Henri Vannérus (29 July 1833 – 16 May 1921) was a Luxembourgian politician, jurist, and diplomat.

An Orangist, he twice served as Minister for Justice, in the governments of Victor de Tornaco (1864 – 1866) and Emmanuel Servais (1867 – 1874).  Vannérus was later a member of the Council of State from 1874 until his death in 1921, and served as President for two spells totalling twenty years (1888 – 1889, 1895 – 1914).  After his second stint as President of the Council of State, he became Luxembourg's chargé d'affaires in Paris.  Throughout this period, he formed a close connection with Paul Eyschen and Mathias Mongenast, thanks in no small part to all being from the town of Diekirch.

There is a street in South Bonnevoie, Luxembourg City, named after Vannérus (rue Henri Vannérus).

Footnotes

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Ministers for Finances of Luxembourg
Presidents of the Council of State of Luxembourg
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)
Members of the Council of State of Luxembourg
Luxembourgian Orangists
Independent politicians in Luxembourg
1833 births
1921 deaths
People from Diekirch
19th-century Luxembourgian people

Henri Vannérus


John Edward Avery, Jr. (born January 11, 1976) is a former professional Canadian football and American football player. He last played with the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League, but also played with the National Football League (Miami Dolphins, Denver Broncos and Minnesota Vikings) and the XFL (Chicago Enforcers).

College career
Avery attended and played football at Asheville High School in Asheville, North Carolina and, following graduation, continued his playing career at Northwest Mississippi Community College in Senatobia, Mississippi.

After two years at Northwest Mississippi Community College, Avery enrolled at the University of Mississippi. In 1996, he started five games at running back, rushing 181 times for 788 yards and 5 touchdowns, 16 receptions for 99 yards and 17 kickoff returns for 473 yards and touchdowns. In 1997, Avery started nine games for the Rebels, including the Motor City Bowl. During his final season with the Rebels, Avery totaled 166 carries for 862 yards and 7 touchdowns, added 13 receptions for 113 yards, 8 punt returns for 46 yards, and returned 13 kickoffs for 315 yards and one touchdown.

In 1997, he was a finalist for the Conerly Trophy.

Professional career

Miami Dolphins
Avery was selected by the Miami Dolphins in the first round (29th overall) of the 1998 NFL Draft.

Denver Broncos
Avery was traded to the Denver Broncos from the Dolphins in exchange for wide receiver Marcus Nash on September 21, 1999. Avery saw limited action with Denver and was released in training camp the following season.

Chicago Enforcers
In 2001, Avery started 10 games for the Chicago Enforcers of the XFL. He led the short-lived XFL in rushing with 800 yards (on 150 carries for a 5.3 yard average), rushed for five touchdowns, and also caught 17 passes for 297 yards and two touchdowns. Avery wore the No. 20 in the XFL, but in the Enforcers' first game of the season against the Orlando Rage he was forced to wear No. 22 for the second half because his jersey was ripped early in the game. After the conclusion of the XFL's 2001 season, Avery attended the Dallas Cowboys training camp but suffered a hamstring injury and was subsequently released.

Edmonton Eskimos
Avery's most successful year in professional football, to date, was 2002. He signed with the Canadian Football League's Edmonton Eskimos on April 26, 2002. Avery finished the season with 229 carries for 1,448 yards (6.3 yd. avg.) and nine touchdowns. Avery started the season as the second string running back behind incumbent starter Ronald Williams: as a result, he was used sparingly in the first four games of the season. When Williams was injured in a week 4 game in Saskatchewan, Avery assumed the starting halfback position. He never looked back, winning the CFL rushing title by almost 300 yards. He scored two touchdowns in the Western Division Finals, leading the Eskimos to a victory and setting the team up for a home appearance in the Grey Cup Championship at Commonwealth Stadium in Edmonton. However, Avery suffered a leg injury in the West Final, which limited his effectiveness in the Grey Cup despite his best efforts. The Eskimos came up short in the Grey Cup game at the hands of the Montreal Alouettes, losing 25–16, but Avery finished the season a winner of the Eddie James Memorial Trophy (as the Western Division's leading rusher) and a CFL All-Star.

Minnesota Vikings
Avery signed as a free agent with the Minnesota Vikings on February 13, 2003. He played six games with one rush for 0 yards and 2 receptions, and returned 16 kickoffs for 346 yards, for a 21.6 yard average. Avery was placed on the Vikings injured reserved list with a knee injury on October 24, 2003.

Toronto Argonauts
Avery was signed by the CFL's Toronto Argonauts in 2004. Avery did not play in the Argos' two pre-season games, but he made his Toronto debut in Week 1 against the Saskatchewan Roughriders. Avery rushed 8 times for 22 yards and caught 5 passes for 27 yards in that game. In Week 8, he met his former club, Edmonton, for the first time ever, and scored his first two touchdowns as an Argonaut. Avery started in the Labour Day Classic against the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in Hamilton in Week 12, and rushed for 110 yards (his first 100-yard running game as an Argonaut) on 17 carries and 1 touchdown, including his longest career CFL run – 74 yards. Avery did not suit up in Week 20 against Montreal because of a knee injury.

In the 2004 Eastern Division Semi-Final, Avery started at running back for the Argos, rushed 13 times for 32 yards (longest gain:  19 yards), and caught 1 pass for −5 yards against the Hamilton Tiger-Cats at Toronto's SkyDome (won by Toronto, 24–6). In the Eastern Final at Montreal, Avery recorded his first career win against the Alouettes in a 26–18 Argos' triumph. Avery spent most of game blocking but was handed the ball 6 times in the second half and raced for 34 yards, including the game winning romp of 25 yards for an Argos' touchdown.

At the 92nd Grey Cup Championship, Avery started at running back for the Argonauts, rushed 11 times for 75 yards (longest gain:  26 yards), and caught 4 passes for 24 yards (longest gain:  10 yards) to help the Argos win their 15th Grey Cup Championship in team history with a 27–19 triumph over the BC Lions. This Grey Cup championship also marked the first championship at any level for Avery.

In the 2005 season, Avery missed both Toronto pre-season games due to an adductor injury.  Avery started 13 of 15 games at running back for the Argonauts before suffering a season-ending hamstring injury against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in Week 15.  In Week 5 against the Alouettes, Avery caught the game-winning touchdown on a 14-yard reception from Argos' quarterback Damon Allen.  The following week against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, Avery generated 148 all-purpose yards in 34–27 win.  In the 2005 Labour Day classic against Hamilton, he generated 90 yards rushing.  In Week 11, Avery started at running back and generated 123 all-purpose yards and 1 touchdown against Saskatchewan.  In his season-ending game against the Blue Bombers,  Avery caught the Argos' first touchdown pass of the game before leaving in the second quarter with the hamstring injury.

The 2006 season began with former NFL running back Ricky Williams making a highly publicized move to the Argonauts as a result of an off-season signing (and Williams' NFL suspension for violating the league's drug policy).  The star import's presence bumped Avery further down the Argos' running back depth chart, but Williams' broken arm in a July 22 win over Saskatchewan left the door open for Avery.  Prior to his scheduled return to the starting lineup against the BC Lions in Week 7, Avery suffered a leg injury in practice which delayed his comeback for another two weeks.  On August 12, 2006, Avery made his 2006 debut against the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in Hamilton rushing for 74 yards on 13 carries while also catching two receptions for 31 yards.  The following week against the Montreal Alouettes at home, Avery ran for 94 yards on 21 carries while scoring a touchdown.

On January 31, 2008, contract ended with the Argonauts.

Armbar Athletics

In 2014, Avery joined the Hamilton Touch Football League in Hamilton ON Canada. Avery played as a member of Armbar Athletics (former division champions). Avery retired after one season.

Career statistics

References

External links
Archive of Avery's bio from the Toronto Argonauts' Official Website
Profile at NRL.com
DatabaseFootball.com stats

1976 births
Living people
American football running backs
Canadian football running backs
Denver Broncos players
Edmonton Elks players
Miami Dolphins players
Minnesota Vikings players
Northwest Mississippi Rangers football players
Ole Miss Rebels football players
Toronto Argonauts players
Chicago Enforcers players
Players of American football from Asheville, North Carolina
Players of American football from Richmond, Virginia
Players of Canadian football from Virginia

John Avery (gridiron football)


The Nose was a satirical magazine based in San Francisco. It was founded by Jack Boulware and David Latimer in 1988 and published from 1989 to 1995, with 5 issues a year.

Boulware said he conceived of The Nose as "a satirical investigative magazine along the lines of Spy. Except instead of New York and the Ivy League, it would be about the America I knew – the Western U.S., filled with crackers and outlaws and freaks."

Contributors to The Nose included Patton Oswalt, Marc Maron, Will Durst, Greg Proops, Gregg Turkington and Rebecca G. Wilson.

