joint committee representing the GWR and GCR, and some existing GWR route and powers for a proposed route would be taken over. A parliamentary bill was submitted and on 1 August 1899 the Great Western and Great Central Railways Joint Committee was incorporated by Act of Parliament, with the necessary powers of construction and operation.

Although the rupture between the Great Central and the Metropolitan Railway was of the most violent nature, wiser counsel later prevailed: the GCR needed at the least to work over the Metropolitan line until the construction of the new route, and preferably permanently as an alternative. The Metropolitan Railway faced losing a substantial income from running powers charges, and it had already expended considerable sums on widening its line for the GCR. When tempers cooled, a co-operative relationship later resumed.

Moreover, in 1901 the two personal adversaries each retired; Sam Fay became General Manager of the Great Central and Colonel J. J. Mellor took over at Baker Street.

The Joint Line: planning
The scope of the Joint Line was ambitious, and it was coupled with connecting railways for the GWR and GCR separately. The southern end of the Joint Line proper would be at Northolt Junction. The GWR would build the 7-mile section of the Wycombe and Acton line from Old Oak Common West Junction on the Paddington to Reading main line, near Acton, to Northolt Junction.

The GCR would build a line  miles long from Neasden Junction on its planned new route from Marylebone (at this point independent of the Metropolitan Railway, so permitting free access to the London terminus.) It was authorised by Parliament in 1898. The GCR line from Neasden to Northolt was let to a contractor in the value of £168,000 but a serious overrun in costs resulted in this section costing over £300,000.

From Northolt Junction the Joint Line would take over the relevant part of the powers of the (unbuilt) Wycombe and Acton line, and then take over the part of the GWR line (former Wycombe Railway) from there to Princes Risborough, taking the opportunity to improve the alignment for main line running and double the track. The contract for the line from Northolt to High Wycombe was valued at £580,000.

From Princes Risborough northwards there would be a new route to Grendon Underwood, on the GCR new "London Extension" route; this junction was a few miles north of Quainton Road, so that reliance on the Metropolitan Railway would be avoided.

The GWR had originally intended to use the Thame route to reach Oxford from Princes Risborough by upgrading the former Wycombe Railway route. This was however considered a roundabout route and the GWR now decided to build a  mile direct link from further north on the GCR part of the new line to Banbury. A junction was to be made at Ashendon, between Princes Risborough and Grendon Underwood, and this GWR section of line would join the Oxford to Banbury line at a new junction at Aynho, not far south of Banbury. Under this revision, the actual joint section of the new construction was from Northolt Junction to Ashendon Junction, a distance of 34 miles, but the scheme involved a total of  miles of new double track: the last major new railway construction in Great Britain until the Channel Tunnel Rail Link of 2003.

Between Saunderton and Princes Risborough, the Wycombe Railway single line descended steeply and had a tight curve, and the new down line was to be deviated from it somewhat to ease the gradient to a maximum of 1 in 87 and to ease the curve. The abandoned formation of the original Wycombe Railway may still be detected. Even 1 in 87 was considered to be too steep an uphill gradient for heavily laden freight trains heading for London, so the new up line was planned to take a slightly different alignment with a deep cutting and a short tunnel, enabling a maximum rising gradient of 1 in 167.

In addition a new short line was to be built by the GWR between Ealing on the Reading main line and Greenford on the Northolt line.

Construction and opening
The single track from High Wycombe to Princes Risborough was taken over on 1 August 1899. Construction of the Joint Line and its approach routes was started in 1901, under the management of the Great Western Railway. R C Sikes was the resident engineer.

The easternmost part of the GWR line forming a circuit from Old Oak Common through Park Royal and then curving to West Ealing, was opened on 15 June 1903, enabling a passenger service to Park Royal for the Royal Agricultural Show there. The line was closed again west of Park Royal from 10 August because of concerns about the stability of embankments after exceptionally heavy rainfall. The line opened again on 1 May 1904, and in October 1904 the short extension from Greenford East Junction to Greenford station was opened.

The following year, on 20 November 1905 the whole line between Greenford and Grendon Underwood was opened for goods trains. At the same time the Neasden to Northolt GCR section was opened. On 1 March 1906 the latter section was opened for passenger trains in the form of railmotors. The first  miles from Neasden were quadruple track; the remainder was double line. There were stations at Wembley Hill (on the four track section) and at Sudbury & Harrow Road railway station and at South Harrow; at the latter two places passenger loops were provided for the platforms, with the through lines in the centre.

The GCR opened a short section from Neasden to South Harrow (later renamed Sudbury Hill (Harrow) from 1 March 1906. The Chalfont Viaduct was constructed 1902–1906 to cross the River Misbourne near Gerrards Cross. Passenger opening of the entire Joint Line took place on 2 April 1906; on that date stations were opened (or re-opened) at Ruislip & Ickenham, Denham, Gerrard's Cross, Beaconsfield, High Wycombe, Saunderton, Princes Risborough and Haddenham. All of the stations were laid out in lavish style, with the buildings in typical GWR designs. Greenford, Denham, Gerrard's Cross and Beaconsfield had passenger loops for the platforms.

The Ashendon Junction to Grendon Underwood section, being Great Central territory, was designed in that company's style, which included the signalbox at Ashendon Junction. Intermediate stations on the section were Wotton and Akeman Street; these were also lavish structures. Goods facilities on the line were relatively limited, except at High Wycombe, in recognition of the fact that local goods traffic was unlikely to develop vigorously. The early train service was dominated by GWR trains from Paddington to Oxford and Aylesbury and GCR long distance expresses and local stopping trains.

The Bicester cut-off
An essential part of the GWR intentions was the  mile connection between Ashendon Junction and Aynho Junction, referred to as the Bicester Cut-off. Powers were obtained for the construction in 1905. The topography of the area was unfavourable to railway routing and a tunnel (Ardley Tunnel) of 1147 yards and two large viaducts were required. Grade-separated junctions were provided at each end of the line, at Ashendon and Aynho Junctions.

