Zarb-i-Kalim (or The Rod of Moses; ) is a philosophical poetry book of Allama Iqbal in Urdu, a poet-philosopher of the Indian subcontinent. It was published in 1936, two years before his death.

Introduction
This is third collection of Allama Sir Muhammad Iqbal's poetry, which described as his political manifesto. It was published with the subtitle "A Declaration of War Against the Present Times." Muhammad Iqbal who also known as "Poet of the East" argues that modern problems are due to the godlessness, materialism and injustice of modern civilisation, which feeds on the subjugation and exploitation of weak nations, especially the Indian Muslims.

Editions
Its first edition published in 1935 i.e. just three years before death of Allama Muhammad Iqbal, after that various editions published from Pakistan and India but most authentic edition is of Iqbal Academy Pakistan which published in 2002 from Lahore.

See also
 Index of Muhammad Iqbal–related articles
 Javid Nama
 Payam-i-Mashriq
 Zabur-i-Ajam
 Pas Chih Bayad Kard ay Aqwam-i-Sharq
 Bang-e-Dara
 Bal-e-Jibril
 Asrar-i-Khudi
 Armaghan-i-Hijaz
 Rumuz-e-Bekhudi

References

External links
Read Online at Iqbal Academy site
Read Online at Iqbal cyber library
Read English translation by Syed Akbar Ali Shah at Iqbal Academy site

1936 poetry books
Islamic philosophical poetry books
Poetry by Muhammad Iqbal
Poetry collections
Books by Muhammad Iqbal

The Rod of Moses


Dora Kent (May 1, 1904 – December 11, 1987) was the subject of a 1988 legal controversy about whether she had been murdered to facilitate her cryonic suspension.  She was Alcor's eighth patient and the oldest at that time to ever be cryopreserved. She was the mother of Saul Kent, a board member of Alcor.  In her earlier years, Kent worked as a dressmaker in New York City.

In December 1987, succumbing to Alzheimer's disease and pneumonia, Kent was brought by her son to the Alcor facility in Riverside, California, where she died. Alcor workers removed her head and stored it in a nitrogen-cooled Dewar flask.  No physician was in attendance when she died.

The Riverside County coroner's office, led by Raymond Carrillo, autopsied Kent's headless body and determined the cause of death to be pneumonia.  Later, the coroner said that the presence of certain metabolites in the body suggested that she was still alive at the time of preservation. Drugs, specifically barbiturates were used as part of the cryonics process, and it was therefore difficult to tell whether a drug was administered before or after death. The coroner demanded the head for autopsy, along with all of Alcor's patient records and all its patients' bodies.  When Alcor workers refused to produce the head or surrender other patients' bodies, several Alcor workers and volunteers, including Mike Darwin, were handcuffed and arrested, although none were charged.

In a SWAT team raid a week later, most of Alcor's property was seized, although it was later returned. Deputy coroner Dan Cupido said that Alcor had better equipment than some medical facilities. Alcor sued the county for false arrest and illegal seizure and won both suits, including a $90,000 settlement on behalf of the six workers who had been falsely arrested.

Ultimately, the court granted a restraining order against the coroner, protecting the head of Dora Kent and the other frozen human remains at Alcor from seizure, destruction or damage.

The case received much publicity over the ensuing years, which resulted in more interest in Alcor's services and sudden growth in the number of Alcor members.

References

1904 births
1987 deaths
Cryonically preserved people
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Deaths from dementia in California
Deaths from pneumonia in California

Dora Kent


Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a means of visualizing the level of similarity of individual cases of a dataset.  MDS is used to translate "information about the pairwise 'distances' among a set of  objects or individuals" into a configuration of  points mapped into an abstract Cartesian space.

More technically, MDS refers to a set of related ordination techniques used in information visualization, in particular to display the information contained in a distance matrix. It is a form of non-linear dimensionality reduction.

Given a distance matrix with the distances between each pair of objects in a set, and a chosen number of dimensions, N, an MDS algorithm places each object into N-dimensional space (a lower-dimensional representation) such that the between-object distances are preserved as well as possible. For N = 1, 2, and 3, the resulting points can be visualized on a scatter plot.

Core theoretical contributions to MDS were made by James O. Ramsay of McGill University, who is also regarded as the founder of functional data analysis.

Types

MDS algorithms fall into a taxonomy, depending on the meaning of the input matrix:

Classical multidimensional scaling

It is also known as Principal Coordinates Analysis (PCoA), Torgerson Scaling or Torgerson–Gower scaling. It takes an input matrix giving dissimilarities between pairs of items and outputs a coordinate matrix whose configuration minimizes a loss function called strain, which is given by

where  denote vectors in N-dimensional space,  denotes the scalar product between  and , and  are the elements of the matrix  defined on step 2 of the following algorithm, which are computed from the distances.

 Steps of a Classical MDS algorithm:
 Classical MDS uses the fact that the coordinate matrix  can be derived by eigenvalue decomposition from . And the matrix  can be computed from proximity matrix  by using double centering.
 Set up the squared proximity matrix
 Apply double centering:  using the centering matrix , where  is the number of objects,  is the  identity matrix, and  is an  matrix of all ones.
 Determine the  largest eigenvalues  and corresponding eigenvectors  of  (where  is the number of dimensions desired for the output).
 Now,  , where  is the matrix of  eigenvectors and  is the diagonal matrix of  eigenvalues of .
Classical MDS assumes metric distances. So this is not applicable for direct dissimilarity ratings.

Metric multidimensional scaling (mMDS)

It is a superset of classical MDS that generalizes the optimization procedure to a variety of loss functions and input matrices of known distances with weights and so on.  A useful loss function in this context is called stress, which is often minimized using a procedure called stress majorization. Metric MDS minimizes the cost function called "stress" which is a residual sum of squares:
Metric scaling uses a power transformation with a user-controlled exponent :  and  for distance. In classical scaling  Non-metric scaling is defined by the use of isotonic regression to nonparametrically estimate a transformation of the dissimilarities.

Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS)

In contrast to metric MDS, non-metric MDS finds both a non-parametric monotonic relationship between the dissimilarities in the item-item matrix and the Euclidean distances between items, and the location of each item in the low-dimensional space.

