V44 is a brand of pure super premium wheat-vodka produced by the Bratislava-based company European Spirits and Liquor. Its name comes from numbers of sample variations. The basic vodka recipe is from a 1405 Baltic document, and is claimed to be the world's oldest officially registered surviving vodka recipe. V44 is 100% unflavoured. Its taste and consistency is mainly achieved by using a special type of bio wheat, a proprietary fermentation process and by the cold gravity filtration processes. The production volume each year is limited to the available specified wheat. V44 Vodka is 44% alcohol and kosher certified.

External links
V44 Vodka  — Official website.
Revealing The Redefinition Of Premium Vodka V44 — Press release announcing the introduction of the vodka.

Kosher drinks
Lithuanian vodkas
Lithuanian brands

V44 (vodka)


Pecetto di Valenza () is a commune of the Province of Alessandria in the Piedmont region of northwest Italy with a population of 1282 (December 2008 estimate). It is south of the river Po, and about  northeast of the provincial capital of Alessandria, on an eastern spur of the hills of the Basso Monferrato. The commune's neighbours are Alessandria, Bassignana, Montecastello, Pietra Marazzi, and Valenza.

The municipal boundaries enclose an area of  that ranges in elevation from  above sea level and is predominantly agricultural in character: the economy is largely based on the cultivation of cereals and grapes. Four distinct settlements are identified in the Statuto comunale as "historically recognised by the community"; these were also the four designated places for the 2001 census. Pecetto di Valenza itself, which stands at  above sea level and is the capoluogo of the commune, was the most populous with 499 of the commune's 1,312 inhabitants. Pellizzari, at , had a population of 120. Gasperini, at , had 30 inhabitants and Molina, at , 16. A further 360 residents, 27 percent of the total, were counted in isolated dwellings such as farmhouses.

Notable people
Giuseppe Borsalino, who gave his name to the Borsalino hat-making company which he developed in Alessandria, was born in Pecetto di Valenza in 1834.

References

Cities and towns in Piedmont

Pecetto di Valenza


Cotton Traders is a British clothing company, specialising in leisurewear, based in Altrincham, Greater Manchester, England. It was founded in 1987 by former England national rugby union team captains Fran Cotton and Steve Smith.

Cotton Traders' range of products commercialised include clothing, lingerie, footwear, and accessories such as bags, scarves, socks, hats, and belts. In past years, the company also produced rugby union kit uniforms.

History
Cotton Traders is a multichannel British clothing retailer founded in 1987 by former England rugby captains, Fran Cotton and Steve Smith, and based in Altrincham, England. The company sells casual clothing and footwear collections for men and women, plus a new homeware collection, Cotton Home, in over 25 countries worldwide.

The company started out in a small room next to Altrincham railway station, supplying rugby shirts via mail order using advertisements in the Sunday newspapers. After two years in business, Cotton Traders reached an annual turnover of £2million with new men's and women's casual clothing collections being added to their offering, followed by footwear and accessories. Today, it is a multichannel retailer, employing a staff of more than 800 with an annual gross turnover of more than £86 million.

Starting in 1991, the company signed license agreements to produce and sell replica jerseys of some of the main rugby national teams in the world, including England, South Africa (1992), and Wales (1994). President of South Africa and leader Nelson Mandela attended the 1995 Rugby World Cup final wearing a replica shirt by Cotton Trades.

In 1997, clothing retailer Next purchased a share of the business with the other two-thirds owned by the founders. In 2014, Cotton and Smith bought back the 33% share of Cotton Traders held by Next, regaining full ownership of the company.

In May 2018, fellow Altrincham-based company, CorpAcq, acquired a majority stake in Cotton Traders. CorpAcq was formed in 2006 by founder and Chairman, Simon Orange. Its portfolio of at least 20 businesses has a combined turnover of over £200m. CorpAcq also owns the rugby union club, Sale Sharks, where Cotton Traders co-founders Fran Cotton and Steve Smith sit on the board.

The company operates from three main buildings in Altrincham, and a distribution centre in Nottingham. Head office departments are split between Cotton Traders House, Cotton Mill (formerly Neptune House) and the Cotton Hub.

Cotton Traders operates 80 retail stores nationwide in high street, retail outlets, garden centres and travel locations. They also provide an overseas delivery service to over 25 countries, with dedicated websites for customers internationally, in Ireland and Australia.

Rose symbol legal action

Cotton Traders were the official suppliers of rugby kit to the Rugby Football Union (RFU) between 1991 and 1997, including supplying the rugby shirts worn by the England national rugby union team. As an official supplier, Cotton Traders also produced replica shirts for sale to the public. Following the loss of the contract to Nike in 1997, Cotton Traders continued producing a rugby shirt for sale in the style of the English national team, namely a white shirt with a red rose emblem on the chest.

This culminated in a legal case being brought against Cotton Traders by the RFU and Nike in 2002, seeking to ban the sale of what they deemed 'unauthorised merchandise'. A High Court judge ruled in favour of Cotton Traders in the case, citing that the classic style rose used on the Cotton Traders shirt was associated with England as a country or team and not the RFU specifically, and as such it could not be registered as a trademark.

Notes

References

External links

Clothing brands of the United Kingdom
Companies based in Trafford

Cotton Traders


PXR5 is the ninth studio album by the English space rock group Hawkwind, released in 1979. It reached No. 59 on the UK album charts.

A new remix and surround mix of the album by Steven Wilson was released in 2023 by Atomhenge Records as part of the Days Of The Underground boxed set.

Overview
Allmusic referred to PXR5 as "the last in the sequence of brittle, pop-inflected records the band launched with Astounding Sounds, Amazing Music", saying that Hawkwind "both understood and allowed themselves to absorb the energies of new wave" on PXR5.

The album was recorded and mixed at Rockfield Studios in January and February 1978. "Uncle Sam's on Mars", "Robot" and "High Rise" were originally recorded on the preceding UK tour but were partly overdubbed in the studio, particularly Robert Calvert's double-tracked vocals. "Infinity" and "Life Form" were originally to have been part of a solo album Dave Brock was working on.

After the album was recorded and mixed, the band split up during a US tour in March when Simon House left to join David Bowie's band and Robert Calvert suffered a bout of clinical depression. With the band in temporary hiatus and no pending promotional tour, the album's release was shelved.

The band re-emerged in mid-1978 as the Hawklords to record the 25 Years On album. Two tracks were released as singles, "Psi Power" and "25 Years", which featured "Death Trap" and "PXR5" respectively on their B-sides. The PXR5 album was eventually released on 15 June 1979, and the cryptic message on the cover "This is the last but one" refers to the fact that it was recorded prior to 25 Years On.

The album's cover featured a British BS 1363 mains plug wired in a dangerous way. Shortly after the album's release, the illustration of the plug was covered by a sticker obscuring the image.

Lyrical references
The lyrics of "Jack of Shadows" are inspired by Roger Zelazny's book Jack of Shadows.
"Uncle Sam's on Mars" evolved from the Neu!-esque "Opa Loka", with a Calvert-penned anti-US rant over the top of it. Its first performance was at the Cardiff Castle Festival in summer 1976 as "Vikings on Mars", read by Calvert from his clipboard notes, and with the aid of a megaphone, on stage after "Opa Loka". "Robot" also made a brief appearance as a poem at this historic gig. The song title itself is a twist on Gil Scott-Heron's "Whitey on the Moon".
"Infinity" uses a Calvert poem from Space Ritual.
"Robot" references Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics.
The lyrics of "High Rise" are inspired by J.G. Ballard's book High-Rise and short story "The Man on the 99th Floor".
The lyrics of "PXR5" deal with Hawkwind's transitional period between Astounding Sounds, Amazing Music and Quark, Strangeness and Charm.

CD Versions
The Virgin CD issue was mastered with tapes different from those used for the original vinyl version. The most notable difference is that "High Rise" is the live version without studio overdubs, so starts with a clunk rather than the portamento bass intro and has a coarser vocal from Calvert. Also "PXR5" gains an introduction that's missing from the original.

The Atomhenge CD issue restores the original version of the album, and includes the different versions of "High Rise" and "PXR5" as bonus tracks 14 and 15 respectively.

On 31 March 2023, Atomhenge Records (via Cherry Red) issued a new Steven Wilson mix and surround mix of the album as part of Days Of The Underground (The Studio & Live Recordings 1977-1979) 8CD/2BR boxed set.