The Bicester Cut-off was opened for goods traffic on 4 April 1910 and to passengers on 1 July 1910. The new route as between London and Birmingham was  miles shorter than the former route via Oxford, and a shortening of the fastest journey time of 20 minutes (from 140 to 120 minutes) was achieved; most of the through trains were immediately transferred to the new route.

There were stations at Brill & Ludgershall, Blackthorn, Bicester and Ardley and a halt at Aynho Park. Brill, Bicester and Ardley stations had the four track layout with platform loop lines. Bicester was the only place with a substantial goods facility.

Status of the Joint Line
Jenkins makes clear the status of the Joint Line:
The G.W. & G. C. was never a "Joint Railway" in the sense that the M. & G. N. Jt. or Somerset & Dorset lines were joint: it owned no engines or rolling stock of its own, and was not a system in its own right (a railway from Northolt to Ashendon would be completely useless without its vital links to the parent companies.)

The ownership of the completed construction was:
 Old Oak Common West Junction to Northolt Junction: 7 miles; GWR
Greenford to West Ealing:  miles; GWR
 Neasden Junction to Northolt Junction:  miles; GCR;
 Northolt Junction to Ashendon Junction: 34 miles; GWR and GCR jointly;
 Ashendon Junction to Grendon Underwood Junction:  miles; GCR; this had originally been intended to be part of the joint line, but was transferred from the Joint Committee to the GCR by Act of 1907;
 Ashendon Junction to Aynho Junction:  miles; GWR.

The existing Aylesbury branch of the Wycombe Railway was taken into the control of the Joint Committee. It was 7 miles 18 chains in length. From 1907 Aylesbury station was under the joint control of two joint committees, the GW & GC Joint Committee and the Great Central and Metropolitan Railways Joint Committee.

Suburban development
At the time of opening of the line, much of the route passed through undeveloped rural terrain. The companies anticipated the development of new suburban housing, as had happened on the Metropolitan Railway main line, although this proved slower to take place than was hoped.

New stations were opened progressively to encourage business: Old Oak Lane Halt in 1906; Northolt Halt in 1907; Brentham Halt in 1911; Denham Golf Club Platform in 1912; Beaconsfield Golf Links Platform in 1915.

Steam railmotors were used on the London end of the line from 1903, giving the potential for frequent low-cost local passenger train operation.
In 1907 a branch line was opened by the GWR from Denham to Uxbridge; the work cost £87,459. The trains ran from Gerrards Cross, starting on 24 April; goods traffic started on 11 May 1914. The line was originally intended to connect through to the Vine Street station, terminus of the earlier Uxbridge branch from West Drayton. Although some land for the connection was acquired, the through section was never built, and the branch remained a dead end; it was two miles in length and double track until 1922, when it as reduced to single line.

In 1912 the GCR purchased a rail-car using petrol-electric traction. It was a small bogie vehicle equipped with a 90 hp six-cylinder petrol engine driving a 55 KW multi-polar dynamo. Maximum speed was 40 m.p.h. on the level. The rest of the car consisted of two passenger saloons accommodating between them 50 passengers on rattan covered reversible seats; hanging straps were also provided for standing passengers. A middle entrance gave access to both compartments.

Fay told the press that 'My view is that we shall see oil electric cars running on the railways and supplanting ordinary steam engines to a very great extent.' On 28 March 1912 it ran a trial trip from Marylebone to South Harrow and back, when it attained 50 m.p.h. For a period it remained in the London area, sometimes hauling an ancient ex-MS&L six-wheeled composite as a trailer, but it was unsuccessful and its last days were spent on the Great Central & North Stafford joint line in the mid-1930s.

World War I to nationalisation (1918 to 1948)
After World War I the anticipated suburban development took effect more vigorously, and in due course Harefield and Ruislip Gardens stations were opened.

On 15 February 1918 a serious slip became apparent behind the massive retaining wall west of Wembley Hill station. On 18 February all four tracks had to be closed while remedial work was undertaken; through trains were diverted to Paddington. In a few minutes a 200 yard section of the wall had moved bodily forward by more than twenty feet. Two temporary tracks were got open in seven days; the final cost of restoration was over £84,000.

On 18 July 1918 a serious slip took place at Wembley Hill, on the GCR approach line from Neasden. The location had originally been intended to run in tunnel, but a very deep cutting (70 feet) was substituted. The line was closed for two weeks while remedial work was carried out; GCR passenger services ran to Paddington during the closure.

In 1923 the main line railways were "grouped" into one or other of four new large railway companies; the Great Central Railway was a constituent of the new London and North Eastern Railway; the Great Western Railway was restructured with the addition of some South Wales concerns, but the new company retained the Great Western Railway name. For the time being the London "Underground" network was not treated in this way, but in 1933 the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, taking over the Metropolitan Railway and other London Underground lines.

The LPTB in collaboration with the LNER and GWR examined ways in which the now-heavy suburban business in Middlesex might be handled, and a scheme was formulated which became part of the 1935 – 1940 New Works Programme; the GWR would build new electrified tracks from North Acton, on the Ealing and Shepherds Bush line, running alongside the Joint Line as far as Denham. The authorising Act was secured in 1936 and by the outbreak of World War II the new track was ready as far as Greenford. Work was suspended during the war, and in fact the new track was lifted and used for emergency purposes elsewhere.

After the war the scheme was resumed, but only as far as West Ruislip, opening throughout on 21 November 1948. Northolt station was transferred to LT control (the remainder being transferred to LT in 1967); at Greenford a new bay platform was provided between the LT platforms for the Ealing Broadway steam service, freeing up the through platforms at Greenford for trains towards High Wycombe.
During the 1930s the majority of the through express services were operated by the GWR; the route formed its main line to Birmingham and Birkenhead. The GCR express operation was rather reduced, concentrating on the route via Amersham; the GCR operated most of the local suburban services. About 25 goods trains ran each way daily, broadly shared between the two companies.

The GWR Denham to Uxbridge branch had never fulfilled its potential, and the passenger service was discontinued in 1939.