Let  be the dissimilarity between points . Let  be the Euclidean distance between embedded points .

Now, for each choice of the embedded points  and is a monotonically increasing function , define the "stress" function:

The factor of  in the denominator is necessary to prevent a "collapse". Suppose we define instead , then it can be trivially minimized by setting , then collapse every point to the same point.

A few variants of this cost function exist. MDS programs automatically minimize stress in order to obtain the MDS solution.

The core of a non-metric MDS algorithm is a twofold optimization process. First the optimal monotonic transformation of the proximities has to be found. Secondly, the points of a configuration have to be optimally arranged, so that their distances match the scaled proximities as closely as possible.

NMDS needs to optimize two objectives simultaneously. This is usually done iteratively:
 Initialize  randomly, e. g. by sampling from a normal distribution.
 Do until a stopping criterion (for example, )
 Solve for  by isotonic regression.
 Solve for  by gradient descent or other methods.
Return  and
Louis Guttman's smallest space analysis (SSA) is an example of a non-metric MDS procedure.

Generalized multidimensional scaling (GMD)

An extension of metric multidimensional scaling, in which the target space is an arbitrary smooth non-Euclidean space. In cases where the dissimilarities are distances on a surface and the target space is another surface, GMDS allows finding the minimum-distortion embedding of one surface into another.

Details

The data to be analyzed is a collection of  objects (colors, faces, stocks, . . .) on which a distance function is defined,

 distance between -th and -th objects.

These distances are the entries of the dissimilarity matrix

The goal of MDS is, given , to find  vectors
 such that

 for all ,

where  is a vector norm.  In classical MDS, this norm is the Euclidean distance, but, in a broader sense, it may be a metric or arbitrary distance function.

In other words, MDS attempts to find a mapping from the  objects into  such that distances are preserved.  If the dimension  is chosen to be 2 or 3, we may plot the vectors  to obtain a visualization of the similarities between the  objects.  Note that the vectors  are not unique: With the Euclidean distance, they may be arbitrarily translated, rotated, and reflected, since these transformations do not change the pairwise distances .

(Note: The symbol  indicates the set of real numbers, and the notation  refers to the Cartesian product of  copies of , which is an -dimensional vector space over the field of the real numbers.)

There are various approaches to determining the vectors .  Usually, MDS is formulated as an optimization problem, where  is found as a minimizer of some cost function, for example,

A solution may then be found by numerical optimization techniques.  For some particularly chosen cost functions, minimizers can be stated analytically in terms of matrix eigendecompositions.

Procedure
There are several steps in conducting MDS research:
 Formulating the problem – What variables do you want to compare?  How many variables do you want to compare? What purpose is the study to be used for?
 Obtaining input data – For example, :- Respondents are asked a series of questions. For each product pair, they are asked to rate similarity (usually on a 7-point Likert scale from very similar to very dissimilar). The first question could be for Coke/Pepsi for example, the next for Coke/Hires rootbeer, the next for Pepsi/Dr Pepper, the next for Dr Pepper/Hires rootbeer, etc. The number of questions is a function of the number of brands and can be calculated as  where Q is the number of questions and N is the number of brands. This approach is referred to as the "Perception data : direct approach". There are two other approaches. There is the "Perception data : derived approach" in which products are decomposed into attributes that are rated on a semantic differential scale. The other is the "Preference data approach" in which respondents are asked their preference rather than similarity.
 Running the MDS statistical program – Software for running the procedure is available in many statistical software packages.  Often there is a choice between Metric MDS (which deals with interval or ratio level data), and Nonmetric MDS (which deals with ordinal data).
 Decide number of dimensions – The researcher must decide on the number of dimensions they want the computer to create. Interpretability of the MDS solution is often important, and lower dimensional solutions will typically be easier to interpret and visualize. However, dimension selection is also an issue of balancing underfitting and overfitting. Lower dimensional solutions may underfit by leaving out important dimensions of the dissimilarity data. Higher dimensional solutions may overfit to noise in the dissimilarity measurements. Model selection tools like AIC, BIC, Bayes factors, or cross-validation can thus be useful to select the dimensionality that balances underfitting and overfitting.
 Mapping the results and defining the dimensions – The statistical program (or a related module) will map the results. The map will plot each product (usually in two-dimensional space). The proximity of products to each other indicate either how similar they are or how preferred they are, depending on which approach was used. How the dimensions of the embedding actually correspond to dimensions of system behavior, however, are not necessarily obvious. Here, a subjective judgment about the correspondence can be made (see perceptual mapping).
 Test the results for reliability and validity – Compute R-squared to determine what proportion of variance of the scaled data can be accounted for by the MDS procedure. An R-square of 0.6 is considered the minimum acceptable level.  An R-square of 0.8 is considered good for metric scaling and .9 is considered good for non-metric scaling. Other possible tests are Kruskal's Stress, split data tests, data stability tests (i.e., eliminating one brand), and test-retest reliability.
 Report the results comprehensively – Along with the mapping, at least distance measure (e.g., Sorenson index, Jaccard index) and reliability (e.g., stress value) should be given. It is also very advisable to give the algorithm (e.g., Kruskal, Mather), which is often defined by the program used (sometimes replacing the algorithm report), if you have given a start configuration or had a random choice, the number of runs, the assessment of dimensionality, the Monte Carlo method results, the number of iterations, the assessment of stability, and the proportional variance of each axis (r-square).

Implementations
 ELKI includes two MDS implementations.
 MATLAB includes two MDS implementations (for classical (cmdscale) and non-classical (mdscale) MDS respectively).
 The R programming language offers several MDS implementations, e.g. base cmdscale function, packages smacof (mMDS and nMDS), and vegan (weighted MDS).
 scikit-learn contains function sklearn.manifold.MDS.