Track listing

Side 1
"Death Trap" (Robert Calvert, Dave Brock) – 3:51
"Jack of Shadows" (Calvert, Simon House, Adrian Shaw) – 3:28
"Uncle Sam's on Mars" (Calvert, Brock, House, Simon King) – 5:44
"Infinity" (Calvert, Brock) – 4:17
"Life Form" (Brock) – 1:44

Side 2
"Robot" (Calvert, Brock) – 8:14
"High Rise" (Calvert, House) – 4:36
"PXR5" (Brock) – 5:39

Atomhenge CD bonus tracks
"Jack of Shadows" [live studio version] – 3:40
"We Like to Be Frightened" – 2:46
"High Rise" [live studio version] – 4:43
"Robot" [first studio version] – 9:24
"Jack of Shadows" [Adrian Shaw vocal version] – 3:54
"High Rise" [alternate mix] – 4:37
"PXR5" [alternate mix] – 5:40
"Quark, Strangeness and Charm" [live 1978] – 2:38

Personnel
From album liner notes
Hawkwind
Robert Calvert – vocals (1–3, 6, 7)
Dave Brock – guitar (except 5), bass (1, 4), synth (1, 3, 4–8), vocals (1, 3, 4–8), backing vocals (2)
Simon House – keyboards (2, 3, 6–8) vocals (2, 7), violin (6, 8), synth (8)
Adrian Shaw – bass guitar (2, 3, 6–8), backing vocals (2, 3, 8), vocals (6, 7)
Simon King – drums (except 5)

Credits
Tracks 1, 2 and 8: Recorded at Rockfield Studios, January 1978
Track 3: Recorded at Hammersmith Odeon, 5 October 1977
Tracks 4 and 5: Recorded at Week Park Farm, 1978
Tracks 6 and 7: Recorded at Leicester De Montfort Hall, 29 September 1977
Mixed at Rockfield Studios, February 1978. Engineered by Dave Charles and Anton Matthews.
Artwork by Phillip Tonkyn.

Release history
June 1979: Charisma, CDS4016, UK vinyl – first 5000 contained Pete Frame's Hawkwind Family Tree poster. The original cover had artwork of an incorrectly wired UK electric plug which caused controversy on safety grounds, so subsequent copies were released with a supposedly unremovable sticker covering the offending artwork. Subsequent prints had the artwork blanked out.
March 1984: Charisma, CHC25, UK vinyl
April 1989: Virgin, CDSCD4016, UK CD
March 2009: Atomhenge (Cherry Red) Records, ATOMCD1010, UK CD – the extensive sleeve notes include a reference to the artwork controversy, and the original image is reinstated. The booklet also includes the Hawkwind Family Tree.
31 March 2023: Atomhenge (Cherry Red) Records, ATOMCD101050, UK 8CD/2BR

References

External links
Atomhenge Records
Collectable Records – Original cover

1979 albums
Hawkwind albums
Charisma Records albums
Albums recorded at Rockfield Studios

PXR5


A clinometer is an instrument that measures vertical slopes, usually the angle between the ground or the observer and a tall object. The name "clinometer" comes from the Greek words "κλίνω" (klino), meaning to slope or lean, and "μέτρο" (metro), meaning "to measure".
All In One

Measuring tools

Clinometer


Samuel Hailstone (1768–1851) was an English botanist.

Life
Hailstone was born at Hoxton, near London, in 1768. His family shortly afterwards settled in York. He was articled to John Hardy, a solicitor at Bradford. On the expiration of his articles Hardy took him into partnership. The scanty leisure of a busy professional life was devoted to botany, and Hailstone became known as the leading authority on the flora of Yorkshire. He formed collections illustrating the geology of the district, and of books and manuscripts relating to Bradford. He contributed papers to the Magazine of Natural History (1835, viii. 261-5, 549-53), and a list of rare plants to Thomas Dunham Whitaker's History of Craven (1812, pp. 509–19). His valuable herbarium was presented by his sons to the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, and is now in the museum at York.

His brother was the Rev. John Hailstone, the geologist. He married in 1808 Ann, daughter of Thomas Jones, surgeon, of Bradford. His wife died in 1833, aged 53. He died at Horton Hall, Bradford, on 26 December 1851, aged 83, leaving two sons, John, a clergyman, and Edward. Edward (1818–90) succeeded his father as solicitor at Bradford, and finally retired to Walton Hall, near Wakefield, where he accumulated a remarkable collection of antiquities and books, among them the most extensive series of works relating to Yorkshire ever brought together, which he left to the library of the dean and chapter, York. Edward Hailstone died at Walton 24 March 1890, aged 72. He printed a catalogue of his Yorkshire library in 1858, and published Portraits of Yorkshire Worthies, with biographical notices (1869).

References

1768 births
1851 deaths
Scientists from Bradford
People from Hoxton
18th-century British botanists
19th-century British botanists

Samuel Hailstone


Supershow Nevada (Bulgarian: "Супершоу Невада"), renamed Show Taxi (Bulgarian: Шоу "Такси") in 1996, was a popular Bulgarian quiz programme. It was the first Bulgarian major quiz show on television. The show was one of the two most popular show games on the 1990s Bulgarian TV (the other being the Risk Pecheli, Risk Gubi () show). It remained the most popular until 2001, when it was discontinued. It was firstly hosted by Kutzi Vaptsarov, who later went to do the Risk Pecheli, Risk Gubi show, and then by Asya Stateva (Bulgarian: Ася Статева), commonly known as only Asya. The show was sponsored by Moto-Phoe, the Bulgarian representative company for Ford Motor Company, that's why the main prize was a Ford car (Ford Ka, Fiesta, Escort, Focus and Mondeo models). The winner of the previous rounds in the game had to choose a Ford car key, numbered from 1 to 10. Then they had to answer a question, attached to the key and if the answer was correct, they were allowed to try to unlock the left front door of the car. If the key matched the lock, the participant took the grand prize - a Ford car, if not - he or she had to leave the game with the money he or she had won before the final round.

History
The show started broadcasting in May 1993 on BNT Channel 1 and then it moved to Efir 2. In the spring of 1996, Supershow Nevada becomes Show Taxi. After the closure of the Efir 2 channel on 31 May 2000, the show moved to Nova Television and production stopped shortly afterwards.

External links
 Slavi Trifonov in Supershow Nevada

Bulgarian television series
1990s Bulgarian television series
1993 Bulgarian television series debuts
2000 Bulgarian television series endings
2001 Bulgarian television series endings
2000s Bulgarian television series
Bulgarian National Television original programming

Supershow Nevada


La Pointe Indian Cemetery is the common name of the St. Joseph Mission Cemetery, located on Madeline Island in La Pointe, Wisconsin. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977. It is a frequently visited historical site.

History and origin

The cemetery traces its origins to a Catholic mission, started in 1835 by a Catholic missionary named Frederic Baraga. Fr. Baraga came to La Pointe from Europe in the summer of 1835, to evangelize the Native American population.

The mission was dedicated on August 9, 1835, under the name St. Joseph's Chapel. It was made of logs, and was located about 100 feet south of the current graveyard. The graveyard was consecrated the following year as the official burial place of the Catholic mission. However, earlier burials probably already existed at this location, as later archaeological studies have revealed several earlier ancient graves in the vicinity.

There are several notable historical people buried in the cemetery. Lake Superior Chippewa Chief Kechewaishke, also known as Great Buffalo, is perhaps the most recognizable. Also buried in the cemetery is Madeline Cadotte, whom Madeline Island is named after.

Name
The name Indian Cemetery is a misnomer. Although many Native American people are buried in the cemetery, it is actually also the burial place for many of the island's original white settlers. There is much ethnic diversity among those laid to rest at the cemetery, which includes all those who were associated with the Catholic mission. In reality, the more correct name for the cemetery is St. Joseph Mission Cemetery, which it used to be called, up until the middle of the twentieth century. In the 1950s, Madeline Island tourist literature described the cemetery as "the old Indian burial grounds", in an attempt to market the place as a historical tourist site. And while not actually being an only-Native American cemetery, the name "Indian Cemetery" stuck, despite being somewhat misleading.

Although not strictly a Native American cemetery, Native spirituality is given a nod, in certain aspects of the cemetery. In honoring an Ojibwe custom, many graves of Ojibwe people are covered with a "Spirit House". Such a grave covering is designed to protect the deceased buried there. Relatives would place food and other items inside the small shelter, to aid the soul of the dead on their journey to the afterlife.

The cemetery today

By the 1950s, shoreline erosion was threatening the piece of lakeside land that the cemetery sits on. To help stabilize the historic site, a plan was set in motion by a local congressman to have a breakwater built. Thus, at the time, the Roman Catholic Church transferred ownership of the cemetery to the federal government, so federal funds could be spent on preserving the historically important site.

For many decades, the cemetery has been a major attraction for summer visitors interested in learning about the island's history. But the site hasn't been without controversy. In the 1960s, many visitors and island residents were concerned about what many thought was neglect for the cemetery's condition. Being overgrown with grass and brush, and suffering from litter dropped by some tourists, the cemetery was described by some as being in deplorable condition. Some disappointed visitors went so far as to contact the Wisconsin Historical Society and insist that they seek some solution to help improve the historical site.

In 1977, the cemetery became listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Maintenance and landscaping has vastly improved in recent decades.

Due to past problems with vandalism, visitors are no longer granted admission inside of the cemetery gates. While visitors are still welcome and encouraged to see the site, visitors are asked to observe the cemetery from outside the metal gate, where there is a historical marker displaying the history of the site. The only exception to this rule is that of family descendants who may need access to a relative's plot.

The history and significance of the cemetery is discussed in the book, "Badger Boneyards", by author Dennis McCann, on pages 135-139.  ()

There is a regional folklore that exists, regarding paranormal activity that occurs at the cemetery. Anecdotes about the paranormal occurrences might not be substantiated scientifically, but have surfaced in the form of popular tales told about the cemetery.

The cemetery continues to be a sacred site for descendants and relatives of those interred within.