During World War II the line experienced heavy goods traffic in common with many other routes; the well laid out line with long straight loops and other ample facilities served well in the emergency, and in contrast to many other routes, relatively little enhancement of the infrastructure was necessary to cope.

In 1948 the main line railways of Great Britain were taken into public ownership, under British Railways. The route was allocated to the Western Region, but the Marylebone train services were operated by the Eastern Region, perpetuating an element of the "joint" status of the line.

Under British Railways: from 1948
The allocation of the Marylebone services to the Eastern Region did not last long, and repeated changes of management structure took place. The trunk line status of the Great Central Railway London extension was viewed as an unnecessary duplication, and many of the best express passenger trains were transferred away from the route. The Master Cutler, a prime Sheffield express was moved to the Kings Cross route in 1958 (and later still to the Midland main line).

On the other hand, the Western Region trains from Paddington to Birmingham and beyond continued, and the majority of the suburban trains on the route ran to Marylebone. The primacy of steam ceased when all the Marylebone local trains were operated by diesel multiple units from June 1962, and the Birmingham main line trains were progressively transferred to diesel haulage from the same time.

In the 1960s the loss of business on the railways was exercising government, and the Beeching Report resulted in closure of the Great Central London Extension north of Quainton Road on 3 September 1966. The Denham to Uxbridge branch had also declined substantially as a goods line since 1939 and was closed completely in the 1960s.
The former LNWR route from Euston to Birmingham and Crewe was developed at this time as the primary route on that axis. During the electrification and infrastructure improvement works, Birmingham express passenger traffic was concentrated on the Western Region route over the Joint Line.

On inauguration of the enhanced Euston route, the Joint line ceased to have validity as a trunk line, and from 5 March 1967 through long-distance services were removed from the line. The intermediate stations received a somewhat enhanced semi-fast service.
In the Autumn of 1968 the line between Princes Risborough and Aynho Junction (26 miles) was singled, and in 1974 many through semi-fast trains were diverted away from the line, to run via Oxford.

Closure of branches
The Thame line, between Princes Risborough and Oxford, closed to passenger traffic on 7 January 1963. An oil terminal at Thame and a car factory at Morris Cowley kept the extremities of the route open for goods traffic for the time being.

On 4 May 1969 the former Wycombe Railway line between High Wycombe and Bourne End was closed.

Present day use

During a period of decline in the 1960s and afterwards, the remaining part of the Joint Line and the approach lines were from Banbury to Marylebone, and from Northolt Junction to Old Oak Common (as well as the Greenford to West Ealing line). The route is now described as the Chiltern Main Line.

The use of the line was revitalised following privatisation of the train operations in Great Britain, and Chiltern Railways operated an increasingly improved secondary service between London (Marylebone) and Birmingham (Moor Street). This was attractive politically as providing competition to the dominant route from Euston via Rugby.

The Chiltern operation continues at the present day (2020) with frequent passenger services between Birmingham and London, enhanced by the construction of a spur at Bicester (connecting to the west to east Oxford to Bletchley line) enabling Oxford to London services to run via Bicester.

Topography

Acton and Northolt Line (GWR)
 Old Oak Common West Junction;
 Old Oak Lane Halt; opened 1 October 1906; closed 1 February 1915; reopened 29 March 1920; closed 30 June 1947;
 North Acton Halt; opened 1 May 1904; closed 1 February 1913;
 Park Royal; opened 15 to 22June 1903 and 29 June to 4 July 1903 for exhibitors, and again 23 to 27 June 1903 for public at Royal Show; public opening 1 May 1904; closed 1 February 1915; reopened 29 March 1920; closed 26 September 1937;
 Park Royal West; opened 20 June 1932; last train 15 June 1947;
 Twyford Abbey Halt; opened 1 May 1904; closed 1 May 1911;
 Brentham; opened 1 May 1911; closed 1 February 1915; reopened 29 March 1920; closed 15 June 1947;
 Perivale Halt; opened 1 May 1904; closed 1 February 1915; reopened 29 March 1920; closed 15 June 1947;
 Greenford East Junction;
 Greenford; opened 1 October 1904; closed 17 June 1963;
 Northolt Halt; opened 1 May 1907; Northolt from 1929; closed 21 November 1948;
 Northolt Junction.

Neasden and Northolt Line
 Neasden Junction;
 Wembley Hill; opened 1 March 1906; renamed Wembley Complex 1978; renamed Wembley Stadium 1987; still open;
 Sudbury and Harrow Road; opened 1 March 1906; still open;
South Harrow; opened 1 March 1906; renamed Sudbury Hill Harrow 1926; still open;
 South Harrow and Roxeth; opened 19 July 1926; renamed Northolt Park 1929; still open;
 Northolt Junction;

Joint Line
Neasden Junction;
Northolt Junction; opened 1 May 1908; renamed South Ruislip and Northolt Junction 1932; renamed South Ruislip 1947; still open;
 Ruislip Gardens; opened 9 July 1934; closed 21 July 1958;
 Ruislip and Ickenham; opened 2 April 1906; renamed West Ruislip 1947; still open;
 Harefield Halt; opened 24 September 1928; renamed South Harefield 1929; closed 1 October 1931;
 Denham East Junction;
 Denham West Junction;
 Denham; opened 2 April 1906; still open;
 Denham Golf Club Platform; opened 22 July 1912; still open;
 Chalfont Viaduct (M25 crossing); opened 2 April 1906;
 Gerrards Cross Tunnel (2007);
 Gerrards Cross; opened 2 April 1906; still open;
 Beaconsfield Golf Links; opened for golfers 2 April 1906; public opened on 23 December 1914; renamed Seer Green 1918; renamed Seer Green and Jordans 1950; renamed Seer Green 1974; still open;
 Beaconsfield; opened 2 April 1906; still open;
 Whitehouse Tunnel; 152 yards;
 High Wycombe; opened 1 August 1854; relocated 1 October 1964 when High added; still open
 West Wycombe; opened 1 August 1862; closed 3 November 1958;
 Saunderton; opened 1 July 1901 still open;
 Saunderton Tunnel; up line only; 88 yards;
 Princes Risborough; opened 1 August 1862; relocated to the south 2 April 1906; still open;
 Ilmer Halt; opened 1 April 1929; closed 7 January 1963;
 Haddenham; opened 2 April 1906; closed 7 January 1963;
 Haddenham and Thame Parkway; opened 3 October 1987; still open;
 Ashendon Junction.