See also

 Data clustering
 Factor analysis
 Discriminant analysis
 Dimensionality reduction
 Distance geometry
 Cayley–Menger determinant
 Sammon mapping
 Iconography of correlations

References

Bibliography

Dimension reduction
Quantitative marketing research
Psychometrics

Multidimensional scaling


Duke Charles Louis Frederick of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (23 February 1708 – 5 June 1752) was a member of the Strelitz branch of the House of Mecklenburg. He was the father to Charlotte, Queen of the United Kingdom and Hanover and Adolphus Frederick IV, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

He was styled as the Prince of Mirow (). He was not a reigning Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, unlike his father and son.

Life
Charles was born in Strelitz, the second son and youngest child of Adolphus Frederick II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. His mother, Princess Christiane Emilie of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, was the third wife of his father. Charles had one half-brother and one surviving half-sister, the children of his father's first marriage. He also had one full sister at the time of his birth, but she died as an infant when Charles was less than one year old.

Charles's father died when he was only three months old. His half-brother succeeded their father as Adolphus Frederick III, whereas Charles, as the younger son, inherited the commanderies of Mirow and Nemerow. Charles's mother retired to the estate of Mirow upon the death of her husband, and Charles was raised there. He later attended the University of Greifswald in Pomerania.

In keeping with the custom of the times, Charles set out on a Grand tour of Europe in 1726, aged 18. He played the transverse flute well, and made it one of the aims of the tour to improve his knowledge and skill in music.  After visiting Geneva, Italy and France, he went to Vienna and briefly entered the service of the Holy Roman Emperor as a Lieutenant Colonel before returning to Mirow.

After leaving the Army, Charles lived with his family in the castle of Mirow, managing his estates and attending to the education of his children. He lived at Mirow until his death there at the age of 44.

When his older half-brother, Adolphus Frederick III, died in December 1752 without a male heir, Charles's son Adolf Friedrich succeeded as the next Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, reigning as Adolphus Frederick IV.

Family
Charles was married on 5 February 1735 in Eisfeld to Princess Elisabeth Albertine of Saxe-Hildburghausen, daughter of Ernest Frederick I, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen. She was regent to her son in 1752 and played a major part in the struggle for the throne at that time.

They had ten children, six of whom survived into adulthood:

Through his daughter Charlotte, Charles Louis Frederick is the ancestor of every British monarch beginning with George IV, who ascended the throne of the United Kingdom in 1820.

Ancestry

References

External links
 Schloss Mirow

House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
People from Mecklenburg-Strelitz
1708 births
1752 deaths
People from Neustrelitz
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
Military personnel from Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
Sons of monarchs


Tony Xu (born Xu Xun, 1983/1984) is a Chinese-American billionaire businessman and the co-founder and chief executive officer (CEO) of DoorDash. Born in Nanjing, China, Xu immigrated to the United States with his parents at the age of four. He earned degrees from the University of California, Berkeley and Stanford University's Graduate School of Business. Earlier in his career, Xu interned at Square, Inc., and worked for McKinsey & Company, eBay, and PayPal. He was included in Fortune "40 Under 40" list in 2020.

DoorDash had its IPO in December 2020 making Xu's net worth an estimated $2.8 billion as of April 2021. He and his wife Patti are signatories to the Giving Pledge.

Early life and education
Xu was born in Nanjing, China. In 1989, his parents immigrated to Champaign, Illinois. His mother, Julie Cao, was previously a doctor in China. She later opened acupuncture and medical clinics in Champaign and the San Francisco Bay Area. His father was a professor in China who studied aerospace engineering and applied mathematics at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, where he earned his Ph.D.

Xu began working at an early age, at times washing dishes at the same restaurant where his mother worked. He legally changed his name from Xu Xun to Tony Xu, inspired by his favorite television series Who's the Boss?, in which Tony Danza plays Tony Micelli. Xu earned his Bachelor of Science degree in industrial engineering and operations research from Berkeley's College of Engineering and his Master of Business Administration degree from Stanford's Graduate School of Business in 2013.

Career

Early in his career, Xu interned at the financial services and digital payments company Square, Inc. and completed business development work for the e-commerce app RedLaser. He also worked as a business analyst for the management consulting firm McKinsey & Company, and as a corporate strategy consultant for eBay and PayPal.

Xu co-founded the delivery platform DoorDash in 2013 with Stanford classmates Andy Fang, Evan Moore, and Stanley Tang; the group had previously worked together to launch the predecessor delivery service PaloAltoDelivery.com in 2012. Xu has said his immigrant parents, and especially his mother's restaurant work, helped inspire DoorDash. Initially, he and other DoorDash employees completed food deliveries. Xu continues to be CEO, and owns an approximately five percent stake in the company. DoorDash's initial public offering in 2020, which Xu has been credited for leading, made him a billionaire at the age of 36. He has voting authority over all Class B shares, giving him control of DoorDash with 69 percent of the voting interest, as of December 2020.

In 2020, Xu was included in Fortune "40 Under 40" list.

Board service and investments
In addition to DoorDash's board of directors, Xu is a board member of the Silicon Valley Chinese Association Foundation and an executive council member of TechNet.

In January 2022, Tony Xu joined the board directors of Meta Platforms.

Xu has invested in the blockchain technology provider Alchemy, as well as the ghost kitchens All Day Kitchens and Local Kitchens.

Charities
Signatories to the Giving Pledge, he and his wife Patti have made significant donations in support of Berkeley, Northwestern, and the Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) community.

Personal life
Xu lives in San Francisco. He and his wife Patti met at church while they were undergraduates at Berkeley and married in 2013; the couple have two children.

Xu enjoys running and used to participate in marathons. He has described himself as an "avid" basketball fan, and has credited the sport and television for helping him learn English.

Publications

References

External links
 Tony Xu at Bloomberg News

 , February 12, 2021, Stanford Graduate School of Business

1980s births
Living people
American billionaires
American chief executives
Chinese emigrants to the United States
EBay employees
McKinsey & Company people
PayPal people
People from Champaign, Illinois
People from Nanjing
Businesspeople from San Francisco
Stanford University alumni
UC Berkeley College of Engineering alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni

Tony Xu


Samuel Benson Adjepong was a Ghanaian politician and was a member of the first parliament of the second Republic of Ghana. He represented the Oda constituency under the membership of the Progress Party (PP).

