Sully v. Drennan, 113 U.S. 287 (1885), was an appeal from an order of the Circuit Court for the Southern District of Iowa in the United States remanding to the state court a case which had been removed from the state into the circuit court.

The suit was brought originally in the district court of the state by James N. Drennan and others, taxpayers of Prairie Township, in the County of Mahaska.

Allegations
The allegations of the bill for this case were that on May 11, 1880, the voters of said township voted a tax of three percent upon the taxable property of said township to aid in constructing a railroad by a company whose name was afterwards lawfully changed to that of the Chicago, Burlington and Pacific Railroad Company. That by the order and notice submitting the question to vote, it was provided that one-half of the tax should be collected the first year and one-half the second year; the said road to be fully completed and running to a depot within the Sharon, Iowa, in said township, before the tax is due and collectible by the said railroad company, and if not built within two years from the day of the election, said tax never to be collectible. That the railroad was not completed to a depot in Sharon within two years from the date of the vote. That it was not completed from Sharon to any other town.

That Morgan, president of the railroad company and another director, pending the consideration of the matter by the voters, made false and fraudulent representations to them that the company had arrangements with the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad Company, and the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad Company, by which either of these companies would build and equip the road to the Town of Sharon as soon as the tax was voted. That the railroad company, by its officers and agents, are demanding of the trustees of the township that they certify to the County Treasurer of Mahaska County that the conditions required by said vote have been complied with, and are threatening, by suits against them and otherwise, to compel them to make such certificate, and petitioners fear that said trustees will yield and make the certificate unless restrained by the act of the court.

They averred that one Alfred Sully claims some interest in the tax, and ask that he be made a party to the suit so that he may be estopped by the judgment. They said the tax is illegal and void for many reasons, and prayed for an injunction against the trustees from certifying to the county treasurer that the conditions of the vote have been complied with, and the county treasurer, John H. Warren, and his successor in office, and the Chicago, Burlington and Pacific Railroad Company, and Alfred Sully, from in any manner attempting to collect said tax or from endeavoring to procure said certificate from the trustees of Prairie Township.

The notice, which in the Iowa practice stands for the original writ, was returnable to the May term, 1883, and service acknowledged by the trustees and treasurer on 20th day of March, and on the railroad company, March 29. The day required for the appearance and pleading of the defendants was May 11.

Injunction
A temporary injunction was granted September 13, 1883. It seems that on 15th day of May, the case was, by order of the judge of the district court, who had been of counsel in it, transferred to the circuit court of the same county, the judge of which granted the injunction. At the October term of this Court, all the parties, including Sully, who had not been served with notice, appeared. A demurrer was interposed by Sully, and overruled. Many motions were made and decided about the pleadings, and the railroad company, Sully, and Warren filed a joint answer denying the right to the relief prayed. The pleadings were finally made up at this term.

At the next term of that court, in May, the application of Sully to remove the case into the United States court was made on the ground that he was a citizen of the State of New York, and all the other parties were citizens of Iowa. He claimed to have an assignment from the railroad company of the right to the taxes. The state court refused to make the order, and Sully took a transcript of the record and filed it in the Circuit Court for the Southern District of Iowa. When the attention of that court was called to the matter, the case was remanded to the state court, and from that order this appeal is taken.

Opinion of the Court

Justice Miller delivered the opinion of the Court. He recited the facts as above stated and continued:

We think the order remanding the case was well made.

1. Mr. Sully is the only defendant who is not a citizen of Iowa. The other defendants, against whom relief is sought, are the railroad company, the trustees of Prairie Township, and the treasurer of the county. All of these are proper parties, and are necessary parties against whom positive and affirmative relief is sought.

Without deciding whether the railroad company could assign the right to sue for and enforce these taxes to Mr. Sully, it is sufficient to say that the assignment did not carry that right to him discharged of the equities between the company and the taxpayers, as if they had been negotiable bonds. To any suit, therefore, to invalidate this tax the company was a necessary party. It is especially so in equity, where the matter set up to defeat the tax, as in this case, was the failure of the company to comply with the conditions of the vote, and its false and fraudulent representations by which the vote was secured. In such a suit, the company has a right to defend against these allegations, and the plaintiffs have a right that the company shall be bound by the judgment in the case. The interest of Sully and the company in this controversy are the same, and are both opposed to the interests of plaintiffs. This railroad company is organized under the laws of Iowa, and is a citizen of that state as well as plaintiffs.

2. The township trustees are also citizens of Iowa. These are not nominal parties, and their interest is not identical with that of plaintiffs. What may be their personal wishes is not known, nor is it material. They are sued in regard to their official position to restrain them in the threatened exercise of their official authority, to the prejudice of plaintiffs. The exercise of this power lies at the root of plaintiffs' case, and of defendants' rights. The statute of Iowa which authorizes this vote by a township declares that the money collected under it, shall be paid out by the county treasurer

at any time after the trustees of the township, or a majority of them, shall have certified to the county treasurer that the conditions required of the railroad and set forth in the notice for the special election at which the tax was voted, have been complied with.

Until this is done, no right to the money accrues to the railroad company, or anyone else. The act here required of the trustees is not a mere ministerial one. It requires them to ascertain and decide what was required of the company by the notice, with the meaning of its terms, and, when they have construed these, to ascertain as a matter of fact whether they have been complied with.

So important is this action to Sully and to the railroad company that the bill alleges they are seeking to drive them to make the certificate by threats of expensive litigation, and it is said in the brief that Sully has resorted already to a writ of mandamus. Are these trustees nominal parties? Are they, in their official action, on the same side of this controversy with plaintiffs? If they were, there would be no necessity to sue out an injunction to prevent them from issuing this certificate. If there is any nominal party, or any party unnecessary to the relief sought by plaintiffs, it is Sully, for if plaintiffs can procure a decree enjoining the trustees from making that certificate, their relief is sufficient, if not complete. So of the treasurer, Warren, who, so far from siding with plaintiffs in the suit, has joined Sully and the railroad company in a demurrer to the bill, and in his answer denies the merits.

The case of Harter v. Kernochan, 103 U. S. 562, is cited in opposition to this view of the case. But in that case, negotiable bonds had been issued and were in the hands of Kernochan as a bona fide holder. The case between him and the township of Harter was a very different one from the present case. In that case, the whole right was vested in Kernochan, and the whole matter in controversy could be determined between him and the township. In the suit as brought in the state court in that case, the officers who were served with the writ made default, and a notice by publication against the unknown owner of the bonds being unanswered, a default was taken against them, and a decree made enjoining all proceedings to collect the bonds. Under a statutory provision, Kernochan came in due time and, alleging himself to be a holder of the bonds, the default as to the unknown owner was set aside and he was permitted to answer. As to the other defendants, they were now out of the case, and Kernochan being a citizen of another state, removed the case into the circuit court of the United States.

The difference between the two cases was obvious.

The judgment of the circuit court, remanding the case, was affirmed.

See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 113

References

External links

United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Waite Court
1885 in United States case law

Sully v. Drennan


The Novice ("Mtsyri", Мцыри in Russian, distortion of Georgian მწირი /mts'iri/) is a poem by Mikhail Lermontov written in 1839 and first published in 1840, hailed as "one of the last examples of the classic Russian romantic poetry," according to the Lermontov Encyclopedia.

Background
Some Russian scholars (like S. Durylin) consider three poems – "The Confession", Boyarin Orsha and Mtsyry as three different executions of one original idea. In 1831 15-year-old Lermontov wrote in his diary: "To write the tale of a young 17-year old monk who's lived in a monastery from childhood. Read nothing but the sacred books. The passionate soul, he feels imprisoned..."

The poem's central episode, Mtsyri's fight with a wild cat was apparently based on the traditional Georgian folklore; there are 14 versions of the old Georgian song "Young Man and a Tiger", one of which (the Khevsur song) has been used by Shota Rustaveli in his epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin.

Citing the poet's relatives Akim Shan-Girey and Akim Khastatov, biographer Pavel Viskovatov suggested the following version of the poem's background:While travelling along the old Georgian Military Road and collecting the local tales and legends (which later have been incorporated into the new version of the Demon poem), Lermontov in Mtskheta came across an old Beri, a Georgian monk, a guardian and the last surviving member of the local monastery that had been closed earlier. Lermontov had a conversation with him and learned that he was a highlander imprisoned by General Yermolov during the latter's Caucasian campaign. The boy fell ill and the general left him for local monks to take care for. Here he grew up but couldn't get used to his new home and made several attempts to escape. One such attempt proved to be all but fatal: he fell severely ill, nearly died and after that apparently submitted to his fate and even became friends with an elderly Georgian monk. This emotional tale impressed Lermontov. He used parts of his earlier poems, "The Confession" and Boyarin Orsha, merged them into one, added new details and took the story from Spain and (in case of Orsha) Lithuania to Georgia, making the best of this chance to extol the free and daring spirit of Caucasian highlanders he admired, and to praise the beauty of the Caucasian mountains that he loved.
Some scholars (I.Andronnikov, A.Lyubovich) later questioned the reliability of such version, others pointed out that taking away native Caucasian people's children was common practice for the Russian officers, and painter P.Z. Zakharov, an ethnic Chechen, has been brought to Tiflis personally by General Yermolov. Lermontov might have been aware of Zakharov's life drama, noted biographer L.N.Nazarova.

History
The exact date of the poem's completion, according to the autograph, was August 5, 1839. According to the same manuscript, Mtsyri was called originally Beri (A Monk, in Georgian) and featured an epigraph ("On n'a qu'une seule patria", There is only one fatherland) which later had been crossed out by the author. It was this hand-written document that allowed researchers decades later to return into the poem two fragments cut out by censors. Those were the two lines from Verse 8 ("...To learn if it if for freedom or for prison that we are born into this world") and seven lines from the penultimate Verse 25 ("...But what's in it for me? Should my spirit finds itself in Paradise, this saintly heavenly place, I'd throw away both Paradise and the Eternity // For just one chance to spend several minutes among those dark steep rock where I used to play as a child".)

Links
Full text in English translation

References

1840 poems
Poetry by Mikhail Lermontov

The Novice (poem)


The Hippiatrica (Greek: Ἱππιατρικά) is a Byzantine compilation of ancient Greek texts, mainly excerpts, dedicated to the care and healing of the horse. The texts were probably compiled in the fifth or sixth century AD by an unknown editor. Currently, the compilation is preserved in five recensions in 22 manuscripts (containing 25 copies) ranging in date from the 10th to the 16th centuries AD.

