Synoecism or synecism ( ; , sunoikismos, ), also spelled synoikism ( ), was originally the amalgamation of villages in Ancient Greece into poleis, or city-states.  Etymologically, the word means "dwelling together (syn) in the same house (oikos)." Subsequently, any act of civic union between polities of any size was described by the word synoikismos. in addition to the Latinized synoecism. Synoecism is opposed to Greek dioecism (διοικισμóς, dioikismos), the creation of independent communities within the territory of a polis.

Synoecism is the result of a few major factors, mainly an increase in population density of adjacent settlements, with an incorporation proposed for economic, political or ideological advantages, such as the synoecism of the communities of Attica into Athens, or by imposition of a ruling power, such as the synoecism of Messenia into the newly built city of Messene. Additionally, synoecism may be the result of less active forces which often take the form of shared cultural elements such as religion or language.

Although there were differences between synoecism in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, the same general concept is deduced from the history of both civilizations. Before political union, the future (combined) population of the polity constituted smaller settlements that were not obligated to each other, or at least not by the contract that was later to institute their political union. A settlement or group of settlements might be constituents of another polity from which they would be annexed or transferred.

Classical Greece

Development
In ancient Greece, society was divided into the demos (δῆμοι, κῶμαι; "country people" or "country villages") and the "asty" (ἄστυ) or "polis" (πόλις). The polis was the situs of the princely nobility, gentry, and aristocracy and the sacerdotal and martial families. The distinction between the "demos" and the "polis" was politically very important in these ancient states. There was much antagonism between the two bodies of the country and city. Where commerce and trade came to dominate culture and ideology, they encouraged men to live together in larger towns and develop democracies. In the city states of classical Greece, synoecism occurred when the "demos" combined with and subordinated, usually by force, the "politiea" in one polity.

In the poleis, the synoikistes was the person who according to tradition executed the synoecism, either by charisma or outright conquest; he was subsequently worshiped as a demi-god. Often, the synoikistes executed the synoecism in the interest of consolidating political power for themselves.

Theseus
The most famous synoikistes was the mythic and legendary Theseus, who liberated Attica from Cretan hegemony and restored the independence of Greece under the leadership of Athens. In doing so, Theseus effectively consolidated the power of several loosely related minor city-states residing in the country side for himself by eliminating local government which took the form of small city councils and magistracies. According to Thucydides, Theseus founded a new central Prytaneion, an important building with governing administrative duties, in Athens as well as a host of other buildings with both administrative and religious duties in order to create a unified state. Thucydides also attributes Theseus with the "Synoecia" which translates to "Feast of Union."

Koen Van Gelder recognizes that modern scholars generally disagree with this traditional foundation of Athens due to a variety of inaccuracies such as when it occurred or whether synoecism was the result of political intentions or cultural ones. The physical records of Attica and Athens have left many elements of the Theseus origin of Athens unreconcilable.Thomas has adduced arguments in support of the unity of the territory of Attica by the end of the Mycenaean period. Although her arguments seem convincing to me, they do not furnish absolute proof of a Bronze Age synoikismos; however, a political unification must have preceded the physical synoikismos at the end of the Bronze Age, or resulted from it, so that, on the threshold of the Iron Age, Athens was the only state in Attica. O. Broneer's reflection on the large quantities of lead found in the Mycenaean fountain on the Acropolis and the Athenian hold of the Laurium must also be taking into consideration.

Aristotle
In Aristotle's Politics, synoecism was initiated via the community. Communities would come together in order to consolidate power and legalize and enforce these shared notions of what is acceptable and what is not. To Aristotle, synoecism is what drives civilization to form governments. It begins as the union between a man and woman who create a household. Households, in turn, seek out larger networks of other connected households until the community reaches a point at which it can sustain itself in order to facilitate the enforcement of a collective good. The synoecism of Greek individuals into households, towns, and larger communities ensures a level of stability which is afforded to those who participate in the union. It is through the synoecism, according to Aristotle, that the Greeks are able to differentiate themselves from outsiders who are otherwise considered barbarians. Politics professes a fundamental belief that without the laws and justice synoecism provides, mankind is just another animal. Prevalent in Aristotle's Politics is the concept of communal strength. Greeks on their own are considered to be weaker than if they were to act as a whole. They are vulnerable to floods and famines as well as diseases to wiping out their singular contributions to the Greek world. As a state, Greeks are instead able to produce and create above their individual ceilings.

Culture
Prior to synoecism, the people in the Greek mainland consistently shared similar ideologies and cultural beliefs. It is notable that the Greeks possessed a shared system of writing both archaically and classically which aided separate and distinguishable villages in forming larger cohesive polities. Works like Homer's Iliad and Odyssey describe a historically united Greek front against foreigners in Anatolia and were likewise admired and celebrated universally by the Greeks. Homer's Iliad even provides a historical precedent for the unity of certain Greek polities.Clan after clan poured out from the ships and huts onto the plain... innumerable as the leaves and blossoms in their season... the Athenians from their splendid citadel,... the citizens of Argos and Tiryns of the Great Walls... troops... from the great stronghold of Mycenae, from wealthy Corinth,... from Knossos,... Phaistos,... and other troops that had their homes in Crete of the Hundred Towns.There is a historical literary precedent for Greek synoecism before many of the developments in democracy or oligarchy take place in the 5th thought the 3rd century delineating the Kyklos of archaic Greece.

Festivals
Among the ancient Greeks, festivals represented opportunities to continue synoecism as well as reform or reinforce it. Festivals provided central locations to the numerous and scattered Greek city states at which information could be exchanged and social relationships maintained. The Olympics, being perhaps the largest example of synoecismatic festivals, were a pan-Hellenistic contest under which attracted Greeks at an international scale. At the games, Greeks would recognize basic similarities between themselves and other city-states through their shared enjoyment of the competitions which contributed to broader notions of synoecism through athletic representation of city-states. Individual athletes would gain notoriety and recognition for winning events for their cities. Theoretically, higher levels of visibility for city-states would grant increasing opportunities to expand sovereignty and establish themselves as real political units. Olympic truces are evidence of this effect. If one city-state were to invade or go to war with another city-state during an Olympic truce, the aggressor would not be allowed into the games. Therefore, having an athlete representative in the games meant a recognition of a city-states own sovereignty on a pan-Hellenistic scale.

Religion
In Aristotle's Politics a responsibility of the polis is its reverence to the gods. Due to this, many religious roles were in fact elected offices and responsibilities of the deme as a whole. Successful synoecism can also be attributed to proper integration of new or reformed state religion. In 408-407 BCE the synoecism of the cities of Lindos, Ialysus, and Camirus formed the new Rhodian state. The synoecism is reflected in the selection of their eponymous priest as they were chosen from the demes of the three collective states now composing Rhodes. It is from the annual election of said priests that the synoecism of the Rhodian state can be dated precisely.

Oligarchies
Ancient Greek states not democratically governed used the word "polis" in their public documents to signify sovereign power. The Doric states of Crete and Sparta preserved the polis separate from the demos. As late as the second century AD, Cretan towns continued to denote themselves with "polis". Sparta, however, deviating from this use of the word, denominated itself "damos" (δᾶμoς) in ancient laws, because it never thought of itself as a body opposed to the Perioeci.

Müller states: "In oligarchical states, as in Elis, the people in later times remained almost constantly in the country; and it frequently happened that grandfathers and grandchildren had never seen the town: there were also country courts of justice, and other regulations intended to make up for the advantages of a city life. Where the courts of justice were at a distance, and there was no inducement to mechanical industry and internal commerce (see the term banausos), the ancient habits of life continued much longer in existence."

Sometime in the early 360's BCE the city of Megalopolis, located in Arkadia, was founded in order to coordinate a confederacy of city-states against Spartan hegemony in the region. In an effort to politically unite manage the different confederate city-state members, a council of ten oikistes was appointed to rule in the city. This inter-city effort represents a synoecism between the communities of the region into the poleis of Megalopolis with the intention of centralizing political authority.

Democracies

Popular government was first established in the wealthy and populous Greek cities in Ionia. From this history the word and concept of "democracy" is derived. This synoecism was one of the primary causes of the Kyklos in ancient Hellas. Synoecism also occurred at Mantineia: in the fifth century, after its synoecism, it became a democracy; in the fourth century, it was again divided ("dioikismos") and an oligarchy formed. Later, more political upheaval caused another synoecism, thus instituting another democracy. This further occurred in the other Arcadian towns of Tegea and Heraia.

In ancient Athens, the villages of Attica combined with the polis of Athens; consequently the "demos" and "polis" became identical in Athens and the former word assumed preference to denote the whole polity. A four tiered class system outlined by Solon on the basis of income either by the way of monetary wealth, agricultural production or otherwise was introduced in the 6th century as a way of distinguishing between citizens and the rest of the population. These four classes were again transformed under Kleisthenes into a further ten tribes as a way of further democratizing the political system and remove more power from the elite few. The general trend of Athenian power being transferred from a concentrated few to a greater and more evenly distributed percentage of the citizenry is a result of the transition from a loose group of villages to a collective singular polis. Representation of the landowning citizens helped represent the expanded interests of Athens such as navel, commercial, and agrarian ventures. The democratic nature of democracy in Athens helped the synoecism of such a populous center in Ancient Greece.

Mytilenean Revolt
In 428 BCE Mytilene sought independence from the Athenian Empire by way of a planned revolt. Despite never occurring, the revolt would have placed Mytilene at the centre of Lesbos synoecism in an effort to consolidate political power under the city's control to the extent that the hegemony of Athens could be overthrown. The successful synoecism of Lesbos under Mytilenean oligarchs would have caused Athens to reconsider its relationship with the city due to its central organization of the isle's resources. Unfortunately for Mytilene, Athens learned of this planned synoecism and besieged the city. Victorious Athenians then voted first for the murder of all male citizen and enslavement of women and children only to reverse their decision and committed only the leaders of the revolt. Under increased Athenian rule and observation, Mytilene was subjected to forced synoecism under Athens and its autonomy, curbed. Athenian citizens were sent to Lesbos in order to establish a stronger Athenian presence in Lesbos by collecting taxes from the Lesbians. The city walls of Mytilene were also dismantled under Athenian rule.