Ashendon Junction to Grendon Underwood Junction (GCR)
 Ashendon Junction;
 Wotton; opened 2 April 1906; closed 7 December 1953;
 Akeman Street; opened 2 April 1906; closed 7 July 1930;
 Grendon Underwood Junction.

Ashendon Junction to Aynho Junction ("Bicester Cut-off", GWR)
 Dorton Halt; opened 21 June 1937; closed 7 January 1963;
 Brill Tunnel; 191 yards;
 Brill and Ludgershall; opened 1 July 1910; closed 7 January 1963;
 Blackthorn; opened 1 July 1910; closed 8 June 1953;
 Bicester; opened 1 July 1910; renamed Bicester North 1949; still open;
 Ardley; opened 1 July 1910; closed 7 January 1963;
 Ardley Tunnel; 1147 yards;
 Aynho Park Platform; opened 1 July 1910; closed 7 January 1963;
 Aynho Junction.

Notes

References

Great Central Railway
Railway lines constructed by the Great Western Railway
Railway companies established in 1899
British companies established in 1899
Railway lines opened in 1906
British joint railway companies


The Andrew John Volstead House is the historic house in Granite Falls, Minnesota, of ten-term United States Congressman Andrew Volstead (1860–1947).  It is now managed as a museum and the organizational headquarters of the Granite Falls Historical Society.  Volstead became nationally synonymous with Prohibition in 1919 when, as chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, he was obliged to author the Volstead Act, enabling enforcement of the recently ratified Eighteenth Amendment.  Volstead was a moderate progressive who coauthored the Capper–Volstead Act in 1922, which legalized agricultural cooperatives.

The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974 for having national significance in the areas of agriculture, politics/government, and social history.  Two years later the house was declared a National Historical Landmark.

The 1878 home is a wood-frame structure with a large two-story stairwell tower that was added on by Volstead shortly after he purchased the property in 1894.  During Volstead's time, the first floor had a large screened porch; this has now been replaced by an open porch.  The interior is adorned with oak woodwork and stained glass.  Volstead moved to a new home in Granite Falls in 1930.  The first Volstead House remained privately owned until 1974, when it was listed on the National Register and converted into a historic house museum.  Five years later it was donated to the city.

See also
 List of National Historic Landmarks in Minnesota
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Yellow Medicine County, Minnesota

References

External links
Andrew Volstead Home Museum - Granite Falls Historical Society
Andrew John Volstead House – Historic American Buildings Survey

Biographical museums in Minnesota
Historic house museums in Minnesota
Houses completed in 1878
Houses in Yellow Medicine County, Minnesota
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota
Museums in Yellow Medicine County, Minnesota
National Historic Landmarks in Minnesota
National Register of Historic Places in Yellow Medicine County, Minnesota
Wooden houses in the United States

Andrew John Volstead House


The Rio Grande de Mindanao, also known as the Mindanao River, is the second-largest river system in the Philippines. Located on the southern island of Mindanao, with a total drainage area of , draining the majority of the central and eastern portion of the island, and a total length of approximately . It is an important transportation artery, used mainly in transporting agricultural products and, formerly, timber.

Its headwaters are in the mountains of Impasugong, Bukidnon, south of Gingoog in Misamis Oriental, where it is called the Pulangi River. Joining the Kabacan River, it becomes the Mindanao River. Flowing out of the mountains, it forms the center of a broad, fertile plain in the southcentral portion of the island. Before its mouth in Illana Bay, it splits into two parallel sections, the Cotabato and Tamontaka, separated by a  hill.

Population centers along the river include Cotabato City, Datu Piang and Midsayap.

Course

The Rio Grande de Mindanao has its source in the Central Mindanao Highlands near the northern coast of the island, specifically on the northeastern part of the province of Bukidnon, where it is known as the Pulangi River. It then flows southward across the Bukidnon Plateau, fed up by its tributaries along the way and then emerges onto the Cotabato plains, depositing fertile mountain silt as it widens and arcs westward through the Cotabato River Basin. It finally empties into Illana Bay at its mouth at Cotabato City.

As the Mindanao River meets Illana Bay, it branches out into two distributaries, the Cotabato in the north and the Tamontaka in the south at Cotabato City.

Tributaries

Rio Grande de Mindanao River List of tributaries by length.

 Pulangi River
 Kabulnan River
 Allah River
 Buluan River
 Simuay River
 Libungan River
 M'lang River

Water hyacinths

The river has recently been clogged with water hyacinths, causing it to overflow after days of heavy rain. Floodwaters submerged at least 37 villages in Cotabato City alone and displaced some 6,000 families.

President Benigno Aquino III ordered public works and military personnel to clear the river of up to  of water lily growth.

References

External links

Rivers of the Philippines
Geography of Mindanao
Landforms of Bukidnon
Landforms of Cotabato

Landforms of Maguindanao del Norte
Landforms of Maguindanao del Sur

Rio Grande de Mindanao


In information technology a reasoning system is a software system that generates conclusions from available knowledge using logical techniques such as deduction and induction. Reasoning systems play an important role in the implementation of artificial intelligence and knowledge-based systems.

By the everyday usage definition of the phrase, all computer systems are reasoning systems in that they all automate some type of logic or decision. In typical use in the Information Technology field however, the phrase is usually reserved for systems that perform more complex kinds of reasoning. For example, not for systems that do fairly straightforward types of reasoning such as calculating a sales tax or customer discount but making logical inferences about a medical diagnosis or mathematical theorem. Reasoning systems come in two modes: interactive and batch processing. Interactive systems interface with the user to ask clarifying questions or otherwise allow the user to guide the reasoning process. Batch systems take in all the available information at once and generate the best answer possible without user feedback or guidance.