Contents
Seven texts from Late Antiquity constitute the main sources of the Hippiatrica: the veterinary manuals of Apsyrtus, Eumelus (a veterinary practitioner in Thebes, Greece) Hierocles, Hippocrates, and Theomnestus, as well as the work of Pelagonius (originally a Latin text translated into Greek), and the chapter on horses from the agricultural compilation of Anatolius. Although the aforementioned authors allude to their classical Greek veterinary predecessors (i.e. Xenophon and Simon of Athens), the roots of their tradition mainly lie in Hellenistic agricultural literature derived from Mago of Carthage. In the 10th century AD, two more sources from Late Antiquity were added to the Hippiatrica: a work by Tiberius and an anonymous set of Prognoses and Remedies (Greek: Προγνώσεις καὶ ἰάσεις). Content-wise, the sources in the Hippiatrica provide no systematic exposition of veterinary art and emphasize practical treatment rather than on aetiology or medical theory. However, the compilation contains a wide variety of literary forms and styles: proverbs, poetry, incantations, letters, instructions, prooimia, medical definitions, recipes, and reminiscences. In the entire Hippiatrica, the name of Cheiron, the Greek centaur associated with healing and linked with veterinary medicine, appears twice (as a deity) in the form of a rhetorical invocation and in the form of a spell; a remedy called a cheironeion (Greek: χειρώνειον) is named after the mythological figure.

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

Byzantine literature
Byzantine medicine
History of veterinary medicine
Horse health

Hippiatrica


Idiopathic hypoglycemia is a medical condition in which the glucose level in the blood (blood glucose) is abnormally low due to an undeterminable cause. This is considered an incomplete and unsatisfactory diagnosis by physicians and is rarely used by endocrinologists, as it implies an unfinished diagnostic evaluation. In general, the more severe the hypoglycemia and the more clearly it is proven, the less likely it is to remain "idiopathic". Idiopathic hypoglycemia can also be a synonym for reactive hypoglycemia or for hypoglycemia that is not diagnosed by a physician and does not fulfill the Whipple triad criteria. A more precise term for that condition is idiopathic postprandial syndrome.

See also
 Hyperinsulinism

References

Disorders of endocrine pancreas

Idiopathic hypoglycemia


The Thornicroft's giraffe (giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti), also known as Thornicroft giraffe or Rhodesian giraffe, is a subspecies of giraffe. Thornicroft giraffes do not have any captive populations. Fewer than 1,500 remain in the wild. Rhodesian giraffes have star or leafy shaped spots that extend to their leg. These girrafes are restricted to eastern Zambia and the Luangwa Valley.The Luangwa national parks were declared game reserves because conservationist wanted to conserve the Thorncroft Giraffe,uniqui to the Luangwa valley of Zambia,Like all giraffes, Rhodesian giraffes share the same ancestors with deer and bovids.

Mammals of Africa

Thornicroft's giraffe


Verzo is a Czech company, which was established in 2010 and is engaged in the manufacture of mobile phones, respectively. smartphones. Their first model Verzo Kinzo was in design introduced in the second half of August 2011. Unusual appearance of the mobile phone is the work of Czech design studio Novaque belonging to MgA. Petr Novák. Technical parameters were introduced in October 2011. The subsequent sale was launched in the same term throughout Europe and the USA.
Although the design and project plans were created in the Czech Republic, the production of the device is for economic reasons in Taiwan. The company presents themselves to distinguish from their competitors promising exemplary service, customer care and a community of users to which the wishes and requirements should be taken into account in further development.

Verzo Kinzo is the first model in which the brand enters the market, its presentation was held in October 2011. The phone has a 1 GHz processor, 512 MB RAM, 4.3" touchscreen, 5 Mpx camera and works on operating system Android with its own user interface Verzo GUI.

References

External links

Mobile phone companies of the Czech Republic
Consumer electronics brands
Czech brands
Manufacturing companies based in Prague
Czech companies established in 2010
Manufacturing companies established in 2010

Verzo


The Fifth Avenue Synagogue (קהלת עטרת צבי, Congregation Ateret Tsvi) is an Orthodox Jewish synagogue located at 5 East 62nd Street between Fifth and Madison Avenues in the Upper East Side neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City.

Founding
The synagogue was founded in 1958, by former members of Congregation Zichron Ephraim (now called Park East Synagogue) who opposed that congregation's decision to seat men and women together during services. Henry Hirsch, Myrtle Hirsch, Leib Merkin and Hermann Merkin were among the congregation's founders. Author Herman Wouk was an early member of the Fifth Avenue Synagogue.

Rabbi Emanuel Rackman was chosen in 1967 to succeed Rabbi Immanuel Jakobovits, who had been the founding Rabbi of the congregation in 1959 and been elected to serve as Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth. Rabbi Rackman served until 1977, when he was selected to serve as President of Bar-Ilan University. Rabbi Nisson Shulman served as the congregation's rabbi from 1977 until 1985. Rabbi Sol Roth assumed the leadership of the synagogue in 1986. Rabbi Yaakov Kermaier assumed leadership of Fifth Avenue Synagogue in 2003 and made aliyah with his family in 2015.

Rabbi Eli Babich, who was the associate Rabbi of Fifth Avenue Synagogue since 2013, was named the head Rabbi in 2019 . The Chazzan is the noted cantor Joseph Malovany.

Building
The stone-clad building was designed by Percival Goodman, an architect who described himself as "an agnostic who was converted by Hitler." Goodman sought to interpret Jewish tradition in modern ways in the more than 50 synagogues he designed. Herman Wouk described Goodman's design as a "traditional Sephardic layout" with the bimah and aron in the center area facing rows of seats, thereby taking advantage of the depth of the property. In May, 2010, a new mikvah at the Fifth Avenue Synagogue was dedicated. Funding for construction was provided by Ira Rennert and family.

In popular culture

The synagogue appeared as a "cool 1950's apartment house" in a 2003 advertisement for the Infiniti Q45 luxury car in an ad created by the TBWA\Chiat\Day. The agency received permission to use the building in the background of the shot under the proviso that it not be identifiable, so the address on the awning was changed to the non-existent "63003 77th Street". The congregation was paid an undisclosed fee.

In the 1986 Woody Allen film, Hannah and her Sisters the building is panned across while being criticized for its architectural incongruity — "That's disgusting. That's really terrible." — after a shot of the consistent facades of the rest of the block.

References
Notes

External links

Synagogues in Manhattan
Orthodox synagogues in New York City
Upper East Side
Jewish organizations established in 1958
1958 establishments in New York City
Merkin family
Synagogues completed in 1958
Percival Goodman synagogues
Modernist architecture in New York City

Fifth Avenue Synagogue


Kristina Borjesson is a  freelance journalist. She edited an award-winning collection of essays, Into the Buzzsaw: Leading Journalists Expose the Myth of a Free Press (2002), for which she wrote a chapter detailing her investigation of the TWA Flight 800 crash. Into the Buzzsaw won the Arthur Rowse Award for Press Criticism and an Independent Publishers Award in the current events category.  The book was also a New York Public Library "Books to Remember"selection.  Borjesson's second book, Feet to the Fire: The Media After 9/11, Top Journalists Speak Out contains a series of interviews with distinguished American journalists and news executives discussing the problems of press coverage of the run-up to the Iraq War as well as the war itself. Feet to the Fire also won the Independent Publishers Award in the current events category.

In July 2013, TWA Flight 800, a feature-length investigative film Borjesson wrote, produced and directed, was released on the Epix premium cable channel.  In the film, former members of the original government investigation into the  mid-air explosion of a 747 off the coast of Long Island, New York on July 17, 1996, come forward to discuss how the original investigation was undermined. They also present forensic evidence showing what happened to the jetliner.  Previously, Borjesson won an Emmy for investigative reporting and a Murrow award for her work as Field Producer/Reporter for the CBS Reports documentary, "Legacy of Shame," updating CBS's signature documentary on migrant farmworkers, "Harvest of Shame" with Edward R. Murrow. Borjesson also produced and co-wrote the CBS Reports biography of Cuba's Fidel Castro titled "The Last Revolutionary," which was Emmy-nominated. For CNN's "NewsStand" show, she produced several lead pieces, including a two-part investigation of the business practices of Hollywood agents and managers.

In September 2013, Borjesson released on Amazon Kindle her first work of fiction, The Reptile Club Librarian, a book based on the life of a man who spent most of his professional life working both sides of the law. She currently hosts The Whistleblower Newsroom, a one-hour radio show airing on the Progressive Radio Network that is subsequently uploaded onto podcast platforms including PodBean and YouTube.

Books
Editor, Into the Buzzsaw: Leading Journalists Expose the Myth of a Free Press.   (Prometheus Books, hardcover, 2002);  (Prometheus Books, revised and expanded paperback, 2004).
Author, FEET TO THE FIRE: The Media After 9/11, Top Journalists Speak Out,  (Prometheus Books, hardcover, 2005).
Author, The Reptile Club Librarian. ASIN B00F2MRSE2 (Amazon Kindle, 2013)

References

The Whistleblower Newsroom

Living people
American freelance journalists
1954 births

Kristina Borjesson


Arif Butt (; 17 May 1944 – 11 July 2007) was a Pakistani Test cricketer.

Born in Lahore, Punjab, Butt made his first-class debut for Lahore against Punjab University in 1960-61 at the age of 16. He learned his cricket at the Friends Cricket Club of Lahore, coached by his uncle Khawaja Abdur Rab, and went on to play first-class cricket for Pakistan Railways from 1962-63 until his retirement after the 1977-78 season. He was a tall fast-medium bowler and useful batsman.

He made his Test debut for Pakistan at Melbourne in 1964-65, taking 6 for 89 in the first innings, becoming the first Pakistani to take 6 wickets on Test debut. He also opened the batting in the Pakistan's second innings, in place of injured wicket keeper Abdul Kadir, making 12 and defying the Australian new ball attack for almost an hour.

In the tour of New Zealand that followed, Butt played in the first two of the three Tests, taking 7 wickets at 24.28. In what turned out to be his last Test innings, in partnership with Intikhab Alam, he added 52 runs for the ninth wicket to help secure a close-fought draw.

He bowled a hostile bouncer and a genuine leg cutter and was considered unlucky to play only three Tests at a time when Pakistan often struggled to find effective fast bowlers.  He toured England in 1967 but "flopped completely", taking 12 wickets at 54.50 in nine matches.