Dioecism
A dioecism is essentially the inverse of a synoecism, the releasing of cities, towns or villages from their association with a polis. This process might manifest itself in several ways, such as the settling of new but independent communities within former territory of Constantinople on land abandoned due to a contraction of population, or the contraction of Thessaloniki out of its former neighborhoods outside the city walls due to the occupation of the countryside by the Turks. A conqueror might break up a polis for various reasons. As part of the settlement of the Third Sacred War in 346 BC, the Amphictyonic League was commissioned to destroy 21 or 22 cities of Phocis, many of which had already been burned. They chose the method of dioecism, returning the poleis to their constituent kōmai, or villages. The city fortifications were then dismantled. This relatively mild destruction was reversed by Athens and Thebes several years later as they were sympathetic to Phocis but their hands had been legally tied. The cities were re-synoecized and the larger states assisted Phocis to rebuild the fortifications.

The Spartan King Pausanias choosing the method of dioecism rather than conquest, liberated the city of Plataea and granted them an independent "autonomoi" status. After defeating the occupying Persians, Sparta restored Plataean autonomy and rule over their city and outlying territories differentiating them from the larger hegemony of Athens in the Attica region. This dioecism carried serious political connotations for the Spartans who invaded again during the Peloponnesian War when it was referenced again by the Plataeans as a way of warning against Spartan interference with their sovereignty or their interests. The legitimacy of the dioecism and the connotations it brought being that Plataea is an independent city-state entity from Athens was enough so that it caused the invading Spartans to enter negotiations rather than violently raze the city and its hinterlands.

As an archaeological site
"Synoecism" also denominates an ancient Cretan archaeological site on the western fringes of Troullos. Artifacts discovered at the site include a terracotta bull figurine, a bronze statuette, and Late Minoan I pottery.
==See also==

Aegean Civilization
Minoan Civilization
Mycenaean Greece
Archaic Greece
Classical Greece
Hellenistic Greece
Deme
Municipium
Polis
Synoikia
Xenelasia
Ostracism

References

Bibliography

External links

 Edward Soja. 2003. "Writing the City Spatially." City 7:3.

Society of ancient Greece
Greek words and phrases
Political science terminology
Political philosophy
Democracy
Theseus

Synoecism


Mani pulite (; Italian for "clean hands") was a nationwide judicial investigation into political corruption in Italy held in the early 1990s, resulting in the demise of the so-called "First Republic" and the disappearance of many Italian political parties. Some politicians and industry leaders committed suicide after their crimes were exposed. Antonio Di Pietro was the main judicial figure in charge of the investigation.

In some accounts, as many as 5,000 public figures fell under suspicion. At one point, more than half of the members of the Italian Parliament were under indictment, while more than 400 city and town councils were dissolved because of corruption charges. The estimated value of bribes paid annually in the 1980s by Italian and foreign companies bidding for large government contracts reached US$4 billion (6.5 trillion lire).

The corrupt system uncovered by the investigation was referred to as Tangentopoli (). The term derives from Italian tangente, which means 'kickback', and in this context refers to kickbacks given for public works contracts, and Greek polis meaning 'city'; it is thus sometimes translated as "Bribesville" or "Kickback City".

Arrest of Mario Chiesa
Tangentopoli  began on 17 February 1992 when Judge Antonio Di Pietro had Mario Chiesa, a member of the centre-left Italian Socialist Party (PSI), arrested for accepting a bribe from a Milan cleaning firm. The PSI distanced themselves from Chiesa, with party leader Bettino Craxi calling him mariuolo, or "villain", a "wild splinter" of an otherwise clean party. Upset over this treatment by his former colleagues, Chiesa began to give information about corruption implicating them. This marked the beginning of the mani pulite investigation; news of political corruption began spreading in the Italian press.

Extension of anti-corruption investigations
In the 1992 general election, the centre-right Christian Democracy (DC) held on to power when its coalition government kept a small majority, while leftist opposition parties gained support. However, the Italian Communist Party (PCI) split after the fall of the Soviet Union, depriving the opposition of leadership. Many votes went to the regionalist Lega Nord (LN), which was not inclined to form alliances with other parties at the time. The resulting parliament was therefore weak and difficult to bring to an agreement.

During April 1992, many industrial figures and politicians from both the government and the opposition were arrested on charges of corruption. While the investigations started in Milan, they quickly spread to other areas as more politicians confessed. Fundamental to this increased exposure was the general attitude of the main politicians to drop support for subordinates who got caught; this made many of them feel betrayed, and they often implicated many other figures, who in turn would implicate even more. On 2 September 1992, PSI politician Sergio Moroni, charged with corruption, committed suicide, leaving behind a letter declaring that his crimes were not for his personal gain but for the party's benefit.

Effect on national politics

In local elections in December 1992, held in eight municipalities, DC lost half of their votes. The following day, Craxi was officially accused of corruption; he eventually resigned as leader of the PSI. On 5 March 1993, the government of Giuliano Amato (PSI) and his justice minister Giovanni Conso (independent) tried to find a solution with a decree, which allowed criminal charges for several bribery-related crimes to be replaced by administrative charges instead; according to popular opinion at the time, that would have resulted in a de facto amnesty for most corruption charges. Amid public outrage and nationwide rallies, President Oscar Luigi Scalfaro (DC) refused to sign the decree, deeming it unconstitutional. The following week, a US$250 million scandal involving Eni, the government-controlled energy company, was revealed. The stream of accusations, confessions and jailing continued.

On 25 March, the parliament changed municipal electoral law in favor of a majoritarian system. Later, on 18 April, the public overwhelmingly backed the abrogation of the existing proportional representation parliamentary system in a referendum (a mixed system was introduced that August), causing Amato to resign three days later. Still shocked by the recent events, the parliament was unable to produce a new government. Carlo Azeglio Ciampi (independent), former governor of the Bank of Italy, was appointed head of the government; he appointed a technical government without political influences. Meanwhile, the parliament blocked the investigation into Craxi, causing several cabinet ministers  including Francesco Rutelli (FdV) and Vincenzo Visco (independent)  to resign in protest after three days at their posts. In new local elections on 6 June, DC lost half of its votes once again; the PSI virtually disappeared. Instead, LN became the strongest political force in northern Italy. The left-wing opposition was approaching majority, but still lacked unity and leadership.

Eventually, all four parties in the 1992 government disappeared, at different times in different ways: DC, the PSI, the Italian Democratic Socialist Party, and the Italian Liberal Party. The Democratic Party of the Left, the Italian Republican Party and the Italian Social Movement were the only surviving national parties; the Republican Party is the only one that has maintained its name since.

Cusani trial

On 20 July 1993, the former Eni president, Gabriele Cagliari, committed suicide in jail. His wife later gave back US$3 million of illegal funds. Meanwhile, Sergio Cusani faced trial and was accused of crimes connected to Enimont, a joint venture between Eni and another energy company, Montedison. The trial was broadcast on national television and was a sort of showcase of the old politics being brought to their responsibilities. While Cusani himself was not a major figure, the connection of his crimes to the Enimont affair called in all the nation's major politicians as witnesses.

A high note was reached in the Cusani trial when former head of government Arnaldo Forlani (DC), answering a question, simply said, "I don't remember"; he happened to be very nervous and did not notice that perspiration was accumulating on his lips, and that image was by many considered symbolic of the people's disgust for the corrupt system. Craxi, instead, admitted that his party received $93 million of illegal funds, defending his actions by saying that "everyone was doing this". Even the Lega Nord was implicated in the trial; secretary Umberto Bossi and former treasurer Alessandro Patelli were convicted for receiving 200 million lire of illegal funding (approx. $100,000 at the time).

A bribe to the Italian Communist Party was alleged, but it was not established who had committed the offence. A number of Milanese members of the Democratic Party of the Left were charged with corruption during their time as members of the PCI, but they were acquitted. As prosecutor Antonio Di Pietro stated, "Penal responsibility is personal, I cannot bring here a person with the first name Party and last name Communist" ("La responsabilità penale è personale, non posso portare in giudizio una persona che si chiami Partito di nome e Comunista di cognome").

The Enimont trial itself was carried out after the Cusani trial, with much less public interest.

Investigations on other fronts
In the meantime, the investigation expanded outside the political range: on 2 September 1993, the Milan judge Diego Curtò was arrested. On 21 April 1994, 80 financial regulators and 300 industry personalities were charged with corruption. A few days later, the secretary of Fiat admitted corruption with a letter to a newspaper. Media tycoon Silvio Berlusconi entered politics later that year and won the 1994 general election, in what many thought was a move to shield his many business concerns from possible scrutiny. This suspicion was reinforced on 11 February, when Berlusconi's brother, Paolo, admitted to corruption crimes. On 29 July, Berlusconi's brother was again arrested and immediately released.

Lottizzazione
The term lottizzazione, meaning the way a terrain is divided up in minor parts or lotti, came to indicate the procedure of awarding top positions in important state conglomerates such as IRI, Enel or Eni to political figures, or at least managers with a clear political orientation. This usually trickled down to lower levels, creating power centres depending on political parties that controlled a significant part of the production system. The available seats were usually awarded so that government parties (and opposition parties like the Italian Communist Party) would get a share of power corresponding to their perceived influence in the government.

Impact
A 2020 study found that "local politicians withdraw support from incumbents in parties hit by Clean Hands – inducing early government dissolutions in such municipalities... local politicians from the implicated parties exhibit lower re-running rates and higher rates of party switching in the short term. In the medium term, we find that corruption and voter turnout are lower in competitive municipalities 'treated' with a mayor from the implicated parties during Clean Hands. Moreover, medium-term upward career mobility of local politicians from the implicated parties benefited from party switching."

In modern culture
In 2005, artist Gianni Motti created an artwork in the form of a bar of soap, named Mani pulite, based on the scandal. This piece was claimed to have been created out of the fat from a liposuction of Silvio Berlusconi. It was sold at the 36th edition of Art Basel for 15,000 euros.

A 2015 television series titled 1992 is based on the events of Mani pulite.