Reasoning systems have a wide field of application that includes scheduling, business rule processing, problem solving, complex event processing, intrusion detection, predictive analytics, robotics, computer vision, and natural language processing.

History
The first reasoning systems were theorem provers, systems that represent axioms and statements in First Order Logic and then use rules of logic such as modus ponens to infer new statements. Another early type of reasoning system were general problem solvers. These were systems such as the General Problem Solver designed by Newell and Simon. General problem solvers attempted to provide a generic planning engine that could represent and solve structured problems. They worked by decomposing problems into smaller more manageable sub-problems, solving each sub-problem and assembling the partial answers into one final answer. Another example general problem solver was the SOAR family of systems.

In practice these theorem provers and general problem solvers were seldom useful for practical applications and required specialized users with knowledge of logic to utilize. The first practical application of automated reasoning were expert systems. Expert systems focused on much more well defined domains than general problem solving such as medical diagnosis or analyzing faults in an aircraft. Expert systems also focused on more limited implementations of logic. Rather than attempting to implement the full range of logical expressions they typically focused on modus-ponens implemented via IF-THEN rules. Focusing on a specific domain and allowing only a restricted subset of logic improved the performance of such systems so that they were practical for use in the real world and not merely as research demonstrations as most previous automated reasoning systems had been. The engine used for automated reasoning in expert systems were typically called inference engines. Those used for more general logical inferencing are typically called theorem provers.

With the rise in popularity of expert systems many new types of automated reasoning were applied to diverse problems in government and industry. Some such as case-based reasoning were off shoots of expert systems research. Others such as constraint satisfaction algorithms were also influenced by fields such as decision technology and linear programming. Also, a completely different approach, one not based on symbolic reasoning but on a connectionist model has also been extremely productive. This latter type of automated reasoning is especially well suited to pattern matching and signal detection types of problems such as text searching and face matching.

Use of logic
The term reasoning system can be used to apply to just about any kind of sophisticated decision support system as illustrated by the specific areas described below. However, the most common use of the term reasoning system implies the computer representation of logic.  Various implementations demonstrate significant variation in terms of systems of logic and formality. Most reasoning systems implement variations of propositional and symbolic (predicate) logic.  These variations may be mathematically precise representations of formal logic systems (e.g., FOL), or extended and hybrid versions of those systems (e.g., Courteous logic).   Reasoning systems may explicitly implement additional logic types (e.g., modal, deontic, temporal logics).  However, many reasoning systems implement imprecise and semi-formal approximations to recognised logic systems.  These systems typically support a variety of procedural and semi-declarative techniques in order to model different reasoning strategies.  They emphasise pragmatism over formality and may depend on custom extensions and attachments in order to solve real-world problems.

Many reasoning systems employ deductive reasoning to draw inferences from available knowledge.  These inference engines support forward reasoning or backward reasoning to infer conclusions via modus ponens.   The recursive reasoning methods they employ are termed 'forward chaining' and 'backward chaining', respectively. Although reasoning systems widely support deductive inference, some systems employ abductive, inductive, defeasible and other types of reasoning. Heuristics may also be employed to determine acceptable solutions to intractable problems.

Reasoning systems may employ the closed world assumption (CWA) or open world assumption (OWA).  The OWA is often associated with ontological knowledge representation and the Semantic Web.   Different systems exhibit a variety of approaches to negation.  As well as logical or bitwise complement, systems may support existential forms of strong and weak negation including negation-as-failure and 'inflationary' negation (negation of non-ground atoms).   Different reasoning systems may support monotonic or non-monotonic reasoning, stratification and other logical techniques.

Reasoning under uncertainty

Many reasoning systems provide capabilities for reasoning under uncertainty. This is important when building situated reasoning agents which must deal with uncertain representations of the world.  There are several common approaches to handling uncertainty.  These include the use of certainty factors, probabilistic methods such as Bayesian inference or Dempster–Shafer theory, multi-valued ('fuzzy') logic and various connectionist approaches.

Types of reasoning system

This section provides a non-exhaustive and informal categorisation of common types of reasoning system.  These categories are not absolute.  They overlap to a significant degree and share a number of techniques, methods and algorithms.

Constraint solvers
Constraint solvers solve constraint satisfaction problems (CSPs). They support constraint programming.  A constraint is a which must be met by any valid solution to a problem. Constraints are defined declaratively and applied to variables within given domains. Constraint solvers use search, backtracking and constraint propagation techniques to find solutions and determine optimal solutions. They may employ forms of linear and nonlinear programming. They are often used to perform optimization within highly combinatorial problem spaces. For example, they may be used to calculate optimal scheduling, design efficient integrated circuits or maximise productivity in a manufacturing process.

Theorem provers
Theorem provers use automated reasoning techniques to determine proofs of mathematical theorems. They may also be used to verify existing proofs. In addition to academic use, typical applications of theorem provers include verification of the correctness of integrated circuits, software programs, engineering designs, etc.

Logic programs
Logic programs (LPs) are software programs written using programming languages whose primitives and expressions provide direct representations of constructs drawn from mathematical logic.  An example of a general-purpose logic programming language is Prolog.  LPs represent the direct application of logic programming to solve problems.   Logic programming is characterised by highly declarative approaches based on formal logic, and has wide application across many disciplines.

Rule engines
Rule engines represent conditional logic as discrete rules. Rule sets can be managed and applied separately to other functionality. They have wide applicability across many domains.  Many rule engines implement reasoning capabilities. A common approach is to implement production systems to support forward or backward chaining. Each rule ('production') binds a conjunction of predicate clauses to a list of executable actions.

At run-time, the rule engine matches productions against facts and executes ('fires') the associated action list for each match. If those actions remove or modify any facts, or assert new facts, the engine immediately re-computes the set of matches.  Rule engines are widely used to model and apply business rules, to control decision-making in automated processes and to enforce business and technical policies.

Deductive classifier
Deductive classifiers arose slightly later than rule-based systems and were a component of a new type of artificial intelligence knowledge representation tool known as frame languages. A frame language describes the problem domain as a set of classes, subclasses, and relations among the classes. It is similar to the object-oriented model. Unlike object-oriented models however, frame languages have a formal semantics based on first order logic.