He scored a defiant maiden century against Karachi in the 1966–67 Quaid-i-Azam Trophy final and, in 1973-74, captained Railways to victory in the Patron's Trophy and the Quaid-e-Azam trophy.  He took 6 for 55 against Sindh in the Quaid final and scored 718 runs in that season, including a career best 180 as an opening bat against Punjab.  His best bowling figures were 8 for 45 for Railways against Sargodha in 1972-73.

He died from heart and lung complications arising from diabetes.  His funeral in Lahore was attended by a host of former cricketers and officials including Sarfraz Nawaz.

See also
 List of Pakistan cricketers who have taken five-wicket hauls on Test debut

References

External links

1944 births
2007 deaths
Pakistan Test cricketers
Cricketers who have taken five wickets on Test debut
Pakistani cricketers
Lahore cricketers
Lahore A cricketers
Pakistan Railways cricketers
Central Zone (Pakistan) cricketers
North Zone (Pakistan) cricketers

Arif Butt


Adam Murimuth (1274/751347) was an English ecclesiastic and chronicler.

Life
He was born in 1274 or 1275 and studied civil law at the University of Oxford. Between 1312 and 1318 he practised in the papal curia at Avignon. King Edward II of England and Archbishop Robert Winchelsey were among his clients, and his legal services secured for him canonries at Hereford and St Paul's, and the precentorship of Exeter Cathedral. In 1331 he retired to country living (in Wraysbury, Buckinghamshire), and devoted himself to writing the history of his own times.

Works
The chronicle he wrote of his times is entitled "Chronicon, sive res gestae sui temporis quibus ipse interfuit, res Romanas et Gallicas Anglicanis intertexens, 1302-1343" (Cottonian Library MSS., Claudius E VIII). His Continuatio chronicarum, begun not earlier than 1325, starts from the year 1303, and continues up to 1347, the year of his death. Meagre at first, it becomes fuller about 1340 and is specially valuable for the history of the French wars. Murimuth gives a bald narrative of events, incorporating many documents in the latter part of his book. The annals of St. Paul's edited by Bishop William Stubbs are closely related to the work of Murimuth, but probably not from his pen. The Continuatio was carried on, after his death, by an anonymous writer to the year 1380.

The only complete edition of the Continuatio chronicarum is that by Edward Maunde Thompson (Rolls series, 1889). The preface to this edition, and to William Stubbs's Chronicles of Edward I and II, vol. i. (Rolls series, 1882), should be consulted. The anonymous continuation is printed in Thomas Hog's edition of Murimuth (Eng. Hist. Soc., London, 1846).

References

1270s births
1347 deaths
14th-century English historians
14th-century English Roman Catholic priests
English chroniclers

Adam Murimuth


Wilhelm Werner Müller (1 June 1946 – 15 July 2019) was a German businessman and politician. He served as Federal Minister for Economic Affairs and Energy from 1998 to 2002. He then became CEO of RAG AG from 2003, of which Evonik was derived in 2007. His management of a reduction in Germany's dependence on coal in a socially responsible way won him the Manager of the Year award in Germany in 2008. He was chairman of the supervisory board of Deutsche Bahn.

Career
Born in Essen, Müller attended the  in Meppen, completing his Abitur in 1965. He studied in Mannheim, both national economy and piano at the Musikhochschule Mannheim. He later studied philosophy and linguistics in Duisburg and Bremen.

Müller worked from 1973 for RWE. In 1979, he moved to VEBA, which became part of E.ON in 2002.

As a politician, Müller, who belonged to no party, served as Federal Minister for Economic Affairs and Energy from 1998 to 2002, when Gerhard Schröder (SPD) was Chancellor. After the 1998 German federal election, Schröder made him minister, after the designated candidate, Jost Stollmann had turned down the position because the responsibilities of the ministry were being reduced. When Oskar Lafontaine resigned in 1999, Müller was also temporarily appointed as the Minister of Finance. Müller worked towards a first nuclear power phase-out (Ausstieg aus der Atomenergie) in Germany, in negotiations with the industries.

Müller was CEO of the RAG AG, the former Ruhrkohle AG, from 2003. In 2007, the company became Evonik, now with a focus on chemistry, energy and real estate. According to former employer Evonik and German President Horst Köhler, Müller managed a reduction in Germany's dependence on coal (Ausstieg aus der Kohleenergie) as an energy source, trying to mitigate the issues caused by this fuel, namely damage to the environment and the large subsidies needed in mining, in a socially responsible way. As CEO of the , he organised a reduction of the environmental damage mining had caused. For these activities, Manager Magazin selected him as  in Germany in 2008. That year, he moved from CEO of Evonik to chairman of its supervisory board. Müller held the same position for Deutsche Bahn from 2005 to 2010.

Müller was a member of the supervisory board of Borussia Dortmund. He was instrumental in the successful application of the Ruhr as European Capital of Culture in 2010, uniting the region.

Müller was married; he and his wife Marion had two children. In April 2018, he received the Order of Merit of North Rhine-Westphalia for his life's achievements (für sein Lebenswerk) in the presence of Gerhard Schröder. He resigned from all offices in May 2018, due to his cancer illness. He died in Essen on 15 July 2019.

Legacy
In his laudatio for Müller in 2009, awarding the Great Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, President Horst Köhler focused on Müller's ability to speak the language of both politics and economy, and enable dialogue between them. In the matter of nuclear power phase-out, he managed to represent the voters' wishes even though they were not his own view, and he always held constructive discussions with people representing different positions and interests. Köhler mentioned Müller's competence, calm manner, equanimity and dependability. In turning away from coal mining, he created a model of a socially responsible structural transition, with patience and tenacity.

After his death, Schröder acknowledged Müller as a great economic leader who knew the rules of the game of both business and politics, which enabled him to turn opponents to partners. Jean-Claude Juncker, President of the European Commission, noted Müller's enormous expertise, dry humour and calm manner, achieving invaluable benefits for the German miners. Armin Laschet (CDU, Minister-president of North Rhine-Westphalia, called him a visionary, and the founding of the RAG-Stiftung "a genuine work of the century" (ein echtes Jahrhundertwerk).

Awards

 2008:  in Germany, by Manager Magazin
 2010: Great Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
 2013:  as CEO of RAG-Stiftung
 2015: Honorary doctorate of the University Duisburg-Essen
 2018: Order of Merit of North Rhine-Westphalia

References

External links

1946 births
2019 deaths
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Economy ministers of Germany
Federal government ministers of Germany
20th-century German politicians
21st-century German politicians
Politicians from Essen

Werner Müller (politician)


Robert Towne (born Robert Bertram Schwartz; November 23, 1934) is an American screenwriter and director. He started with writing films for Roger Corman including The Tomb of Ligeia (1964). Later, he was a part of the New Hollywood wave of filmmaking. He wrote the Academy Award-winning original screenplay for Roman Polanski's Chinatown (1974), which is widely considered one of the greatest screenplays. Towne also wrote the sequel, The Two Jakes (1990), and the Hal Ashby comedy-dramas The Last Detail (1973) and Shampoo (1975). He has collaborated with Tom Cruise on the films Days of Thunder (1990), The Firm (1993) and the first two installments of Mission: Impossible franchise (1996, 2000).

Towne directed the sports dramas Personal Best (1982) and Without Limits (1998), the crime thriller Tequila Sunrise (1988), and the romantic crime drama Ask the Dust (2006).

Early life
Towne was born Robert Bertram Schwartz in Los Angeles, California, and grew up in San Pedro, the son of Helen and Lou Schwartz, a clothing store owner and property developer. He is of Romanian descent through his father, and Russian descent through his mother; the family was Jewish. He has a younger brother, Roger, who co-wrote the 1984 film The Natural starring Robert Redford.

He graduated from Pomona College in Claremont, California.

Career

Roger Corman
Towne originally sought work as a writer and actor. He took an acting class with Roger Corman taught by Jeff Corey where his classmates also included Jack Nicholson (with whom he shared an apartment), Irvin Kershner, and Sally Kellerman.

Corman was renowned for giving work to untested people of talent. Towne wrote the screenplay for the Corman-financed Last Woman on Earth (1960), in which Towne also played one of the lead roles.

The following year he also starred in the Corman-financed Creature from the Haunted Sea (1961).

Television
Towne started writing for television on such programs as The Lloyd Bridges Show, Breaking Point, The Outer Limits, and The Man from U.N.C.L.E..

He also wrote a screenplay for the Corman-directed The Tomb of Ligeia (1965). In 1981 Towne said "I worked harder on... [that] screenplay for him than on anything I think I have ever done."

Towne went back to working in television when Corman hired him to write a script for a Western, which became A Time for Killing (1967). Corman left the project during filming and Towne took his name off the credits. Towne said later he "hated" the film.

Script doctor
Towne's script for A Time for Killing had been read and admired by Warren Beatty who asked Towne to help out on the script for Bonnie and Clyde (1967). Towne later claimed his main contributions were removing the ménage à trois relationship between Bonnie, Clyde, and W.D., making some structural changes. Towne was on set during filming and continued to work during post-production. The film was a huge success and although Towne's contribution was credited only as a "special consultant", he began to earn a reputation in Hollywood as a top script doctor.

Towne was credited on Villa Rides (1968), which he later said he did as a favor for Robert Evans, head of Paramount. He hated the experience.

Towne did uncredited work on the scripts for Drive, He Said (1971), directed by Jack Nicholson; Cisco Pike (1972), which Towne said turned into "a pretty good movie" but where he got "so angry with the director" he took his name off; and The New Centurions (1972), where he was to share credit with Stirling Silliphant but asked for his name to be taken off after he saw the film.

He did uncredited work for Francis Ford Coppola during the making of The Godfather (1972), mostly the final scene between Michael and Vito, shortly before Vito dies. Coppola thanked Towne in his Academy Award speech for Best Screenplay.

Towne also did some work on The Parallax View (1974) at the behest of star Warren Beatty.

The Last Detail, Chinatown, and Shampoo
Towne received great acclaim for his film scripts The Last Detail (1973), Chinatown (1974), and Shampoo (1975).  He was nominated for an Oscar for all three scripts, winning for Chinatown. He later said it was inspired by a chapter in Carey McWilliams's Southern California Country: An Island on the Land (1946) and a West magazine article on Raymond Chandler's Los Angeles.

According to Sam Wasson's The Big Goodbye: Chinatown and the Last Years of Hollywood, Towne "secretly employed an old college friend named Edward Taylor as his uncredited writing partner for more than 40 years."

Towne was credited for his work on The Yakuza (1975) and did script doctoring on The Missouri Breaks (1976), Orca (1977) and Heaven Can Wait (1978).