Early life and education
Adjepong was born on 30 May 1914 in the Eastern region of Ghana. He attended  Chelsea School of Pharmacy, London now UCL School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom where he obtained a Bachelor of Science degree with specialty in Pharmaceutical Chemistry. He worked as a Pharmacist and managing director before going into parliament.

Politics
Adjepong began his political career in 1969 when he became the parliamentary candidate for the Progress Party (PP) to represent the Oda constituency prior to the commencement of the 1969 Ghanaian parliamentary election.  He assumed office as a member of the first parliament of the second republic of Ghana on 1 October 1969 after being a pronounced winner at the 1969 Ghanaian parliamentary election. His tenure ended on 13 January 1972.

Personal life
Adjepong was a Christian.

References

1914 births
Year of death missing
Politicians from Eastern Region (Ghana)
Progress Party (Ghana) politicians
Ghanaian MPs 1969–1972

Samuel Benson Adjepong


Cara Fi (Love Me) is a Welsh romantic comedy-drama series that first broadcast in November 2014 on S4C, and was later made available on the BBC iPlayer. The eight-part series was created by Sarah Dollard. In 2015 the show was nominated for the BAFTA Cymru awards for costume design and for original music.

Plot
When a sleepy seaside village in Wales runs out of women, the locals try to turn things around by advertising their single men on the side of milk cartons leaving the dairy. Each episode focuses on a new woman arriving in the village to be set up with a local man.

The milk scheme is the brainchild of pub landlady Nancy Hopkins (Christine Pritchard), whose chief goal is to find a wife for her son, Will (Iwan John), so he won't move away from Tretarw. Unbeknownst to Nancy, Will is gay.

The series kicks off as Nancy's daughter, newly-single Nina (Rhian Jones), moves back to the village with her own daughter Lee (Saran Morgan). Nancy is determined to reunite Nina with her high-school sweetheart, pub chef Vic Reed (Steffan Rhodri). Much to Nancy's irritation, Nina instead hits it off with the nerdy, earnest local doctor, Brian (Gareth Pierce).

Main cast
Christine Pritchard as Nancy Hopkins, pub landlady
Rhian Jones as Nina Hopkins, Nancy's daughter
Saran Morgan as Lee Rees-Hopkins, Nina's daughter
Iwan John as Will Hopkins, Nancy's son
Steffan Rhodri as Vic Reed, pub chef
Gareth Pierce as Brian Phelps, local GP
Gwydion Rhys as Dai Jones
Gaynor Morgan Rees as Betty Jones

Episode list

Series 1 (2014)

Production
Cara Fi is set in the fictional Pembrokeshire village of Tretarw, but the plight of the area - an increase in holiday homes and an exodus of young people - is a very real problem faced by villages in rural Wales. Series producer Laura Cotton, who grew up in the area, said that the subject matter of the show was very close to her heart. "I wanted to come back and make it here, where I'm from, and show what an amazing, beautiful place it is", she said. "We were very aware of what is happening to small towns and villages, like my home town of Trefin, where most of the houses are now owned by holidaymakers".

Filming on Cara Fi began near Cardiff in March 2014, with the location shoot moving to Little Haven in Pembrokeshire in April. The shoot took place in and around The Swan Inn, renamed Yr Angor for the show. The owner of The Swan Inn, Paul Morris, said that the Cara Fi cast and crew had been welcome visitors to Little Haven, bringing a boost to the local economy.

Steffan Rhodri, best known for roles in Gavin & Stacey and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1, said the quality of the show's script is what attracted him to the part: "What's so often missing from Welsh comedy is a genuine wit, and this has it".

The Welsh language series, produced by Touchpaper Television, began screening on S4C in November 2014, with English subtitles, and subsequently became available on the BBC iPlayer.

See also

 List of Welsh television series

References

External links

2014 British television series debuts
2014 British television series endings
2010s British romantic comedy television series
2010s Welsh television series
2010s British television miniseries
S4C original programming
Television shows set in the United Kingdom
Television series by Banijay

Cara Fi


Ursuline Academy was a Catholic high school in Springfield, Illinois that operated from 1857 until 2007.  In its final years, it was affiliated with Springfield College in Illinois (SCI). Ursuline Academy billed itself as a college preparatory school. One offshoot of its partnership with SCI was a program which allowed high school students to simultaneously receive high school and college credit for courses.

History
Ursuline Academy was founded in 1857 by Mother Mary Joseph Wolfe, with its location at 5th and Mason streets. The academy moved to its current and final location on 5th Street, north of Eastman, in 1867.  The school originally opened as an all-girls school. Enrollment was so low by the late 1970s that the academy had no choice but to become co-educational in 1981.

The Ursuline Sisters established SCI in 1929 on the property owned by the academy. On January 15, 2003, Benedictine University, located in Lisle, Illinois, entered into a partnership with SCI. Over the next four years, the Ursuline Sisters withdrew from the academy, moving out of the convent completely in 2005.

Closing
On May 11, 2007, the SCI-BU (Benedictine University) Board of Directors made the decision to close Ursuline at the end of the 2006–2007 school year. They notified Ursuline Principal, John Stimler, the following day, and the students were then notified on May 14.

After closing
The buildings were put on an historic preservation list, Landmarks Illinois, due to the efforts of alumna Sarah Jones in 2008.

References

External links
 Ursuline Academy Illinois — Ursuline Academy in Springfield.
 Ursuline Academy Foundation

1857 establishments in Illinois
2007 disestablishments in Illinois
Defunct Catholic secondary schools in Illinois
Educational institutions established in 1857
Educational institutions disestablished in 2007
Former high schools in Illinois
Roman Catholic Diocese of Springfield in Illinois
Schools in Springfield, Illinois

Ursuline Academy (Illinois)


Guy Jonson (5 November 1913 – 10 March 2009) was an English classical Pianist and distinguished music teacher.

He was born Stanley Guy Johnson at Finchley, north London, the son of an auctioneer. Though neither of his parents were musical, his prodigious talent at the piano was recognized from an early age and he became a pupil of Betty Humby, wife of the distinguished conductor Sir Thomas Beecham. He gave his first piano recital in Eastbourne at the age of 13. He attended Highgate School in north London but left at 14 to continue his piano studies with Tobias Matthay (formerly of the Royal Academy of Music). In 1930, at the age of 16, he won a scholarship to the Royal Academy of Music in London. Subsequently, he studied under Alfred Cortot.