History of other Native American burials on Madeline Island
Madeline Island has been inhabited for centuries by Native Americans. And as one might expect, there are other places on the island that have been used as burial grounds, throughout the centuries. While lacking any kind of grave markers, unknown by the general public, and totally lacking any type of marker to identify the locations, many ancient burial grounds on Madeline Island are mostly known by a few in the local Native community.

References

External links

Cemeteries on the National Register of Historic Places in Wisconsin
Native American cemeteries
Cemeteries in Wisconsin
National Register of Historic Places in Ashland County, Wisconsin
Cemeteries established in the 1830s
1836 establishments in Wisconsin Territory

La Pointe Indian Cemetery


Roger Victor Émile Cayrel (4 December 1925 – 11 January 2021) was a French astronomer.  His main interests were stellar atmospheres, galactic chemical evolution and metal-poor stars.

Biography
Born in Bordeaux, France, he attended the Lycée Michel-Montaigne in Bordeaux and studied physics at the École normale supérieure and the Faculté des sciences de Paris.

Beside his scientific work, he had a number of high-ranking posts in the management of science: director of the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT, 1974–1980), president of the IAU commission on stellar atmospheres (1973–1976) and head of the Bureau des Longitudes (1995–1996).

Cayrel was a corresponding member of the Académie des Sciences from 1988 to 2021. He was awarded the Prix Jules Janssen of the Société astronomique de France (Astronomical Society of France), in 2001.

Cayrel and his colleagues discovered thorium and uranium in the ultra-metal-poor halo star BPS CS31082-0001, which was named Cayrel's Star to honour him. From the thorium and uranium content, an age of 12.5 Billion years could be calculated.

Since 1954, he was married to the Italian astronomer Giusa de Strobel.

References

Sources
 Cayrel, R.; Hill, V.; Beers, T. C.; Barbuy, B.; Spite, M.; Spite, F.; Plez, B.; Andersen, J.; Bonifacio, P.; François, P.; Molaro, P.; Nordström, B.; Primas, F., Measurement of stellar age from uranium decay, Nature, Volume 409, Issue 6821, pp. 691–692 (2001)
 Jugaku, Jun. "The Publications And Citations Of Giusa And Roger Cayrel", Astrophysics and Space Science 265, 3(1999).

1925 births
2021 deaths
20th-century French astronomers
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
École Normale Supérieure alumni

Roger Cayrel


Pioneers of American Freedom: Origin of Liberal and Radical Thought in America is a book by the German anarcho-syndicalist Rudolf Rocker about the history of liberal, libertarian, and anarchist thought in the United States.

Rocker started work on Pioneers of American Freedom during World War II. Professor Arthur E. Briggs started translating the book into English from Rocker's native German in 1941. He took over for Rocker's previous English translator Ray E. Chase as he had died. The book was published with the help of the Rocker Publishing Committee in 1949.

The first part of the book consists of a series of essays on the American liberal thinkers Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Abraham Lincoln. Rocker emphasizes the importance these men assign to individualism, freedom, and the subordination of the state to the welfare of the individual. This, Rocker claims, is a great similarity between anarchist and liberal thought.

The second part deals with American anarchists. Among those covered in the book are Josiah Warren, Stephen Pearl Andrews, Lysander Spooner, William Batchelder Greene, Ezra Heywood, and Benjamin Tucker. Rocker argues that these anarchists' emphasis on "free competition of individual and social forces as something inherent in human nature, which if suppressed will inevitably lead to the destruction of the social equilibrium" distinguishes them from authoritarian socialists. He claims that the problem in modern society is not too much competition, but a lack of it as the result of "the destructive forces of monopoly". Further, Rocker seeks to dispel the myth that radicalism in the United States was merely a foreign import, pointing to the fact that most of the thinkers covered by the book were undoubtedly American by descent and born in the New England states. In fact, he argues, they were active "before any modern radical movements were even thought of in Europe" and they were more influenced by the American Declaration of Independence than by any European thinker.

Roger Nash Baldwin, co-founder of the American Civil Liberties Union,          said of Pioneers of American Freedom: "No American has been able to write such an analysis of our heretics and idealists." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review claimed the essays made no new contribution and considered the discussion of Lincoln inferior. The journal's review does, however, credit Rocker with "bringing together in an orderly discussion of all the important American material on philosophical anarchism before World War I". Joseph Dorfman, in his review in the Journal of Political Economy, credits Rocker with writing one of the first treatments of American radical history, considering it a "welcome supplement" to Eunice M. Schuster's Native American Anarchism.

Notes

References

External links
 Pioneers of American Freedom online

1949 non-fiction books
Books about anarchism
Books about liberalism
Individualist anarchism

Pioneers of American Freedom


Ford Romania is an automobile manufacturing company operated by Ford of Europe, located in Craiova, Romania.

History

20th century
Royal Garage imported Ford cars as early as May 1911. Shortly, other agencies such as Colin & Co., Leonida & Co., Noel S.A.R, and Raf S.A.R. expanded the market. Numerous political figures owned Ford cars. Among them was Ion I. C. Brătianu, whose daughter used to call her car Forduţa. Ford cars were an instant success story, thus between May 1911 and November 1912, Royal Garage already sold 106 Ford cars. On December 8, 1920, Collin & Co. requested on behalf of the Ford Motor Company the permission to build an assembly plant in Romania. Unfortunately, Vintilă Brătianu, "notoriously anti-American", rejected the proposal to the regret of the people directly involved as well as the public opinion.

In October 1927, William G. Collins (in the future, assistant manager in Alexandria, Egypt) renewed the proposal for establishing an assembly plant in Constanţa. Finally, in 1931, Ford Motor Company opened a subsidiary in Bucharest. On March 1, 1935 Ford Romania addressed a request for building a new plant on Calea Floreasca, the architect was P. Em. Miclescu, with the contribution of Ioana Golescu. On September 26, 1934, Ford Romania bought 7,535 square meters from Imobiliara Chrissoveloni, at the price of lei 2,335,850 (the price for one square meter was lei 310). Furthermore, Ford Romania intended to receive the advantages granted by the law encouraging the national industry, to sign a treaty for a period of ten years, and to import 2,500 units per year, and the ability to increase this number if the demand would be higher. Lastly, the company requested to be taxed on parts rather than on built-up units.

On May 6, 1936, the Government reduced the privileges granted to Ford, thus the number of imported units dropped to 100; the names of the parts were individually identified, such as paint, valve oil. On May 15, 1936, the assembly plant situated in Bd. V. Craiu (Calea Floreasca) opened. The capacity of this assembly plant was 2,500 cars per year and different reparations at 6,000 cars yearly, the power, the rough material and the employees: "250 workers, from whom five foreign foremen, five technicians and a Romanian draughtsman. The technical manager was a Romanian engineer (L. D. Greceanu). The administrative management was to be held by a general manager, Austrian citizen, helped by five managers, four Romanian citizens and a Swiss one, who are helped at the office by twelve bookkeepers and twenty-six administrative clerks, five of them foreign citizens". Ford company came to Romania in 1935, after a negotiation with the Romanian government. The company started the first car production line in Eastern Europe at the Ford Română S.A.R. facility in Floreasca neighborhood of Bucharest. It assembled 1935 Ford (V8-48 and V8-68 models), 1937 Ford (V8-74/78, V8-81A/82A, V8-91A/92A and V8-01A/02A models), in Standard and De Luxe versions, Mercury Eight, and Fordson trucks.

The plant produced until World War II when it did only repair activities for the army vehicle fleet. After the war, in 1948, the company was nationalized, and changed its activity to become, in 1960, Automatica, a manufacturer of electrical equipment and automation.

21st century
In modern times the company is located in Craiova, in the former Oltcit car factory, later Daewoo Motors facility in Romania (as Daewoo Automobile Romania), which Ford acquired in 2008 from the Romanian government.

Vehicle production at the plant began in September 2009 with the Ford Transit Connect, and later with the Ford B-Max. Engine production at the plant includes three- and four-cylinder versions of Ford's EcoBoost engine family. The plant has a production capacity of 300,000 units per year and it is the country's third company by value of exports.

In March 2016, it was announced that the Ford EcoSport will be built at the Craiova plant starting from the autumn of 2017, moving production for the European market from the current plant in Chennai, India. This happens on the background of the growing market for the SUV segment in Europe, and will bring an investment of €200 million to the factory.

In March 2022, it is announced that Ford Otosan is going to purchase the ownership of Ford Romania.

Production

Automobiles

 Ford Transit Connect I (2009–2012)
 Ford B-Max (2012–2017)
 Ford EcoSport (2017–2023)
 Ford Puma (2019–present)
 Ford Transit Connect III (2023–present)
 Ford Transit Courier II (2023–present)

Engines

 1.0 L EcoBoost I3 (2012–present)
 1.5 L EcoBoost I4 (2013–2014)

See also
Automobile Craiova

References

External links

1976 establishments in Romania
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1976
Car manufacturers of Romania
Ford of Europe factories
Privatized companies in Romania
Buildings and structures in Craiova
Companies based in Craiova

de:Automobile Craiova

Ford Romania


Stefanos Kapino (; born 18 March 1994) is a Greek professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Super League club Panetolikos.