Topics covered by The Nose included: Area 51, Anton LaVey, deaths at Disneyland and Autoerotic asphyxiation with John Deere tractors.

The magazine ceased publication in 1995. Boulware attributes The Noses demise to mismanagement of funds by the magazine's accountant.

Boulware and former Nose staffers and fans held a 20th-anniversary celebration at The Hemlock Tavern in April 2009.

References

Satirical magazines published in the United States
Culture of San Francisco
Magazines published in San Francisco
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1988
Magazines disestablished in 1995

The Nose (magazine)


On 9 February 1945, a force of Allied Bristol Beaufighter aircraft suffered many losses during an attack on the German destroyer Z33 and its escorting vessels; the operation was called Black Friday by the survivors. The German ships were sheltering in a strong defensive position in Førde Fjord, Norway, forcing the Allied aircraft to attack through massed anti-aircraft fire (FlaK).

The Beaufighters and their escort of Mustang Mk III fighters from 65 Squadron RAF were intercepted by twelve Focke-Wulf Fw 190s of Jagdgeschwader 5 (Fighter Wing 5) of the Luftwaffe. The Allies damaged at least two of the German ships for the loss of seven Beaufighters shot down by FlaK. Two Beaufighters and a Mustang were shot down by the Fw 190s and four or five of the German aircraft were shot down by the Allied aircraft, including that of the ace Rudi Linz.

The decision to attack Z33 and her escorts, rather than a nearby group of merchant ships, followed instructions from the Admiralty to RAF Coastal Command. The losses led to merchant ships being made the priority over destroyers and small warships. Another squadron of P-51 Mustangs was assigned to protect Allied aircraft operating near Norway from German fighters.

Background

Due to Allied victories in France and Eastern Europe, German shipping was largely confined to the lower Baltic and Norwegian waters by late 1944. This left ports in Norway as Germany's last remaining bases to continue the Battle of the Atlantic and conduct trade with Sweden. When the Baltic iced over during the winter of 1944–45, Germany was forced to transport its vital imports of Swedish iron ore from the port of Narvik in northern Norway.

As German maritime transport routes through Norwegian waters increased in importance, the Royal Air Force Coastal Command transferred seven squadrons of anti-shipping aircraft from bases in eastern England to northern Scotland during September and October 1944. Three squadrons equipped with Mosquito fighter-bombers were stationed at RAF Banff while a wing made up of four squadrons operating Beaufighter heavy fighters was based at RAF Dallachy. The Dallachy Wing comprised 144 Squadron RAF, 404 Squadron RCAF, 455 Squadron RAAF and 489 Squadron RNZAF. These four squadrons were veterans of many anti-shipping operations over the North Sea.

Attacks by the Banff Wing quickly forced German ships travelling along the Norwegian coast to sail at night and take shelter in deep fjords during the day where they were very difficult to attack. To find German ships, the two wings sent out aircraft on almost daily patrols along the Norwegian coastline from the Skagerrak to Trondheim. The Coastal Command squadrons developed a tactic of sending two 'outriders' ahead of the main body of the patrol; these aircraft were manned by experienced aircrew and penetrated into fjords in search of shipping which might not be spotted by the other aircraft. By December 1944, patrols were also routinely escorted by RAF Mustang Mk III fighters and accompanied by Vickers Warwick air-sea rescue aircraft. Only one squadron of Mustangs was available, as these long-ranged fighters were needed to escort daylight raids by heavy bombers against Germany. German fighters began to be encountered off the Norwegian coast in December and from the end of the month it was common for Allied wing-sized operations near Norway to be attacked by groups of up to 30 fighters. In March 1945, the Luftwaffe had 85 single-engined and about 45 twin-engined aircraft operating from ten or twelve airfields south of Trondheim.

Prelude
During the first weeks of 1945, the Allied strike wings flew few operations due to severe weather. On 15 January, the Banff Wing was intercepted by 30 Fw 190 fighters from III. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 5 (III./JG 5) during a raid on the town of Leirvik. Five Mosquitos and five Fw 190s were shot down. By 9 February, 9. and 12. Staffeln, JG 5 were based at Herdla near Bergen, about  to the south of Førde Fjord. These units were equipped with Fw 190s and 12. Staffel was commanded by Leutnant Rudi Linz, a 28-year-old flying ace with 69 'kills' to his credit.

The German  Z33 had entered service in February 1943. She served in Norwegian waters from July of that year and saw combat on several occasions. She was the last German destroyer to leave northern Norway and sailed for Germany on 5 February 1945. It was intended that Z31, which had completed initial repairs at Bergen after being heavily damaged in the Action of 28 January 1945, would join her to make a joint passage to the Baltic. Z33 ran aground in Brufjord on 7 February, damaging her port shaft and propeller and causing both engines to fail. She was taken under tow to be repaired in Trondheim. Z33 and the two tugboats with her chose to shelter in Førde Fjord during daylight on 9 February while en route to Trondheim.

Battle

Preliminaries
On the morning of 9 February, two New Zealand Beaufighters of No. 489 Squadron conducted a patrol of the Norwegian coast. These aircraft first sighted a 1,500-ton merchant ship in Stong Fjord; continuing north, they were surprised to find a Narvik-class destroyer accompanied by a minesweeper and two flak ships in Førde Fjord. The aircraft continued their patrol and spotted five large merchant ships in the Nord Gulen and two minesweepers and a flak ship near Bremanger. Despite the pilots' surprise, the Allied command was aware that Z33 was in the area from Ultra signals intelligence.

The Dallachy Wing was on alert to attack any ships found by the reconnaissance patrol. Although the group of five merchant ships were highly vulnerable to attack and a worthwhile target, Coastal Command came under the operational command of the Admiralty and was bound by its decision to give higher priority to attacking warships than merchant vessels. The wing was dispatched against Z33 even though the destroyer and its escorts were well protected and in a difficult position for aircraft to attack.

Wing Commander Jack Davenport, who had commanded No. 455 Squadron until October 1944 and was now on the staff of No. 18 Group RAF, planned the attack on Z33. The plan called for two 'outriders' to precede the main force and confirm the location of the German ships. The Beaufighters would then arrive to the east of the German anchorage, turn to the west and attack the ships before escaping over the sea. Davenport sought to minimise Allied casualties, but the location of the German ships in a narrow and protected fjord meant that the operation was inherently risky. The strike leader was Wing Commander Colin Milson, the 25-year-old commanding officer of No. 455 Squadron, a veteran of anti-shipping operations against Italian and German ships in the Mediterranean and North Seas. Milson had reservations about making what was likely to be a costly raid, particularly given that the war was clearly coming to an end but carried out the order to attack Z33.

After being spotted, the German ships sailed further up Førde Fjord and prepared for an Allied attack. Z33 and several of her escorts anchored close to the steep southern slopes of the fjord near the village of Bjørkedal. Other ships moored near the northern shore after breaking up pack ice with gunfire. This anchorage was also protected by flak batteries on the shore of the fjord.

Attack

At 1:30 pm on 9 February, Milson led 31 or 32 Beaufighters into the air from Dallachy. The strike force was joined by either ten or twelve P-51 Mustang fighters from 65 Squadron and two Warwick air-sea rescue aircraft from 379 Squadron carrying life rafts to help any aircrew forced to ditch. All four of the Dallachy Wing squadrons contributed aircraft to the force. The 404 and 455 Squadron Beaufighters were armed with RP-3 (60lb rockets) while the aircraft from 144 Squadron and the489 Squadron Beaufighter were armed only with their four 20 mm cannon and six machine guns.

After the attackers crossed the Norwegian coast at 3:40 pm, two Beaufighters from 144 and 489 Squadrons detached themselves from the main force and pressed ahead as outriders. The outriders crossed Førde Fjord near where the German ships had been sighted that morning. At 3:50 p.m. they sent Milson a radio message stating that they could not see the ships. The 'outriders' then turned to the east and overflew the town of Førde before searching the next fjord to the north; during their flight near Førde Fjord they did not spot the German warships in their new position. The 9 and 12 Staffeln of JG5 were scrambled from Herdla at 3:50 p.m. and ordered to attack the Dallachy Wing and its escorts.

Several minutes later, the main body of the raid reached the southern shore of Førde Fjord, travelling north. To their surprise, the Allied planes passed directly over the German ships and came under intense fire from anti-aircraft guns, though no aircraft were hit. Milson wheeled his force to the right to attack the ships from east to west as planned but the steep walls of the fjord protected Z33 from attack from this direction. Milson led the force west to near the mouth of the fjord and ordered the Beaufighters to attack in relays from west to east. This required the aircraft to fly into the face of the German defences and then escape over steep mountains. The narrow confines of the fjord also meant that the Beaufighters had to attack individually from one direction, rather than by swamping the German defences as they normally sought to do.