His first major recital was given at the famous Wigmore Hall, London, in November 1936, and he went on to perform several solo recitals and concertos for the BBC (at Broadcasting House) which were broadcast live on the overseas radio network. In 1939, shortly after being made the youngest ever Professor at the Royal Academy, Jonson was called up to serve in the Royal Artillery, then the Army Educational Corps. He married Patricia Burrell in 1944. In 1946 he was demobilized and returned to his position of Professor at the Royal Academy.

Guy Jonson adjudicated at music festivals throughout Britain and Ireland and gave piano recitals all around the world. After retiring from the Royal Academy he continued to teach privately. Among his distinguished pupils were Pianists Dimitris Sgouros, Martin Jones, Angela Lear, Julian Saphir and Philip Smith and the composers Sir John Tavener and Iain Hamilton.

Notable Recordings
 Echoes of a Golden Era (Libra Records, 1998). Includes works by York Bowen, Haydn, Schumann, Chopin, Scriabin, Bax, Debussy, Albeniz.  This recording is only currently obtainable from his former student, pianist Angela Lear - www.angelalear.com

References

1913 births
2009 deaths
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music
English classical pianists
Male classical pianists
People from Finchley
People educated at Highgate School
Academics of the Royal Academy of Music
20th-century classical musicians
20th-century classical pianists
20th-century English musicians
20th-century British male musicians
British Army personnel of World War II
Royal Artillery personnel
Royal Army Educational Corps soldiers
Military personnel from London

Guy Jonson


The Holy See exercised political and secular influence, as distinguished from its spiritual and pastoral activity, while the pope ruled the Papal States in central Italy.

The Papal States ceased to exist following the capture of Rome in 1870 by the Royal Italian Army, after which its remaining territories were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. The Lateran Treaty of 1929 later established the Vatican City, a small city-state where the Holy See currently exercises temporal powers.

Origins

Patrimony of Saint Peter
The Lateran Palace was the first significant acquisition of the Church, most probably a gift from Constantine the Great. The example of Constantine was followed by wealthy families of the Roman nobility, Sometimes designated as the Patrimonium Sancti Petri, it was not a separate state, but still subject to the emperor in Byzantium.

Pope Gregory II's defiance of the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian as a result of the first iconoclastic controversy (726 AD) in the Byzantine Empire, widened the growing divergence between the Byzantine and Carolingian traditions in what was still a unified European Church. This, combined with Lombard military pressure that the embattled empire could not respond effectively to, eventually led to the establishment of the temporal power of the popes. The Duchy of Rome was an imperial territory under the Exarchate of Ravenna. With the waning of Byzantine control in Italian peninsula, more of the management of the area fell to the popes.

Donation of Pepin
In 751 the Exarchate of Ravenna fell to Lombard King Aistulf. Five years later, Pepin the Short of the Franks defeated the Lombards and granted the lands of the Duchy of Rome as well as territory ceased by the Lombards to the Papacy in what is referred to as the Donation of Pepin, marking the true beginning of the Papal States. The area conferred upon the pope included the territory belonging to Ravenna, even cities such as Forlì with their hinterlands, the Lombard conquests in the Romagna and in the Duchy of Spoleto and Benevento, and the Pentapolis (the "five cities" of Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Senigallia and Ancona). Narni and Ceccano were former papal territories. However, the medieval Popes were unable to exercise effective sovereignty over these extensive and mountainous territories, given the recalcitrance of their vassals.

For over a thousand years popes ruled as sovereign over an amalgam of territories on the Italian peninsula known as the Papal States, from the capital, Rome. In 1274 the Comtat Venaissin came under Papal control, followed by Avignon in 1348.

Early modern period

Theologian Robert Bellarmine, in his 16th-century dogmatic work Disputationes strongly affirmed the authority of the pope as the vicar of Christ. However, he reasoned that since Christ did not exercise his temporal power, neither may the pope.

In 1590, Pope Sixtus V had, of his own initiative, placed the first volume of the Disputationes on a new edition of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum for denying that the pope had direct temporal authority over the whole world. The entry concerning Bellarmin reads: "Roberti Bellarmini Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae fidei adversus huius temporis haereticos. Nisi prius ex superioribus regulis recognitae fuerint." However, Sixtus V died before he could promulgate the bull which would have made this new edition of the Index enter into force. Sixtus' successor, Urban VII, asked for an examination and after it was done Bellarmine was exonerated and the book removed from the Index.

Concerning the pastoral and spiritual power of the pope, Bellarmine's "Disputationes, 3 vol. (1586–93), and De potestate summi pontificis in rebus temporalibus (1610; "Concerning the Power of the Supreme Pontiff in Temporal Matters") gave definite form to the theory of papal supremacy."

19th century
The secular revolutionary movements of the 1800s posed a serious threat to the pope's temporal power. Avignon was seized by revolutionaries during the French Revolution in 1791, ending 450 years of papal sovereignty there. Between 1798 and 1814, the revolutionary French government invaded Italy several times and annexed the Papal States (though the papacy was restored between 1800 and 1809). Napoleon Bonaparte abolished the pope's temporal power in 1809, incorporating Rome and Latium into his First French Empire. Pope Pius VII himself was even taken prisoner by Napoleon. However, the pope's temporal power was restored by the Great powers at the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in the 1815 Congress of Vienna. The civil laws of the Napoleonic Code were abolished, and most civil servants were removed from office. In the coming years, rising liberal and nationalist sentiment created popular opposition to the reconstituted clerical government. This led to numerous revolts, which were suppressed by the intervention of the Austrian army.

In November 1848, during the 1848 Revolutions that swept Europe, the assassination of his minister Pellegrino Rossi led Pope Pius IX to flee Rome. During a political rally in February 1849, a young heretic, the Abbé Arduini, described the temporal power of the popes as a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality."