Director
Towne turned to directing with Personal Best (1982). He also wrote the script for Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes, hoping to direct, but Personal Best was a financial failure, meaning he had to sell the Greystoke script. He grew dissatisfied with the production and credited his dog, P. H. Vazak, with the script. Vazak became the first dog nominated for an Oscar for screenwriting.

Towne did uncredited work on Deal of the Century (1983), 8 Million Ways to Die (1986) (), Tough Guys Don't Dance (1987) and Frantic (1988).

His second feature film as director was Tequila Sunrise (1988), which he wrote back in the early 1980s. Towne told The New York Times that Tequila Sunrise is "a movie about the use and abuse of friendship."

The Two Jakes
Towne has expressed his disappointment in The Two Jakes in many interviews. He told writer Alex Simon, "In the interest of maintaining my friendships with Jack Nicholson and Robert Evans, I'd rather not go into it, but let's just say The Two Jakes wasn't a pleasant experience for any of us. But, we're all still friends, and that's what matters most."

In a November 5, 2007, interview with MTV, Jack Nicholson claimed that Towne had written the part of Gittes specifically for him. In the same interview, Nicholson also said that Towne had conceived Chinatown as a trilogy, with the third film set in 1968 and dealing in some way with Howard Hughes. However, Towne says he "does not know how that got started" and denies there was any trilogy planned.

Tom Cruise
Towne wrote the script for Days of Thunder (1990) and formed a close friendship with its star Tom Cruise.

He was one of the writers on Cruise's The Firm (1993), then Beatty's Love Affair (1994). Cruise brought him on to Mission: Impossible (1996) and co-produced Towne's third film as director, Without Limits (1998). He also co-wrote Mission Impossible II (2000) for Cruise.

Later career
A project Towne had long sought to bring to the screen came to fruition in 2006 with Ask the Dust, a romantic period piece set in Los Angeles based on the acclaimed novel by John Fante and starring Colin Farrell and Salma Hayek. Towne had found the novel decades earlier during his research for Chinatown, as he was looking for authentic descriptions of 1930s Los Angeles. He enjoyed the book, considering it "the best book about Los Angeles ever written", and arranged a meeting with Fante, himself a screenwriter. As a result of that meeting, Towne was granted the screen rights to the novel. The rights eventually lapsed, and the new owner was Mel Brooks. In 1993, Towne wrote the script for free in exchange for the chance to direct the film. Tom Cruise (with Paula Wagner and Cruise/Wagner Productions) served as one of the film's producers. Ask the Dust received mixed reviews and failed at the box office. The film was entered into the 28th Moscow International Film Festival.

Towne has framed several of his signature films as elaborate melodramas. He told The New York Times "I think melodrama is always a splendid occasion to entertain an audience and say things you want to say without rubbing their noses in it. With melodrama, as in dreams, you're always flirting with the disparity between appearance and reality, which is a great deal of fun. And that's also not unrelated to my perception of my life working in Hollywood, where you're always wondering, 'What does that guy really mean?'"

In 2006, Towne was the subject of artist Sarah Morris's film, Robert Towne. Morris describes him as an "elliptical figure" whose career exemplifies a certain characteristic mode of working in the film industry, marked by collaboration, shared or changing roles. Morris's  painting installation in the lobby of the Lever House in Manhattan, commissioned by the Public Art Fund, was also titled "Robert Towne".

Return to television
In the 2010s, Towne returned to television, working as a consulting producer on Mad Men and writing two episodes of Welcome to the Basement.

Personal life
In 1968, Towne met actress Julie Payne; they were married from 1977 to 1982. According to Sam Wasson's The Big Goodbye: Chinatown and the Last Years of Hollywood, Towne was addicted to cocaine during this period and was occasionally violent, which led to a bitter divorce and custody battle over their daughter Katharine (born 1978).

In 1984, Towne married Luisa Gaule. They have one daughter, Chiara.

He is the former son-in-law of late actor John Payne and actress Anne Shirley. Through his daughter Katharine, his former son-in-law is actor Charlie Hunnam.

Filmography

Credits as writer-director
 Personal Best (1982) – also producer
 Tequila Sunrise (1988)
 Without Limits (1998)
 Ask the Dust (2006)

Credits as writer only

 Last Woman on Earth (1960)
 The Lloyd Bridges Show (1963–64) (TV series) – episodes "A Personal Matter", "My Daddy Can Lick Your Daddy"
 Breaking Point (1964) (TV series) – episode: "So Many Pretty Girls, So Little Time"
 The Outer Limits (1964) (TV series) – episode: "The Chameleon"
 The Tomb of Ligeia (1964)
 The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1964) (TV series) – episode: "The Dove Affair"
 Bonnie and Clyde (1967) (credited as special consultant)
 Villa Rides (1968)
 Drive, He Said (1971) (uncredited)
 Cisco Pike (1972) (uncredited)
 The New Centurions (1972) (uncredited)
 The Godfather (1972) (uncredited)
 The Last Detail (1973)
 Chinatown (1974)
 The Parallax View (1974) (uncredited)
 The Yakuza (1974)
 Shampoo (1975)
 The Missouri Breaks (1976) (uncredited)
 Marathon Man (1976) (uncredited)
 Orca (1977) (uncredited)
 Heaven Can Wait (1978) (uncredited)
 Reds (1981) (uncredited consultant)
 Deal of the Century (1983) (uncredited)
 Swing Shift (1984) (uncredited)
 Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes (1984) (as P. H. Vazak)
 8 Million Ways to Die (1986) (uncredited)
 Tough Guys Don't Dance (1987) (uncredited)
 Frantic (1988) (uncredited)
 The Two Jakes (1990)
 Days of Thunder (1990)
 The Firm (1993)
 Love Affair (1994)
 Crimson Tide (1995) (uncredited)
 Mission: Impossible (1996)
 Mission: Impossible 2 (2000)

Credits as actor
 Last Woman on Earth (1960) as Martin Joyce (as Edward Wain)
 Creature from the Haunted Sea (1961) as Sparks Moran/Agent XK150/Narrator (as Edward Wain)
 The Zodiac Killer (1971) as Man in Bar #3 as Robert Tubin)
 Drive, He Said (1971) as Richard
 Shampoo (1975) as Party Guest (uncredited)
 The Pick-up Artist (1987) as Stan
 Suspect Zero (2004) as Professor Dates (uncredited)

Other credits
The Young Racers (1963) – assistant director

Unmade projects
I Flew a Spy Plane Over Russia (1962) – script for Roger Corman
The Brotherhood of the Grape (1975) – script for Francis Ford Coppola, based upon the novel by John Fante
Gittes vs. Gittes (1990) – unproduced sequel script to The Two Jakes
The 39 Steps remake (2003) – writer/director
Pompeii TV miniseries (2011) – 4 part series for Scott Free Productions, based on the book by Robert Harris
Compadre TV pilot (2011) – teleplay for Scott Free Productions
Next of Kin (2011) – script for David Fincher
The Battle of Britain (2011) – script for Graham King
Untitled Chinatown prequel series (2019) – teleplay(s) for David Fincher, to be produced at Netflix

Legacy and honors
In the book Fifty Filmmakers, journalist Andrew J. Rausch argues, "There is a strong case to be made that Robert Towne is the most gifted scribe ever to write for film. There can be little doubt that he is one of the finest ever."

Awards
Academy Award
1974: Nominated, Best Adapted Screenplay, The Last Detail
1975: Won, Best Original Screenplay, Chinatown
1976: Nominated, Best Original Screenplay, Shampoo
1985: Nominated, Best Adapted Screenplay, Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan
BAFTA Award
1975: Won, Best Screenplay, The Last Detail and Chinatown
Golden Globe Award
1975: Won, Best Screenplay - Motion Picture, Chinatown
Edgar Award
1975: Won, Best Motion Picture, Chinatown (Author)
Writers Guild of America Award
1997: Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement
Nantucket Film Festival
2015: Screenwriters Tribute Award

References

Notes

External links

1934 births
American male screenwriters
American people of Romanian-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Best Original Screenplay Academy Award winners
Best Screenplay Golden Globe winners
Best Screenplay BAFTA Award winners
Edgar Award winners
Living people
People from Rolling Hills, California
Pomona College alumni
Screenwriters from Los Angeles
Writers Guild of America Award winners

Robert Towne


John Lewis "Jan" Hall (born August 21, 1934) is an American physicist, and Nobel laureate in physics.  He shared the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics with Theodor W. Hänsch and Roy Glauber for his work in precision spectroscopy.

Biography

Born in Denver, Colorado, Hall holds three degrees from Carnegie Institute of Technology, a B.S. in 1956, an M.S. in 1958, and a Ph.D. in 1961.  He completed his postdoctoral studies at the Department of Commerce's National Bureau of Standards, now the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), where he remained from 1962 until his retirement in 2004. He has lectured at the University of Colorado Boulder since 1967.

Hall is currently a NIST Senior Fellow, emeritus, and remains a Fellow at JILA, formerly the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics, and lecturer at the CU-Boulder Physics Department. JILA is a research institute managed jointly by CU-Boulder and NIST.

Hall shared half of the Nobel Prize with Theodor W. Hänsch for their pioneering work on laser-based precision spectroscopy and the optical frequency comb technique.  The other half of the prize was awarded to Roy J. Glauber.

Hall has received many other honors for his pioneering work, including the Optical Society of America's Max Born Award "for pioneering the field of stable lasers, including their applications in fundamental physics and, most recently, in the stabilization of femtosecond lasers to provide dramatic advances in optical frequency metrology".

Hall is one of the 20 American recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physics to sign a letter addressed to President George W. Bush in May 2008, urging him to "reverse the damage done to basic science research in the Fiscal Year 2008 Omnibus Appropriations Bill" by requesting additional emergency funding for the Department of Energy's Office of Science, the National Science Foundation, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

In 2015, Hall signed the Mainau Declaration 2015 on Climate Change on the final day of the 65th Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting. The declaration was signed by a total of 76 Nobel Laureates and handed to then-President of the French Republic, François Hollande, as part of the successful COP21 climate summit in Paris.