See also

 Bancopoli (Italian scandal in 2005)
 Giovanni Falcone
 Calciopoli
 -gate suffix
 History of Italy as a Republic

Notes

References

Further reading

External links
 Tangentopoli e il crollo dei partiti
 Mani Pulite
 'Berlusconi's fat' moulded to art
 Italy's 'Clean Hands' Judges Bite Their Nails - New York Times

History of the Italian Republic
Political history of Italy
Modern history of Italy
Law enforcement in Italy
Political corruption

Mani pulite


Raj Bhavan (translation: Government House)  is the official residence of the governor of Telangana located in the city of Hyderabad, India. It is located at Somajiguda adjacent to Hussain Sagar lake.

History
It was designed and constructed in 1936 by Eric Marrett and Zain Yar Jung, during the reign of the last Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan. The land area is about 21.50 acres (8.4 hectares).

The Nizam's Government acquired this estate of Nawab Shahzore Jung and Sayyad Akil Bilgrami for the Prime Minister's official residence of Princely state of Hyderabad. the estate consisted of two older buildings at the place where the present Durbar Hall is located. These were pulled down to make room for the subsequent new structures.

The earliest occupant of the Durbar Hall building was Sir Akbar Hydari, the Prime Minister of Hyderabad State from 1936 to 1941. But he stayed here for a short period and shifted his residence to an adjacent building which is now known as Dilkusha Guest House.

Subsequent Prime Ministers to stay here were the Nawab of Chattari (1941-1946 and May–November, 1947), Sir Mirza Ismail (August 1946 to May 1947), Sir Mehdi Yar Jung (November–December, 1947) and Mir Laik Ali, President of the Council of Interim Government (1947–48).

Shah Manzil
Shah Manzil, one of the pre-1914 building in Raj bhavan estate, is an architectural landmark and currently used as the office of the Advisors to Governor of Telangana.

References
 Official Website of the Governor of Telangana Retrieved 1 Oct 2020.
 History of Raj Bhavan, Hyderabad (Governor official Website) Retrieved 1 Oct 2020.

Governors' houses in India
Heritage structures in Hyderabad, India
Government buildings in Telangana
Buildings and structures in Hyderabad, India
Buildings and structures completed in 1936
Palaces of Nizams of Hyderabad
20th-century architecture in India

Raj Bhavan, Hyderabad


Roy Starrs (born 1946) is a British-Canadian scholar of Japanese literature and culture who teaches at the University of Otago in New Zealand. He has written critical studies of the major Japanese writers Yasunari Kawabata, Naoya Shiga, Osamu Dazai, and Yukio Mishima, and edited books on Asian nationalism (especially ethnic nationalism, religious nationalism, and cultural nationalism), globalization, pan-Asianism, Japanese modernism, and cultural responses to disaster in Japan. He has also published essays on Japan-related topics such as the Kojiki, Lafcadio Hearn, and Japanese calligraphy.

Roy Starrs is also the Japan editor of the online The Literary Encyclopedia.

Starrs was born in Birmingham, England on November 18, 1946 and became a Canadian citizen as an adult. He received his Ph.D. from the University of British Columbia in 1986 and previously taught at U.B.C., Union College (New York), and Aarhus University (Denmark).

Works by Roy Starrs
 Deadly Dialectics: Sex, Violence, and Nihilism in the World of Yukio Mishima, University of Hawaii Press, 1994,  and .
  .
 An Artless Art - The Zen Aesthetic of Shiga Naoya: A Critical Study with Selected Translations. RoutledgeCurzon (1998). .
 "Writing the National Narrative: Changing Attitudes Towards Nation-Building Among Japanese Writers, 1900-1930", in Japan's Competing Modernities: Issues in Culture and Democracy, 1900-1930. S. Minichiello ed. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press (1998), pp. 161–189  (cloth)  (paper).

 "Nation and Region in the Work of Dazai Osamu," in Roy Starrs
 "The Road to Violent Action: Mishima Yukio," in Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science, volume 5 (Postwar Fascisms), edited by Roger Griffin with Matthew Feldman. London; New York: Routledge. (Part of the Routledge Major Work series.) (2004), pp. 249–266. .
"The Kojiki as Japan's National Narrative," in Asian Futures, Asian Traditions, edited by Edwina Palmer. Folkestone, Kent: Global Oriental. .
 "Lafcadio Hearn as Japanese Nationalist," in Nichibunken Japan Review: Journal of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Number 18, 2006, pp. 181–213.
 "Ink Traces of the Dancing Calligraphers: Zen-ei Sho in Japan Today," in Henry Johnson and Jerry C. Jaffe, eds. Performing Japan: Contemporary Expressions of Cultural Identity London, Global Oriental and Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press (2008). .
 "Politics and Religion in Japan," in Religion Compass 3/4 (2009), pp. 752–769. (http://www.blackwell-compass.com/subject/religion/)

 Modernism and Japanese Culture,  London/New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. (http://www.palgrave.com/products/title.aspx?pid=360186)
 ed., "Politics and Religion in Modern Japan: Red Sun, White Lotus,"  London/New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. (http://www.palgrave.com/products/title.aspx?pid=385916)
 "Zen, Japan, and the Art of Democracy,"  in the "New Statesman," July 4, 2011. (http://www.newstatesman.com/asia/2011/07/japan-essay-nature-earthquake)
 ed., "Rethinking Japanese Modernism,"  Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2012. (http://www.brill.nl/rethinking-japanese-modernism)
  (http://www.brill.com/products/book/when-tsunami-came-shore)
 "La estética Zen de Muga (Ni-Ego) en el proyecto Renga de Octavio Paz." In Rogelio Guedea, editor, Países en tránsito: estudios de literatura comparada. Oxford: Peter Lang, 2016.
 "Renga: A European Poem and its Japanese Model." Comparative Literature Studies (May 2017).
 "Japanese Poetry and the Aesthetics of Disaster." In Minh, N., New Essays in Japanese Aesthetics.  Lexington: Rowman and Littlefield, 2017.
 "Japan's Perennial New Man: The Liberal and Fascist Incarnations of Masamichi Rōyama." In Matthew Feldman et al, editors, The 'New Man' in Radical Right Ideology and Practice, 1919-45. London: Bloomsbury, 2018.
 "The Fortunes of Pan-Asianism: Past, Present and Future." In The Journal of World History. (University of Hawai'i Press, June 2018).
 "The Tokyo Gas Attack Was Japan's 9/11." In Fair Observer, July 11, 2018. (https://www.fairobserver.com/region/asia_pacific/tokyo-gas-attack-aum-shinrikyo-executions-japan-news-this-week-16521/)

External links
http://www.otago.ac.nz/languagescultures/people/otago063368.html Roy Starrs' homepage.
http://shinku.nichibun.ac.jp/jpub/pdf/jr/JN1805.pdf essay by Roy Starrs on "Lafcadio Hearn as a Japanese Nationalist."
http://www.nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-June02/Starrs.pdf A review article by Roy Starrs on "Japanese Literature as a Modern Invention."

http://www.the-tls.co.uk/tls/reviews/literature_and_poetry/article752043.ece A review by the poet Anthony Thwaite behind the paywall of the Times Literary Supplement of Roy Starrs' book on Kawabata, Soundings in Time.
http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=158901&sectioncode=21 A review by Stephen Dodd in the Times Higher Educational Supplement of Roy Starrs' book on Kawabata, Soundings in Time.
http://www.newstatesman.com/node/154008 An article by Jason Cowley on Yasunari Kawabata in the New Statesman based partly on Roy Starrs' book on Kawabata, Soundings in Time.

1946 births
Living people
British emigrants to Canada
Academic staff of the University of Otago
Japanese literature academics

Roy Starrs


Mati may refer to:

Geography
Mati, Davao Oriental, Philippines, a city
Roman Catholic Diocese of Mati
Mati Protected Landscape, a protected area in Davao Oriental, Philippines
Mati Airport, Davao Oriental, Philippines
Mati, a barangay in San Miguel, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines
Mati, Greece, a holiday resort village on the east coast of the Attica region, 29 kilometres east of Athens
Mati, Nepal, a village development committee in Dolakha District, Janakpur Zone
Mati, Lucknow, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India
Mati (river), a river in Far East Russia
 Mat (river), a river in Albania
 Mat (region), a region in Albania

People
 Mati (given name)
 Fred Mbiti Gideon Mati (), Kenyan politician

Other uses
Ma-Ti, character from the Captain Planet and the Planeteers TV series
Moscow State Aviation Technological University (MATI)
Mati Community College, Davao Oriental, Philippines
Mati, original title of the 1977 film Beyond Reason

See also
 Matti (disambiguation)
 Matis (disambiguation)
 Maty (disambiguation)

Mati


Frogmore is an estate within the Home Park, adjoining Windsor Castle, in Berkshire, England. It comprises , of primarily private gardens managed by the Crown Estate. It is the location of Frogmore House, a royal retreat, and Frogmore Cottage. The name derives from the preponderance of frogs which have always lived in this low-lying and marshy area near the River Thames. This area is part of the local flood plain. Its large landscaped gardens are Grade I listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.

Part of the gardens of the estate are set aside as burial places for members of the British royal family: the Royal Mausoleum (containing the tomb of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert); the Royal Burial Ground; and the Duchess of Kent's Mausoleum (the burial place of Queen Victoria's mother).

Frogmore House and grounds

Frogmore House was built in the 1680s and in 1792 the house and estate were bought by George III for his wife Queen Charlotte, although the land had formed part of the Windsor royal hunting ground since the reign of Henry VIII. Charlotte engaged James Wyatt to redesign the house and sought the advice of her Vice-Chamberlain, William Price, regarding the redevelopment of the grounds. Price's brother Uvedale, an early exponent of the Picturesque, clearly influenced the design. In 1840, Frogmore was inherited by the Duchess of Kent and, following her death in 1861, by her daughter, Queen Victoria. The estate became a favoured, almost sacred, retreat; after burying her mother in a mausoleum overlooking the lake, the Queen commissioned  another, the Royal Mausoleum, for her husband Albert, Prince Consort and for herself, after Albert's death in 1861.