Early life
Stefanos was born in Piraeus to an ethnic Greek family who came to Greece from southern Albania (Northern Epirus). He began playing football in the youth system of the amateur club Aetos based in Korydallos, Piraeus. Although he was firstly approached by Olympiacos scouts, and even trained with the team for two and a half months, Panathinaikos were the ones to secure his signature in June 2007 for a fee of .
At Panathinaikos, he gradually established himself as a member of the starting lineup for the club's under-18 and under-21 teams.

Club career

Panathinaikos
On 17 September 2011, during a Super League match against Atromitos, Kapino made his debut for Panathinaikos' men's team, coming on as a substitute after his teammate Orestis Karnezis was sent off. With that appearance, he became the youngest goalkeeper to ever play for Panathinaikos, at the age of 17 years, six months and nine days. He went on to play the following 11 matches, finishing his first season with 12 appearances.

The 2012–13 season saw Panathinaikos use four different managers – Jesualdo Ferreira, the Argentine Juan Ramón Rocha, Spanish Fabri and finally Giannis Vonortas – while the club finished sixth in the league. Kapino was limited to one appearances, in a home 3–2 win against Veria.

In summer 2013 he was linked with Arsenal, Inter Milan and Manchester United and it was reported a move to Napoli had broken down. The 2013–14 season proved to be Kapino's best season at Panathinaikos. He started as regular to most of the Super League games and as a consequence was selected for the final squad of the 2014 World Cup.

Mainz 05
In 2014, Kapino moved to German Bundesliga side Mainz 05 for a transfer fee of reportedly €2.2 million and signed a four-year contract until 2018. He had to compete with Loris Karius for a spot in the starting grid. He made his Bundesliga debut on 7 February 2015 at home versus Hertha BSC as a 34th minute replacement for Christian Clemens after the starting goalkeeper Loris Karius was given a red card for a foul on the last man.

Olympiacos
After one year with Mainz, during which he could not establish himself, Kapino moved back to his native Greece to join Olympiacos, rivals of his former club Panathinaikos, on a three-year deal for a transfer of believed to be €2 million.

He made his Greek Super League debut for Olympiacos on 21 March 2016 away to Asteras Tripolis. He was part of the starting XI of the squad in the 2015–16 Greek Football Cup season, except in the final where Olympiacos were defeated by rivals AEK Athens in an empty Olympic Stadium.

On 27 July 2016, Kapino made his first European appearance with the club in the 3rd qualifying round of UEFA Champions League against the Israeli champions Hapoel Be'er Sheva He started the 2016–17 season as the indisputable first goalkeeper of the club. On 6 November 2016, he suffered a muscular injury during the second half of the 3–0 home win in the derby against Panathinaikos and was substituted by Nicola Leali. The injury would keep him on the sidelines for three to four weeks ruling him out of the Greece squad to face Belarus and Bosnia.

On 19 March 2017, Kapino returned to action following his replacement Leali's mistakes in two Europa League matches against Besiktas
making saves that prevented a bigger defeat for Olympiacos in an away 1–0 derby loss against rivals Panathinaikos.

He started the 2017–18 season as the undisputed first goalkeeper of the club, despite the acquisition of ex-Belgian international Silvio Proto.

On 24 September 2017, Kapino was demoted to the club's U-20 squad ahead of an important UEFA Champions League game against Juventus following mistakes in the team's 3–2 Super League away loss against rivals AEK Athens after leading 0–2. This proved to be the last league game for Kapino who, after also appearing and underperforming in two Greek Cup fixtures, was put on the out-of-favour player list by Olympiacos on 4 December 2017. He was unable to find a club to continue his career after the end of the January 2018 transfer window, leading the Olympiacos board to the termination of his contract and his release on a free transfer.

Nottingham Forest
On 7 February 2018, days before the end of the transfer window for unattached players, Kapino signed with EFL Championship side Nottingham Forest, under the presidency of chairman Evangelos Marinakis, on an 18-month deal. On 21 April 2018, he made his debut with the club as a starter, in a 2–1 away loss against Cardiff City.

Werder Bremen
On 1 August 2018, Kapino joined Bundesliga side Werder Bremen for an undisclosed fee. According to media reports, he signed a contract until 2020 with an option of a further year while the transfer fee paid to Nottingham Forest was estimated at €300,000 which could rise up to €1 million depending on bonuses. A week later, he suffered an injury which could rule him out for three months. On 19 January 2019, he sat on the bench for the first time in a 1–0 home win against Hannover 96. On 13 April 2019, he made his debut with the club replacing the injured Jiří Pavlenka in the second half of a 2–1 Bundesliga home win game against SC Freiburg.

In July 2019, Kapino agreed a contract extension with the club. On 7 March 2019, almost a year since his last appearance as a starter, Kapino was in the starting XI replacing Pavlenka, who had been injured midweek.

Kapino joined 2. Bundesliga club SV Sandhausen on loan for the rest of the season in January 2021.

Arminia Bielefeld
Kapino moved to Bundesliga club Arminia Bielefeld for an undisclosed fee in August 2021, having agreed a contract until 2023. On 18 December, after regular goalkeeper Stefan Ortega had to self-quarantine after testing positive to COVID-19, Kapino played in a 2-0 away victory against RB Leipzig, in his club effort to avoid relegation.

Miedź Legnica
On 22 January 2023, Kapino had his Arminia Bielefeld contract amicably terminated, subsequently joining Ekstraklasa club Miedź Legnica until the end of the season. He made four league appearances before leaving the relegation-bound club by mutual consent on 19 May 2023.

International career
Kapino due to being born in Greece was eligible to represent Greece and his family roots being from southern Albania made him eligible for Albania, and he has been a member of the Greece under-17 and under-19 teams. He is the youngest player to ever play for Greece U17, having debuted at the age of 15.

On 15 November 2011, at the age of 17 years and 241 days, he made his debut for the men's national team in a friendly match against Romania, thus setting a new record for the youngest player ever to represent Greece at men's level.

Stefanos was member to the 23-man squad for 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil as third choice goalkeeper along with Orestis Karnezis and Panagiotis Glykos.

On 4 June 2016, Kapino came on as a first half substitute for injured first choice goalkeeper Orestis Karnezis and despite conceding a late goal, produced a stunning display for his native country making many world class saves in Greece's 1–0 away International Friendly defeat to Australia at Stadium Australia in Sydney.

On 25 March 2017, replacing injured Orestis Karnezis in a crucial 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification away match against Belgium did brilliantly throughout the game and especially at the extra time as he prevent Romelu Lukaku from scoring the winner from point-blank range  with a brilliant double save, helping Greece to save the defeat in its effort to qualify for 2018 World Cup.

Career statistics

Club

International

Honours
Panathinaikos
 Greek Cup: 2013–14

Olympiacos
 Super League: 2015–16, 2016–17

Greece U19
UEFA European Under-19 Championship runner-up: 2012
Individual
UEFA European Under-19 Championship Team of the Tournament: 2011

References

External links

1994 births
Living people
Footballers from Piraeus
Northern Epirotes
Men's association football goalkeepers
Greek men's footballers
Greece men's youth international footballers
Greece men's under-21 international footballers
Greece men's international footballers
Greek expatriate men's footballers
2014 FIFA World Cup players
Super League Greece players
English Football League players
Bundesliga players
2. Bundesliga players
Ekstraklasa players
Panathinaikos F.C. players
1. FSV Mainz 05 players
Olympiacos F.C. players
Nottingham Forest F.C. players
SV Werder Bremen players
SV Sandhausen players
Arminia Bielefeld players
Miedź Legnica players
Expatriate men's footballers in Germany
Greek expatriate sportspeople in Germany
Expatriate men's footballers in Poland
Greek expatriate sportspeople in Poland
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Greek expatriate sportspeople in England

Stefanos Kapino


A computational scientist is a person skilled in scientific computing. This person is usually a scientist, a statistician, an applied mathematician, or an engineer who applies high-performance computing and sometimes cloud computing in different ways to advance the state-of-the-art in their respective applied discipline; physics, chemistry, social sciences and so forth. Thus scientific computing has increasingly influenced many areas such as economics, biology, law, and medicine to name a few. Because a computational scientist's work is generally applied to science and other disciplines, they are not necessarily trained in computer science specifically, though concepts of computer science are often used. Computational scientists are typically researchers at academic universities, national labs, or tech companies.

One of the tasks of a computational scientist is to analyze large amounts of data, often from astrophysics or related fields, as these can often generate huge amounts of data. Computational scientists often have to clean up and calibrate the data to a usable form for an effective analysis. Computational scientists are also tasked with creating artificial data through computer models and simulations.

References

Computational science
Computer occupations
Science occupations
Computational fields of study

Computational scientist


The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man (1912/1927) by James Weldon Johnson is the fictional account of a young biracial man, referred to only as the "Ex-Colored Man", living in post-Reconstruction era America in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. He lives through a variety of experiences, including witnessing a lynching, that convince him to "pass" as white to secure his safety and advancement, but he feels as if he has given up his dream of "glorifying" the black race by composing ragtime music.

History
Johnson originally published The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man anonymously in 1912, via the small Boston publisher Sherman, French, & Company. He decided to publish it anonymously because he was uncertain how the potentially controversial book would affect his diplomatic career. He wrote openly about issues of race and discrimination that were not common then in literature. The book's initial public reception was poor. It was republished in 1927, with some minor changes of phraseology, by Alfred A. Knopf, an influential firm that published many Harlem Renaissance writers, and Johnson was credited as the author.