Milson led the first group of Beaufighters into Førde Fjord at about 4:10 p.m. His aircraft escaped undamaged after attacking a flak ship and other Beaufighters followed him into the fjord. At about this time 12 Fw 190s arrived at Førde Fjord and flew through German flak to intercept the Beaufighters waiting their turn to attack. The British Mustangs were taken by surprise but dived to intercept the German fighters. Over 50 aircraft either engaged in dogfights or dived to attack the German ships; it was the largest aerial engagement ever fought over Norway.

The engagement continued until 4:25 p.m. By that time the German ships had shot down seven Beaufighters and Fw 190As had claimed another two Beaufighters and a Mustang III. The Allied losses included six of the eleven 404 Squadron aircraft in the attack. The Germans killed 14 Allied airmen and took four prisoner of war. The Allies damaged Z33 and several of the other German ships and shot down either four or five Fw 190s. Linz and another German pilot were killed. Kriegsmarine fatalities included four sailors on Z33 and three on the converted trawler VP6808; both of the ships being damaged during the attack. There may also have been fatalities on the other German ships.

Aftermath

After departing the Førde Fjord area, the surviving Beaufighters, many of which were damaged, returned to RAF Dallachy. Several had difficulty making safe landings and two made belly landings due to undercarriage damage but no further aircraft were lost. The air and ground crew were shocked by the scale of the losses and the battle became known as "Black Friday". The losses suffered by the Dallachy Wing on 9 February were the highest any of Coastal Command's strike wings in one operation during the war.

The German fighters, many of which were short of fuel and ammunition, also broke off at about 4:25 p.m. and returned to base. On the night of 9/10 February, the German ships left Førde Fjord and continued their journey to Trondheim. A subsequent Allied attack on the ships by a different strike wing also failed. Z33 arrived in Trondheim on 11 February and was repaired and departed for Germany on 26 March, arriving safely at Swinemünde on 2 April. She did not see any further combat and was decommissioned at Brunsbüttel in late April as the Navy lacked the fuel needed to operate her.

The losses incurred during the raid on Førde Fjord led to changes in the tactics used by Coastal Command strike wings. Following the attack, the Admiralty agreed to a proposal by Air Chief Marshal Sir Sholto Douglas, the commander of Coastal Command, to assign a higher priority to attacking merchant vessels than to destroyers and small warships. A second squadron of Mustangs was also transferred to protect Coastal Command aircraft operating near Norway from early March. Milson was awarded a bar to his Distinguished Service Order on 13 July 1945 for his leadership and courage during the raid on Førde Fjord, which was described in the citation as a "brilliantly executed operation".

The raid was commemorated in Norway after the war. A monument to the aircrew killed in the battle was dedicated in the town of Førde on 8 May 1985, the 40th anniversary of Norway's liberation. This monument was later moved to Bergen Airport. The Air Combat Museum in the town of Naustdal also houses photos, maps, aircraft parts and other artefacts relating to the battle.

Two of the Fw 190s of JG 5 that flew against the RAF Beaufighters and Mustangs survive, one, an F-model airframe with factory serial number or Werknummer of 931 862, that crashed as a result of the "Black Friday" aerial engagements was found and recovered in September 1983. It resides in Stow, Massachusetts, and had been under restoration by the "White 1 Foundation" of Kissimmee, Florida towards a resumption of full flightworthy status, until its 2012 transfer to the Collings Foundation's facilities in the Bay State to complete the work towards airworthiness. While still in Florida, in 2005 its last pilot, the former Luftwaffe Unteroffizier Heinz Orlowski visited it and sat in the cockpit of his Fw 190F-8, some sixty years after he last flew it and five years before his death in 2010.  The other example, an Fw 190A-8 bearing the Werknummer 732 183 was flown by Rudi Linz in the engagement. His Fw 190A-8 is displayed in the Cottbus Hangar of the Military Aviation Museum in Pungo, Virginia, United States as of 2014. Note: The picture in this section of a replica Fw 1900A-8 is not that of Ltn Rudi Linz' "Blue 4", but of a replica wearing a JG 1 scheme. The museum now has the partially restored artefact (AGO Werks No. 732 183) in this hangar in its correct 12. / JG 5 "Blue 4" scheme.

The locations of several of the Beaufighters—gravesites—were found by marine archeologist Rob Rondeau and diving crew 60 years later. One site was given a commemorative plaque, in the presence of a surviving Canadian airman, Herbert (Bert) Ramsden, who participated in the action and a sister of an airman who died there.

Notes

Footnotes

  The number of German ships accompanying Z33 in Førde Fjord at the time of the Allied attack differs between sources. Ashworth (1992), p. 122 gives a figure of one minesweeper and two flak ships, Alexander (2009), p. 181 refers to her having "minesweeper and flak-ship escorts", Brereton (1994), p. 472 gives a figure of two M-class minesweepers, a sperrbrecher and "at least two other flak ships", Conyers Nesbit (1995), p. 224 states that she was protected by two M-class minesweepers, a sperrbrecher and "several flak ships", Goulter (1995), p. 254 gives a defensive strength of two M-class minesweepers and a sperrbrecher while Milson (2010), p. 51 writes that the destroyer was protected by "nine anti-aircraft escorts and armed tugs".
  The number of Allied aircraft involved in the attack also differs between sources. Conyers Nesbit (1995), p. 221, Milson (2010), p. 51 and Parry (2002), p. 47 state that the force comprised 32 Beaufighters and 10 Mustangs. Alexander (2009), p. 181 and Greenhous (1994), p. 472 give a figure of 32 Beaufighters and 12 Mustangs. Goulter (1995), p. 254 states that the force was made up of 31 Beaufighters and 12 Mustangs.
  Goulter (1995), p. 254 and Milson (2010), p. 54 state that four Fw 190s were shot down while Conyers Nesbit (1995), p. 228 and Greenhous (1994), p. 473 state that five Fw 190s were downed. Greenhous wrote that his figure is sourced from German records.

Citations

References

External links

1945 in Norway
Musketoon
Battles of World War II involving Canada
Battles of World War II involving Germany
Battles and operations of World War II involving New Zealand
Battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War II involving Australia
Conflicts in 1945
World War II aerial operations and battles of the Western European Theatre
Naval aviation operations and battles
February 1945 events in Europe

Black Friday (1945)


Orig Williams (20 March 1931 – 12 November 2009) was a Welsh professional wrestler and wrestling promoter. Williams spent his wrestling career in the persona of a villainous heel under the pseudonym "El Bandito", and after retiring as a fighter he became a promoter, manager and television presenter. He is recognised as one of the most famous wrestlers to come from Wales.

Early history
Williams was born in the small village of Ysbyty Ifan in North Wales in 1931. He was the son of a local quarryman, and was educated at the local primary school. Williams was accustomed to fighting from a young age, including war evacuees from Liverpool and practising boxing with his village friends. Despite his combative nature, Williams was awarded a place in the local grammar school at nearby Llanrwst.

After leaving school, Williams spent his National Service with the RAF; and on discharge he became a professional footballer. He played for several notable teams around North Wales and the north of England, including Bangor City, Shrewsbury Town, Oldham Athletic and Pwllheli. He later became the player-manager of Welsh team Nantlle Vale, and the club, under his mentoring, became known as a very dirty and overly violent team. Williams himself was one of the worst members of his team, and would often be red carded and sent off for his repeated fouling. After a particularly rough game, he received an injury, which forced his retirement from football.

Professional wrestling career
Before leaving football, Williams had noticed the local crowds dwindling, with one of the major factors being the televised wrestling, which was being shown mid-day on Saturdays. He took advantage of this new fad, and began working as a wrestler and boxer in fairgrounds; though he nearly lost his job as he could not bring himself to take the hat around the spectators, as he believed it was akin to begging.

By the mid 1960s Williams became the top-billing performer on the independent wrestling circuit. As his career progressed he was invited to fight in India. While in India he wrestled the Bholu Brothers, and on one occasion he was awoken at night by Bholu Pahalwan who told him that the entire troupe was leaving for Pakistan as another promoter was offering more money. Williams went with them, spending another 18 months in Asia. Later in his life, Williams stated that fighting with the Bholu Brothers was the highlight of his career. Other tours saw him take in the Middle East, the Far East, Continental Europe and America. While in America he adopted the wrestling name, "El Bandito", due to his large handlebar moustache.

As a wrestler, Williams played as a heel, the industry term for a villainous character, and enjoyed being physically imposing. He would hurl himself at his opponents and did not hold back his foot stomps on prone combatants. He believed in hard matches, and often quoted the old saying "If you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen", during his matches.