On 9 February 1849, a revolutionary Roman Assembly proclaimed the Roman Republic. Subsequently, the Constitution of the Roman Republic abolished papal temporal power, although the independence of the pope as head of the Catholic Church was guaranteed by article 8 of the "Principi fondamentali". Like the other revolutionary movements of 1848, the Republic was short-lived; Rome was eventually conquered by the French Second Republic, which restored the papacy's temporal power in the region once again.

In 1859–60, the Papal States was invaded by various republican forces seeking a unified Italian state, and lost the provinces of Romagna, Marche and Umbria. These regions were incorporated into the Kingdom of Sardinia (which thereafter became the Kingdom of Italy), and the papacy's temporal power was reduced to Rome and the region of Lazio. At this point, some ultramontane groups proposed that the temporal power be elevated into a dogma. According to Raffaele De Cesare:

However, following the Austro-Prussian War, Austria was forced to recognize the newly-formed Kingdom of Italy. As a result, most clerics lost hope of a return of the former temporal power of the Bishop of Rome. Some, primarily Italian, clergy suggested an ecumenical council to dogmatically define papal infallibility as an article of faith, binding upon the consciences of all Catholic faithful. This doctrinal view, however, initially proposed by Franciscan partisans in opposition to the prerogative of popes to contradict the more favorable decrees of their predecessors, faced significant resistance outside of Italy prior to and during the First Vatican Council.

For practical purposes, the temporal power of the popes ended on 20 September 1870, when the Italian Army breached the Aurelian Walls at Porta Pia and entered Rome. This completed the Unification of Italy (Risorgimento).

See also

References

Sources

Further reading
 The Last Days of Papal Rome

8th-century establishments in the Byzantine Empire
History of the papacy
Religion and politics
Sovereignty
Canon law history
Catholicism and politics
Conflict of laws
History of Catholicism in Italy
International law
Law of Vatican City

Temporal power of the Holy See


The library made available to detainees held in extrajudicial detention in the United States Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, is notable for the controversy it has stirred.

Access to books, particularly the Harry Potter series, is widely described as a sign that the conditions
for the detainees has improved.

The Department of Defense reports that Guantanamo detainees have access to 3,500 volumes, though they are attempting to increase the collection to 10,000–20,000

Guantanamo detainees such as David Hicks reported that the "reading room" did not contain any reading material itself.
They have to "order" books in advance.
According to the Library Journal the Associated Press reported that the detainees have been known to use the books to pass messages to each other.  Now each book is checked when it was returned.
Detainees who break this rule lose their library privileges.

Popular books and authors include the Harry Potter series, Agatha Christie mysteries, Khalil Gibran, self-help manual Don't Be Sad and The Lord of the Rings.

Letter from "Abdul Aziz"
On July 22, 2007 Andy Worthington published an article which quoted extensively from a recently declassified letter from a Guantanamo detainee identified as "Abdul Aziz".
The surname of the author of the letter was withheld.
He reported that after being offered the same two boxes of tattered books for years he asked the library clerk to stop visiting his cell.

Content policy

On October 11, 2009 the Miami Herald published lists of the kind of content detainees were "authorized" and "restricted" to access.

Omar Khadr's reading list
On October 28, 2010, during Omar Khadr's sentencing hearing, a partial list of the books he had borrowed from the library was a matter of testimony.
Prosecution witness Michael Welner, a forensic psychiatrist, characterized Khadr as an unredeemable jihadist who had spent his time at Guantanamo reading the Koran, and was not interested in western literature.
During his cross examination Khadr's Defense counsel asked Welner to consult his notes, and read out other books he knew Khadr had borrowed from the library.  According to Carol Rosenberg, writing in the Miami Herald, Welner acknowledged Khadr had also borrowed: "Nelson Mandela's [Long] Walk to Freedom, Barack Obama's Dreams of My Father, Ishmael Beah's A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier, Stephenie Meyer's Twilight series plus unnamed thrillers by John Grisham and steamy novels by Danielle Steel."

See also
 Mail privileges of Guantanamo Bay detainees
 Telephone access of Guantanamo Bay detainees

References

External links

Guantanamo Bay captives legal and administrative procedures
Libraries in Cuba

Guantanamo Bay detainment camp library


The broad-leaved coral tree (Erythrina latissima) is a deciduous tree from southern Africa growing 5 to 8 m tall. It is a member of the Fabaceae and occurs naturally in the Afrotemperate mist-belt of South Africa and Eswatini to the uplands of Mozambique, Zimbabwe and adjacent Botswana. It is often cultivated as a tree for gardens and parks. In Zimbabwe its range overlaps with the similar Erythrina abyssinica.

It has pubescent branchlets and fissured, corky bark. The foliage is soft and initially woolly in texture, with some prickles and prominently raised venation below. Their scarlet flowers with red, densely velvety calyxes may appear from winter to early summer, usually before new foliage is produced. The fruit is a cylindrical articulated pod, bearing orange to red seeds with a black spot.

Gallery

References

latissima
Trees of South Africa
Trees of Africa
Ornamental trees

Erythrina latissima


Roman Legion-Hare is a 1955 Warner Bros. Looney Tunes animated short directed by Friz Freleng. The short was released on November 12, 1955, and stars Bugs Bunny and Yosemite Sam. The title is a play on the words Roman Legionnaire. After being ordered by Emperor Nero to find a victim to be tossed to the lions, Yosemite Sam tries to capture Bugs Bunny.

Plot
The setting is Rome, 54 A. D.; the camera pans past a billboard announcing "Another Appian Freeway for Your Safety (Slow Chariots Keep Right)" before settling on an exterior view of the Coliseum. As spectators file into the Coliseum, their shadows fall on a poster describing the day's sporting event: "Detroit Lions in Season Opener — Undefeated Lions out for First Taste of Victory". The sign is a reference to the NFL team with the same name, which was a league powerhouse at the time. The NFL Lions had appeared in the league championship game in the three seasons prior to the short being released, winning the title in 1952 and 1953.