Despite the title, the book is a novel. It is drawn from the lives of people Johnson knew and from events in his life. Johnson's text is an example of a roman à clef.

Plot summary
The novel begins with a frame tale in which the unnamed narrator describes the narrative that follows as "the great secret of my life."  The narrator notes that he is taking a substantial risk by composing the narrative, but that it is one he feels compelled to record, regardless.  The narrator also chooses to withhold the name of the small Georgia town where his narrative begins, as there are still living residents of the town who might be able to connect him to the narrative.

Throughout the novel, the adult narrator from the frame interjects into the text to offer reflective commentary into the events of the narrative.

Early life
Born shortly after the Civil War in a small Georgia town, the narrator's African-American mother protected him as a child and teenager.  The narrator's father, a wealthy white member of the Southern aristocracy, is absent throughout the narrator's childhood but, nevertheless, continues to provide financial support for the narrator and his mother.  Because of that financial support, she had the means to raise her son in an environment more middle-class than many black people could enjoy at the time.

The narrator describes learning to love music at a young age as well as attending an integrated school. It is while attending this school that the narrator first realizes he is African-American and thus subject to ridicule and mistreatment for his racial heritage. This "discovery" occurs when he is publicly corrected by his teacher and the headmaster when he stands when "the white scholars" (schoolchildren) are asked to stand. Returning home from school, the distraught narrator confronts his mother, asking her if he is a "nigger." His mother reassures him, however, noting that while she is not white, "your father is one of the greatest men in the country—the best blood of the South is in you." The narrator notes that this event became a racial awakening and loss of innocence that caused him to suddenly begin searching for—and finding—faults in himself and his mother, setting the stage for his eventual decision (though far in the future) to "pass" as a white man.

While in school, the narrator also grows to admire and befriends "Shiny," an unmistakably African-American boy, who is described as one of the brightest and best-spoken children in the class.

After the narrator's mother dies, he becomes a poor orphan and subject to harsh conditions.

He adapted very well to life with lower-class black people and was able to move easily among the classes of black society. During this carefree period, he taught music and attended church, where he came in contact with upper-class black people. Living in an all black community, he discovers and describes three classes of black people: the desperate, the domestics, and the independent workmen or professionals.

The Ex-Colored Man believed the desperate class consists of lower-class black people who loathe the whites. The domestic worker class comprises black people who work as servants to whites. And the artisans, skilled workers, and black professionals class included black people who had little interaction with the whites. Many white readers, who viewed all black people as a stereotype of a single class, were unfamiliar with class distinctions described among black people.

Time with the Rich White Gentleman

While playing ragtime at a late night hotspot in New York, the Ex-Colored Man caught the attention of a wealthy white gentleman. The gentleman's liking for ragtime develops as liking for the Ex-Colored Man himself. The white gentleman hired him to play ragtime piano for guests at parties. Soon the Ex-Colored Man spent most of his time working for the white gentleman, who paid him to play ragtime music for hours at a time. He would play until the white gentleman would say "that will do." The Ex-Colored man would tire after the long hours but would continue playing as he saw the joy and serenity he brought the white gentleman.

The white gentleman frequently "loaned" the Ex-Colored Man out to other people to play at their parties. The gentleman was not "loaning" him out as a piece of property, but simply giving the narrator a broader palette to display his talents. The Ex-Colored man saw how the rich lived; he was thrilled to live in this lifestyle. The Rich White Gentleman influenced the Ex-Colored Man more than anyone else he met. In his relationship toward the Rich White Man he was aware of aspects of the slave/master, but saw there was also one of friendship.  While he was with the white gentleman, the Ex-Colored Man decided he would use his skills to aid in abolitionism. Even though life was pleasant, it was void of substance; using his music to aid poor African Americans he felt would be a better use of his talents. The Ex-Colored Man continued to show devotion to the white gentleman, as the white gentleman treated him with kindness, which eventually led to the forming a friendship while in Paris.

The Ex-Colored Man's devotion to the white gentleman expresses the relationship that some slaves had with their masters (slaves who showed devotion to the slave-owner). Johnson suggests that, although the Ex-Colored Man had "freedom," he was still suffering from the effects of slavery. After playing for the white gentleman while touring Europe, the Ex-Colored Man decided to leave him and return to the South to study Negro spirituals. He planned to use his knowledge of classical and ragtime music to create a new Black American musical genre. He wanted to "bring glory and honor to the Negro race," to return to his heritage, and proud and self-righteous race.

Many critics have suspected that the Rich White Gentleman may not be white but is passing, as well. His love for ragtime music and his conviction that the Ex-Colored Man not embrace his blackness to pursue a career as a definitively black composer could be used to argue that he experienced inner turmoil with his racial identity similar to that experienced by the Ex-Colored Man.

The narrator's time in Paris, however, is cut short when he goes to see a performance of Faust, during which he sits next to a beautiful young woman for whom he initially expresses great admiration. However, throughout the performance, he notices the young woman speaking to an older couple whom she refers to as "mother" and "father." The narrator is shocked when he recognizes the man as his own wealthy white father, whom he has not seen for ten years, and realizes that the two women must be the man's lawful wife and daughter, making the young woman the narrator's biological half-sister. This event leaves a deep impression upon the narrator and causes him to decide to leave the company of his patron (the Rich White Gentleman) to return to the United States on his mission of advancing African-American musical forms.

The Lynching
Just as the Ex-Colored Man began to work on his music in the South, he witnessed the lynching of a black man. The crowd wanted to hang the man but burned him instead. The Ex-Colored Man narrates in detail what he saw, "He squirmed, he withered, strained at his chains, then gave out cries and groans that I shall always hear."  The narrator is horrified by the extent of this violent racism played out in the town square. He continues, "The cries and groans were choked off by the fire and smoke; but his eyes, bulging from their sockets, rolled from side to side, appealing in vain for help." The scene that day stuck vividly in his mind and burned a sharp image in his brain. He finishes with, "Some of the crowd yelled and cheered, others seemed appalled at what they had done, and there were those who turned away sickened at sight. I was fixed to the spot where I stood powerless to take my eyes from what I did not want to see".

Many critics believe that Johnson wrote this scene to heighten awareness of and opposition to lynchings. The turn of the century was the peak of lynchings conducted against blacks, mostly in the South, in the period when southern states disfranchised blacks through new constitutions and practices such as poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses and white primaries. Michael Berube writes, "there is no question that Johnson wrote the book, in large part, to try to stem the tide of lynchings sweeping the nation."

After the lynching, the Ex-Colored Man decides to "pass" as white. He gives up his dream of making music to glorify his race and thinks he does not want to be "identified with people that could with impunity be treated worse than animals," or with people who could treat other humans that way. He simply wishes to remain neutral. The Ex-Colored Man declares that he "would neither disclaim the black race nor claim the white race."

Passing

The world accepted the Ex-Colored Man as white. Our narrator has been "passing" as a white man for the remainder of his life, and titles his autobiographical narrative "Ex-Colored Man." At the same time, the narrator learns that his childhood friend "Shiny" is now teaching as a professor at a Negro college, suggesting a contrast between himself, who has chosen to pass, and Shiny, who has embraced his African-American heritage.

The narrator eventually begins a courtship with a white woman, causing an internal dilemma as to whether or not to reveal his African-American heritage, and he asks her to marry him.  After the two have a chance meeting with Shiny, in which the narrator is "surprised at the amount of interest a refined black man could arouse," the narrator decides to reveal his secret to her.  At first shocked, she flees, and the narrator resolves to give her sufficient space to let her make up her mind. Eventually, she returns to him, having absorbed his revelation and chosen to accept him. They are eventually married and have two children, and the narrator lives out his life as a successful yet mediocre businessman.

His wife dies during the birth of their second child, leaving the narrator alone to raise their two children. At the end of the book, the Ex-colored Man says:

My love for my children makes me glad that I am what I am, and keeps me from desiring to be otherwise; and yet, when I sometimes open a little box in which I still keep my fast yellowing manuscripts, the only tangible remnants of a vanished dream, a dead ambition, a sacrificed talent, I cannot repress the thought, that after all, I have chosen the lesser part, that I have sold my birthright for a mess of pottage.

"Passing" could be interpreted as a decision to avoid the black race. He states that he "regrets holding himself back." He may have been implying that if he had, he embraced the Negro community and let the community embrace him, that he could have made a difference.

The Ex-Colored Man was one of the few people who was not held back by being black. He had a strong education, smart wits, and light skin. The masses all assumed he was white. However, his talent was in black music. Because of his fear of being a Negro, he threw away his talent as a musician to "become" a white man. This is one portrayal of the social strains due to racial discrimination; he felt that society forced him to choose between his love of African-American music and the safety and convenience of being white with the majority. The white gentleman fully accepted the Ex-Colored Man for who he was, but he feared that others would not. He decided to protect his mixed-race children by having them grow up "white." He wanted to give them every advantage he could.