Honours and awards

National Carbon Company Fellow in Physics, 1957–1961
Department of Commerce Gold Medal, 1969
Samuel W. Stratton Award, 1971
Department of Commerce Gold Medal, 1974 (group awards)
IR-100: Laser stabilizer selected as one of "100 best new products of the year," 1975
IR-100: Laser wavelength meter ("Lambdameter") selected as one of "100 best new products of the year," 1977
E. U. Condon Award, 1979
Charles Hard Townes Award of the Optical Society of America, 1984, jointly with V. P. Chebotayev (Academy of Sciences, USSR)
Davisson-Germer Prize of the American Physical Society, 1988
Docteur Honoris Causa de l'Universite Paris Nord, 1989
Frederic Ives Medal of the Optical Society of America, 1991
Einstein Prize for Laser Science, 1992
Arthur L. Shawlow Prize of the American Physical Society, 1993
Allen V. Astin Measurement Science Award, 2000
Max Born Award of the Optical Society of America, 2002
Presidential Rank Award from the Office of Personnel Management, 2002
Department of Commerce Gold Medal, 2002 (group awards)
Rabi Award of the IEEE Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control Society, 2004
Légion d'Honneur Membership, 2004
Nobel Prize in Physics, 2005
Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 2006
Doctor of Science, honoris causa, University of Glasgow, 2007

References

External links

 CV and publication list
 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
 JILA
 U.S. Patent 6201638 Comb generating optical cavity that includes an optical amplifier and an optical modulator (John Lewis Hall)
 Hall's website
Group photograph taken at Lasers '92 including, right to left, Marlan Scully, Willis Lamb, John L. Hall, and F. J. Duarte.

1934 births
Living people
Scientists from Denver
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
American Nobel laureates
21st-century American physicists
Optical physicists
Laser researchers
Carnegie Mellon University alumni
Nobel laureates in Physics
University of Colorado Boulder faculty
Honorary members of Optica (society)
Fellows of Optica (society)
Department of Commerce Gold Medal
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Spectroscopists
Fellows of the American Physical Society

John L. Hall


The 2012 Aleppo Governorate clashes were a series of battles as part of the early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war in the Aleppo Governorate of Syria.

The clashes began following the twin bombings in Aleppo city on 10 February 2012, which were conducted by the jihadist anti-government organisation, the Al-Nusra Front. Over the next five months, major clashes left large parts of the rural countryside under rebel control, with the capital of the province, Aleppo city, still being firmly under government control. On 19 July, rebel forces stormed the city and a battle for control of Syria's largest city and economic hub had begun.

Background
There were anti-government protests in Aleppo, reported since 13 April 2011. However, the city itself was mostly peaceful and spared the violence of the war, unlike the rest of the country, being a government stronghold for the better part of the first year of the conflict.

Anti-government activists called for a huge turnout on 30 June, although two small protests were held that day with only 1,000 demonstrators showing up. On 12 August, Syrian security forces fired at protesters in the Sakhur neighborhood, killing four people. On 17 August, "thousands" protested in the central square (Saadallah al-Jabiri square) of Aleppo and in other parts of the city. Opposition activists claimed that the security forces again opened fire at the protesters. On 6 September, there were reportedly huge crowds (20,000–40,000) protesting against the government after the killing of the Syrian Sunni Sheikh Ibrahim Salqini.

On 27 September, the government stormed Aleppo with tanks.

On 21 December, four protests were reportedly held at the university, where a student at the Faculty of Science was reportedly killed by government forces.

Bombings
On 6 January 2012, the head of the National Organization for Human Rights in Syria warned that the government was plotting a bombing in the city, "just to terrorize the people". Ammar Qurabi told Al Arabiya that he had learned about the alleged plot from Syrian security officials. This came after bombings in Damascus in December 2011 and in January 2012. Qurabi and other opposition groups accused the government of staging those attacks to justify its crackdown on the uprising.

On 10 February, twin bomb attacks targeted the military intelligence building in Aleppo and killed 24 members of the security forces.

Armed clashes

On 14 February, five army soldiers, including two officers, were killed in fighting on the outskirts of Aleppo.

During March, the northern city of Azaz in the region of Aleppo experienced heavy fighting, with three soldiers being killed on 23 March. Activists posted a video showing what appears to be a helicopter engaged in a firefight over the town. A rebel or civilian was also reported killed during the heavy fighting in Azaz.

According to state media, two colonels were killed in Aleppo in late March.

A general of the air force intelligence was killed in Aleppo on his way to work, according to the Syrian government.

An army intelligence base and air force base were attacked in northern Aleppo province, killing three soldiers including an officer.

On 6 April, seven civilians and four soldiers were killed north of Aleppo. Two soldiers were killed on 12 April.

On 21 April, heavy clashes occurred in the early morning between opposition fighters and the Syrian army in Aleppo province. At least 14 Syrian army soldiers and one opposition officer were said to have been killed in the fighting.  A Syrian army weapons cache and two cannons were said to have been destroyed by the opposition fighters, another cannon was seized from the army. They also said to have destroyed two armoured vehicles at a Syrian army checkpoint and attacked a Syrian helicopter.

On 22 April, 26 members of the pro-government militia called the , accused of the worst massacres during the conflict, were killed, and video footage showing their bodies was posted online by the rebel Free Syrian army.

On 23 April, a bomb struck a convoy carrying army officers and cadets, killing at least one officer according to state media. 42 others were also injured, some in critical condition.

On 24 April, 16 soldiers were killed in many different clashes around Aleppo. On the same day, rebels reported that they captured a military base near the rebel-controlled town of Daret Azzeh. Sixteen government soldiers reportedly died during the attack after which rebels looted large amounts of ammunition, including hundreds of artillery shells. The Army retaliated by intense strikes from military gunships on the local area.
On April 28, three security force members were killed and two others injured in the Aleppo countryside.

On 29 April, it was reported that four soldiers died in a blast in a military centre in Aleppo province.

On 2 May, 15 soldiers were killed in Northern Aleppo, including two colonels. Two rebels also died in the attack near Al-Rai village, after the military forces had "scaled up military operations" there in the days since the truce took effect on April 12, said the S.O.H.R group In Syria.

On 3 May, days after four university students were killed by the pro-government military  in anti-government protests. It was reported that 15,000 students protested at the university on 17 may, in the presence of U.N observers. After this incident, on 18 May 2012 the biggest anti-government demonstrations that had ever taken place in Aleppo were reported. Anti-government groups called it a real uprising in Aleppo. In two districts alone, there were reportedly over 10,000 protesters, among thousands of others in the other districts. Tear gas and live ammunition was used by security forces to disperse it. At least one protester died on 17 may, while an army officer was killed by an explosion in the city.

Eighteen soldiers were killed near Atareb town in Aleppo province, the fighting destroyed tanks and armoured personnel carriers, according to the Syrian Observatory for human rights.

Army tanks were reportedly deployed for the first time in Aleppo, where 12 massive anti-government protests were held in one day.

Two soldiers were killed and five injured after an explosion on 3 May. Also, a man identified as "the brother of a Syrian MP" was shot dead, with SOHR quoting anti-government activists as saying "the man's family is very loyal to the government and has participated in the repression of protests".Rural Aleppo towns and the outskirts of Aleppo city were bombarded by the army in early July. The State-controlled media agency, SANA, claimed that eight rebels were killed and 6 of their armed pick up trucks destroyed by the Syrian army on July 5.

On 9 July, two soldiers were killed by an IED in Aleppo. A further four soldiers were killed when trying to enter the opposition controlled town of Azaz.

On 12 July, three soldiers were killed in Aleppo.

On 16 July, 13 soldiers, including an officer, were killed when a government checkpoint was attacked by rebel fighters, and during clashes, in the area of Tel Selour, outside Aleppo.

Aftermath

On 19 July, the battle for Aleppo city started. Clashes began with an offensive by the Free Syrian Army against the city, primarily the Salaheddine district.

As the fighting in Aleppo city continued, near the rebel-held town of Atareb rebel fighters made a failed attack against a government-controlled police school. 12 rebels were killed, including a local brigade commander Ahmed el Faj.

On 21 July, fighting was still raging in the Salaheddine district, with the army trying to storm it with troops and armored vehicles. Meanwhile, clashes started in the poorer, tribal district of al-Sakhour. Hundreds of families were forced to flee as commercial city has been slowly turned into a war zone.

On 23 July, it was confirmed that the FSA had finally taken control of Azaz. They said that 17 government tanks had been destroyed and one captured, a journalist in the area counted 7 destroyed tanks.

In the Aleppo countryside, the FSA rapidly gained ground in late July and captured members of the military intelligence. Footage showed rebels riding around the town of Al-Bab in a tank and howitzer artillery that they had captured from an army base. Captured soldiers said that 30 soldiers had been killed in Al-Bab in the past week and it was later reported that the last army base in the Aleppo countryside, on the outskirts of Al-Bab, was taken by the opposition.

On 15 August, Syrian fighter jets conducted two devastating bombing runs on the rebel-held town of Azaz, flattening a string of houses and killing at least 20 people including children with a little girl who had been killed in the strike being brought to the hospital and at least 10 houses were flattened in the bombardment. "This was a civilian area. All these houses were packed with women and children sleeping during the fast," said witness Abu Omar, a civil engineer in his 50s, referring to the dawn-to-dusk fast Muslims observe during Ramadan. Witnesses and FSA forces who reinforced security around the town after the strike said the jet fired twice, targeting a makeshift media centre used by foreign reporters in the second, smaller strike. Dozens of people, many wailing and shouting, were climbing over the rubble, trying to pull out victims. Witnesses said the bomb must have weighed at least half a tonne and the impact shattered windows up to four blocks away. Residents insisted there was no rebel base where the bomb struck, but some said the families of FSA fighters lived there. "It was a massacre, an entire family like mine was exterminated," said one woman who refused to give her name. Four Lebanese hostages were reportedly killed. Another report put the death toll at 31 people.

References

Bibliography

Military operations of the Syrian civil war in 2012
Military operations of the Syrian civil war involving the al-Nusra Front
Aleppo Governorate in the Syrian civil war
Military operations of the Syrian civil war involving the Syrian government
Military operations of the Syrian civil war involving the Free Syrian Army

2012 Aleppo Governorate clashes


The Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area is an inshore conservation region in the territorial waters of South Africa

History
The Langebaan Lagoon was originally proclaimed as a marine reserve in terms of the Sea Fisheries Act in 1973. In 1985 it became part of the Langebaan National Park, which was later renamed the West Coast National Park. On 25 April 1988 the Langebaan Ramsar site was declared. The MPA was proclaimed by the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Mohammed Valli Moosa, in Government Gazette No. 21948 of 29 December 2000 in terms of section 43 of the Marine Living Resources Act, 18 of 1998.

Purpose

A marine protected area is defined by the IUCN as "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values".