During her long widowhood, when she rarely visited London, Victoria spent much of her time at Windsor and at Frogmore. She undertook further building work in the gardens, employing Samuel Sanders Teulon to construct a teahouse, and engaging Thomas Willement to redecorate the Gothic Ruin, originally designed by Wyatt and Princess Elizabeth. In this setting Victoria placed the Indian Kiosk, and in her later years would often undertake correspondence in a tent set up nearby, attended by her Indian servant Abdul Karim.

In 1900 Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma was born at Frogmore House. On the estate near the House is Frogmore Cottage, built for Queen Charlotte around 1801. Frogmore Gardens are Grade I listed.

Places of burial

Duchess of Kent's Mausoleum

The first of two mausoleums within the Frogmore Gardens is the burial place of Queen Victoria's mother, Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, the Duchess of Kent. The Mausoleum was designed by the architect A J Humbert, to a concept design by Prince Albert's favourite artist, Professor Ludwig Gruner.

In the latter years of her life, the Duchess lived in Frogmore House and in the 1850s, construction began on a beautiful domed 'temple' in the grounds of the estate. The top portion of the finished building was intended to serve as a summer-house for the Duchess during her lifetime, while the lower level was destined as her final resting place. The Duchess died at Frogmore House on 16 March 1861 before the summer-house was completed so the upper chamber became part of the mausoleum and now contains a statue of the Duchess by William Theed (1864).

Royal Mausoleum

The second mausoleum in the grounds of Frogmore, just a short distance from the Duchess of Kent's Mausoleum, is the much larger Royal Mausoleum, the burial place of Queen Victoria and her consort, Prince Albert. Queen Victoria and her husband had long intended to construct a special resting place for them both, instead of the two of them being buried in one of the traditional resting places of British Royalty, such as Westminster Abbey or St. George's Chapel, Windsor. The mausoleum for the Queen's mother was being constructed at Frogmore in 1861 when Prince Albert died in December of the same year. Within a few days of his death, proposals for the mausoleum were being drawn up by the same designers involved in the Duchess of Kent's Mausoleum: Professor Gruner and A. J. Humbert.

Work commenced in March 1862. The dome was made by October and the building was consecrated in December 1862, although the decoration was not finished until August 1871. The building is in the form of a Greek cross. The exterior was inspired by Italian Romanesque buildings, the walls are of granite and Portland stone and the roof is covered with Australian copper. The internal decoration is in the style of Albert's favourite painter, Raphael, an example of Victoriana at its most opulent. The interior walls are mainly faced in Portuguese red marble, a gift from King Luis I of Portugal, a cousin of both Victoria and Albert, and are inlaid with other marbles from around the world. The monumental tomb itself was designed by Baron Carlo Marochetti. It features recumbent marble effigies of the Queen and Prince Albert. The sarcophagus was made from a single piece of flawless grey Aberdeen granite. The Queen's effigy was made at the same time, but was not put in the mausoleum until after her funeral.

Only Victoria and Albert are interred there, but the mausoleum contains other memorials. Among those is a monument to Princess Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt (1843–1878), Victoria's second daughter, who died of diphtheria shortly after her youngest daughter May (1874–1878). In the centre of the chapel is a monument to Edward, Duke of Kent, Victoria's father. He died in 1820 and is buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor.

One of the sculptures is of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in Saxon Dress, commissioned after Prince Albert's death and executed by William Theed (1804–91).  It was unveiled on 20 May 1867 in Windsor Castle, and was moved to the Royal Mausoleum in 1938. The plaster model, which was exhibited in 1868 at the Royal Academy of Arts, is on loan from the Royal Collection to the National Portrait Gallery, London. Queen Victoria recorded in her diary that the idea for it came from Victoria, Princess Royal (her eldest child) and that the inscription on the plinth is a quotation from The Deserted Village by Oliver Goldsmith. The inscription on the plinth alludes to the poet's lament for the passing of the imagined village of 'Sweet Auburn'.

The building has been closed to the public since 2007 because it is structurally unsound. The foundations are waterlogged, and the lower elements of the building are disintegrating. In February 2018, the Royal Household announced it was undertaking repair work on the mausoleum; the work is expected to be complete by 2023.

Royal Burial Ground

Since its inauguration in 1928, most members of the royal family, except for Kings and Queens, have been interred in the Royal Burial Ground, a cemetery behind Queen Victoria's mausoleum. Among those buried there are Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, and Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, as well as Prince George, Duke of Kent; the Duke of Windsor, who reigned as King Edward VIII before abdication; and his wife Wallis. Many members of the families of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein and of the Marquess of Cambridge are also buried there. Also in the Burial Ground is the cenotaph of Queen Maria of Yugoslavia, a great-granddaughter of Queen Victoria and wife of King Aleksandar I of Yugoslavia. Having lived in exile in London, she was buried here from 1961 until April 2013, when her remains were exhumed and returned to Oplenac, Serbia.

Queen Victoria's Teahouse, the Indian Kiosk and the Gothic Ruin
Various other structures stand in the grounds including the 'Gothic Ruin' (1793), 'Queen Victoria's Teahouse' (a brick pavilion of 1869) and the Indian Kiosk. Constructed of marble, the kiosk was taken from the Qaisar Bagh in Lucknow following the looting of the city, by the Viceroy of India, Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning in 1858. The kiosk is octagonal with an onion dome with round arches and deep eaves. It is a  Grade II listed structure. Teulon's Teahouse also has a Grade II listing while James Wyatt's nearby Gothic Ruin is designated Grade II*.

Public access
The house and gardens are usually open to the public on about six days each year, usually around Easter and the August Bank Holiday. The Royal Burial Ground may be viewed from around its perimeter on the days that the gardens are open to the public. The Duchess of Kent's mausoleum may also be viewed externally, but is never open to the public.

Gallery

See also
 Windsor Great Park
 J. W. Burrow on the use of an image of the sculpture of the Queen and Prince Albert in Saxon dress.

Footnotes

References

Sources

External links

 The Royal Collection Trust – Frogmore House (includes details for visitors)
 Historical images of Frogmore Royal Mausoleum dating from 1870–1901

Grade I listed monuments and memorials
Mausoleums in the United Kingdom
Monuments and memorials in Berkshire
Tourist attractions in Berkshire
Home Park, Windsor
Gardens in Berkshire
Grade I listed parks and gardens in Berkshire
Monuments and memorials to Queen Victoria
Monuments and memorials to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

Frogmore


Fort Laramie (founded as Fort William and known for a while as Fort John) was a significant 19th-century trading post, diplomatic site, and military installation located at the confluence of the Laramie and the North Platte Rivers. They joined in the upper Platte River Valley in the eastern part of the present-day U.S. state of Wyoming. The fort was founded as a private trading-post in the 1830s to service the overland fur trade; in 1849, it was purchased by the United States Army. The site was located east of the long climb leading to the best and lowest crossing-point over the Rocky Mountains at South Pass and became a popular stopping-point for migrants on the Oregon Trail. Along with Bent's Fort on the Arkansas River, the trading post and its supporting industries and businesses were the most significant economic hub of commerce in the region.

Fort William was founded by William Sublette and his partner Robert Campbell in 1834. In the spring of 1835, Sublette sold the fort to Thomas Fitzpatrick, a local fur trader. After a rendezvous in 1836, it was sold to the American Fur Company, which still had a virtual monopoly on the western fur trade. Starting as early as the fall of 1840, the American Fur Company began competing with the newly-established Fort Platte, built by Lancaster Lupton about a mile away from Fort William.

The American Fur Company hired workers from Santa Fe to construct an adobe fort to replace Fort William. This fort was named Fort John, after John Sarpy, a partner in the company. In 1849, the U.S. Army purchased the fort as a post to protect the many wagon trains of migrant travelers on the Oregon Trail, and the subsidiary northern emigrant trails which split off further west. These included the California and Mormon Trails. The middle reaches of the Mormon trail stayed on the north banks of the Platte and North Platte rivers, and merged with the other emigrant trails heading west over the continental divide from Fort John-Laramie. The name "Fort Laramie" gradually came into use, likely as a convenient shortening of "Fort John at the Laramie River".

The remaining structures are preserved as the Fort Laramie National Historic Site by the National Park Service.

History

Name

In 1815 or 1816, Jacques La Ramee and a small group of fellow trappers settled in the area where Fort Laramie would later be located. He went out alone to trap in 1819 or 1820 and was never seen again. Arapahoe Indians were accused of killing La Ramee and burying his body in a beaver dam. The river was named "Laramie" in his honor, and later settlers used this name for the Laramie Mountains, the fort, and the towns of Laramie, Wyoming and Fort Laramie, Wyoming.

The fur trade

The original fort was constructed in the 1830s, probably in 1833–1834 by William Sublette and Robert Campbell. The overland fur trade was still prosperous, when Jim Bridger and Tom Fitzpatrick bought the place.

The fort was located near the confluence of two rivers, so it commanded a broad plain with water on two sides; these formed a partial natural moat. In addition, the nearby confluence of the North Platte's waters had a ford easily used by travelers on what later became the northern overland emigrant trails following the North Platte River west from Nebraska. With the opening of the Mormon Trail on the north bank of the Platte and North Platte, the fort was a junction for westbound travelers. It was an anchor roughly a quarter of the way to either California or Oregon on the famous Oregon Trail. To the west, the common trail leaving Fort John-Laramie later spins off to the Mormon and California trails further west along the road to the Rogue River Valley. The main trail passed northwest to Oregon's Willamette Valley and Oregon City.

One of the early principal owner-trappers was William Sublette, and the fort was called Fort William before being sold to the American Fur Company in 1841. (John Jacob Astor, the founder, had left his company a decade before.) The name was changed to Fort John after John Sarpy, a partner in the company. The 1846 treaties established relatively stable western territories after viable routes west had become well published. By the time the westward migration along the Oregon Trail had markedly increased, the U.S. Army had become tenants in the fort as well. The fort was located along the Laramie River just south of its mouth onto the North Platte River.

On the opposite bank, the town of Fort Laramie, developed (both were later renamed to match the river's eponym). Geographically, the site is situated just east of the steeper foothills terrain to the west (sometimes called "High Plains") that ascends to the east side of the Rocky Mountains proper. This ascent was among the few roadways accessible by the wagons pioneers used to the west. It passed through the continental divide and reached the west slopes of the Rockies along a network of river valleys connecting to the far west via South Pass near the head waters of the North Platte. The strategic site on the eastern plains also had large grazing areas, where migrants could rest their draft animals before tackling the mountains. People could set up camps, do laundry, and heal before beginning anew the rigors of the westward trail.