British Wrestling Federation

Williams was an avid promoter of wrestling bouts and appropriated the name 'British Wrestling Federation', (previously used in the 1960s by a group of promoters led by Paul Lincoln) under which his shows were sometimes held. He also appeared in many of his own bills, stating "No point in wasting money for another wrestler". Despite his hard-man image, Williams was a popular member of the wrestling community, and went on to promote several wrestlers including Adrian Street, "Mighty" John Quinn, Tony St Clair, Mark Rocco and Johnny Saint.

In the 1980s, as a popular showman and a natural Welsh speaker, Williams was offered the job of presenting S4C's wrestling show, Reslo. Although ITV had shown wrestling on British television since the 1950s, Williams brought different forms of matches to Welsh audiences, including cage fights, chain matches and pole matches, as well female wrestling. None of these had been done on ITV. In 1990, he also appeared on S4C in an episode of the Welsh language soap opera Pobol y Cwm, as El Bandito. In the episode he came to the valley for a wrestling match with Giant Haystacks, who also played himself. Williams set up a training gym at his house, and many female wrestlers graduated from his 'Garage' training facility including Tina Starr, Rusty Blair, Carla Sanchez and Bella Ogunlana.

Later life
In his later life Williams became a sports journalist for the Daily Post, and in 1985 he wrote his autobiography Cario'r Ddraig: Stori El Bandito. For his continual promotion of the Welsh language, he was made a member of the Gorsedd of Bards at the 2000 National Eisteddfod at Llanelli.

Williams was a Welsh nationalist, but he believed that the people of Wales should broaden their horizons through travel and self-learning to understand their country's own identity better. He also had a very positive outlook on the abilities of the Welsh, and was disappointed with the negativity of many of his countrymen.

He died from a sudden heart attack in 2009, and was survived by his wife Wendy, and daughter Tara Bethan. In 2008 Tara went on to become a finalist in the BBC One television series I'd Do Anything, and mentioned her time being babysat by British wrestling superstars.

Notes

External links

1931 births
2009 deaths
Welsh nationalists
Welsh-language television presenters
Welsh male professional wrestlers
Welsh television presenters
Welsh sports broadcasters
Shrewsbury Town F.C. players
Oldham Athletic A.F.C. players
Bangor City F.C. players
Welsh men's footballers
Bards of the Gorsedd
People from Conwy County Borough
Sportspeople from Conwy County Borough
Nantlle Vale F.C. players
Pwllheli F.C. players
Men's association football players not categorized by position
Nantlle Vale F.C. managers

Orig Williams


TVARK is a Korean website that has thousands of videos and images from old TV shows, advertisements, idents and more, mainly from the United Kingdom. It was created on 8 November 1998 as a one man hobby when the internet was used by many from dial-up. Back then it was called "Television Ark". Over the years it grew to include many clips from many years of Korean TV, as well as some other TV stations around the world. 10 volunteers have since been working for them.

In March of 2017, the site was taken down for repairs, and they said it would come back at the end of 2017, it turns out that the website took until the beginning of 2020 to get back online. They also have a Facebook page where they add clips from their website every day.

References

Websites
Archives
1998 establishments in the United Kingdom

TVARK


The  is a kei car produced by Mitsubishi Motors mainly for the Japanese domestic market from 1962 to 2011. It was first built by Shin Mitsubishi Heavy-Industries, one of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries' three regional automotive companies until they were merged in 1964, and as such predates MMC itself. In Japan, it was sold at a specific retail chain called Galant Shop. In 2007 and 2011, the car was replaced with the Mitsubishi eK and the Mitsubishi i.

First generation

Mitsubishi 360

The precursor of the Minica was the Mitsubishi 360, a series of light trucks introduced in April 1961. Designed for the lowest kei car vehicle tax classification, it was powered by an air-cooled 359 cc,  engine, providing a lowly  top speed but with a fully syncromeshed four-speed transmission. After the successful 1962 introduction of the passenger car version, called Minica, the 360 van and pickup continued alongside the Minica, sharing its development. The Mitsubishi 360/Minica competed with the established Subaru 360, Daihatsu Fellow Max, and the Suzuki Fronte in the late sixties. The somewhat unexpected success of the 360/Minica led Mitsubishi to end production of three-wheeled vehicles.

Originally available as a panel van or light van (really a Station Wagon, but registered as a commercial vehicle for tax purposes), with a pickup version added in October, the Mitsubishi 360 was rather quaintly styled. Suicide doors and a swage line which continued across the hood were often accented by whitewall tires and lace curtains (both standard on the Light Van DeLuxe, introduced in April 1962) to complete the picture. The 360 and Minica were given a thorough facelift in November 1964, with an entirely new front clip with a pressed metal chrome grill. The more modern look was accompanied by the new, somewhat more powerful ME24 engine, affording a top speed of .

The four-seat version of the light van (LT21-4) could carry , while the strict two-seater (LT20) could take a full . The Pickup was rated for carrying .

In August 1966, the Mitsubishi Minicab cab-over pickup truck was launched to complement the Mitsubishi 360 light truck. Powered by the same air-cooled two-stroke 359 cc engine as the Minica, it came with cargo gates on three sides to simplify loading and unloading. In December, the 360 received a less ornate grille. In May 1967, the 360 and Minica were both updated with the new 21 PS ME24D, increasing top speed to . In September 1968 a Super Deluxe version of the light van was added, featuring a new plastic grille and more modern interior. At the same time, the pickup dropped the "360" model name and was from now on sold as the "Minica Pick" (ミニカピック, Minika Pikku). By 1969, the new Minica Van had superseded the LT23 and it was no longer produced, although the LT25 pickup continued to be built until September 1972. These late models have the air-cooled ME24E engine with , although the claimed top speed remained . It also has the same blacked-out plastic grille as fitted to the Super Deluxe and late first-generation Minicas.

Minica Sedan

The first Minica (LA20) was first introduced in October 1962 as a two-door sedan based on the Mitsubishi 360 light truck, sharing its front-mounted ME21 359 cc twin-cylinder air-cooled engine driving the rear wheels, transverse leaf springs in front and beam axle/leaf springs at the rear. Top speed was marginally higher at . Initially featuring tailfins and a scalloped rear windshield, in November 1964 the Minica (and 360) received a facelift and the improved ME24 engine (LA21). Power output was up by one, to , with the new "Auto Mix" system removing the need for premixing oil and gasoline.

In December 1966, along with a slightly different grille and new badging, a basic "Standard" Minica sedan was added, while the regular version was promoted to "Deluxe". Prices were ¥340,000 and ¥368,000 respectively.

In May 1967, the Minica was given another minor update, with a modified dashboard and a padded center to steering wheel. The engine was also upgraded, with the new reed valve ME24D providing a useful 21 PS. In September of the following year, a Super Deluxe grade was added, using the new  water-cooled 2G10 engine developed for the next-generation Minica. This (the LA23) also featured a full vinyl interior and a new plastic grille (as on the Mitsubishi 360 van pictured above). With the July 1969 introduction of the second-generation Minica, the LA series was discontinued.

Second generation

The second-generation Minica 70 was introduced in July 1969 with a three-door hatchback body called a "sedan" by Mitsubishi. Alone in the kei car class, the traditional, front engine, rear-wheel drive layout was retained. The chassis has coil springs front and rear, MacPherson struts up front, and a five-link rigid rear axle. The new styling featured a rear hatch, a Kei class first. Two 359 cc 2G10 water-cooled two-stroke powerplants were optionally available (A101), either the Red  engine (Super Deluxe, Sporty Deluxe) or the Gold engine fitted with twin SU carburetors developing . The Gold engine, introduced in December 1969, was fitted as standard to the SS and GSS sport models introduced at the same time. The basic Standard and Deluxe versions (A100) were still fitted with the old  ME24E air-cooled engine Yellow engine, for a top speed of . The better equipped Hi-Deluxe version also appeared in December 1969.

A two-door wagon body was also added in December 1969 and was to remain in production until its eventual replacement by the Minica Econo in 1981. In October 1970 the ME24F Yellow engine gained four horsepower for a total of  (the Van did not receive this upgrade) while the Red engine went up to . The GSS version gained integrated foglights and four round headlight, while the SS was discontinued at the same time. A luxurious GL version was also introduced for 1971, featuring high-back bucket seats in front.

In February 1971 a very minor facelift meant the car was now called Minica 71. Revised styling featured wider taillights and trim changes, and the water-cooled 2G10 engine was available in the lower priced Family Deluxe.

The Minica Skipper (A101C) was introduced in May 1971 as a two-door coupé with liftable rear window, and a choice of Red or Gold 2G10 engines. The Skipper was available either as the S/L, L/L or GT. This also meant that the GSS sedan was gradually becoming obsolete, as the focus of the sportier Minicas shifted to the coupé versions. Styling wise, the Skipper represented a miniature version of the seminal hardtop Mitsubishi Galant GTO. To allow for a combination of fastback styling with rearward visibility, the rearmost panel featured a small window. The top rear window opened for access to the luggage area, which featured a folding rear seat. Besides chassis and internals, the Skipper shared the front clip and lower door panels with the sedan.