Themes

Race, Passing, and the Tragic mulatto

The narrator in some ways reflects the trope of the tragic mulatto, however, rather than suffering a catastrophic downfall; as a result, the narrator's tragedy is much more subversive.  The "Ex-colored Man" is compelled by fear, not only for himself but for his children's sake (so they can grow up "white"), to exist in degraded mediocrity, despite his apparent potential and lofty goals of advancing the African-American race.  In this way, his boyhood friend, "Shiny," and his symbolic name, act as a foil for the narrator.  The narrator has admired since childhood, his inability to "pass" forces him to accomplish, rather than merely aspire as the narrator does.  At the end of the novel, Shiny has risen to refinement and prestige while embracing his racial heritage and contributing to the community, while the narrator is relegated to mediocrity and obscurity, unable to risk revealing his racial background.

A major shift in the plot occurs during a performance of "Faust" in Paris, when the narrator sees his wealthy white father and his legitimate family, including his biological half-sister.  Throughout the novel, the narrator is locked in a continual cycle of bargaining.  The final bargain is trading his aspirations and talents for mediocrity to "pass" and allow his children to pass, raising the question as to whether this is damnation or continual striving.

Reception and later criticism

References

External links

1912 American novels
African-American novels
Existentialist novels
Works published anonymously
Novels set in New York City
Southern United States in fiction
Works by James Weldon Johnson

The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man


Tigran Avinyan (; born 28 February 1989) is an Armenian politician and businessman currently serving as the Mayor of Yerevan. He served as Deputy Prime Minister of Armenia from 2018 to 2021 in Nikol Pashinyan's government. He is a founding member of the ruling Civil Contract Party. He was the Civil Contract Party's mayoral candidate for the Yerevan City Council election which took place on 17 September 2023. Avinyan was elected as Mayor of Yerevan on 10 October 2023.

Biography
Avinyan was born on 28 February 1989 in Yerevan. He studied applied mathematics at the Russian-Armenian University, receiving his bachelor's degree in 2009 and his master's degree in 2011. In 2014, he received a master's degree in finance from Queen Mary University of London. In the following years, he worked at various companies in the banking and technological sectors in Armenia. From 2014 to 2018, he was the head of the software company Cyber Vision. Avinyan participated in the four-day hostilities between Armenian and Azerbaijani forces in Nagorno-Karabakh, for which he received a commendation from the Ministry of Defense.

Avinyan co-founded the Civil Contract Party in 2014. In 2016, he was elected a member of the board of the party. From 2017 to 2018, he served on the Yerevan City Council as a member of the Way Out Alliance. Avinyan participated in the 2018 Armenian revolution and was arrested during the protests. After the resignation of Prime Minister Serzh Sargsyan and the formation of an interim government led by Nikol Pashinyan, Avinyan was appointed Deputy Prime Minister of Armenia. At age 29, he was the youngest person to ever hold this post. He held this position until August 2021, when he resigned, citing his dissatisfaction with the party's list of candidates for the 2021 snap parliamentary election.

In 2019, he became the chairman of the board of directors of the state-owned enterprise State Interests Fund of Armenia. In 2021, he became the chairman of the board of trustees of the Renewable Energy and Energy Saving Fund of Armenia. In 2022, he became a member of the board of Armbusinessbank. Since 2022, he has served as the chairman of the board of trustees of the National Polytechnic University of Armenia. On 23 September 2022, he was appointed the deputy mayor of Yerevan. Avinyan has effectively acted as mayor of Yerevan since the resignation of acting mayor Hrachya Sargsyan in March 2023. He was the Civil Contract Party's candidate for the Yerevan mayoral election, which took place on 17 September 2023. Following the election, Civil Contract won 24 seats in the Yerevan City Council and Avinyan was elected as Mayor of Yerevan on 10 October 2023.

Controversies
In October 2018, Avinyan came under scrutiny after the investigative news site Hetq reported that a fruit-drying company founded by him had received a $35,000 grant from the state-owned Agricultural Development Fund at a time when Avinyan already occupied the post of deputy prime minister. Avinyan denied any wrongdoing, stating that the company began the grant application process months before he was appointed to the position.

In May 2023, journalist Davit Sargsyan of the newspaper 168 Zham conducted a report alleging that Avinyan and his family have been "steadily getting richer" since Nikol Pashinyan became prime minister in 2018 and detailing the alleged business interests of Avinyan's family. Avinyan sued the newspaper, seeking compensation for slander. An Armenian court ruled to freeze 18 million drams ($46,000) worth of assets belonging to 168 Zham and Davit Sargsyan. The lawsuit was condemned by Sargsyan as an attempt to silence him, and was also criticized by press freedom groups.

In June 2023, criminal proceedings were initiated after the Corruption Prevention Commission of Armenia submitted materials regarding Avinyan to the Office of the General Prosecutor of Armenia. At issue is the question of whether it is a violation of public service laws for Avinyan to hold the position of Deputy Mayor of Yerevan and the position of chairman of the board of the State Interests Fund of Armenia at the same time. An investigation is currently being conducted by the Investigative Committee of Armenia; according to the General Prosecutor's Office, criminal prosecution has not been initiated against any person in connection with the case.

In July 2023, the civic group Union of Informed Citizens alleged that the Civil Contract Party and local government officials were abusing administrative resources in support of Avinyan's mayoral campaign. Specifically, it was alleged that Civil Contract vice chairman Gevorg Papoyan had asked local government officials in the Spitak community to draw up lists of Spitak-born residents of Yerevan, whom they would persuade to vote for Avinyan.

Personal life
Avinyan is married with three daughters.

References

1989 births
Living people
Deputy Prime Ministers of Armenia
Mayors of Yerevan
Russian-Armenian University alumni

Tigran Avinyan


Abū al-Fath Abd al-Rahman Mansūr al-Khāzini or simply al-Khāzini (, flourished 1115–1130) was an Iranian astronomer of Greek origin from Seljuk Empire. His astronomical tables written under the patronage of Sultan Sanjar (, 1115) is considered to be one of the major works in mathematical astronomy of the medieval period. He provided the positions of fixed stars, and for oblique ascensions and time-equations for the latitude of Marv in which he was based. He also wrote extensively on various calendrical systems and on the various manipulations of the calendars. He was the author of an encyclopedia on scales and water-balances.

Life
Al-Khazini was an emancipated slave in Marv, which was then one of the most important cities of Khorasan. He got his name from his master () who was the treasurer of Marv. The term khāzin was simply the title of the royal treasurer since the early Islamic period. His master made provisions so that al-Khazini could obtain a first-class education. Some believe that al-Khazini was a pupil of Omar Khayyam. While this is not known, he wrote about Khayyam, in particular, he gave a description of the water-balance invented by him (and improved upon by Al-Isfizari). And according to some sources, he collaborated with him on the reformation of the Persian calendar in 1079.

Al-Khazini was known for being a humble man. He refused thousands of Dinar for his works, saying he did not need much to live on because it was only his cat and himself in his household. Al-Khazini was one of only about twenty astronomers of the Islamic era who performed original observations. His works reached Byzantium in the 14th century, in particular, they were studied by George Chrysococces and later by Theodore Meliteniotes.

Achievements
Al Khazini seems to have been a high government official under Sanjar ibn Malikshah and the sultan of the Seljuk Empire. He did most of his work in Merv, where they are known for their libraries. His best-known works are "The Book of the Balance of Wisdom", "Treatise on Astronomical Wisdom", and "The Astronomical Tables for Sanjar".

"The Book of the Balance of Wisdom" is an encyclopedia of medieval mechanics and hydrostatics composed of eight books with fifty chapters. It is a study of the hydrostatic balance and the ideas behind statics and hydrostatics, it also covers other unrelated topics. There are four different manuscripts of "The Book of the Balance of Wisdom" that have survived. The balance al-Khazini built for Sanjar's treasury was modeled after the balance al-Asfizari, who was a generation older than al-Khazini, built. Sanjar's treasurer out of fear destroyed al-Asfizari's balance; he was filled with grief when he heard the news. Al-Khazini called his balance "combined balance" to show honor towards Al-Asfizari. The meaning of the balance was a "balance of true judgment". The job of this balance was to help the treasury see what metals were precious and which gems were real or fake. In "The Book of the Balance of Wisdom" al-Khazini states many different examples from the Koran ways that his balance fits into religion. When al-Khazini explains the advantages of his balance he says that it "performs the functions of skilled craftsmen", its benefits are theoretical and practical precision.

The "Treatise on Astronomical Wisdom" is a relatively short work. It has seven parts and each part is assigned to a different scientific instrument. The seven instruments include: a triquetrum, a dioptra, a "triangular instrument," a quadrant, devices involving reflection, an astrolabe, and simple tips for viewing things with the naked eye. The treatise describes each instrument and its uses.

"The Astronomical Tables for Sanjar" is said to have been composed for Sultan Sanjar, the ruler of Merv and his balance was made for Sanjar's treasury. The tables in "The Astronomical Tables for Sanjar" are tables of holidays, fasts, etc. The tables are said to have the latitudes and longitudes of forty-three different stars, along with their magnitudes and (astrological) temperaments.  It is said that al-Khazini's observations for this work were probably done in Merv in various observatories with high quality instruments.

See also
 Al-Khazini, Book of the Balance of Wisdom (Eng). A Wikimedia pdf of the English translation by Khanikoff and the editors of the Journal of the Oriental Society in 1859 from a single Arabic manuscript which is also reproduced. In 2015, the only available English translation.
  Al-Khazini, Book of the Balance of Wisdom (English). A link to the same at the Internet Archive (see page 1 following).