They utilize this semantics to provide input to the deductive classifier. The classifier in turn can analyze a given model (known as an ontology) and determine if the various relations described in the model are consistent. If the ontology is not consistent the classifier will highlight the declarations that are inconsistent. If the ontology is consistent the classifier can then do further reasoning and draw additional conclusions about the relations of the objects in the ontology.

For example, it may determine that an object is actually a subclass or instance of additional classes as those described by the user. Classifiers are an important technology in analyzing the ontologies used to describe models in the Semantic web.

Machine learning systems
Machine learning systems evolve their behavior over time based on experience.   This may involve reasoning over observed events or example data provided for training purposes. For example, machine learning systems may use inductive reasoning to generate hypotheses for observed facts.  Learning systems search for generalised rules or functions that yield results in line with observations and then use these generalisations to control future behavior.

Case-based reasoning systems
Case-based reasoning (CBR) systems provide solutions to problems by analysing similarities to other problems for which known solutions already exist. Case-based reasoning uses the top (superficial) levels of similarity; namely, the object, feature, and value criteria. This differs case-based reasoning from analogical reasoning in that analogical reasoning uses only the "deep" similarity criterion i.e. relationship or even relationships of relationships, and ned not find similarity on the shallower levels. This difference makes case-based reasoning applicable only among cases of the same domain because similar objects, features, and/or values must be in the same domain, while the "deep" similarity criterion of "relationships" makes analogical reasoning applicable cross-domains where only the relationships ae similar between the cases.  CBR systems are commonly used in customer/technical support and call centre scenarios and have applications in industrial manufacture, agriculture, medicine, law and many other areas.

Procedural reasoning systems
A procedural reasoning system (PRS) uses reasoning techniques to select plans from a procedural knowledge base. Each plan represents a course of action for achievement of a given goal. The PRS implements a belief-desire-intention model by reasoning over facts ('beliefs') to select appropriate plans ('intentions') for given goals ('desires'). Typical applications of PRS include management, monitoring and fault detection systems.

References

Deductive reasoning
Problem solving
Automated reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Cognitive architecture
Rule engines
Expert systems

Automated theorem proving
Constraint programming
Applied machine learning

Reasoning system


Daewoo Motor was a South Korean automotive company owned by General Motors. The company started in 1937 as National motors in Bupyeong-gu, Incheon, South Korea. In 1965 it became Shinjin Motor after becoming affiliated with Toyota. In 1972 Toyota withdrew. The same year Shinjin became General Motors Korea, a joint venture with General Motors. The company was renamed Saehan Motors in 1976. In 1982 the company was bought by the Daewoo group. Daewoo was known for its affordable cars many of which were made in partnership with GM until the mid '90s. The Daewoo Group ran into financial trouble in the late 1990s. It was then put up for sale and acquired by General Motors in 2001. It was renamed GM Daewoo, and began to produce GM vehicles again. This included the Chevrolet Aveo which is based on Daewoo's Kalos model. In 2011 GM Daewoo was renamed GM Korea.

References

Automobile companies
Manufacturing companies of South Korea

Daewoo Motors


Dora the Explorer is an American media franchise centered on an eponymous animated interactive fourth wall children's television series created by Chris Gifford, Valerie Walsh Valdes, and Eric Weiner, produced by Nickelodeon Animation Studio and originally ran on Nickelodeon from August 14, 2000 to June 5, 2014, with the final six unaired episodes later airing from July 7 to August 9, 2019. It has since spawned a spin-off television series (Go, Diego, Go!), a sequel television series (Dora and Friends: Into the City!) and a live-action feature film. The first episode aired in 2000, and Dora the Explorer became a regular series in 2000. The series was produced by Nickelodeon Animation Studio.

The series earned $2.5 billion in sales in 2010 alone.

Plot
The series Dora the Explorer focuses on a seven-year-old Latino girl named "Dora" accompanied by her talking backpack and anthropomorphic monkey named "Boots". Dora has a passion for exploring places or completing quests, and she would often go on an adventure with her friends.

Characters
Dora
Boots
Backpack
Map
Swiper
Tico
Benny
Isa
The Fiesta Trio
The Big Red Chicken
Grumpy Old Troll

Episodes

Season 1
The Legend of the Big Red Chicken
Lost and Found
Choo-Choo!
Hic-Boom-Ohhh!
We All Scream for Ice Cream
Three Little Piggies
Treasure Island
Beaches
Big River
Berry Hunt
Wizzle Wishes
Surprise!
Grandma's House
Sticky Tape
Bouncing Ball
Backpack
Fish Out of Water
Bugga Bugga
Little Star
Dora Saves the Prince
El Coqui
The Chocolate Tree
Te Amo
Pablo's Flute
To the Treehouse
Call Me Mr. Riddles

Season 2
The Big Storm
¡Rápido, Tico!
The Magic Stick
The Missing Piece
Lost Squeaky
Rojo, the Firetruck
El Dia de las Madres
The Golden Explorers
A Present for Santa
Doctor Dora
Pinto, the Pony Express
León, the Circus Lion
The Big Piñata
The Happy Old Troll
Lost Map (Map Adventures: Part One)
Super Map! (Map Adventures: Part Two)
A Letter for Swiper
To the Monkey Bars
Dora, La Musica
Hide and Go Seek
Click!
Egg Hunt
Super Spies
School Pet
Whose Birthday Is It?
Quack! Quack!