In 1845, the nearby Fort Bernard was established about  east, farther down the North Platte River, in hopes of getting some of the growing Emigrant Trail trade with western bound wagon trains. This much smaller fort undersold the Laramie operation. It offered a connection south via a crude mule-train road to the Santa Fe Trail via Colorado. Fort Bernard burnt down in 1866, and was never rebuilt. Only a few years later the transcontinental railway joined the two American sea coasts and train travel largely replaced the overland travel along the Emigrant Trails.

Frontier army post

The fort was purchased from Bruce Husband, a member of the American Fur Company, for $4,000 in June 1849 by U.S. Army Lt. Daniel P. Woodbury on behalf of the United States Government. Three companies of cavalry arrived at the fort that same month, and Company 'G', 6th Infantry, which was the post's permanent garrison for many years, arrived on August 12, 1849.

By 1849, gold seekers had joined the Oregon-bound settlers and Mormons heading to Utah, and westward travelers were estimated to number between 20,000 and 40,000 in 1849. The fort itself occupied a location where the westward trail diverged in the direction of either Oregon, Salt Lake City or California. Based on contemporary accounts travelers would remain at the fort several days to mail letters, exchange or purchase cattle, replenish their provisions and reset wagon tires.

The fort was taken over by the Army largely to protect and supply emigrants along the emigrant trails.  In 1851, the first Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed, resulting in relatively peaceful relations between the whites and the Native Americans during the 1850s, though troops from the fort made up the small force that was killed during the Grattan massacre of 1854 under the command of Second Lieutenant John Lawrence Grattan. During the increasing strife of the 1860s, the fort took on a more military posture.

Fort Laramie was never seriously threatened by Indian attacks during the quarter-century of intermittent warfare sparked by the Grattan massacre.  However, a number of civilians were killed in the immediate area and their property destroyed or stolen during this period of hostilities on the plains.  The last known death occurred in March 1877 on the Big Bitter Cottonwood Creek.

The earliest surviving photograph of Fort Laramie, taken in 1858 by Samuel C. Mills, shows the remains of the old adobe walled fur trade fort (Fort John) flanked by a cluster of scattered wood and adobe buildings around the parade grounds.

Architecture
After Fort Laramie was purchased by the military on June 26, 1849, numerous buildings were constructed in the following years. As construction began many different factors were hindering progress. Amongst these issues included a lack of laborers, the cold winters, lack of water, and a limited supply of wood and stone in the surrounding area. One solution to these issues was the use of adobe bricks in building. Adobe bricks were a cheaper material that could provide needed insulation in the cold climate. Alongside adobe bricks, many buildings are made using concrete and some wood use as well. This use of multiple building materials gives Fort Laramie a unique aesthetic

Built in 1849, Old Bedlam is the oldest known U.S. military structure in Wyoming and Fort Laramie's most commonly noted building. Old Bedlam served as the original officer quarters for Fort Laramie. It was used by officers of various rank and marital status, since no other housing was yet available. Old Bedlam offered very little privacy utilizing public kitchen areas and soldiers often sharing rooms. In 1881 Old Bedlam was turned into a duplex.

Also originally built in 1849 was the Post Traders store. This store provided supplies for all sorts of people including the Army, Native Americans, and pioneers traveling west. Throughout the years the fort was running, numerous additions were added to the Post Traders store and complex. In 1852 the northern section was built from stone, this became the store headquarters. Additions were made again in 1883 to serve as a bar and officers club housing.

The First Hospital in Fort Laramie was built from adobe bricks with a log roof in 1856. It had two rooms with eight beds each. The First Hospital was expanded in 1858 with an additional room, kitchen, dinning, and laundry area. Then in 1871 a new hospital was built in Fort Laramie originally based on a military standardized hospital plan. The first wing of this hospital was completed in 1873-1874 but the original plans were never finished. Porches were added around the building to help with the harsh weather.

Over the years Fort Laramie was operational, several more buildings were built for housing. Firstly, The Captains Quarters were built from 1868-1870. The plans for the Captains Quarters were altered midway through construction, resulting in a duplex with a thin staircase. Next, was the construction of the Cavalry Barracks in 1872-1874. This two story building is the only barracks left at Fort Laramie. The Cavalry Barracks had two large rooms on the second floor, each would hold roughly 60 men. Another quarters, known as the Post Surgeon quarters was finished in 1875 and lived in for the next 15 years by the surgeon and his family. The post surgeon quarters have been reconstructed to resemble the 1880's. Following this was the construction of the Lt. Col. Quarters known as Burt House in 1884. Made with lime grout concrete, Burt House was intended for the Lt. Col. and his family. Burt House is currently restored to 1887-1888 when Lt. Col. Andrew Burt and his family lived there.

Fort Laramie also has two surviving guardhouses. The Old Guardhouse, built in 1866, was the second guardhouse in Fort Laramie. This building usually had guards on duty for 24 hours a day, and could hold up to 40 prisoners in the lower level. The New Guardhouse was built to relieve the Old Guardhouse from overcrowding in 1876.

Many ruins of old structures are present at Fort Laramie Historic Site, with the remaining structures making up only a third of the buildings that were once at Fort Laramie.

Civil War, 1861–1865
With the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, the troops at Fort Laramie were withdrawn to fight the Confederate States Army in the east. To take their place, a series of volunteer regiments soon arrived at Fort Laramie, including the 11th Ohio Cavalry, serving until they were mustered out in 1866. Between October 1864 and October 1866 at least two companies from various units of "Galvanized Yankees" (Confederate prisoners of war recruited in the Union Army) were stationed at Fort Laramie.

Bozeman War, 1866–1868
On Christmas night in 1866, John "Portuguese" Phillips ended his historic horseback ride at Fort Laramie after riding  from the Powder River Country. His entire unit had been killed in a fight with the Sioux under Red Cloud, and he had ridden to get reinforcements for Fort Phil Kearny. Legend maintains that Phillips' thoroughbred horse dropped dead upon arriving at the fort; it is unclear whether Phillips kept the same mount for the entire ride. Phillips crossed hostile Indian country, and had to make most of the journey during a brutal Wyoming blizzard.

In the late 1860s, the fort was the primary staging ground for the United States in the Powder River Country during Red Cloud's War. In 1868 the parties reached a peace agreement codified as the second Treaty of Fort Laramie.

Great Sioux War of 1876–1877
The discovery of gold in the Black Hills touched off another period of conflict with the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne, as the United States violated their previous promise to keep the hills limited to the Sioux. Miners invaded the territory, and US forces came into conflict during the Great Sioux War of 1876. Fort Laramie served as a major staging point for supplies and troops.

Final years
After the completion of the transcontinental railroad, the fort's importance gradually decreased. Fewer wagon trains journeyed west, and regional Native Americans had been largely subdued. The fort was decommissioned in 1890. The original abandonment order was issued in 1889, and four of the infantry companies stationed there at that time went to Fort Logan, near Denver, Colorado that fall.

In March 1890, about 30 cavalry soldiers and civilian mechanics under the command of Lt. C. W. Taylor arrived at the fort and removed doors, windows, flooring, and any other material from the buildings that was thought to be of value to the government. The last soldiers left Fort Laramie on April 20, 1890. All but one of the structures were sold at auction to private citizens. The entire military reservation, which was nine miles long and six miles wide, was opened up to homesteaders for settlement on October 5, 1891.

Historic district
In a 1983 document, the National Park Service describes a 536-acre historic district within the larger national historic site containing all of the historic structures, buildings, ruins, and sites, as well as a separate area containing a bridge.  The NPS identified 36 significant physical remains that provide the background for the events and the people associated with Fort Laramie.  These included 13 standing buildings, 11 standing ruins, and several buildings where only the foundations remain.

In popular culture

Radio
 In the 1950s, a fictionalized account of life at the fort during the 19th century was depicted in the CBS radio program Fort Laramie.

Film
 In the movie White Feather (1955), Fort Laramie is at the center of events based on the lives of land surveyor Joshua Tanner and Colonel Lindsay of the 6th U.S. Cavalry.
The fort is central to a number of chapters in James A. Michener's novel Centennial and the later miniseries.
The fort is also featured in Taylor Sheridan's fictional adaptation of the Oregon Trail titled "1883", a prequel to "Yellowstone".

Games
 Fort Laramie is one of several stops in The Oregon Trail (1971-) computer game series.
 Fort Laramie was an ally of Chayton Black in the mission "The Bozeman Trail" in Age of Empires III: The War Chiefs (2006), an expansion pack to Age of Empires III (2005).

See also
 Fort Laramie Three-Mile Hog Ranch, the fort's off-post social center
 List of the oldest buildings in Wyoming

References

External links

 Fort Laramie Digital Media Archive  with creative commons-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas and virtual tours using data from a National Park Service/CyArk research partnership
 Fort Laramie, Administration Building, Fort Laramie, Goshen, WY at the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), also , , , , , , , , , , , , ,  and

Federal lands in Wyoming
Fort Laramie
Military and war museums in Wyoming
Mormon Trail
National Historic Sites in Wyoming
Oregon Trail
Closed installations of the United States Army
Protected areas established in 1931
Museums in Goshen County, Wyoming
Wyoming Territory
Pre-statehood history of Wyoming
Pony Express stations
Historic American Buildings Survey in Wyoming
Laramie
1931 establishments in Wyoming
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Wyoming
National Register of Historic Places in Goshen County, Wyoming
American Fur Company

Fort Laramie National Historic Site


Adjustable focus glasses are eyeglasses whose lens powers can be adjusted for focal distance and prescription. These glasses are viable options for certain people who need bifocals or trifocals. They can also be donated to people in the developing world where eye doctors and opticians are hard to come by and afford. There's two methods for achieving adjustable lenses.

One design uses a crystal liquid in a flexible layer. The wearer then uses a dial to control the amount of liquid in the lenses, which in turn makes the lenses more convex, concave or flat.