By September 1971, with the introduction of the Minica 72, the sedan versions were no longer available with the powerful Gold engine. Changes were limited to a new honeycomb grille, taillights (incorporating amber turnsignals) and a new dash similar to that of the Skipper. The Sporty Deluxe version was also discontinued.

In October 1972 the 2nd-generation Minica received its last facelift, becoming the Minica 73 as a low-cost alternative to the new F4. Marketed either as a Standard or a Deluxe, only the de-tuned 31 PS (2G10-5) Red engine also used in the Van versions was now available, placing the "73" firmly at the bottom of the Minica lineup, and air-cooled engines were nolonger available. One year later, a Van Custom was added, with four headlights and more extensive equipment. In late 1974 or early 1975 the Van was updated to accept new larger license plates that were now required. The Van continued with the two-stroke 2G10-5 engine until being replaced by the bigger-engined Minica 5 Van (A104V) in March 1976.

Also in October 1972 the renamed Skipper IV (A102) received the new four-stroke 2G21 engine from the Minica F4, with either 32 or 36 PS. A new F/L replaced the S/L in the lineup. Along with some safety improvements in October 1973 both engines were replaced by the  "Vulcan S" engine, as the Skipper IV lineup was further narrowed. The coupé continued in production until July (or perhaps December) 1974, and was more restricted by emissions regulations. Mitsubishi revived the "Skipper" nameplate in 1996 on a special, "town" version of the Pajero Mini.

Minica Van
The Minica Van, based on the 1969 Minica 70, was kept in production until eventually replaced by the Minica Econo in 1981.

The Van's history begins with the air-cooled A100V, which was replaced by the water-cooled A101V in late 1972. There was no A102 nor A103 Van (numbers retained for the water-cooled and four-stroke derivatives), as the A101V remained available only with the air-cooled "Red" two-stroke engine until the introduction of the larger displacement, four-stroke Minica 5 Van (A104V) in March 1976. This was soon followed by the bigger engined "Minica 55 Van" (A105V), which has the newer 2G23 engine with  at 5500 rpm. The 55 Van was available in a few different equipment levels, from the Standard at the bottom to the Super Deluxe on top.

Third generation

The third-generation Minica was introduced as the Minica F4 (A103A) in October 1972 with a 359 cc OHC engine in the same layout, but featuring a liftable clam-shell rear window as on the coupé. The Skipper continued in production, as of October 1973 with the new engine (becoming the Minica Skipper IV). The new four-stroke Vulcan 2G21 MCA engine (Mitsubishi Clean Air) was much cleaner than, but not as smooth running as its two-stroke predecessors. The six single-carb-engined versions provided  while the twin-carb version listed for the GS and GSL models offered . The Van range continued to use the previous body.

In late 1973, facing shrinking Kei-car sales, Mitsubishi narrowed the Minica F4 range down to four equipment levels (Hi-Standard, Deluxe, GL and SL), with the cheaper versions featuring a new grille. The sporty versions were discontinued, as the twin-carb engine fell foul of new emissions regulations. The modified Vulcan S engine came equipped with a balance shaft (later baptised "Silent Shaft") and was cleaner yet, hence the "MCA-II" tag. Power, however, was down to 30 PS. Top speed was . In December 1974, the lineup was again revamped, with the GL and SL becoming the Super Deluxe and Custom. Mitsubishi also lightly redesigned the Minica to accept the new, bigger license plates now required for Kei cars.

On 12 April 1976 (March for the Minica 5 Van), corresponding to revised kei car regulations of January 1976 (length up to 3.2 m, width to 1.4 m and engine size to 550 cc) both the sedan and the van received a new long-stroke 471 cc engine, a small increase in length (entirely due to new, larger bumpers), and a new name, the Minica 5. The Minica 5 was the first kei passenger car to meet the new regulations. Both models were also lightly facelifted, featuring new grilles, while equipment levels remained the same. While power output of the new Vulcan 2G22 did not change for the sedan (A104A), the van (A104V) received a lower powered  version thereof. The Minica 5 was a mere interim model, anticipating the more thoroughly revised Minica Ami 55 which was soon to arrive.

Fourth generation

In June 1977 the car and engine grew once again, creating the Minica Ami 55. While the side body panels remained the same, length increased yet a little more (3175 mm) and the entire car was widened by . The updated 546 cc Vulcan 2G23 engine provided  for the A105A. Its sibling, the Minica 55 Van (A105V) was updated in March 1977 and was almost impossible to distinguish from the previous Minica 5 Van, aside from badging and a slightly less plasticky front end. The bigger engine provided some useful additional torque, but the sporting Minicas of the early seventies were now a memory. The traditional (and unusual amongst Kei cars) Panhard layout remained.

September 1978 brought another engine upgrade: The new "Vulcan II" G23B featured the lean burn MCA-Jet emissions control system with a hemispherical head, aluminium rocker arms and three valves per cylinder, but power outputs remained static. The model code became A106, with A106V used for the van which continued to use the bodywork of the second generation.

In September 1981 the car received another redesign. An entire new rear end meant a slightly longer wheelbase (up to 2,050 mm) and a somewhat longer and taller body. The somewhat boxy rear end, still with a clamshell rear window, looked a bit incongruous paired with the original Minica F4 front wings and doors. The new Minica was renamed the Minica Ami L (A107A), but bigger news was that the Minica 55 Van, based on the 1969 A100V, was finally retired. The new A107V Minica Econo ("Econo" hinting at its primary use as a private economy car rather than as a commercial vehicle) looked very similar to the Ami L but featured a proper rear hatch and folding rear seat, allowing it to be registered as a light commercial vehicle like its competitors the Daihatsu Mira, Suzuki Alto and Subaru Rex. Cargo capacity, compared to the more workmanlike Minica 55 Van, was reduced from 300 to .

A two-speed, semi-automatic gearbox was also available on all models, while the standard four-speed manual received lower gearing for the Econo model. The engine was more quiet than before, featuring a milder cam profile. Power output of the G23B remained the same, although the Econo was stuck with a  version of the old 2G23 engine. Top speed of the Ami was . In December 1981 a strict two-seater version of the Econo was added. One year later, the Minica was sold with the new "MMC" logo rather than the old "three diamonds". In March 1983 the Minica Ami L Turbo became the first kei car to be offered with a turbocharger, offering  and glitzy graphics. This proved short-lived, as by January 1984 production of the A107 Minicas had ended, with Mitsubishi preparing for the release of an all new, front-wheel drive Minica.

Fifth generation

The fifth-generation Minica was introduced in February 1984 as a front engined, front wheel drive vehicle for the first time. It offered three- and five-door configurations, increased size and a torsion beam/coil spring rear suspension. With its "tall-boy" design it was much more spacious inside. It retained the G23B engine, but modernized with a timing belt rather than the old noisy timing chain. The Minica sedan had , the sparsely trimmed Econo commercial version , and the Turbo gained an intercooler and now offered . Air conditioning finally became an option. Reflecting the design improvements, Mitsubishi advertised the car as a worthy competitor for the considerably larger cars of the one-litre class. A considerable improvement on the old model, sales of the passenger model tripled year-on-year in its first month on the market. Sales of the Econo doubled.

In September 1985 a four-wheel drive model with a live rear axle was introduced. In January 1988, as the bubble economy and the kei-class horsepower war were both heating up, an aero-kit version of the Turbo was introduced to compete with Suzuki's Alto Works and Daihatsu's Mira Turbo TR-XX. Called the Turbo ZEO it was equipped with the same  carburetted engine as the regular Turbo model; sales were low. There was also a low-priced, well-equipped version of the Minica Econo called the Tico, as well as a new top-of-the-line five-door sedan called the Minica Exceed.

This generation was the first to reach export markets, usually labelled Mitsubishi Towny, originally with a two-cylinder 783 cc engine and a four-speed manual transmission. Beginning in March 1985, the Towny was also locally manufactured by CMC in Taiwan, only as a five-door. In 1987 a three-cylinder 796 cc engine with  and a five-speed gearbox replaced the earlier drivetrain; a three-door panel van was also marketed abroad.

Sixth generation

In January 1989 the sixth-generation Minica (H21/H26 for front- and four-wheel-drive models respectively) was officially introduced, although the engine, wheelbase, and suspension remained unchanged. In addition to the three-door vans (hatchbacks presumably intended for commercial use) and five-door "sedans" (hatchbacks for private use), a variant with a single door on the right side, two doors on the passenger side, and a liftgate was introduced, named the Minica Lettuce. This was originally a van with a foldable rear seat and flat loading floor, to meet special tax breaks available. In May 1989 the tax benefits were lowered and the Lettuce became classified as a sedan. A three-door passenger car version was introduced at the same time. The asymmetric Minica Lettuce was developed together with the Seiyu supermarket chain, which also sold the car directly. It was meant specifically to simplify the loading of children and shopping.