A radio-style sportscaster describes the scene for his audience and the entrance of Emperor Nero into the arena (in a chariot with tail fins from a 1950s Cadillac). Nero is represented as a caricature of actor Charles Laughton who had played the character in  The Sign of the Cross in 1932. The announcer reports that Nero has "consented to throw out the first victim". When it turns out they are all out of victims, Nero commands Captain of the Praetorian Guard Sam to take his legion out to get one right away informing Sam that if he fails to provide a victim for the lions, Sam will be the victim. Along the way, Sam and the legion (which looks more like a squad) cross paths with Bugs Bunny who is looking at them expecting a parade. Sam sends his troops after Bugs. but he trips them up with his foot. Sam then chases after Bugs in a chariot where he once again is a victim of the "giddyap mule!/whoa mule!" routine.

Through the rest of the picture, Sam and Bugs are running through the labyrinth of the Coliseum where the lions seem to be lurking behind every other door. Sam ends up near a lion's cage and is startled when it roars loudly, for which it gets clobbered over the head. Seeing this, Bugs turns a wheel which opens the cage and the now-freed lion roars again. Sam starts whacking it again, but slows and halts as he realizes the situation: "How many times do I have to tell.... you.. to.. shut... up?". Sam barely escapes by putting a locked door between him and the angry predator only for the lion to grab the rug underneath him and pull him under the door to attack him. Yosemite then chases Bugs into a large underground room, full of sleeping lions. Sam unknowingly follows him in and sees Bugs sneaking toward the ladder. Bugs gets out and lowers an alarm clock on a rope through a grate into the room, which wakes the lions who attack Sam as he escapes.

He then nears a pit of lions with Bugs at the other side ("How now, brown cow?"). As Sam makes his way across with stilts ("No long-eared galoot can outfox the Captain of the Guards!"), Bugs gives the lions some axes and saws which they use to cut the stilts down and attack Sam as he tries to get back to the other side.

Bugs finally escapes, but accidentally gets himself in the middle of the arena. Sam victoriously joins Nero in his box as the lions are released. The lions run by Bugs who quickly protects himself and straight to Sam and Nero who take refuge atop a tall column. Bugs puts on a Roman crown and says "Well, as the Romans say, E Pluribus Uranium". As the enraged lions slowly chop down the column piece by piece in order to attack Nero and Sam, Nero plays "Taps" on his fiddle as he and Sam await their fate, with the cartoon fading to black.

Trivia
Parts of this film were re-used from Ain't She Tweet in 1952 and it was also reused in the Friz Freleng short film Devil's Feud Cake in 1963.

The single lion that made a ruckus in its cage was somewhat reused in the 1957 cartoon Tweet Zoo.

In The Sylvester and Tweety Mysteries episode "Yelp", each scene is a homage to the short. (e.g. Sylvester sprays a caged dog with water and does it again after Tweety opens the cage)

Home media
Roman Legion-Hare was released on the Bugs Bunny's Wacky Adventures VHS as part of the Golden Jubilee 24 Carrot Collection video set. The short is also part of the Looney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 4 DVD set.

See also
Looney Tunes
Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies filmography (1950–1959)
List of Bugs Bunny cartoons
List of Yosemite Sam cartoons

References

External links

1955 films
1955 animated films
1955 short films
1950s Warner Bros. animated short films
Looney Tunes shorts
Animated films about rabbits and hares
Animated films about lions
Short films directed by Friz Freleng
Films set in 1st-century Roman Empire
Films set in ancient Rome
Depictions of Nero on film
Films scored by Milt Franklyn
Bugs Bunny films
Yosemite Sam films
Colosseum

Roman Legion-Hare


The Wall of Discovery is an environmental artwork that includes a 253-foot-long printed "blackboard" located in the center of the Scholars Walk on the University of Minnesota campus. This installation was designed to celebrate the discoveries, inventions and creations of alumni and faculty of the University that have brought significant changes to the world in which we live.

The method used to capture the work was first to create an extensive list of notable U of M graduates in as many fields as possible. Extensive research was done by Minneapolis design firm LA ink that led to the finding of many original hand written notes and diagrams chronicling the discoveries by these scholars. The documents were then scanned and retouched, pixel by pixel, until they looked as if they were rendered in chalk on a chalkboard. 20 Glass edge lit panels were also designed to both illuminate the walkway and possibly inspire current students toward future discoveries.

An installation of this nature has never before been attempted by a major institution like the University of Minnesota.

The Artwork was submitted to the SEGD design competition in 2007 and won their "Honor Award" the highest achievement category. That same year it also received the AIA Minnesota Honor Award.

Persons represented on the wall
Over 100 alumni and faculty from the University of Minnesota are represented on the wall a few of whom are:
Robert W. Gore
Seymour Cray
Ancel Keys
Norman Borlaug
John Berryman
Earl Bakken
Reynold Johnson
F. John Lewis (cardiac surgeon)
Hubert Humphrey
Roy Wilkins
Herb Brooks
Garrison Keillor
Deke Slayton
Warren Burger
Harry Blackmun
James 'Crash' Ryan 2
Saul Bellow
Bob Dylan
Raymond Lindeman

References

SEGD 2007 award page
AIA MN Award Page
Wall of discovery page at LA ink's website
U of M || University News Service || News Release
University of Minnesota Alumni Association : Wall of Discovery
News Releases: UMNnews: U of M
U of M || University News Service || U of M Moment
 Reising, Jenny S. "In Their Own Words." segdDESIGN No. 17 2007: 44-47
Mueller, Heather L. "University to unveil a new wall featuring discoveries, achievements." Minnesota Daily 29 Sept. 2006: A1
Gerhz, Jim. "A U alumnus and his work." Minneapolis Star Tribune 8 Dec. 2006: A1
Tsong-Taatarii, Richard. "Wall of Discovery celebrates U's best." Minneapolis Star Tribune 29 Sept. 2006: A1
"Honoring Great Thinkers." Minnesota Nov.-Dec. 2006. 42-43

Public art in the United States
Installation art works
Inventions

Wall of Discovery


Marcin II Szyszkowski of Clan Ostoja (1554 – 30 April 1630) was a notable Polish priest who attended the Jesuit school of Kalisz and became bishop of Lutsk, Płock and finally of Kraków. In the power of the Bishop of Kraków, he also became Prince of Siewierz.