The other design has double layers of lenses that slide over one another.

Eyeglasses

Adjustable focus glasses


"Can't Get You Out of My Head" is a song recorded by Australian singer Kylie Minogue.  It is the first single from her eighth studio album, Fever.  It is credited with reigniting her career in the 2000s.  It is a dance-pop song.  The song was reported to reach number one in her home country of Australia, along with New Zealand and every country in Europe except Finland, where it reached the top five.  It reached number seven on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming her second US top-ten hit after her version of "The Locomotion" in 1988.  It has become Minogue's signature song.

References

Dance-pop songs
2001 songs
Kylie Minogue songs

Can't Get You Out of My Head


A continuously variable transmission (CVT) is an automated transmission that can change through a continuous range of gear ratios. This contrasts with other transmissions that provide a limited number of gear ratios in fixed steps. The flexibility of a CVT with suitable control may allow the engine to operate at a constant angular velocity while the vehicle moves at varying speeds.

CVTs are used in cars, tractors, side-by-sides, motor scooters, snowmobiles, bicycles, and earthmoving equipment. The most common type of CVT uses two pulleys connected by a belt or chain; however, several other designs have also been used at times.

Types

Pulley-based

The most common type of CVT uses a V-belt which runs between two variable-diameter pulleys. The pulleys consist of two cone-shaped halves that move together and apart. The V-belt runs between these two halves, so the effective diameter of the pulley is dependent on the distance between the two halves of the pulley. The V-shaped cross-section of the belt causes it to ride higher on one pulley and lower on the other; therefore, the gear ratio is adjusted by moving the two sheaves of one pulley closer together and the two sheaves of the other pulley farther apart.

As the distance between the pulleys and the length of the belt does not change, both pulleys must be adjusted (one bigger, the other smaller) simultaneously to maintain the proper amount of tension on the belt. Simple CVTs combining a centrifugal drive pulley with a spring-loaded driven pulley often use belt tension to affect the conforming adjustments in the driven pulley. The V-belt needs to be very stiff in the pulley's axial direction to make only short radial movements while sliding in and out of the pulleys.

The radial thickness of the belt is a compromise between the maximum gear ratio and torque. Steel-reinforced V-belts are sufficient for low-mass, low-torque applications like utility vehicles and snowmobiles, but higher-mass and -torque applications such as automobiles require a chain. Each element of the chain must have conical sides that fit the pulley when the belt is running on the outermost radius. As the chain moves into the pulleys the contact area gets smaller. As the contact area is proportional to the number of elements, chain belts require many very small elements.

A belt-driven design offers approximately 88% efficiency, which, while lower than that of a manual transmission, can be offset by enabling the engine to run at its most efficient RPM regardless of the vehicle's speed. When power is more important than economy, the ratio of the CVT can be changed to allow the engine to turn at the RPM at which it produces the greatest power.

In a chain-based CVT, numerous chain elements are arranged along multiple steel bands layered over one another, each of which is thin enough to easily bend. When part of the belt is wrapped around a pulley, the sides of the elements form a conical surface. In the stack of bands, each band corresponds to a slightly different drive ratio, and thus the bands slide over each other and need sufficient lubrication. An additional film of lubricant is applied to the pulleys. The film needs to be thick enough to prevent direct contact between the pulley and the chain, but thin enough to not waste power as each chain element enters it.

Some CVTs transfer power to the output pulley via tension in the belt (a "pulling" force), while others use compression of the chain elements (where the input pulley "pushes" the belt, which in turn pushes the output pulley).

Positively Infinitely Variable (PIV) chain drives are distinct in that the chain positively interlocks with the conical pulleys.  This is achieved by having a stack of many small rectangular plates in each chain link that can slide independently from side-to-side.  The plates may be quite thin, around a millimetre thick.  The conical pulleys have radial grooves.  A groove on one side of the pulley is met with a ridge on the other side and so the sliding plates are pushed back and forth to conform to the pattern, effectively forming teeth of the correct pitch when squeezed between the pulleys.  Due to the interlocking surfaces, this type of drive can transmit significant torque and so has been widely used in industrial applications.  However, the maximum speed is significantly lower than other pulley-based CVTs.  The sliding plates will slowly wear over years of usage.  Therefore the plates are made longer than is needed, allowing for more wear before the chain must be refurbished or replaced.  Constant lubrication is required and so the housing is usually partially filled with oil.

Toroidal

Toroidal CVTs, as used on the Nissan Cedric (Y34), and those built by CVTCORP, consist of a series of discs and rollers. The discs can be pictured as two almost-conical parts arranged point-to-point, with the sides dished such that the two parts could fit into the central hole of a torus. One disc is the input, and the other is the output. Between the discs are rollers, which vary the ratio and transfer power from one side to the other. When the rollers' axes are perpendicular to the axis of the discs, the effective diameter is the same for the input discs and the output discs, resulting in a 1:1 drive ratio. For other ratios, the rollers are rotated along the surfaces of the discs so that they are in contact with the discs at points with different diameters, resulting in a drive ratio of something other than 1:1.

An advantage of a toroidal CVT is the ability to withstand higher torque loads than a pulley-based CVT. In some toroidal systems, the direction of thrust can be reversed within the CVT, removing the need for an external device to provide a reverse gear.

Ratcheting
A ratcheting CVT uses a series of one-way clutches or ratchets that rectify and sum only "forward" motion. The on-off characteristics of a typical ratchet means that many of these designs are not continuous in operation (i.e. technically not a CVT), but in practice, there are many similarities in operation, and a ratcheting CVT is able to produce a zero output speed from any given input speed (as per an Infinitely Variable Transmission). The drive ratio is adjusted by changing linkage geometry within the oscillating elements so that the summed maximum linkage speed is adjusted, even when the average linkage speed remains constant.

Ratcheting CVTs can transfer substantial torque because their static friction actually increases relative to torque throughput, so slippage is impossible in properly designed systems. Efficiency is generally high because most of the dynamic friction is caused by very slight transitional clutch speed changes. The drawback to ratcheting CVTs is the vibration caused by the successive transition in speed required to accelerate the element, which must supplant the previously operating and decelerating power-transmitting element.

The design principle dates back to before the 1930s, with the original design intended to convert rotary motion to oscillating motion and back to rotary motion using roller clutches. This design remains in production as of 2017, for use with low-speed electric motors. An example prototyped as a bicycle transmission was patented in 1994. The operating principle for a ratcheting CVT design, using a Scotch yoke mechanism to convert rotary motion to oscillating motion and non-circular gears to achieve uniform input to output ratio, was patented in 2014.

Hydrostatic/hydraulic

A hydrostatic CVT uses an engine-driven, positive-displacement pump to deliver oil under pressure to one or more hydraulic motors, the latter creating the torque that is applied to the vehicle's driving wheel(s).  The name "hydrostatic CVT," which misuses the term "hydrostatic," differentiates this type of transmission from one that incorporates a hydrodynamic torque multiplier ("torque converter") into its design.

In a hydrostatic CVT, the effective "gear ratio" between the engine and the driving wheel(s) is the result of a difference between the pump's displacement—expressed as cubic inches or cubic centimeters per revolution—and the motor's displacement.  In a closed system, that is, a system in which all of the pump's output is delivered to the motor(s), this ratio is given by the equation , where  is the pump's effective displacement,  is the motor's displacement, and  is the "gear ratio."

In a hydrostatic CVT, the effective "gear ratio" is varied by varying effective displacement of the pump, which will vary the volume of oil delivered to the motor(s) at a given engine speed (RPM).  There are several ways in which this may be accomplished, one being to divert some of the pump's output back to the reservoir through an adjustable valve.  With such an arrangement, as more oil is diverted by opening the valve, the effective displacement of the pump is reduced and less oil is delivered to the motor, causing it to turn more slowly.  Conversely, closing the valve will reduce the volume of oil being diverted, increasing the effective displacement of the pump and causing the motor to turn more rapidly.

Another method is to employ a variable displacement pump.  When the pump is configured for low displacement, it produces a low volume of oil flow, causing the hydraulic motor(s) to turn more slowly.  As the pump's displacement is increased, a greater volume of oil flow is produced for any given engine RPM, causing the motor(s) to turn faster.

Advantages of a hydrostatic CVT include:
 Capacity scalability.  A hydrostatic CVT's power-transmission capacity is readily adapted to the application by using a correctly-sized pump and matching hydraulic motor(s).
 Flexibility.  As power transfer from the engine-driven pump to the hydraulic motor(s) is through the medium of flowing oil, the motor(s) can be mounted in otherwise-inconvenient locations by using hoses to convey oil from the pump to the motor(s), thus simplifying the design of all-wheel drive articulated vehicles.
 Smoothness.  As the effective "gear ratio" of a hydrostatic CVT is infinitely-variable, there are no distinct transitions in torque multiplication, such as produced with conventional, geared transmissions.
 Simplified control.  Operation through the full range of forward and reverse speeds can be controlled using a single lever or a foot pedal to actuate a diversion valve or variable-displacement pump.
 Arbitrarily-slow crawl speeds.  The potential for high torque multiplication at very low speeds allows for precise vehicle movement while under load.

Disadvantages of a hydrostatic CVT include:
 Reduced efficiency.  Gears are one of the most efficient methods of mechanical power transmission, with efficiencies as high as 90 percent in many cases.  In contrast, few hydrostatic transmission systems achieve more than about 65 percent efficiency.  This is due to a combination of internal losses in the pump and motor(s), and losses in the piping and valves.
 Higher cost.  For a given level of power-transmitting capacity, a hydrostatic CVT will be more expensive to produce than an equivalent geared transmission.  In addition to the pump and motor(s), a hydrostatic system requires the use of an oil reservoir, piping and in many applications, an oil cooler, this last item being necessary to dissipate the waste heat that results from hydrostatic power transmission's relatively-low efficiency.
 Greater weight.  Due to the high oil pressure at which a hydrostatic CVT operates, the pump and motor(s) are under considerable mechanical stress, especially when maximum power and loading is being applied.  Hence these items must be very robust in construction, typically resulting in heavy components.  Additional weight will be found in the oil reservoir and its oil load, as well as the piping and valving.