References

12th-century alchemists
12th-century Iranian astronomers
Astronomers of the medieval Islamic world
12th-century Iranian mathematicians
Islamic philosophers
Alchemists of the medieval Islamic world
Greek Muslims
Medieval physicists
Persian alchemists
Persian physicists
Iranian slaves
Iranian people of Greek descent
Scholars from the Seljuk Empire
Iranian chemists
12th-century deaths
11th-century births
12th-century slaves

Al-Khazini


Realpolitik (; ) is the approach of conducting diplomatic or political policies based primarily on considerations of given circumstances and factors, rather than strictly following explicit ideological notions or moral and ethical premises. In this respect, it shares aspects of its philosophical approach with those of realism and pragmatism. It is often simply referred to as pragmatism in politics, e.g. "pursuing pragmatic policies" or "realistic policies".

While generally used as a positive or neutral term, as of around 2014, Realpolitik has been used pejoratively to imply political policies that are perceived as being coercive, amoral, or Machiavellian. Prominent proponents of Realpolitik include Otto von Bismarck, Henry Kissinger, George F. Kennan, Zbigniew Brzezinski, and Hans-Dietrich Genscher, as well as politicians such as Deng Xiaoping, Charles De Gaulle, and Lee Kuan Yew.

Etymology
The term Realpolitik was coined by Ludwig von Rochau, a German writer and politician in the 19th century. His 1853 book Grundsätze der Realpolitik angewendet auf die staatlichen Zustände Deutschlands ("Principles of Realpolitik applied to the national state of affairs of Germany") describes the meaning of the term:

Historian John Bew suggests that much of what stands for modern Realpolitik today deviates from the original meaning of the term. Realpolitik emerged in mid-19th century Europe from the collision of the Enlightenment with state formation and power politics. The concept, Bew argues, was an early attempt at answering the conundrum of how to achieve liberal enlightened goals in a world that does not follow liberal enlightened rules.

Publicist, journalist and liberal political reformer Von Rochau coined the term in 1853 and added a second volume in 1869 that further refined his earlier arguments. Rochau, exiled in Paris until the 1848 uprising, returned during the revolution and became a well-known figure in the National Liberal Party. As the liberal gains of the 1848 revolutions fell victim to coercive governments or were swallowed by powerful social forces such as class, religion and nationalism, Rochau—according to Bew—began to think hard about how the work that had begun with such enthusiasm had failed to yield any lasting results.

He said that the great achievement of the Enlightenment had been to show that might is not necessarily right. The mistake liberals made was to assume that the law of the strong had suddenly evaporated simply because it had been shown to be unjust. Rochau wrote that "to bring down the walls of Jericho, the Realpolitiker knows the simple pickaxe is more useful than the mightiest trumpet". Rochau's concept was seized upon by German thinkers in the mid and late 19th century and became associated with Otto von Bismarck's statecraft in unifying Germany in the mid 19th century. By 1890, usage of the word Realpolitik was widespread, yet increasingly detached from its original meaning.

Political realism in international relations
Whereas Realpolitik refers to political practice, the concept of political realism in international relations refers to a theoretical framework aimed at offering explanations for events in the international relations domain. The theory of political realism proceeds from the assumption that states—as actors in the international arena—pursue their interests by practicing Realpolitik. Conversely, Realpolitik can be described as the exercise of policies that are in line with accepted theories of political realism. In either case, the working hypothesis is generally that policy is chiefly based on the pursuit, possession and application of power (see also power politics). However, some international relations realists, such as Kenneth Waltz, have viewed state policy in terms of the pursuit of survival or security, rather than the pursuit of power for its own sake.

History and branches
See political realism for branches and antecedents more relevant to contemporary diplomacy and the particular modern, international relations paradigm.
 Sun Tzu, a Chinese military strategist who wrote The Art of War that foreshadowed elements of Realpolitik developed later.
 Thucydides, a Greek historian who wrote the History of the Peloponnesian War and is also cited as an intellectual forebear of Realpolitik.
 Chanakya (or Kautilya), an early Indian statesman and writer on the Arthashastra.
 Ibn Khaldun, an Arab historiographer, historian and one of the founding fathers of modern historiography, author of Muqaddimah, a universal history of time.
 Han Fei, a Chinese scholar who theorised Legalism (or Legism) and who served in the court of the King of Qin—later unifier of China ending the Warring States period. His theory centres on the Two Handles (about penalty and rewards as tools of governance). He theorised about a neutral, manipulative ruler who would act as head of state while secretly controlling the executive through his ministers—the ones to take real responsibility for any policy.
 Niccolò Machiavelli, an Italian political philosopher who wrote Il Principe (The Prince) in which he held that the sole aim of a prince (politician) was to seek power, regardless of religious or ethical considerations. However, there is scholarly debate about the nature and morality of his advice.
 Cardinal Richelieu, a French statesman who destroyed domestic factionalism and guided France to a position of dominance in foreign affairs.
 Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher who wrote Leviathan in which he stated the state of nature was prone to a "war of all against all".
 Frederick the Great, a Prussian monarch who transformed Prussia into a great European power through warfare and diplomacy.
 Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, a French diplomat who guided France and Europe through a variety of political systems.
 Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, a Koblenz-born Austrian statesman opposed to political revolution.
 Carl von Clausewitz, an 18–19th century Prussian general and military strategist who wrote On War (Vom Kriege).
 Camillo Benso of Cavour, an Italian statesman who diplomatically managed to maneuver the Kingdom of Sardinia to become a new great power in Europe, controlling a nearly united Italy that was five times as large as the Kingdom of Sardinia had been before he came to power.
 Otto von Bismarck, a Prussian statesman who coined the term balance of power. Balancing power means keeping the peace and careful Realpolitik practitioners try to avoid arms races.
 20th century proponents of political realism include Hans Morgenthau, Henry Kissinger, George F. Kennan as well as politicians such as Charles de Gaulle and Lee Kuan Yew.
 Mao Zedong's Three Worlds Theory is described as Realpolitik by his critics, including Enver Hoxha, who argue that it was not based on a strong ideological grounding and used only to justify rapport with the West.

China

Even prior to the contemporary Realpolitik term, China has had a "realistic" tradition in its governance dating back thousands of years. Often referred to as Chinese Legalism, the spirit of its content may be most readily recognized by Western viewers through one of its kindred, The Art of War. Chinese administrative organization significantly influenced other Asian nations as well as Western administrative practices not later than the 12th century, playing a significant role in the development of the modern state, including the usage of examinations for entry to the civil service.

Starting in the Spring and Autumn period (771–476/403 BC), a trend of "realistic" reformers were taken on to advance the material interest of their respective states, with the Qin state founding the first Chinese Empire, Qin dynasty in 221 BCE, ending China's Warring States period. The political theory developed during the era, including that of Confucianism would influence every dynasty thereafter.

Those termed Legalist are more purely "Realpolitikal" in contrast to Confucianism and include non-legal Shen Pu-hai derived political technique, which charges the ruler engage in passive observation to determine facts rather than take on too much himself. Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel writes: "If one wishes to exaggerate, it would no doubt be possible to translate (foundational Realist) Shen Buhai's term Shu, or technique, as 'science', and argue that Pu-hai was the first political scientist," though Creel does "not care to go this far".

During the Spring and Autumn period, the prevalent philosophy had dictated war as a gentleman's activity; military commanders were instructed to respect what they perceived to be Heaven's laws in battle. For example, when Duke Xiang of Song was at war with the state of Chu during the Warring States period, he declined an opportunity to attack the enemy force (commanded by Zhu) while they were crossing a river.

The Qin disregarded this military tradition, taking advantage of their enemy's weaknesses.

Germany

In the United States, the term is often analogous to power politics while in Germany Realpolitik has a somewhat less negative connotation, referring to realistic politics in opposition to idealistic (or unrealistic) politics. It is particularly associated with the era of 19th century nationalism. Realpolitik policies were employed in response to the failed revolutions of 1848 as means to strengthen states and tighten social order.

The most famous German advocate of Realpolitik, what was uniquely possible and the applied means to achieve it, was Otto von Bismarck, the first Chancellor (1862–1890) to Wilhelm I of the Kingdom of Prussia. Bismarck used Realpolitik in his quest to achieve Prussian dominance in Germany. He manipulated political issues such as the Schleswig-Holstein Question and the Hohenzollern candidature to antagonize other countries and cause wars if necessary to attain his goals. Such policies are characteristic of Bismarck, demonstrating a pragmatic view of the "real" political world.

Another example was his willingness to adopt some social policies of the socialists such as employee insurance and pensions; in doing so, he used small changes from the top down to avoid the possibility of major change from the bottom up. Likewise, Prussia's seemingly illogical move of not demanding territory from a defeated Austria, a move that later led to the unification of Germany, is an oft-cited example of Realpolitik.

Singapore

Singaporean statesman Lee Kuan Yew, who served as the country's first prime minister, has been considered by many political analysts as a pragmatist for his erudite policies in his governance of Singapore. He believed that the only way Singapore could survive as a relatively small nation as compared to its neighbours was to contrast itself from them, by building up a highly effective and non-corrupt government, in addition to a civil service, under a meritocratic system. He also believed that Singapore was to stay neutral but also possess a strong military capability, believing that it serves as a guarantor of the country's independence due to its strategic position. A strong advocate for Asian values, he argued that Asian societies had different values from Western societies and that practicing such values was vital to succeed as a nation, especially as an Asian country, which includes collectivism and communitarianism.