The saltmarshes of Langebaan are unique in South Africa in that no river feeds into the lagoon. They constitute roughly 32% of the entire saltmarsh habitat in the country. The salinity is relatively stable and the region supports dense populations of molluscs and crustaceans and a large variety of seaweeds. The lagoon is a nursery for juvenile fish, and supports about 55 000 water birds in summer, including 23 species of waders.

Extent
Approximately 65 km of coastline and 280 km2 of sea are protected by this MPA.

Boundaries
The MPA is bounded by the high-water mark in the Langebaan lagoon south of the northern boundary, which is a line from   Leentjiesklip No.2, at S33°03.707′, E018°2.462', towards Salamander Point at S33°04.323′, E017°59.795′, until it meets the seaward boundary of the South African National Defence Force area, as demarcated by buoys shown on SAN Chart SC2, and then along this boundary to the yellow buoy east of Meeu Island at S33°05.166, E018°00.809′, and then to Perlemoen Point at S33°05.590′, E048°00,211' on the western shore of the lagoon.

Zonation
There are three zones in the lagoon. A controlled zone to the north where recreational fishing and power boating is allowed, a restricted zone, where no fishing is allowed and only non-powered vessels are permitted, and a sanctuary zone to the south where no access is allowed.

Restricted areas

Controlled areas

Management
The marine protected areas of South Africa are the responsibility of the national government, which has management  agreements with a variety of MPA management authorities, in this case, SANParks , which manages the MPA with funding from the SA Government through the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA).

The Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries is responsible for issuing permits, quotas and law enforcement.

Use

Geography

Climate

The climate of the South-western Cape is markedly different from the rest of South Africa, which is a summer rainfall region, receiving most of its rainfall during the summer months of December to February. The South-western Cape has a Mediterranean type climate, with most of its rainfall during the winter months from June to September.

During the summer the dominant factor determining the weather in the region is a high pressure zone, known as the South Atlantic High, located over the South Atlantic ocean to the west of the Cape coast. Winds circulating in an anticlockwise direction from such a system reach the Cape from the south-east, producing periods of up to several days of high winds and mostly clear skies. These winds keep the region relatively cool. Because of its south facing aspect Betty's Bay is exposed to these winds.

Winter in the South-western Cape is characterised by disturbances in the circumpolar westerly winds, resulting in a series of eastward moving depressions. These bring cool cloudy weather and rain from the north west. The south westerly winds over the South Atlantic  -->

Seasonal variations in sea conditions

Ecology

(describe position, biodiversity and endemism of the region)
The MPA is in the warm temperate Benguela ecoregion to the west of Cape Point which extends northwards to the Orange River. There are a fairly large proportion of species endemic to South Africa along this coastline.

Four major habitats exist in the sea in this region, distinguished by the nature of the substrate. The substrate, or base material, is important in that it provides a base to which an organism can anchor itself, which is vitally important for those organisms which need to stay in one particular kind of place. Rocky shores and reefs provide a firm fixed substrate for the attachment of plants and animals. Some of these may have Kelp forests, which reduce the effect of waves and provide food and shelter for an extended range of organisms. Sandy beaches and bottoms are a relatively unstable substrate and cannot anchor kelp or many of the other benthic organisms. Finally there is open water, above the substrate and clear of the kelp forest, where the organisms must drift or swim. Mixed habitats are also frequently found, which are a combination of those mentioned above.

Rocky shores and reefs
There are rocky reefs and mixed rocky and sandy bottoms. For many marine organisms the substrate is another type of marine organism, and it is common for several layers to co-exist. Examples of this are red bait pods, which are usually encrusted with sponges, ascidians, bryozoans, anemones, and gastropods, and abalone, which are usually covered by similar seaweeds to those found on the surrounding rocks, usually with a variety of other organisms living on the seaweeds.

The type of rock of the reef is of some importance, as it influences the range of possibilities for the local topography, which in turn influences the range of habitats provided, and therefore the diversity of inhabitants. Sandstone and other sedimentary rocks erode and weather very differently, and depending on the direction of dip and strike, and steepness of the dip, may produce reefs which are relatively flat to very high profile and full of small crevices. These features may be at varying angles to the shoreline and wave fronts. There are fewer large holes, tunnels and crevices in sandstone reefs, but often many deep but low near-horizontal crevices.

Kelp forests
Kelp forests are a variation of rocky reefs, as the kelp requires a fairly strong and stable substrate which can withstand the loads of repeated waves dragging on the kelp plants. The Sea bamboo Ecklonia maxima grows in water which is shallow enough to allow it to reach to the surface with its gas-filled stipes, so that the fronds form a dense layer at or just below the surface, depending on the tide. The shorter Split-fan kelp Laminaria pallida grows mostly on deeper reefs, where there is not so much competition from the sea bamboo. Both these kelp species provide food and shelter for a variety of other organisms, particularly the Sea bamboo, which is a base for a wide range of epiphytes, which in turn provide food and shelter for more organisms.

Sandy beaches and bottoms (including shelly, pebble and gravel bottoms)
Sandy bottoms at first glance appear to be fairly barren areas, as they lack the stability to support many of the spectacular reef based species, and the variety of large organisms is relatively low. The sand is continually being moved around by wave action, to a greater or lesser degree depending on weather conditions and exposure of the area. This means that sessile organisms must be specifically adapted to areas of relatively loose substrate to thrive in them, and the variety of species found on a sandy or gravel bottom will depend on all these factors. Sandy bottoms have one important compensation for their instability, animals can burrow into the sand and move up and down within its layers, which can provide feeding opportunities and protection from predation. Other species can dig themselves holes in which to shelter, or may feed by filtering water drawn through the tunnel, or by extending body parts adapted to this function into the water above the sand.

The open sea
The pelagic water column is the major part of the living space at sea. This is the water between the surface and the top of the benthic zone, where living organisms swim, float or drift, and the food chain starts with phytoplankton, the mostly microscopic photosynthetic organisms that convert the energy of sunlight into organic material which feeds nearly everything else, directly or indirectly. In temperate seas there are distinct seasonal cycles of phytoplankton growth, based on the available nutrients and the available sunlight. Either can be a limiting factor. Phytoplankton tend to thrive where there is plenty of light, and they themselves are a major factor in restricting light penetration to greater depths, so the photosynthetic zone tends to be shallower in areas of high productivity. Zooplankton feed on the phytoplankton, and are in turn eaten by larger animals. The larger pelagic animals are generally faster moving and more mobile, giving them the option of changing depth to feed or to avoid predation, and to move to other places in search of a better food supply.

Marine species diversity

Animals
23 species of wading birds.

29 species of bony fish
12 shark and ray species
 sandshark Rhinobatos annulatus
 Geelbek
 Cape Stumpnose
 Snoek
 Yellowtail

More than 400 species of marine invertebrates
Siphonaria
Assiminea globulus

Seaweeds
71 species of marine algae

Endemism
The MPA is in the warm temperate Benguela ecoregion to the west of Cape Point which extends northwards to the Orange River. There are a fairly large proportion of species endemic to South Africa along this coastline.

Alien invasive species

Threats

Slipways and harbours in the MPA

See also

References

Marine protected areas of South Africa

Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area


Bryce Wade Molder (born January 27, 1979) is a former American professional golfer who played on the PGA Tour.

Early life
Molder was born in Harrison, Arkansas and attended public school in Tulsa, Oklahoma and Conway, Arkansas. He has Poland syndrome, as a result of which he was born with no left pectoral muscle, his left hand is smaller than his right and four fingers on his left hand were webbed at birth. He had two surgeries before the age of five to correct the webbing and other issues with his left hand.

After starring with the Conway High School Golf team, Molder attended Georgia Tech on a golf scholarship and graduated with a degree in management.  At Tech, he was a four-time first-team All-American golfer and was named the national Collegiate Golfer of the Year for 2000-2001. Notable teammates at Georgia Tech included Matt Kuchar and Troy Matteson, later fellow PGA Tour professionals. On a break from college in 1999, Molder shot a 60 at his home course, Chenal Country Club in Little Rock, Arkansas, while playing a round with fellow Arkansan, then-President Bill Clinton.  He played in the 2001 U.S. Open as an amateur and shot a 68 during the third round, eventually finishing as low amateur in a tie for 30th place overall.

Professional career
Molder turned professional later that summer, placing third in his first Tour event, the Reno-Tahoe Open, which was won by John Cook. Despite that strong first start at Reno, however, Molder missed earning membership status in the PGA Tour money rankings in the late summer and fall of 2001. After failing to earn status via the Tour Qualifying school, he was able to secure sponsor invitations to Tour events in 2002, earning a T-9 finish at the Compaq Classic of New Orleans, together with top-15 finishes in two other events, securing Special Temporary Membership by finishing T-12 at the Buick Classic. Noting the pressure that attended his play of the 18th hole in the final round at Westchester Country Club's West Course, Molder, who needed to par the hole in order to insure earning the Temporary Card, said, "Sometimes the hardest thing in the world is to two-putt when you have to." For the remainder of the season, though, his good form of the spring did not hold, and he missed securing status on the Tour for the 2003 season by one place in the money rankings.

For several seasons which followed, Molder played in the Tour's developmental league, the Nationwide Tour, without earning his PGA Tour card, until a breakout season in 2006. Molder's 2006 Nationwide Tour season included four top-10s, eight top-25s, one win and $205,413 in earnings. All this placed him 22nd on the final money list. His first professional victory came in October 2006 at the Miccosukee Championship.

Molder's first full season on the PGA Tour in 2007 was mostly unsuccessful, with only 7 cuts made in 21 events and his only top-10 finish coming with a T-6 in the season-ending Children's Miracle Network Classic. As a result, he returned to the Nationwide Tour in 2008, where he finished 23rd on the money list, made 19 of 27 cuts and earned four top-10s, including a 2nd and a 3rd, winning $234,651.

In 2009 on the PGA Tour, Molder broke out in June at the St. Jude Classic, where he shot a second round 63 followed by a third round 65 and was one shot behind 54-hole leader Brian Gay going into the final round. Molder went on to finish in a tie for 2nd with David Toms on Sunday, four strokes behind the winner, Gay, for his best finish in a PGA Tour event at the time. A few weeks later, Molder finished fourth at the AT&T National, posting 272, five strokes back of winner Tiger Woods. The finish also secured a spot for Molder in the 2009 Open Championship. He finished the year ranked 63rd on the PGA Tour money list with eight top-25 and three top-10 finishes in twenty-one outings. He met with similar success in 2010 on Tour, with six top-10 and ten top-25 finishes in 26 starts.