Uses of hydrostatic CVTs include forage harvesters, combine harvesters, small wheeled/tracked/skid-steer loaders, crawler tractors, and road rollers.  One agricultural example, produced by AGCO, splits power between hydrostatic and mechanical transfer to the output shaft via a planetary gear in the forward direction of travel (in reverse, the power transfer is fully hydrostatic).  This arrangement reduces the load on the hydrostatic portion of the transmission when in the forward direction by transmitting a significant portion of the torque through more efficient fixed gears.

A variant called the Integrated Hydrostatic Transaxle (IHT) uses a single housing for both hydraulic elements and gear-reducing elements, and is used in some mini-tractors and ride-on lawn mowers.

The 2008–2010 Honda DN-01 cruiser motorcycle used a hydrostatic CVT in the form of a variable-displacement axial piston pump with a variable-angle swashplate.

Cone

A cone CVT varies the drive ratio by moving a wheel or belt along the axis of one or more conical rollers. The simplest type of cone CVT, the single-cone version, uses a wheel that moves along the slope of the cone, creating variation between the narrow and wide diameters of the cone.

Some cone CVT designs use two rollers. In 1903, William Evans and Paul Knauf applied for a patent on a continuously variable transmission using two parallel conical rollers pointing in opposite directions and connected by belts that could be slid along the cones to vary the transmission ratio. The Evans Variable Speed Countershaft, produced in the 1920s, is simpler—the two rollers are arranged with a small constant-width gap between them, and the position of a leather cord that runs between the rollers determines the transmission ratio.

Epicyclic
In an epicyclic CVT (also called a planetary CVT), the gear ratio is shifted by tilting the axes of spherical rollers to provide different contact radii, which in turn drive input and output discs. This is similar in principle to toroidal CVTs. Production versions include the NuVinci CVT.

Other types
Friction-disk transmissions were used in several vehicles and small locomotives built in the early 20th century, including the Lambert and Metz automobiles. Used today in snow blowers, these transmissions consist of an output disk that is moved across the surface of the input disk upon which it rolls. When the output disk is adjusted to a position equal to its own radius, the resulting drive ratio is 1:1. The drive ratio can be set to infinity (i.e. a stationary output disk) by moving the output disk to the center of the input disk. The output direction can also be reversed by moving the output disk past the center of the input disk. The transmission on early Plymouth locomotives worked this way, while on tractors using friction disks, the range of reverse speeds was typically limited.

Still in development, the magnetic CVT transmits torque using a non-contact magnetic coupling. The design uses two rings of permanent magnets with a ring of steel pole pieces between them to create a planetary gearset using magnets. It is claimed to produce a 3 to 5 percent reduction in fuel consumption compared to a mechanical system.

Infinitely variable transmissions

Some CVTs can also function as an infinitely variable transmission (IVT) which offers an infinite range of low gears (e.g. moving a vehicle forward at an infinitely slow speed). Some IVTs prevent backdriving (where the output shaft can freely rotate, like an automotive transmission in neutral) due to providing high back-driving torque. Other IVTs, such as ratcheting types, allow the output shaft to freely rotate. The types of CVTs which are able to function as IVTs include epicyclic, friction-disk, and ratcheting CVTs.

History
In 1879, Milton Reeves invented a CVT (then called a variable-speed transmission) for use in sawmilling. In 1896, Reeves began fitting this transmission to his cars, and the Reeves CVT was also used by several other manufacturers.

The 1911 Zenith Gradua 6HP motorcycle used a pulley-based Gradua CVT. A year later, the Rudge-Whitworth Multigear was released with a similar but improved CVT. Other early cars to use a CVT were the 1913–1923 David small three-wheeled cyclecars built in Spain, the 1923 Clyno built in the U.K., and the 1926 Constantinesco Saloon built in the U.K.

Applications

Passenger vehicles

The first mass-production car to use a CVT was the 1958 DAF 600 from the Netherlands. Its Variomatic transmission was used in several vehicles built by DAF and Volvo until the 1980s.

In 1987, the ECVT, the first electronically-controlled steel-belted CVT, was introduced as an optional transmission on the Subaru Justy, Production was limited to 500 units per month due to Van Doorne's limited production output. In June of that year, supplies increased to 3,000 per month, leading Subaru to make the CVT available in the Rex kei car. Subaru has also supplied its CVTs to other manufacturers (e.g., the 1992 Nissan Micra and Fiat Uno and Panda). Also in 1987, second-generation Ford Fiesta and first-generation Fiat Uno were introduced with steel-belted CVTs, which are called CTX and Unomatic in Ford and Fiat, respectively.

The 1996 sixth-generation Honda Civic introduced a pulley-based Honda Multi Matic (HMM) CVT which included a multi-plate clutch, not a torque converter, to prevent idle creep.

Use of CVTs then spread in the following years to models including the 1998 Nissan Cube, 1999 Rover 25 and 1999 Audi A6.

The 1999 Nissan Cedric (Y34) used a toroidal CVT—unlike the pulley-based designs used by other manufacturers—marketed as the Nissan Extroid, which incorporated a torque converter. Nissan then switched from toroidal to pulley-based CVTs in 2003. The version of the CVT used with the VQ35DE engine in the fourth-generation Nissan Altima is claimed to be capable of transmitting higher torque loads than other belt CVTs.

The 2019 Toyota Corolla (E210) is available with a CVT assisted by a physical "launch gear" alongside the CVT pulley. At speeds of up to , the launch gear is used to increase acceleration and reduce stress on the CVT. Above this speed, the transmission switches over to the CVT.

Several hybrid electric vehicles—such as the Toyota Prius, Nissan Altima, Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV, and Ford Escape Hybrid—use electric variable transmissions (EVTs) to control the contribution of power from the electric motor and the internal combustion engine. These differ from standard CVTs in that they are powered by an electric motor in addition to the engine.

Marketing terms for CVTs include "Lineartronic" (Subaru), "Xtronic" (Jatco, Nissan, Renault), INVECS-III (Mitsubishi), Multitronic (Volkswagen, Audi), "Autotronic" (Mercedes-Benz) and "IVT" (Hyundai, Kia).

Racing cars
In the United States, Formula 500 open-wheel racing cars have used CVTs since the early 1970s. CVTs were prohibited from Formula One in 1994 (along with several other electronic systems and driving aids) due to concerns over escalating research and development costs and maintaining a specific level of driver involvement with the vehicles.

Small vehicles
Many small vehicles—such as snowmobiles, golf carts, and motor scooters—use CVTs, typically of the pulley variety. CVTs in these vehicles often use a rubber belt with a non-stretching fixed circumference manufactured using various highly durable and flexible materials, due to the mechanical simplicity and ease of use outweighing their comparative inefficiency. Some motor scooters include a centrifugal clutch, to assist when idling or manually reversing the scooter.

The 1974 Rokon RT340 TCR Automatic off-road motorcycle was fitted with a snowmobile CVT. The first ATV equipped with a CVT was the Polaris Trail Boss in 1985.

Farm and earthmoving equipment
Combine harvesters used variable belt drives as early as the 1950s. Many small tractors and self-propelled mowers for home and garden use simple rubber belt CVTs. Hydrostatic CVTs are more common on the larger units. In mowing or harvesting operations, the CVT allows the forward speed of the equipment to be adjusted independently of the engine speed; this allows the operator to slow or accelerate as needed to accommodate variations in the thickness of the crop.

Hydrostatic CVTs are used in small- to medium-sized agricultural and earthmoving equipment. Since the engines in these machines are typically run at constant power output (to provide hydraulic power or to power machinery), losses in mechanical efficiency are offset by enhanced operational efficiency. For example, in earthmoving equipment, the forward-reverse shuttle times are reduced. The speed and power output of the CVT is used to control the travel speed and sometimes steering of the equipment. In the latter case, the required speed differential to steer the equipment can be supplied by independent CVTs, allowing the steering to be accomplished without several drawbacks associated with other skid steer methods (such as braking losses or loss of tractive effort).

The 1965 Wheel Horse 875 and 1075 garden tractors were the first such vehicles to be fitted with a hydrostatic CVT. The design used a variable-displacement swash-plate pump and fixed-displacement gear-type hydraulic motor combined into a single compact package. Reverse ratios were achieved by reversing the flow of the pump through over-centering of the swashplate. Acceleration was limited and smoothed through the use of pressure accumulator and relief valves located between the pump and motor, to prevent the sudden changes in speed possible with direct hydraulic coupling. Subsequent versions included fixed swash plate motors and ball pumps.

The 1996 Fendt Vario 926 was the first heavy-duty tractor to be equipped with a IVT transmission. It is not the same thing as a hydrostatic CVT. Over 100,000 tractors have been produced with this transmission.

Power generation systems
CVTs have been used in aircraft electrical power generation systems since the 1950s.

CVTs with flywheels are used as a speed governor between an engine (e.g. a wind turbine) and the electric generator. When the engine is producing sufficient power, the generator is connected directly to the CVT which serves to regulate the engine's speed. When the power output is too low, the generator is disconnected and the energy is stored in the flywheel. It is only when the speed of the flywheel is sufficient that the kinetic energy is converted into electricity, intermittently, at the speed required by the generator.

Other uses
Some drill presses and milling machines contain a simple belt-drive CVT system to control the speed of the chuck, including the Jet models J-A5816 and J-A5818. In this system, the effective diameter of only the output shaft pulleys is continuously variable. The input pulley connected to the motor is usually fixed in diameter (or sometimes with discrete steps to allow a selection of speed ranges). The operator adjusts the speed of the drill by using a hand wheel that controls the width of the gap between the pulley halves. A tensioner pulley is implemented in the belt transmission to take up or release the slack in the belt as the speed is altered.

Winches and hoists are also an application of CVTs, especially for those adapting the transmission ratio to the resistant torque.

Bicycles with CVT gearing have had limited commercial success, with one example providing a range of gearing equivalent to an eight-speed shifter. The bicycle's short gearing assisted when cycling uphill, but the CVT was noted to significantly increase the weight of the bicycle.