Season 3
Dora Had a Little Lamb (Glowy Star appeared in this episode)
Stuck Truck (Noisy Star appeared in this episode)
Roberto the Robot (Tool Star appeared in this episode)
The Big Potato (Magico Star appeared in this episode)
Journey to the Purple Planet
The Lost City (Woo-Hoo Star appeared in this episode)
Meet Diego (Rocket Star appeared in this episode)
Save the Puppies (Saltador Star appeared in this episode)
¡Por Favor! (Slipperoni Star appeared in this episode)
Baby Dino (Supra Star, Ultra Star, and Mega Star appeared in this episode)
Boots' Special Day (Artista Star appeared in this episode)
To the South Pole (Helada Star appeared in this episode)
Dora Saves the Game (Noisy Star appeared in this episode)
Boo! (Disco Star appeared in this episode)
What Happens Next? (Gusty Star appeared in this episode)
Rescue, Rescue, Rescue
Boots' Cuddly Dinosaur (Comfy Star appeared in this episode)
Louder! (Noisy Star appeared in this episode)
The Super Silly Fiesta (Funny Star appeared in this episode)
The Fix-It Machine (Disco Star appeared in this episode)
Baseball Boots (Baseball Star appeared in this episode)
Best Friends (Rocket Star appeared in this episode)
ABC Animals
Job Day (Baker Star, Movie Star, Baseball Star, Cowgirl Star, Navy Star, and Policia Star appeared in this episode)
Dora's Pirate Adventure (Hero Star appeared in this episode)

Season 4
Star Catcher
Dora's First Trip
Star Mountain
Super Spies 2: The Swiping Machine
La Maestra de Música
Daisy, La Quinceañera
Save Diego
Baby Jaguar's Roar
A Crown for King Juan el Bobo
Dora's Got a Puppy
Big Sister Dora
Boots to the Rescue
Super Babies
We're a Team!
The Mixed-Up Seasons
The Shy Rainbow
Baby Crab
Swiper the Explorer
Catch the Babies
Dora and Diego to the Rescue!
Dora's Fairytale Adventure
Dora's Dance to the Rescue
Dora's World Adventure!

Season 5
Dora's Jack-in-the-Box
Bark, Bark to Play Park!
Dora Saves Three Kings Day
Isa's Unicorn Flowers
Benny's Big Race
First Day of School
The Backpack Parade
Bouncy Boots
The Mayan Adventure
Dora Saves the Three Little Pigs
The Big Red Chicken's Magic Show
Benny's Treasure
The Super Babies' Dream Adventure
Pirate Treasure Hunt
Dora Helps the Birthday Wizzle
Boots' Banana Wish
Dora Saves the Mermaids!
Dora Saves the Snow Princess
Dora Saves the Crystal Kingdom
Dora's Big Birthday Adventure
Dora's Christmas Carol Adventure

Season 6
Dora's Pegaso Adventure
Happy Birthday, Super Babies!
Dora's Hair-Raising Adventure
Baby Winky Comes Home
The Grumpy Old Troll Gets Married
Halloween Parade
¡Vacaciones!
The Big Red Chicken's Magic Wand
Dora in Troll Land
Dora's Ballet Adventure
Boots' First Bike
Pepe's School Day Adventure
The Tale of the Unicorn King (Dora's Enchanted Forest Adventures: Part One)
Dora Saves King Unicornio (Dora's Enchanted Forest Adventures: Part Two)
The Secret of Atlantis (Dora's Enchanted Forest Adventures: Part Three)
Dora's Royal Rescue
Dora's Knighthood Adventure
Swiper's Favorite Things

Season 7
 Dora's Easter Adventure
 A Ribbon for Pinto
 Benny the Castaway
 ¡Feliz Dia de los Padres!
 Dora's Fantastic Gymnastics Adventure
 Dora's Moonlight Adventure
 Perrito's Big Surprise
 Dora's Thanksgiving Day Parade
 Check Up Day
 Little Map
 Baby Bongo's Big Music Show
 School Science Fair
 Dora's Rescue in Mermaid Kingdom
 ¡Vamos a Pintar!
 Dora in Wonderland
 Dora Rocks!
 The Butterfly Ball
 Dora and Diego's Amazing Animal Circus Adventure
 Book Explorers

Season 8
 Dora's Super Soccer Showdown
 Puppies Galore
 Catch That Shape Train
 Verde's Birthday Party!
 Dora and Perrito to the Rescue
 Riding the Roller Coaster Rocks
 Kittens in Mittens
 Dora's Great Roller Skate Adventure
 Dora's and Sparky's Riding Adventure!
 Dora's Museum Sleepover Adventure
 Dora's Ice Skating Spectacular
 Dora Saves Fairytale Land
 Dora's Rainforest Talent Show
 Dora and Diego in the Time of Dinosaurs
 Dora and the Very Sleepy Bear
 Let's Go to Music School
 Dora and Boots Help the Fairy Godmother
 Dora's Animalito Adventure
 Dora's Night Light Adventure

Broadcast
TVOKids SCN Knowledge Kids Treehouse Yoopa and Access, TV (Canada) Nickelodeon and Nick Jr. (United States)

Foreign Adaptations

Dora the Explorer has been produced in various other languages worldwide. It facilitates the learning of important foreign language words or phrases (mostly English), interspersed with a local language (e.g. Norwegian, Russian, Hindi or German), with occasional use of Spanish (used in the Irish, Serbian, and Turkish versions) through its simplicity and use of repetition.