At the 2011 Frys.com Open, after having secured his 2012 Tour card with five top-10 finishes in 25 tournaments, Molder defeated Briny Baird on the sixth hole of a sudden-death playoff for his maiden PGA Tour win. The win capped a superb weekend of near-flawless play for Molder, who went bogey-free –13 in the final 43 holes of regulation play and –4 in the playoff. He sank a 12-foot putt for birdie on the final hole of regulation play to square things just after Baird, playing one group behind Molder, dramatically chipped-in from 38 feet from the green-side rough for eagle on the 17th hole, temporarily taking a one-stroke lead. When Baird parred the 18th hole, the playoff ensued, with neither player – each seeking his first Tour win after years of trying – able to close it out until Molder's dramatic approach from 133 yards in the 18th fairway to six feet set up his conclusive birdie putt. The win extended Molder's Tour membership through 2013.

In 2017, while attending the ceremony for his induction into the Arkansas Golf Hall of Fame, he announced his retirement from professional golf, saying "I had gotten to the point that it was just not fulfilling anymore".

Professional wins (2)

PGA Tour wins (1)

PGA Tour playoff record (1–0)

Nationwide Tour wins (1)

Results in major championships

Note: Molder never played in the Masters Tournament.

LA = low amateur
CUT = missed the half-way cut
"T" = tied

U.S. national team appearances
Amateur
Palmer Cup: 1998 (tie), 1999 (winners), 2001 (winners)
Walker Cup: 1999, 2001
Eisenhower Trophy: 2000 (team winners and individual leader)

See also
2006 Nationwide Tour graduates
2008 Nationwide Tour graduates

References

External links

American male golfers
Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets men's golfers
PGA Tour golfers
Korn Ferry Tour graduates
Golfers from Arkansas
Golfers from Scottsdale, Arizona
People from Harrison, Arkansas
1979 births
Living people

Bryce Molder


Vincent Leo Welnick (February 21, 1951 – June 2, 2006) was an American keyboardist-singer-songwriter best known for playing with the band The Tubes during the 1970s and 1980s and with the Grateful Dead in the 1990s. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994 as a member of the Grateful Dead.

Music career
Welnick was born in Phoenix, Arizona, the great-grandson of Prussian immigrants. He started playing keyboards as a teenager. He joined a band, the Beans, which eventually morphed into the Tubes, a San Francisco-based theater rock band popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s and noted for early live performances that combined lewd quasi-pornography with wild satires of media, consumerism and politics.

The Tubes in the 1980s were a major commercial rock act with substantial MTV success. Videos for  "Talk to Ya Later" and "She's a Beauty" played in heavy rotation on  MTV in the mid-1980s. While playing in the Tubes, Welnick also played and recorded with Todd Rundgren.

When Grateful Dead keyboardist Brent Mydland died of a drug overdose on July 26, 1990, the band began auditioning players to replace him, including Ian McLagan, Pete Sears and T Lavitz. Welnick was selected, not least for his high vocal range for backup harmonies. Welnick's first show with the Grateful Dead was on September 7, 1990, at the Richfield Coliseum in Richfield, Ohio. His Associated Press obituary mentioned he was so nervous at his first gig with the band that he could barely play, until the fans put him at ease. They held up banners reading, "Yo Vinnie," which Welnick later decided to use as the name of his BMI-affiliated publishing company, Yo Vinnie Music, once obtaining his writer and publisher rights back from Ice Nine Publishing, which had copyrighted his works without an agreement in place to do so shortly after Welnick joined the Grateful Dead. Bruce Hornsby also supplemented Welnick on grand piano for over 100 shows in Welnick's first years in the Dead. Welnick remained as a member of the Grateful Dead and the band's keyboard player until Jerry Garcia's death in August 1995, when the group disbanded.

In 1994, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Grateful Dead.

Welnick became depressed following a diagnosis of cancer and emphysema shortly before the final Grateful Dead tour. He decided to do the summer 1995 Grateful Dead tour and wait to have surgery after it ended. Shortly after the tour was over, Jerry Garcia died. Welnick joined Bob Weir's new group, Ratdog, as the keyboard player, touring with them around the U.S. About six months after Garcia's death, Welnick attempted suicide on the tour bus to Monterey, California. He received therapy, successful cancer treatment, and management of the early stages of lung disease. He worked with the band Second Sight, with Bob Bralove, and with Missing Man Formation, which released an album that included the song "Golden Days", a tribute to Garcia. He participated in the  second Phil Lesh and Friends show in March 1998, and he toured the U.S. with the Mickey Hart Band later that year.

In 1998, Bob Weir, Phil Lesh, and Mickey Hart regrouped under the name the Other Ones. According to musician and publisher Mike Lawson, Welnick was troubled when they reunited without him under the term the "surviving members of Grateful Dead". He voiced frustration to Rolling Stone, saying, "I am and always will be a member of the Grateful Dead. It's a lifetime thing that Jerry bestows upon a person." Welnick toured with jam bands, recorded music in his home studio, and worked with friends on their albums. With the band Mood Food he finished a reggae version of "To Love Somebody" by the Bee Gees. He left behind hundreds of hours of unreleased materials, both personal and professional recordings. During his final years, he worked closely with Gent Treadly.

Film
Welnick played a small part in the 1981 film Ladies and Gentlemen, The Fabulous Stains. Fee Waybill of the Tubes played Lou Corpse, the washed-up front man of a band called The Metal Corpses. Welnick played Jerry Jervey, the guitar player (though the reporter calls him the bass player) with the Corpses, who dies of an overdose in a backstage bathroom.

Welnick also appeared in Xanadu, along with the rest of the Tubes.

Death
After struggling with depression for ten years, Welnick died by suicide by slit throat on June 2, 2006. He was 55 years old.

Discography
With The Tubes
 The Tubes (1975)
 Young and Rich (1976)
 Now (1977)
 What Do You Want from Live (1978)
 Remote Control (1979)
 The Completion Backward Principle (1981)
 Outside Inside (1983)
 Love Bomb (1985)
 Infomercial: How to Become Tubular (2000)
 Mondo Birthmark (2009)

With Todd Rundgren
 Nearly Human (1989)
 2nd Wind (1991)

With Grateful Dead
 Infrared Roses (1991)
 Fallout from the Phil Zone (1997)
 Dick's Picks Volume 9 (1997)
 So Many Roads (1965-1995) (1999)
 Dick's Picks Volume 17 (2000)
 View from the Vault, Volume Two (2001)
 Dick's Picks Volume 27 (2003)
 Grateful Dead Download Series Volume 11 (2006)
 Road Trips Volume 2 Number 1 (2008)
 Road Trips Volume 2 Number 4 (2009)
 30 Trips Around the Sun (2015)
 30 Trips Around the Sun: The Definitive Live Story 1965–1995 (2015)
 Giants Stadium 1987, 1989, 1991 (2019)
 Saint of Circumstance (2019)
 Ready or Not (2019)

With others
 Chance in a Million (1994) – Zero
 Calling Up Spirits (1996) – Dick Dale
 Second Sight (1996) – Second Sight
 Fiesta Amazonica (1998) – Merl Saunders
 Missing Man Formation (1998) – Missing Man Formation
 Might as Well... (2000) – The Persuasions
 Smallstone (2000) – Smallstone
 Uh-Oh! (2001) – Tipsy
 Texistentialism (2007) – Jerry Lightfoot's Band of Wonder

References

 Grateful Dead musician dies at 55 BBC News – Grateful Dead musician dies at 55
 Vince Welnick 1995 Interview with the Memphis Flyer

 San Francisco Chronicle "Grateful Dead's last keyboardist, Vince Welnick, dies at 55" June 3 2006
 Urban Tulsa "Healing begins as "Friends" pay tribute to their musical companion and mentor" June 16 2006

External links

 Vince Welnick collection at the Internet Archive's live music archive
 The National Anthem by Garcia, Weir, and Welnick before a 1993 San Francisco Giants game at Candlestick Park, boingboing.com.
 Official Grateful Dead Website

Grateful Dead members
The Tubes members
Musicians from Phoenix, Arizona
1951 births
2006 suicides
Suicides by sharp instrument in the United States
Suicides in California
20th-century American musicians
21st-century American keyboardists
21st-century American musicians
American rock keyboardists
American rock singers
RatDog members
20th-century American keyboardists
20th-century American male singers
20th-century American singers
2006 deaths

Vince Welnick


Generics are a facility of generic programming that were added to the Java programming language in 2004 within version J2SE 5.0. They were designed to extend Java's type system to allow "a type or method to operate on objects of various types while providing compile-time type safety". The aspect compile-time type safety was not fully achieved, since it was shown in 2016 that it is not guaranteed in all cases.

The Java collections framework supports generics to specify the type of objects stored in a collection instance.

In 1998, Gilad Bracha, Martin Odersky, David Stoutamire and Philip Wadler created Generic Java, an extension to the Java language to support generic types. Generic Java was incorporated in Java with the addition of wildcards.

Hierarchy and classification
According to Java Language Specification:
A type variable is an unqualified identifier. Type variables are introduced by generic class declarations, generic interface declarations, generic method declarations, and by generic constructor declarations.
A class is generic if it declares one or more type variables. It defines one or more type variables that act as parameters. A generic class declaration defines a set of parameterized types, one for each possible invocation of the type parameter section. All of these parameterized types share the same class at runtime.
An interface is generic if it declares one or more type variables. It defines one or more type variables that act as parameters. A generic interface declaration defines a set of types, one for each possible invocation of the type parameter section. All parameterized types share the same interface at runtime.
A method is generic if it declares one or more type variables. These type variables are known as the formal type parameters of the method. The form of the formal type parameter list is identical to a type parameter list of a class or interface.
A constructor can be declared as generic, independently of whether the class that the constructor is declared in is itself generic. A constructor is generic if it declares one or more type variables. These type variables are known as the formal type parameters of the constructor. The form of the formal type parameter list is identical to a type parameter list of a generic class or interface.

Motivation
The following block of Java code illustrates a problem that exists when not using generics. First, it declares an  of type . Then, it adds a String to the ArrayList. Finally, it attempts to retrieve the added String and cast it to an Integer—an error in logic, as it is not generally possible to cast an arbitrary string to an integer.

final List v = new ArrayList();
v.add("test"); // A String that cannot be cast to an Integer
final Integer i = (Integer) v.get(0); // Run time error

Although the code is compiled without error, it throws a runtime exception (java.lang.ClassCastException) when executing the third line of code. This type of logic error can be detected during compile time by using generics and is the primary motivation for using them. It defines one or more type variables that act as parameters.