See also

 Constant speed drive
 Friction drive
 List of automobiles with continuously variable transmissions
 Power band

References

Automotive transmission technologies
Automobile transmissions
Motorcycle transmissions

Continuously variable transmission


A catchweight is a term used in combat sports, such as boxing or mixed martial arts, to describe a weight limit that does not adhere to the traditional limits for weight classes. In boxing, a catchweight is negotiated prior to weigh-ins, which are conducted one day before the fight. The term may be used in professional wrestling, but should not be confused with catch wrestling (a precursor to modern professional wrestling), or catch division (meaning no weight limit, such as in the PWP Catch Division Championship).

Explanation
Strictly speaking, a catchweight in boxing is used to describe a weight limit for a fight that does not fall in line with the limits for the expanded weight classes. Catchweights were enacted after the traditional rules of weigh-ins, which take place on the day of a fight, were changed to that of the day before a fight. Likewise, catchweights were enacted following the expansion of the traditional eight weight divisions to seventeen.

An agreed weight was used to describe a catchweight traditionally when only eight-division limits existed and all weigh-ins were done "day or hours" before the fight. A historical marker that points to when "day of" fight weigh-ins ended is the advent of television. During the Muhammad Ali era (1960s–70s), boxing promotions began televising the weigh-in proceedings to generate publicity before the scheduled fights, necessitating a "day before" fight weigh-in.

Fighters can cut weight for a "day before" fight weigh-in with modern conditioning and training methods and regain the same weight on the "day of" the fight. The purpose of a catchweight is to compensate for the ability of bigger boxers to cut weight before a "day before" fight weigh-in and regain the weight to exceed the specified limit (division or catchweight) on the "day of" the fight with little effect on performance. The catchweight aims to provide a level playing field and to prevent weight mismatches that can endanger the fighters. More importantly, the catchweight ensures the fight is not cancelled due to potential last-minute disagreements on the fight time.

Examples
A notable case of alleged weight mismatch is Arturo Gatti vs. Joey Gamache. Gatti defeated the former world champion Gamache by a knockout in the second round. After the bout, Gamache's handlers filed a lawsuit alleging Gatti had gained 19 pounds since the weigh-in the "day before" and thus had a large advantage over Gamache. This resulted in serious injuries to the smaller Gamache. After Gatti–Gamache, some boxing commissions started weighing boxers a second time.

Combat sports commonly have defined weight classes with specific weight limits. For example, each boxing division with the exception of heavyweight has its own weight classes, ranging from 105 pounds for minimumweight to 200 pounds for cruiserweight and varying in range in the weight classes in between. In order to fight for a championship in these weight classes, the fighters must come into the fight at or below said weight.

Cases can arise when a fight does not occur within a specific weight class limit. In certain cases, a contract for a fight will specify that the two fighters come into the fight at another limit. Often, this limit is at a midpoint between two weight classes. Recent examples of catchweight fights where a weight limit was different from that of a defined weight class include the second fight between Jermain Taylor and Kelly Pavlik, which was fought at a catchweight of 166 pounds and the Félix Trinidad-Roy Jones Jr. fight, which was fought at 171 pounds.

In another example, fighters can agree to fight at a formal weight; however, at weigh-in, a fighter can come in over the formal weight. If so, the fight is not cancelled. Instead, an agreement may be reached to fight at a catchweight. Commonly, the fighter who comes in overweight pays a penalty, for example, a 20% penalty with 10% going to the fighter who made weight and 10% going to a commission sanctioning the fight. An example of this catchweight situation occurred at UFC 104 where Anthony Johnson came in over the welterweight limit of 170 for his fight against Yoshiyuki Yoshida. While commissions sometimes give a one-pound grace, Johnson came in at 176. An agreement was made that the fight would occur at a catchweight of 176.

Often, catchweight fights are still considered fights within a formal weight class. For example, when Manny Pacquiao fought Miguel Cotto, the fight was at a catchweight of 145 pounds to accommodate Pacquiao's smaller physique. Boxing has a junior welterweight weight class with a weight limit of 140 and a welterweight weight class with a weight limit of 147. Since the fight was under the 147 limit and above the 140 limit, the fight was considered a welterweight fight as well as a catchweight fight. In addition, the World Boxing Organization sanctioned this fight for the welterweight title since the fight was under the welterweight limit.

Another example was at UFC 99 when Wanderlei Silva fought Rich Franklin at a catchweight bout of 195 pounds. Silva typically fought at the light heavyweight weight class of 205 pounds, while Franklin fought at the middleweight weight class of 185 pounds. They agreed on a catchweight bout, and both men weighed in at 194 for the fight.

References

External links

Boxing weight classes
Mixed martial arts weight classes

Catchweight


Hélène Mandroux-Colas (born 1 December 1940) is a French politician. A member of the Socialist Party (PS) since 1982, her career in Montpellier debuted in Georges Frêche's municipal administration. Frêche gave her important responsibilities such as finances, municipal staff, legal affairs since 1995, and vice-mayor from 2001. She became mayor of Montpellier in 2004, following the resignation of Frêche, who could not cumulate the job as mayor with his new role as President of the Languedoc-Roussillon Region. She defeated her UMP opponent Jacques Domergue in a three-way runoff during the 2008 French municipal elections.

Within the party, she was a supporter of Ségolène Royal at the Reims Congress, and became one of Royal's major regional allies with Gérard Collomb and Jean-Noël Guérini. Despite being close to Frêche in the past, she has recently distanced herself from him following his notoriously controversial remarks. On 28 January 2010, following controversial comments made by Frêche about Laurent Fabius, Martine Aubry asked Mandroux to form a list supported by the party for the 2010 regional elections. Her list received the endorsement of the PS against Frêche's dissident list, but did not prevent Frêche from retaining the presidency of the region.

References

External links
 Campaign website

Living people
1940 births
Mayors of Montpellier
Socialist Party (France) politicians
French anesthesiologists
Women mayors of places in France
20th-century French physicians
French women physicians
20th-century women physicians
20th-century French women
Women anesthesiologists

Hélène Mandroux


A lesion is any damage or abnormal change in the tissue of an organism, usually caused by injury or diseases. Lesion is derived from the Latin  meaning "injury". Lesions may occur in plants as well as animals.

Types

There is no designated classification or naming convention for lesions. Since lesions can occur anywhere in the body and the definition of a lesion is so broad, the varieties of lesions are virtually endless. Generally, lesions may be classified by their patterns, their sizes, their locations, or their causes. They can also be named after the person who discovered them. For example, Ghon lesions, which are found in the lungs of those with tuberculosis, are named after the lesion's discoverer, Anton Ghon. The characteristic skin lesions of a varicella zoster virus infection are called chickenpox. Lesions of the teeth are usually called dental caries, or "cavities".

Location

Lesions are often classified by their tissue types or locations. For example, a "skin lesion" or a "brain lesion" are named for the tissue where they are found. If there is an added significance to regions within the tissue—such as in neural injuries where different locations correspond to different neurological deficits—they are further classified by location. For example, a lesion in the central nervous system is called a central lesion, and a lesion in the peripheral nervous system is called a peripheral lesion. A myocardial lesion results from damage to the heart muscle, and a coronary lesion is a subtype that describes a lesion in the coronary arteries. Coronary lesions are then further classified according to the side of the heart that is affected and the diameter of the artery in which they form.

Cause and behavior

If a lesion is caused by a tumor, it can be classified as malignant or benign after analysis of a biopsy. A benign lesion that is evolving into a malignant lesion is called "premalignant". Cancerous lesions are sometimes classified by their growth kinetics, such as the Lodwick classification, which characterizes classes of bone lesions. Another type is an excitotoxic lesion, which can be caused by excitatory amino acids like kainic acid that kill neurons through overstimulation.

Size and shape

Lesion size may be specified as gross, meaning it is visible to the unaided eye, or histologic, meaning a microscope is needed to see it. A space-occupying lesion, as the name suggests, has a recognizable volume and may impinge on nearby structures, whereas a non space-occupying lesion is simply a hole in the tissue, e.g. a small area of the brain that has turned to fluid following a stroke.

Lesions may also be classified by the shape they form. This is the case with many ulcers, which can have a bullseye or 'target' appearance. A coin lesion as seen in an X-ray has the appearance of a coin sitting on the patient's chest.

Research using lesions

Brain lesions may help researchers understand brain function. Research involving lesions relies on two assumptions: that brain damage can affect different aspects of cognition independently, and that a locally damaged brain functions identically to a normal brain in its "undamaged" parts.

Sham lesion is the name given to a control procedure during a lesion experiment. In a sham lesion, an animal may be placed in a stereotaxic apparatus and electrodes inserted as in the experimental condition, but no current is passed, and therefore damage to the tissue should be minimal.

Research with humans

Humans with brain lesions are often the subjects of research with the goal of establishing the function of the area where their lesion occurred.

A drawback to the use of human subjects is the difficulty in finding subjects who have a lesion to the area the researcher wishes to study. As such, transcranial magnetic stimulation is often used in cognition and neuroscience-related tests to imitate the effect.

Research with animals

Using animal subjects gives researchers the ability to study lesions in specific body parts of the subjects, allowing them to quickly acquire a large group of subjects. An example of such a study is the lesioning of rat hippocampi to establish the role of the hippocampus in object recognition and object recency.

Notable lesions

See also
 Ablation

References

External links

Anatomical pathology
Medical signs

Lesion


Popular sovereignty was a political doctrine in the United States that held that the people who lived in a state or region should decide what kind of government or laws they should have. Popular sovereignty allowed settlers of a territory to decide for themselves on the question of slavery without any interference from the federal government. During 19th century it was a compromise used to determine if a western territory or new state would accept or reject slavery within its borders.

It was first promoted in the 1840s. Stephen A. Douglas, one of the sponsors of the Kansas–Nebraska Act inserted it in the new law as a measure to balance slave and free states.  Abraham Lincoln was one of those who did not agree. He thought Congress should regulate federal territories. The act was passed but popular sovereignty proved to have deadly consequences. When Kansas was being considered for statehood, there was a rush by both people who were for and against slavery to go to Kansas and vote on the issue of slavery. This resulted in a great deal of fraud and violence. It led directly to Bleeding Kansas, the bloody border war over slavery.

References

19th century in the United States
Bleeding Kansas
Origins of the American Civil War
United States law

Popular sovereignty in the United States