 Arabic – The Arabic language version is broadcast on the "Nickelodeon on MBC3" block of MBC 3, and is presented in Arabic-English.
 Cantonese – The Cantonese language version (Chinese: 愛探險的朵拉; lit. 'Explore-loving Dora') is broadcast in Hong Kong and presented in Cantonese-English.
 Danish – The Danish language version is called Dora – udforskeren and there are commands and expressions in English. It is broadcast on the national public children's channel, DR Ramasjang, and also on the Nick Jr. Channel through various pay TV providers.
 Dutch – The Dutch language version broadcasts on Nickelodeon and Nick. Jr, It is presented in Dutch-English. The voice actors are Lottie Hellingman as Dora and Dieter Jansen as Boots.
 French – The French language version, Dora l'exploratrice, broadcasts on TF1 in France and Télé-Québec in Canada. It is presented in French-English, with Dora and Boots (called Babouche) speaking French and other protagonists speaking and answering in English.
 Filipino – The Filipino language version broadcasts on ABS-CBN and has the same English title "Dora, the Explorer". The characters speak Filipino and some English, Dora teaches English in this version.
 German – The German language version broadcasts on the German branch of Nick. The bilingualism is German-English.
 Greek – The Greek language version is called "Ντόρα η μικρή εξερευνήτρια" (or Dora the Little Explorer). It broadcasts on Nickelodeon and Star Channel. The bilingualism is Greek-English. Dora and Boots (called Botas) speak Greek and other protagonists speak and answer in English.
 Hebrew – The Hebrew language version broadcasts on HOP channel. The bilingualism is Hebrew-English or the other is Hebrew-Arabic. The series is called מגלים עם דורה (or Megalim Im Dora—English: Discovering with Dora).
 Hindi – In the Hindi language version, Dora and the other characters speak Hindi. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon and Nick Jr. Dora teaches the viewers English words and numbers.
 Hungarian – In the Hungarian language version, Dora and the other characters speak Hungarian with some English words or phrases. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon. The series is called Dóra a felfedező.
 Indonesian – The Indonesian language version broadcasts on Global TV. The bilingualism is Indonesian-English.
 Irish – The Irish language version broadcasts on the Irish station TG4. The bilingualism is Irish-Spanish with Dora and Boots speaking in Irish and some other characters speaking Spanish as in the original American version.
 Italian – The Italian language version broadcasts on Cartoonito and on Nickelodeon. The bilingualism is Italian-English. The series is called Dora l'esploratrice ("Dora the Explorer"). Most characters speak Italian, but some characters and especially Dora's parents and backpack speak English along with Italian.
 Japanese – The Japanese language version broadcasts on Nickelodeon. The bilingualism is Japanese-English, with Dora and Boots speaking Japanese and other protagonists speaking and answering in English. The version is called ドーラといっしょに大冒険 (Dōra to issho ni dai bōken/Adventures with Dora).
 Kannada – The Kannada language version broadcasts on Chintu TV and is a very popular program on that network. Hindi is the second language in this version.
 Korean – The Korean language version broadcasts on Nick Jr. in Korea. The title is Hi Dora and is introduced by a real person whose name is Dami – she introduces key English vocabulary for each episode. The episode is primarily in Korean with some English.
 Macedonian – The Macedonian language version broadcasts on MRT 1 in Macedonia. The title is "Дора истражува" (or Dora the Explorer). The bilingualism is Macedonian-English.
 Malay – The Malay language version broadcasts on TV9. The bilingualism is Malay-English. Dora speaks primarily in Malay, and the secondary language is English. The original English-Spanish version, however, is also available on Nickelodeon via the Nick Jr. programming slot to subscribers of the ASTRO satellite TV service.
 Malayalam – The Malayalam language version is called Dorayude Prayanam ("Dora's Journey") and broadcasts on Kochu TV, Sun TV Network.
 Mandarin – In the Mandarin Chinese language version Dora the characters speak mainly Mandarin with limited English. It broadcasts on Yo-yo TV in Taiwan (Channel 25).
 Maori – The Māori language version is called "Dora Mātātoa".
 Norwegian – In the Norwegian language version, the bilingualism is Norwegian-English.
 Polish – The Polish language version broadcasts on Nickelodeon in Poland. The bilingualism is Polish-English. The series is called Dora poznaje świat ("Dora explores the world").
 Portuguese – In the Portuguese language versions, Dora a Exploradora broadcasts on RTP2 and Nickelodeon. On Nickelodeon Brazil and TV Cultura, the show is called Dora a Aventureira, and Dora and Boots (called Boots in the Portuguese version and Botas in the Brazilian version) speak Portuguese, while the other protagonists speak and answer in English. Some Portuguese episodes are available on DVD.
 Russian – The Russian language version broadcasts on TNT and Nickelodeon. The bilingualism is Russian-English. The series is called Dasha-sledopyt ("Dasha the Pathfinder"). Dasha is the children's name of Daria (Darya).
 Serbian – The Serbian language version broadcasts on B92. The bilingualism is Serbian-Spanish. The series is called Dora istražuje (Dora is exploring).
 Spanish – There are different Spanish versions for Mexico, Latin America and Spain. Dora la Exploradora broadcasts on Nickelodeon in Latin America. For Hispanic and Latino Americans, it aired on Telemundo until September 2006 and on Univisión since April 2008. Dora and Boots (called Botas) speak Spanish and the other protagonists speak and answer in English. Some Spanish episodes are available to US viewers on VHS, and some DVDs have a Spanish track (including Dora's Egg Hunt). This version is entirely the reverse of the original English version; Tico and Señor Tucan (called Mr. Toucan) only speak English. Additionally, Univision has added on-screen captions of the Spanish words spoken in English. In Spain, Dora la exploradora is aired on TVE 1, Clan TVE and the Spanish and Portuguese Nickelodeon feed. It is another reverse of the original English version (the characters speak mainly Spanish but there are commands and expressions in English).
 Swedish – In the Swedish language version Dora- utforskaren the characters speak mainly Swedish but there are commands and expressions in English. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon and TV4.
 Tamil – In the Tamil language version Doravin Payanangal (டோராவின் பயணங்கள்), the characters all speak Tamil, with some English interspersed. It broadcasts on a local kids programming channel Chutti TV.
 Thai – In the Thai language version ดอร่าดิเอกซ์พลอเรอร์ or ดอร่าสาวน้อยนักผจญภัย, the characters speak Thai; however, Tico speaks English. It broadcasts on Gang Cartoon Channel, Nick Jr., Thai PBS.
 Turkish – In the Turkish language version Dora the characters speak mainly Turkish, Spanish, and English but there are commands and expressions in Turkish. It broadcasts on Nickelodeon and CNBC-e.
As shown in the list above, Spanish is the second language taught in the original English language version of the show (also broadcast for Malay speakers), in the Irish, Serbian, and the trilingual Turkish versions, but for other versions of the show, the language being taught is English.

Related pages
Dora The Explorer on Nick Jr. Australia
Unofficial British fansite

References

American children's television series
2000s American animated television series
2000 American television series debuts
2019 American television series endings
Nickelodeon television series

Dora the Explorer