Lee described Singapore's only natural resources as being the grit of its people as well as their strong work ethic, propelling this mindset to all ethnic groups of the country. Although Lee supported left-wing ideas in his young adulthood, he was largely conservative as a leader, concluding that extensive state welfare and subsidies blunted the individual's drive to succeed. Nevertheless, his government still enacted social policies, which included free public education up until at least secondary school, state housing, a compulsory comprehensive savings and pension plan, as well as universal healthcare, in addition to a civic nationalist stance.

In 1975, Chan Heng Chee described Singapore as a depoliticized "administrative state", where ideology and politics had triumphantly been replaced by "rational and scientific modes of public administration". It is suggested that by doggedly describing itself as pragmatic, the Singaporean state is actually disguising its ideological work and political nature through an assertion of the absence of ideology and politics. Chua Beng Huat argued in 1995 that the rhetoric of pragmatism in Singapore is ideological and hegemonic in nature, adopted and disseminated in the public sphere by the People's Action Party government and institutionalized throughout the state in all its administrative, planning and policy-making functions.

Many world leaders affirmed Lee's political knowledge as being pragmatist and "insightful". Former President of the United States, Barack Obama, stated that he "personally appreciated [Lee's] wisdom." Former Prime Minister of Japan, Shinzo Abe, who had also championed for Asian values, stated that Lee was "one of the greatest leaders of modern times that Asia has ever produced" and a "great Asian leader who laid the foundation for the prosperity of Singapore today." Former Prime Minister of Australia, Tony Abbott, mentioned that Lee was a "giant of our region" and that "thanks to his vision and determination, Singapore is one of the world's most successful countries." Henry Kissinger described Lee as one of the "world's most successful pragmatists". Today, his ideologies and views are now taught at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, an autonomous postgraduate school of the National University of Singapore.

United Kingdom
E. H. Carr was a liberal realist and left-wing British historian and international relations theorist who argued for realistic international over utopian policies. Carr described realism as the acceptance that what exists is right; he thus argued that in politics, realism meant that there is no moral dimension and that what is successful is right and what is unsuccessful is wrong. Carr was convinced that the Bolsheviks were destined to win the Russian Civil War and, under the grounds of Realpolitik, approved of British Prime Minister David Lloyd George's opposition to War Secretary Winston Churchill's support for military help to the anti-Bolshevik White movement. In Carr's opinion, Churchill's support of the anti-Bolsheviks was folly, as Russia was likely to be a great power once more under the leadership of the Bolsheviks.

United States

American Realpolitik began in the 1960s with the influence of Polish-American Zbigniew Brzezinski, later National Security Adviser to Jimmy Carter. Contrary to McCarthy-era hostility and John Foster Dulles's talk of the military "liberation" of the Eastern Bloc, Brzezinski proposed "peaceful engagement" with the Soviet Union while he advised Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. Brzezinski, uninterested in promoting anti-Soviet propaganda for the benefit of the United States, felt the United States would be more successful through frequent interactions with regimes and people under communist rule. Brzezinski knew the tough economic realities of those living in the Eastern Bloc, particularly the permanent shortage of goods, and that their attachment to the Soviet Union was born of historic necessity, rather than common ideology. Brzezinski suggested enticing these countries economically and through educational and cultural exchanges, which would appeal to intellectuals, followed by favoritism for regimes showing signs of liberalization or less reliance on Moscow. Through that approach, Brzezinski "offered a realistic, evolutionary alternative to empty political rhetoric."

Henry Kissinger has been credited with formally introducing the policy of Realpolitik to the White House as Secretary of State to Richard Nixon. In that context, the policy meant dealing with other powerful nations in a practical manner, rather than on the basis of political doctrine or ethics such as Nixon's diplomacy with the People's Republic of China despite American opposition to communism and the previous doctrine of containment. Another example is Kissinger's use of shuttle diplomacy after the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, when he persuaded the Israelis to withdraw partially from the Sinai in deference to the political realities created by the oil crisis.

Kissinger himself said that he had never used the term Realpolitik and stated that it is used by both liberal and realist foreign policy thinkers to label, criticize and facilitate a choosing of sides. Kissinger had looked at what he implemented while he served as Secretary of State and National Security Advisor not in the confines of making Realpolitik a standard policy, but within the terms of being a statesman. That political mindset can be seen in Kissinger's book A World Restored and was pointed out by historian John Bew in his book Realpolitik. Kissinger went on to say that the role of the statesman is "the ability to recognize the real relationship of forces and to make this knowledge serve his ends."

In that context, one can see how Realpolitik principles can influence American policy but not as standard policy. The reach and influence of Realpolitik is found instead in pragmatic and flexible policy that changes to the needs of the situation. That type of policymaking could be seen as recently as in the administration of Barack Obama. Bew made note of that direction in the Obama administration, when Obama's chief of staff, Rahm Emanuel, remarked in an article in The New York Times that everyone wanted to break it down into contrasts of idealist and realist, but "if you had to put him in a category, he's probably more realpolitik, like Bush 41 [...] You've got to be cold-blooded about the self-interests of your nation."

Realpolitik is distinct from ideological politics in that it is not dictated by a fixed set of rules but instead tends to be goal-oriented, limited only by practical exigencies. Since Realpolitik is ordered toward the most practical means of securing national interests, it can often entail compromising on ideological principles. For example, during the Cold War, the United States often supported authoritarian regimes that were human rights violators to secure theoretically the greater national interest of regional stability. After the end of the Cold War, this practice continued.

Most recently, former Ambassador Dennis Ross advocated that approach to foreign policy in his 2007 book Statecraft: And How to Restore America's Standing in the World. For the purposes of contrast and speaking in ideal types, political ideologues would tend to favor principle over other considerations. Such individuals or groups can reject compromises that they see as the abandonment of their ideals and so may sacrifice political gain, in favor of adhering to principles that they believe to be constitutive of long-term goals.

Pakistan

The relations of Pakistan and the US were strained during the 1970s due to Pakistan's nuclear program and the controversial execution of President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.

In the context of Iranian Revolution, President Jimmy Carter desired to improve relations with Pakistan. General Muhammad Zia-ul-haq came into power in 1977 after Martial Law was imposed in the country due to political turmoil. Zia recognized the immediate strategic interests that Pakistan may obtain by aligning with the US amidst the Soviet-Afghan War.

Pakistan due to its strategic geopolitical location made it a subject of grave interest to the US, which supported Pakistan with financial and military assistance including General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and financial aid during the Soviet–Afghan War.

Zia initially declined the 400 million USD aid offered by US (under the Carter presidency) dismissing it as "peanuts". However when Ronald Reagan resumed office and sought to increment the funding for Operation Cyclone and aid for Pakistan, The US and Pakistan agreed on a 3.2 Billion USD military and economic aid package.

Under Zia's Leadership Pakistan played a pivotal role in training Afghan mujahidin, in conjunction with Operation Cyclone to oppose the soviet-backed government in Afghanistan.

While Pakistan was aligned with the United states, it did maintain diplomatic presence with the Soviet Union during the Afghan war which was primarily based upon pragmatic diplomacy rather than genuine partnership.

One of the major Realpolitik decision of Zia ul Haq's presidency was his role in the Nuclear program of Pakistan. Amidst international pressure, he ignored threats of sanctions and prioritized the national interest over non-proliferation international norms. The development of nuclear weapons was seen as crucial for Deterrence against Pakistan's historical rival, India which had successfully conducted nuclear tests in 1974.

See also

 Consequentialism
 Machtpolitik
 Monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force
 Netpolitik
 Noopolitik
 Tonyukuk
 Weltpolitik

Notes

References

Works cited
 John Bew: "The Real Origins of Realpolitik", The National Interest, 2014
 John Bew: "Real Realpolitik: A History", The John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress, April 10, 2014. Accessed July 29, 2014.
 David Robertson: The Routledge Dictionary of Politics. Routledge 2004. , p. 420 ()
 Hajo Holborn: History of Modern Germany: 1840–1945. Princeton University Press 1982, , p. 117 ()
 Ruth Weissbourd Grant: Hypocrisy and integrity: Machiavelli, Rousseau, and the ethics of politics. University of Chicago Press 1997, , p. 40–41 ()
 Frank Whelon Wayman (ed.), Paul Francis Diehl (ed.): Reconstructing Realpolitik. University of Michigan Press 1994,  ()
 Federico Trocini: L'invenzione della «Realpolitik» e la scoperta della «legge del potere». August Ludwig von Rochau tra radicalismo e nazional-liberalismo, il Mulino, Bologna 2009

International relations
Political realism
German words and phrases
Foreign policy doctrines

Realpolitik


The Pont du Gard is a Roman aqueduct  So France. It is in the Gard département, in the area of the commune of Vers-Pont-di-Gard. The name means "Bridge over the Gard" (the river Gardon).
The aqueduct supplied the city of Nîmes with water. It has a length of nearly 50 kilometres. The bridge is 49 metres high and has bows on three levels. It was probably built in the 1st century. In 1985, the Pont du Gard was classified a World Heritage Site.

World Heritage Sites in France
Gard

Pont du Gard