The pace of development in the Japanese automobile industry was relentless in the 1980s, leaving the fifth generation Minica looking rather outmoded towards the decade's end. Sales of the fifth generation had dropped to under 27,000 cars in 1988, while almost 77,000 Minicas were sold in 1989 (nearly all being of the new generation).

An advanced new turbocharged engine with double overhead cams and the world's first mass-produced five-valve-per-cylinder engine was introduced for the Dangan ZZ model, producing . The Dangan was originally a commercial vehicle, but became a passenger car in August 1989. It was later made available in naturally aspirated form as well, as the Dangan Si and Dangan Ri. In May 1991 an automatic option was added to the Dangan ZZ.

The van models gradually lost importance as their tax advantages were whittled away, with buyers increasingly going for the passenger models. In August 1989, however, a new commercial use model appeared in the form of the Minica Walk-Through Van. This version took full advantage of the maximum 2-metre height limitation on kei cars at .

The Kei car standards were altered for 1990, allowing for a  increase in length and an increase in displacement to 660 cc. The Minica's engine was now 657 cc, while the front bumper gained  and the rear bodywork was altered to grow by . The wheelbase remained unchanged, while a black plastic element was added behind the rear windows to fill the extra space. Chassis codes changed to H22 and H27. A tall three-door MPV model with optional four-wheel drive, the Minica Toppo, was also introduced in February 1990 - the Toppo, being developed before the new regulations were finalized, did not take full advantage of them and ended up  shorter than other kei cars. The Dangan Turbo only received its increase in displacement and increase in length in August 1990, six months after the rest of the range had been updated.

In January 1992 the range received a light facelift, along with some new models. New were the Piace and Milano sedans, celebrating the thirtieth anniversary of the Minica, and the Dangan ZZ-Limited which has standard ABS brakes. In January 1993, shortly before the line was replaced, the Milano Limited and Milano four-wheel-drive were added.

Export versions were still usually carrying the "Towny" label and featured an 800 cc  engine.

Seventh generation

In September 1993, the seventh-generation three- and five-door Minica and Minica Toppo were introduced, with longer wheelbase. The five-valve-per-cylinder three-cylinder engines were replaced with a pair of 659 cc four-cylinder engines; one normally aspirated with single overhead cam and four valves per cylinder, and one turbocharged with double overhead cam and five valves per cylinder. The Toppo continued to use the rear bodywork of the original Minica Toppo, combined with the new front-end design. A version of the Toppo with two doors on the passenger side, similar to the "Lettuce", was made available, along with a limited edition RV version.

In January 1997, versions of the Minica and Toppo with retro-styled front ends were introduced as the "Town Bee" model.

Eighth generation

The enlarged eighth-generation Minica was introduced in October 1998 to take advantage of the new regulations, as a pair of three-door and five-door sedans with torsion beam rear suspension and optional four-wheel drive, with the only available engine the 657 cc three-cylinder single overhead cam unit, now equipped with four valves per cylinder. This version is at the maximum exterior dimensions and engine displacement limits as defined in Japanese government regulations for cars classified as kei cars. A five-door MPV built on this platform but with a four-cylinder double overhead cam five-valve-per-cylinder turbocharged engine, known as the "Mitsubishi Toppo BJ" was also introduced. Front-wheel-drive models carry the H42 chassis code, four-wheel-drives are H47. This is followed by an "A" for passenger models and a "V" for commercials. This generation was exported in small numbers as the Mitsubishi Minica Towny, being sold in Singapore, Hong Kong, and some Caribbean markets.

In January 1999, the retrostyled Town Bee version of this generation of Minica and the "Mitsubishi Toppo BJ Wide" were introduced. In October 1999, a 659 cc four-cylinder single overhead cam four-valve-per-cylinder turbocharged engine was introduced, and in December 1999, a limited edition of 50 "Mitsubishi Pistachios" with a 1094 cc double overhead cam four-valve-per-cylinder direct-injection engine was made available only to organizations working to protect the environment. In October 2001, a five-door wagon version of the Minica was introduced as the Mitsubishi eK Wagon, and now serves as Mitsubishi's primary product in the "kei" class. Passenger versions were discontinued in 2007, while the models intended for commercial use continued to be built until 2011.

The Mitsubishi eK is a kei-car which is the successor of the Minica.

Legacy
The Filipino tongue twister Minekaniko ng mekaniko ni Monico ang makina ng Minica ni Monica (lit. "Monico's mechanic fixed the engine of Monica's Minica") refers to the Minica, which gained popularity in the Philippines during the Marcos dictatorship.

Notes

References
 GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica(first generation)
 GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica(second generation)
 GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica(third generation)
 GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica(fourth generation)
 GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica(fifth generation)
 GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica(sixth generation)
 GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica(seventh generation)
 GAZOO.com Mitsubishi Minica(eighth generation)

  This entry incorporates information from the equivalent entry in the Japanese Wikipedia at 9 January 2010.
  This entry incorporates information from the Mitsubishi 360 entry in the Japanese Wikipedia at 9 January 2010.

External links

Mitsubishi Minica
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Girolamo Siciolante da Sermoneta (1521 – c. 1580) began his career as an Italian  Mannerist painter but later adopted the reformist naturalism of Girolamo Muziano in the 1560s and 70s. He was active in Rome in the mid 16th century.

Native to Sermoneta, he was reputed to have been a pupil of Leonardo da Pistoia. His first known work is an altarpiece once in the Valvisciolo Abbey, now in the Palazzo Caetani in Rome. In Piacenza he painted a Holy Family with Saint Michael (1545–1546).  In 1548, he painted a Madonna with Six Saints for San Martino Maggiore in Bologna. In 1548-1549 In collaboration with Jacopino del Conte, he completed the Raphaelesque style frescoes depicting the Baptism of Clovis in the Remigius chapel of the church of San Luigi dei Francesi, which had been left unfinished by Perino del Vaga.

In the 1550s, he painted the Crucifixion as an altarpiece for the Spanish national church in Rome, San Giacomo degli Spagnoli, paid for by a donation from Prince Philip of Spain. Framed in marble, it was flanked by two side panels depicting St. Ildefonsus and St. James. The Crucifixion was later relocated to Santa Maria in Monserrato degli Spagnoli.

In the 1560s, he painted a Life of the Virgin for San Tommaso dei Cenci and a Crucifixion for San Giovanni in Laterano, both in Rome.

He was one of many Mannerist contributors to the Sala Regia of the Palazzo Quirinale. Also in Rome, he painted a Transfiguration for Santa Maria in Aracoeli; a Nativity for Santa Maria della Pace; and a Martyrdom of Saint Catherine for Santa Maria Maggiore in 1568. He painted a Virgin enthroned with saints for the church of San Bartolomeo at Ancona.

He painted a series of highly ornate frescoes for the Palazzo Baronale at Cisterna di Latina  (destroyed during World War II).

References

Sources

1521 births
1580s deaths
People from Sermoneta
Painters from Lazio
16th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Italian Mannerist painters

Girolamo Siciolante da Sermoneta


Alexander Mikhailovich Krasnoshchyokov (), real name Avraam Moiseevich Krasnoshchyok (; 10 October 1880 – 26 November 1937), was a Soviet politician and the first leader of the Far Eastern Republic, and later the first leading Bolshevik to be arrested by the government.

Early life
Born at Chernobyl, son of a Jewish shop assistant, he joined an illegal Marxist group as a teenager in 1896, and the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party soon after it was founded. He was arrested in 1898 and briefly imprisoned, before being exiled to Nikolaievsk where he met Leon Trotsky. After his release he returned to the Ukraine where he joined Martov in political agitation and organised a workers association in Ekaterinoslav. He was again arrested and imprisoned in 1901. On his release he found himself under constant police surveillance and in November 1902 escaped to Berlin to avoid exile in Siberia. In March 1903, he emigrated to the USA. His first job there was as a house painter. Later, he became a headmaster. He joined the Socialist Labor Party of America and worked as an agitator for the American Federation of Labor. Later he started studying at the University of Chicago at the Law School. In 1912 Alexander Krasnoshchyokov graduated from the University and started to work as lawyer. He defended striking workers in the 'Bread and Roses Strike' of 1913. After the February Revolution, he decided to return to Russia, travelling by ship from Vancouver via Japan, where he was interviewed by agents of the Russian Provisional Government.

Return to Russia
Krasnoshchyokov described his return to Russia in his memoirs: "I arrived in Vladivostok at the end of July 1917, and immediately joined the Bolshevik faction, was elected to the Soviet in August, and in September was elected to the town duma in Nikolsko-Ussuriysk and President of the Soviet of workers' and soldiers' deputies to represent the Bolsheviks."