The above code fragment can be rewritten using generics as follows:

final List<String> v = new ArrayList<String>();
v.add("test");
final Integer i = (Integer) v.get(0); // (type error)  compilation-time error

The type parameter String within the angle brackets declares the ArrayList to be constituted of String (a descendant of the ArrayList's generic Object constituents). With generics, it is no longer necessary to cast the third line to any particular type, because the result of v.get(0) is defined as String by the code generated by the compiler.

The logical flaw in the third line of this fragment will be detected as a compile-time error (with J2SE 5.0 or later) because the compiler will detect that v.get(0) returns String instead of Integer. For a more elaborate example, see reference.

Here is a small excerpt from the definition of the interfaces  and  in package :

interface List<E> {

    void add(E x);
    Iterator<E> iterator();

}

interface Iterator<E> {

    E next();
    boolean hasNext();

}

Generic class definitions
Here is an example of a generic Java class, which can be used to represent individual entries (key to value mappings) in a map:

public class Entry<KeyType, ValueType> {

    private final KeyType key;
    private final ValueType value;

    public Entry(KeyType key, ValueType value) {
        this.key = key;
        this.value = value;
    }

    public KeyType getKey() {
        return key;
    }

    public ValueType getValue() {
        return value;
    }

    public String toString() {
        return "(" + key + ", " + value + ")";
    }

}

This generic class could be used in the following ways, for example:

final Entry<String, String> grade = new Entry<String, String>("Mike", "A");
final Entry<String, Integer> mark = new Entry<String, Integer>("Mike", 100);
System.out.println("grade: " + grade);
System.out.println("mark: " + mark);

final Entry<Integer, Boolean> prime = new Entry<Integer, Boolean>(13, true);
if (prime.getValue()) {
    System.out.println(prime.getKey() + " is prime.");
}
else {
    System.out.println(prime.getKey() + " is not prime.");
}

It outputs:
grade: (Mike, A)
mark: (Mike, 100)
13 is prime.

Generic method definitions
Here is an example of a generic method using the generic class above:
public static <Type> Entry<Type, Type> twice(Type value) {
    return new Entry<Type, Type>(value, value);
}

Note: If we remove the first <Type> in the above method, we will get compilation error (cannot find symbol "Type"), since it represents the declaration of the symbol.

In many cases, the user of the method need not indicate the type parameters, as they can be inferred:

final Entry<String, String> pair = Entry.twice("Hello");

The parameters can be explicitly added if needed:

final Entry<String, String> pair = Entry.<String>twice("Hello");

The use of primitive types is not allowed, and boxed versions must be used instead:

final Entry<int, int> pair; // Fails compilation. Use Integer instead.

There is also the possibility to create generic methods based on given parameters.

public <Type> Type[] toArray(Type... elements) {
    return elements;
}

In such cases you can't use primitive types either, e.g.:

Integer[] array = toArray(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6);

Diamond operator
Thanks to type inference, Java SE 7 and above allow the programmer to substitute an empty pair of angle brackets (<>, called the diamond operator) for a pair of angle brackets containing the one or more type parameters that a sufficiently-close context implies. Thus, the above code example using Entry can be rewritten as:

final Entry<String, String> grade = new Entry<>("Mike", "A");
final Entry<String, Integer> mark = new Entry<>("Mike", 100);
System.out.println("grade: " + grade);
System.out.println("mark: " + mark);

final Entry<Integer, Boolean> prime = new Entry<>(13, true);
if (prime.getValue()) System.out.println(prime.getKey() + " is prime.");
else System.out.println(prime.getKey() + " is not prime.");

Type wildcards

A type argument for a parameterized type is not limited to a concrete class or interface. Java allows the use of "type wildcards" to serve as type arguments for parameterized types. Wildcards are type arguments in the form "<?>"; optionally with an upper or lower bound. Given that the exact type represented by a wildcard is unknown, restrictions are placed on the type of methods that may be called on an object that uses parameterized types.

Here is an example where the element type of a Collection<E> is parameterized by a wildcard:

final Collection<?> c = new ArrayList<String>();
c.add(new Object()); // compile-time error
c.add(null); // allowed

Since we don't know what the element type of c stands for, we cannot add objects to it. The add() method takes arguments of type E, the element type of the Collection<E> generic interface. When the actual type argument is ?, it stands for some unknown type. Any method argument value we pass to the add() method would have to be a subtype of this unknown type. Since we don't know what type that is, we cannot pass anything in. The sole exception is null; which is a member of every type.

To specify the upper bound of a type wildcard, the  keyword is used to indicate that the type argument is a subtype of the bounding class. So  means that the given list contains objects of some unknown type which extends the Number class. For example, the list could be List<Float> or List<Number>. Reading an element from the list will return a Number. Adding null elements is, again, also allowed.

The use of wildcards above adds flexibility since there is not any inheritance relationship between any two parameterized types with concrete type as type argument. Neither List<Number> nor List<Integer> is a subtype of the other; even though Integer is a subtype of Number. So, any method that takes List<Number> as a parameter does not accept an argument of List<Integer>. If it did, it would be possible to insert a Number that is not an Integer into it; which violates type safety. Here is an example that demonstrates how type safety would be violated if List<Integer> were a subtype of List<Number>:

final List<Integer> ints = new ArrayList<>();
ints.add(2);
final List<Number> nums = ints;  // valid if List<Integer> were a subtype of List<Number> according to substitution rule.
nums.add(3.14);
final Integer x = ints.get(1); // now 3.14 is assigned to an Integer variable!

The solution with wildcards works because it disallows operations that would violate type safety:

final List<? extends Number> nums = ints;  // OK
nums.add(3.14); // compile-time error
nums.add(null); // allowed

To specify the lower bounding class of a type wildcard, the super keyword is used. This keyword indicates that the type argument is a supertype of the bounding class. So,  could represent List<Number> or List<Object>. Reading from a list defined as  returns elements of type Object. Adding to such a list requires either elements of type Number, any subtype of Number or null (which is a member of every type).

The mnemonic PECS (Producer Extends, Consumer Super) from the book Effective Java by Joshua Bloch gives an easy way to remember when to use wildcards (corresponding to covariance and contravariance) in Java.

Generics in throws clause
Although exceptions themselves cannot be generic, generic parameters can appear in a throws clause:

public <T extends Throwable> void throwMeConditional(boolean conditional, T exception) throws T {
    if (conditional) {
        throw exception;
    }
}

Problems with type erasure
Generics are checked at compile-time for type-correctness. The generic type information is then removed in a process called type erasure. For example, List<Integer> will be converted to the non-generic type List, which ordinarily contains arbitrary objects. The compile-time check guarantees that the resulting code uses the correct type.

Because of type erasure, type parameters cannot be determined at run-time. For example, when an ArrayList is examined at runtime, there is no general way to determine whether, before type erasure, it was an ArrayList<Integer> or an ArrayList<Float>. Many people are dissatisfied with this restriction. There are partial approaches. For example, individual elements may be examined to determine the type they belong to; for example, if an ArrayList contains an Integer, that ArrayList may have been parameterized with Integer (however, it may have been parameterized with any parent of Integer, such as Number or Object).

Demonstrating this point, the following code outputs "Equal":
final List<Integer> li = new ArrayList<>();
final List<Float> lf = new ArrayList<>();
if (li.getClass() == lf.getClass()) { // evaluates to true
    System.out.println("Equal");
}

Another effect of type erasure is that a generic class cannot extend the Throwable class in any way, directly or indirectly:

public class GenericException<T> extends Exception
The reason why this is not supported is due to type erasure:
try {
    throw new GenericException<Integer>();
}
catch (GenericException<Integer> e) {
    System.err.println("Integer");
}
catch (GenericException<String> e) {
    System.err.println("String");
}
Due to type erasure, the runtime will not know which catch block to execute, so this is prohibited by the compiler.

Java generics differ from C++ templates. Java generics generate only one compiled version of a generic class or function regardless of the number of parameterizing types used. Furthermore, the Java run-time environment does not need to know which parameterized type is used because the type information is validated at compile-time and is not included in the compiled code. Consequently, instantiating a Java class of a parameterized type is impossible because instantiation requires a call to a constructor, which is unavailable if the type is unknown.

For example, the following code cannot be compiled:
<T> T instantiateElementType(List<T> arg) {
     return new T(); //causes a compile error
}

Because there is only one copy per generic class at runtime, static variables are shared among all the instances of the class, regardless of their type parameter. Consequently, the type parameter cannot be used in the declaration of static variables or in static methods.

Type erasure was implemented in Java to maintain backward compatibility with programs written prior to Java SE5.

Differences from Arrays

There are several importance differences between arrays (both primitive arrays and  arrays), and generics in Java. Two of the major differences, namely, differences in terms of variance and reification.

Covariance, contravariance and invariance

Generics are invariant, whereas arrays are covariant. This is a benefit of using generic when compared to non-generic objects such as arrays. Specifically, generics can help prevent run time exceptions by throwing a compile-time exception to force the developer to fix the code.

For example, if a developer declares an  object and instantiates the object as a new  object, no compile-time exception is thrown (since arrays are covariant). This may give the false impression that the code is correctly written. However, if the developer attempts to add a  to this  object, the program will throw an . This run-time exception can be completely avoided if the developer uses generics.

If the developer declares a  object an creates a new instance of this object with return type , the Java compiler will (correctly) throw a compile-time exception to indicate the presence of incompatible types (since generics are invariant).. Hence, this avoids potential run-time exceptions. This problem can be fixed by creating an instance of  using  object instead. For code using Java SE7 or later versions, the  can be instantiated with an  object using the diamond operator

Reification

Arrays are reified, meaning that an array object enforces its type information at run-time, whereas generics in Java are not reified.

More formally speaking, objects with generic type in Java are non-reifiable types. A non-reifiable type is type whose representation at run-time has less information than its representation at compile-time.

Objects with generic type in Java are non-reifiable due to type erasure. Java only enforces type information at compile-time. After the type information is verified at compile-time, the type information is discarded, and at run-time, the type information will not be available.

Examples of non-reifiable types include  and , where  is a generic formal parameter.

Project on generics

Project Valhalla is an experimental project to incubate improved Java generics and language features, for future versions potentially from Java 10 onwards. Potential enhancements include:
 generic specialization, e.g. List<int>
 reified generics; making actual types available at runtime.

See also
 Generic programming
 Template metaprogramming
 Wildcard (Java)
 Comparison of C# and Java
 Comparison of Java and C++

Citations

References

Java (programming language)
Polymorphism (computer science)

Generics in Java