After the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd (St Petersburg) in November 1917, Krasnoshchyokov led the drive to establish the new government's authority in the far east, against local resistance. He was president of the Far Eastern Soviet of People's Commissars, which was established in Khabarovsk in December 1917, and for about four months in summer 1918 had control of the entire Russian far east, until it was overthrown by the intervention of Czech, Japanese, British and American forces. Krasnoshchyokov then fled across the taiga, trying to reach territory controlled by the Red Army, but was captured near Samara and sent by 'death train' across Siberia to Irkutsk prison. He was released when the local administration in Irkutsk was overthrown by rioters on 28 December 1919.

Far Eastern Republic
In January 1920, with the civil war nearing an end, Krasnoshchyokov crossed the front line to reach Red Army headquarters in Tomsk, and persuaded Vladimir Lenin to create a democratic buffer state in the far east, to enable the allied troops in Siberia to withdraw without loss of face. He wrote the constitution of the Far Eastern Republic in English, before it was translated into Russian, served as first minister and minister for foreign affairs of the Far Eastern Republic from April 1920 to July 1921, and generally made a very good impression on the English and Americans who met him during this period, particularly the journalist H.K.Norton, who wrote an entire book eulogising Krasnoshchyokov's career.

The republic was recognised by the Japanese Army Command on 11 May 1920, and by Soviet Russia on 16 May 1920. Thanks to his efforts, the Gongota Agreement was signed 15 July 1920 with General Takayanagi of the Japanese Expeditionary Corps. This established a neutral zone between Verkhne-Udinsk and Chita, allowing the Japanese forces, who were under constant pressure from partisans, to withdraw from Transbaikalia without losing face. The Japanese completed this withdrawal (15 October 1920), and Chita was occupied by the partisan NRA 22 October 1920 despite some resistance by the White forces under General Verzhbitsky, who then withdrew south to join Semyonov in Manchuria. Krasnoshchyokov met General Eiche at Chita in early November and Chita became the capital of a state as large as Western Europe. The union of the FER with the Maritime province was finalised 10 November 1920.

Move to Moscow

Krasnoshchyokov was removed from office in April, ostensibly because he had contracted tuberculosis, though the real cause appears to have been that local Bolsheviks objected to his leadership style. In December 1921, he was appointed Second Deputy USSR People's Commissar in the People's Commissariat for Finance (Narkomfin), by Lenin, but against the objections of more left wing Bolsheviks, including the future Trotskyist, Yevgeni Preobrazhensky, who threatened to resign if the appointment was confirmed. In January, Lenin sent a note to the Politburo praising Krasnoshchyokov's "practical approach to financial matters" and insisting that the Politburo back the appointment "to the hilt".

In March 1922, Krasnoshchyokov contracted typhus, and during his absence, his rivals at Narkomfin sacked him. This evoked a long letter from Lenin to Molotov complaining that "We have harassed this man, who undoubtedly has brains, energy, knowledge and experience...We have done everything possible and impossible to repulse this highly energetic, intelligent and valuable worker" and insisting that he be appointed to the Presidium of Vesenkha The appointment was confirmed by the Politburo in April 1922. He used the opportunity in November 1922 to create Prombank, a new bank to promote trade and industry, leaving the state bank with only the regulation of money and credit, much to the annoyance of the Narkomfin.

In 1922 the American journalist Anna Louise Strong interviewed Krasnoshchyokov about the New Economic Policy (NEP) and about the departure from war communism. Krasnoshchyokov said:

We must say frankly to the people, "Your government cannot feed all and produce goods for all. We shall run the most necessary industries and feed the workers in those industries. The rest of you must feed yourselves in any way you can." This means we must allow private trade and private workshops; it is well if they succeed enough to feed those people who work in them, since no one else can feed them. Later, as state industries produce a surplus, these will expand and drive out private trade.

Arrest and trial

When Lenin had his third stroke in March 1923, Krasnoshchyokov lost his only protector. He had made powerful enemies, and appears to have become a focus for resentment against private entrepreneurs who were making money in the relaxed conditions of the New Economic Policy, often in enterprises built on loans provided by Krasnoshchyokov's bank. He was arrested on 19 September 1924 on  charges of corruption. Two weeks later, he was denounced in Pravda and Izvestiya by the People's Commissar for Workers' and Peasants' Inspection, Kuybyshev, who accused him of using state funds to pay for "disgraceful drunken sprees, enrich his relatives and so on.". It was the first time since the revolution that an eminent Bolshevik had been arrested, and was an overt challenge to Lenin's authority, and created a sensation. Vladimir Ipatiev, a scientist with no affiliation to the Bolsheviks, who was working in Moscow at the time, wrote in his memoirs that "rumours of his wild living were current throughout the city" though this may have only meant that rumours were being successfully put about by Stalin's political machine. Ipatiev was also probably repeating common gossip in his description of Krasnoshchokyov as "a resourceful, capable man but self-centred and hardly a communist out of conviction."

Krasnoshchyokov was tried in March 1924, along with his brother, Yakov, and four bank employees. The main charge a was that the bank had loaned Yakov a large sum at a favourable rate to enable him to set up a privately owned construction firm. He was also accused of paying himself an inflated salary. All six defendants denied the charges, but were found guilty. Alexander Krasnoshchyokov was sentenced to six years in prison and expelled from the communist party. His brother was sentenced to three years, and the other defendants to shorter terms.

Mayakovsky and Lili Brik
In 1922, Krasnoshchyokov had also begun a love affair with Lili Brik, whose most famous lover was the poet Vladimir Mayakovsky. Mayakovsky and Brik took care of his daughter, Llewella while he was in prison. In November 1924, Mayakovsky wrote to Brik from Paris complaining: "I love you but all the same you are either someone else's or not mine". She replied: "What can be done about it? I cannot give up A.M. while he is in prison. It would be shameful! More shameful than anything in my entire life." Mayakovsky replied: "Are you really trying to tell me that is...the only thing that prevents you from being with me?"
.

Later life
Krasnoshchyokov was held in the Lefortovo prison in Moscow, where he contracted pneumonia in November 1924.  He was transferred then to the government hospital near the Kremlin. He was released under amnesty in January 1925 and sent to Yalta to recover. He returned to Moscow in autumn 1925 to work for the Ministry of Agriculture and devoted his energies to improving the cotton crop in Central Asia. By 1930 he was head of an institute dedicated to development of cotton and other fibre crops. He married Donna Gruz and they had twin girls in 1934. He was arrested in July 1937, sentenced to death for espionage on 25 November, and was one of several prominent former Bolsheviks shot on 26 November 1937. He was rehabilitated posthumously in 1956, three years after Stalin's death.

References

1880 births
1937 deaths
People from Chornobyl
People from Radomyslsky Uyezd
Ukrainian Jews
Jews from the Russian Empire
Soviet Jews
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
Members of the Socialist Labor Party of America
Russian Social Democratic Labour Party members
Old Bolsheviks
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Government ministers of the Far Eastern Republic
Bolshevik finance
Jewish socialists
History of Zabaykalsky Krai
University of Chicago Law School alumni
People of the Russian Civil War
Great Purge victims from Ukraine
Jews executed by the Soviet Union
Soviet rehabilitations

Alexander Krasnoshchyokov


In social justice theory, internalized oppression is a recognized understanding in which an oppressed group accepts the methods and incorporates the oppressive message of the oppressing group against their own best interest. Rosenwasser (2002) defines it as believing, adopting, accepting, and incorporating the negative beliefs provided by the oppressor as the truth.

It occurs as a part of socialisation in an oppressive environment. Members of marginalized groups assimilate the oppressive view of their own group and consequently affirm negative self-stereotypes. This creates a detrimental impact on their psychosocial well-being and self-systems, leading them to produce and reproduce stress-induced disadvantageous behavioral responses and habit formation. As a result, they form and perpetuate an "assaulted sense of self" by not intentionally and deliberately engaging in active responsibility for their own well-being, and by not proactively acting as agents of change that foster their group's well-being (e.g., counterspaces).

Depending on the form of discrimination, types of internalized oppression include internalized racism, internalized homophobia, internalized sexism, and auto-antisemitism.

Types

Internalized oppression occurs as a result of psychological injury caused by external oppressive events (e.g., harassment and discrimination), and it has a negative impact on individuals' self system (e.g., self-esteem, self-image, self-concept, self-worth, and self-regulation). The trauma of internalized oppression is amplified by repetitive exposure to explicit violence such as segregation and discrimination, as well as implicitly through various forms of oppressive microprocesses and insidious microaggressions (e.g., privaition of inclusion and peripheralizing). It may manifest on an individual or group level, and may form as base for in-group conflict and further discrimination that can be hurtful and limiting.

Internalized racism is about fostering a negative attitude towards one's own race, created by the oppressing race, and nurturing a positive attitude towards the oppressor's race (e.g., race traitor). As a result, it leads individuals to experience chronic self-hatred and deny their membership in their own racial group. Over time, it can be an effect of internalized colonialism. As heirs of ingrained assimilation to the oppressor's truth, the colonized people gradually accept the oppressor's norm as the norm to follow, often unintentionally and without being aware of it. An example of internalized colonialism on self-perception is the practice of skin whitening (see colorism), which is found in Africa and Asia.

Internalized homophobia, also known as internalized heterosexism, occurs in the LGBT community when individuals adopt a culture's heterosexist attitudes. It has a positive correlation with psychological distress and a negative correlation with self-esteem. Internalized homophobia is strongly associated with guilt and shame (especially among youth) and has been linked to increased anxiety, depression and suicide.

In internalized sexism, individuals (generally women) adopt oppressive attitudes towards their gender which are held by their culture. An example is slut-shaming, where women criticize transgressions of accepted codes of sexual conduct on themselves and other women.

Internalized oppression may also exist among immigrants, and based upon the transgenerational trauma, it may affect their descendants as well. If the host community devalues a foreigner's ethnic origin, native language or culture, an immigrant is led to feel inferior. This can lead to self-hatred, which manifests itself in an exaggerated conformity to dominant norms. An immigrant may cope to it by assimilating and acculturating.

Causes
Internalized oppression "occurs when a person comes to internalize oppressive prejudices and biases about the identity group(s) to which he or she belongs". It occurs when "[s]ocial oppression such as racism, sexism, ableism, classism, heterosexism, gender and religious oppression, and anti-Semitism" are "implanted by and [work] toward the benefit of any dominant group. Internalized oppression "depends on systemically limiting, blocking, and undermining" the "success, innovation, and power" of oppressed individuals or groups. Some individuals will copy (and internalize) "institutionalized rejection of difference," failing "to examine the distortions which result from ... misnaming [these differences] and their effects on human behavior and expectations."

Effects

"If women are surrounded by people who view them as subordinate, incapable, or lacking control over their actions, women are likely to come to understand themselves in a similar way, even if subconsciously." Internalized oppression fosters the beliefs that the self cannot be autonomous, is unworthy of wielding power, and is little more than an object of sexual gratification (see sexual objectification). "Psychological oppression can be damaging to a person's moral relationship with the self ... Since those who have internalized oppressive prejudices often engage in behavior that further perpetuates these biases, internalized oppression is not only a symptom of an oppressive social climate, but it also represents a mechanism for its continued existence". According to University of Massachusetts Amherst doctoral students Valerie Joseph and Tanya O. Williams, "Deep racial self-negation[,] ... internalized racial hatred [and] internalized oppression ... stymied [their] growth as people and scholars [and] inhibited [their] ability to be…profound, strong, and beautiful ..." Individuals can be made to feel "implicated in a project of compliance with the values and goals" of the dominant society. Internalized oppression may also occur in disabled individuals, who may distance themselves from others with disabilities to avoid associating themselves with those who may be viewed by society as "weak" or "lazy". Nabina Liebow wrote, "People of color who internalize stereotypes regarding criminality and moral deviance ... can  ... view themselves as outlaws in the moral community" and may "engage in behavior that further perpetuates these biases ... Fulfilling these stereotypes further pushes someone outside the moral fold and intensifies one's damaged moral identity ... [I]nternalizing stereotypes about criminality and moral deviance can lead to a pervasive feeling of guilt ... Persistent feelings of guilt can result in mental-health setbacks such as depression" and "repeated exposure to guilt and similar feelings has been linked with a range of health challenges such as "dysfunctional coping, abdominal obesity, and glucose intolerance complicit in the development of Type 2 diabetes".

Manifestations
According to Audre Lorde, manifestations of internalized oppression include voluntary isolation. She describes the relationship between older members of an oppressed group and younger members of the same group as "contemptible or suspect or excess." This generation gap leads to "historical amnesia", with oppressed minorities repeating the learning process and failing to convey knowledge to subsequent generations. Lorde cites oppressed individuals as "encouraged to pluck out some one aspect of [one]self and present this as the meaningful whole, eclipsing or denying the other parts of the self"; they may hesitate to breach the false stereotypes surrounding them or verbalize resistance to violence. The most common manifestation is self-hatred.

Racial manifestations include "multifaceted and extreme psychological, social, and economic self-sabotage"; a tendency to "defer to whites", and feelings of being "not black enough". The self is viewed as a diminished, deviant, criminal and undeserving moral agent. Sandra Bartky identified disturbances in body image, gender expression and power dynamics as manifestations of internalized sexism in women.

Remedies
According to Audre Lorde, "[T]he master's tools will never dismantle the master's house ... My fullest concentration of energy is available to me only when I integrate all the parts of who I am, openly, allowing power from the particular sources of my living to flow back and forth freely through all my different selves, without the restrictions of externally imposed definition". "To root out internalized patterns of oppression" women must "recognize differences among women who are our equals, neither inferior nor superior, and devise ways to use each other's difference to enrich our visions and our joint struggles …to identify and develop new definitions of power and new patterns of relating across difference ... sharpen[ing] self-definition by exposing the self in work and struggle together with those whom we define as different from ourselves, although sharing similar goals".

To understand and overcome internalized oppression, Joseph and Williams developed a workshop to "introduce and discuss issues of socialization, stereotyping, internalized oppression, and domination." This "social justice education model ... encouraged an agent/target model of leadership" in which representatives of the oppressor and oppressed classes joined together to guide "participants in developing a plan of action to address racism." They recommended that fear "left over about discussing race, racism, and internalized racism" be set aside to "talk forthrightly, honestly, reflectively, and thoughtfully about race", and the "need to voice ... hurt, the need to surface realities, the need to shine light on a history that was and continues to be ignored" is greater than the fear of discussing the issues. The internally oppressed must learn how they have been indoctrinated, to "engage in a process of rejecting internalized subordination as an everyday choice".

Related theories

French philosopher Michel Foucault "has argued that the rise of parliamentary institutions and of new conceptions of political liberty was accompanied by a darker counter-movement, by the emergence of a new and unprecedented discipline directed against the body. More is required of the body now than mere political allegiance or the approbation of the products of its labor: the new discipline invades the body and seeks to regulate its very forces and operations, the economy and efficiency of its movements ... the production of 'docile bodies' requires that an uninterrupted coercion be directed to the very processes of bodily activity, not just their result; this 'micro-physics of power' fragments and partitions the body's time, its space, and its movements".

The 18th-century English philosopher Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon is a theoretical model of Foucault's ideas. Its constant state of surveillance, imposed by an oppressive external force, serves to induce in the inmate a state of consciousness and permanent visibility that assures the automatic functioning of power'; each becomes to himself his own jailer".

See also
 Learned helplessness
 Passing (racial identity)
 Social reproduction

References

Social justice terminology
Majority–minority relations
Social privilege

Internalized oppression


Bostwick is a historic home located a short distance below Lowndes Hill, the present-day property of Bladensburg Elementary School in Bladensburg, Prince George's County, Maryland, United States. According to its date plaque, it was built in 1746 by Christopher Lowndes (1713-1785).  The house was later the home of Lowndes' son-in-law, Benjamin Stoddert (1751-1813), first Secretary of the Navy. Colonel Thomas H. Barclay (Tory in the American Revolution; brother-in-law of Lt. Colonel Beverly Robinson; first British consul appointed in New York after the peace of 1783; British agent for prisoners of war in War of 1812) resided at "Bostwick," the oldest surviving structure at Bladensburg.  Located nearby is the Market Master's House, also built by Lowndes.

Bostwick is a -story brick structure laid up in Flemish bond. A basement and ground level lies under the entire house. The gable roof, with dormer windows, is slightly belled at the eaves. The main (west) facade is five bays with a central doorway. A one-story porch extends across the front, and the pedimented central bay of the porch projects forward. "C.L. 1746" in wrought lead painted black is embedded high in the south chimney.  Also on the south side is a distinctive buttress added about 1800 by Stoddert, who was concerned about a crack in the wall on that side of the house.  At the base of the buttress are two dungeons or cells.  A gable-roofed common bond brick detached kitchen stands northeast of the house. Southeast of the house are several 19th century outbuildings and a barn.

Bostwick was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. The house suffered damage to the north chimney and roof in the August 2011 east coast earthquake. In 2012, Preservation Maryland placed Bostwick on its list of threatened historic properties.

References

External links
, including photo in 1997, at Maryland Historical Trust website

Historic American Buildings Survey in Maryland
Houses in Prince George's County, Maryland
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland
National Register of Historic Places in Prince George's County, Maryland
Bladensburg, Maryland

Bostwick (Bladensburg, Maryland)