Life and education

Szyszkowski was born into a noble family which was part of the Clan of Ostoja. After finishing Jesuit school, he furthermore studied in Krakow, Rome, Bologna and Padova. His great intellect and humanistic view helped him advance quickly. He became chancellor of Piotr Myszkowski, who was bishop of Krakow at the time, and he quickly advanced to the office of Bishop of Luck in 1604, the holy Catholic capital in the area named Christopolis.

On 18 November 1607 he became the Bishop of Płock . He translated a lot of work from Italian to Latin, and founded a Jesuit school in Płock in the year 1616. He finished the building of the Bishop Palace and in Pultusk; he also rebuilt the town castle, and opened a college for poor students.

Szyszkowki moved to Krakow in October 1616 and became Bishop of Krakow on 3 June 1617. During his time as the Bishop of Krakow he opened several schools, churches, and chapels for the Franciscan friars. He was against the reforms and in his battle to preserve the Catholic Church he regained 37 churches for the cause. In the cathedral on Wawel in Krakow, present confession is in the form of a domed canopy made of black and rose marble, gilt-bronze and wood, which was created in the years 1626-1629 on Bishop Marcin Szyszkowski's foundation.

The most popular sarcophaguses in the 17th century were in the form of busts of the deceased persons, in a style taking its origins from Rome. Four Baroque statues of the bishops of Cracow including Marcin Szyszkowski (made of black marble by Jan Trevano) were placed around St Stanislaus' confession standing over the crypt in which the bishops are buried.

See also
 Clan of Ostoja
 Ostoja coat of arms
 Mikołaj Szyszkowski

Sources

 Nowowiejski A. J., Płock. Monografia historyczna...., Płock 1990
 Piotr Nitecki, Biskupi Kościoła w Polsce w latach 965 - 1999, , Warszawa 2000.
 Krzysztof Rafał Prokop: Sylwetki biskupów łuckich. Biały Dunajec: Ostróg : "Wołanie z Wołynia", 2001. .

1554 births
1630 deaths
Clan of Ostoja
Polish nobility
17th-century Roman Catholic bishops in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Bishops of Płock
Bishops of Kraków

Marcin Szyszkowski


BMW has been in Formula One since the beginning of the World Drivers' Championship in . BMW entered several races in the 1950s and 1960s. Often, they ran using the Formula Two rules. In the 1980s, they built the BMW M12/13 inline-four turbocharged engine. This engine was built for the Brabham team. Nelson Piquet won the  championship driving a Brabham-BMW. BMW also supplied the M12/13 engine to the ATS, Arrows, Benetton and Ligier teams. In , Brabham left F1 for the  season, and BMW stopped its official backing of the engines. Arrows still used the engine with the Megatron name. When Formula One banned turbocharged engines in , the M12/13 could no longer be used.

BMW returned to Formula One in . They made a deal to supply engines to only the Williams team. The engine was a new V10 engine. The engine deal with Williams ended after the  season. BMW then bought the rival Sauber team. The BMW Sauber project lasted from  until . Sauber, a former privateer team, became more competitive. In , Robert Kubica won the team's only race, the Canadian Grand Prix, with Nick Heidfeld finishing second. After the 2009 season, BMW withdrew from F1. They sold the team back to its founder, Peter Sauber.

Entries in the 1950s and 1960s

The early years of the World Drivers' Championship saw private BMW racing cars, based on the pre-war BMW 328 chassis. They were entered in the German Grands Prix in  and . A modified 328 with a rear engine became standard in Formula One in the early 1960s. It was known as the "Heck", the German automotive term for "back" or "rear". This design later found success with the Cooper team.

In  German Grand Prix, BMW entered Hubert Hahne in a Lola chassis powered by an larger BMW engine, and David Hobbs in the Lola with the standard smaller BMW engine. For the  German Grand Prix, Hahne returned and finished tenth, BMW's best result in Formula One to that date. BMW then entered three of its own 269 F2 chassis for the  German Grand Prix for Hahne, Gerhard Mitter and Dieter Quester. Mitter was killed in a practice accident. The remaining BMW team withdrew from the race. BMW left F1 for a number of years.

Engine supplier

Brabham, ATS, Arrows, Benetton and Ligier (1982–1988)

In , Renault entered Formula One with a turbocharged engine. After the success Renault had, BMW decided to develop its own turbo engine. BMW announced the new program in April 1980. The engine was based on the BMW M10, a four-cylinder, 1.5 litre, normally aspirated (non-turbocharged) engine designed in the late 1950s. The racing version, the M12, had been successful in Formula Two and other series. The prototype 1.4 litre turbo engine soon developed 600 bhp. It used a single Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch (KKK) turbocharger,  Bosch electronics, and fuel injection. This engine was developed into the M12/13, the race engine BMW supplied to five teams from 1982 to 1988.

BMW first made a deal to supply the M12/13 engine only to the Brabham. Testing of the M12/13 started in late 1980. A new car, Brabham BT50 was design for the engine. The new car was not finished until will into the  season. The team's lead driver, Nelson Piquet, tested the BT50 throughout 1981. The car was unreliable until Bosch improved the electronics.

Brabham began the 1982 season with two BMW-powered BT50 chassis. Because of reliability problems, the BT50 was not used at all the races that year. BMW saw their first win in  Canadian Grand Prix, where the cool conditions helped the turbocharged engine. The BT50 was used for the rest of the season. The car was still unreliable, and the drivers only made four finishes the rest of the season.

In , the reliability of the BMW engine was improved. The new Brabham BT52 allowed Nelson Piquet to win the Drivers' Championship. Brabham finished third in the Constructors' Championship. BMW also began supplying its engines to the German ATS team this season. Manfred Winkelhock, the only driver for the team, was unable to score any points.

For , BMW expanded to three teams, supplying the M12/13 to Arrows. In , BMW was back to two teams. ATS had left Formula One. Piquet won one race, the  French Grand Prix. It was the only win for BMW that year.

For the 1986 season, BMW was back to three teams with the addition of Benetton. Benetton had the most success, scoring 19 points, and winning the Mexican Grand Prix. In , BMW only supplied Brabham with works engines. Arrows and Ligier used the "Megatron", a rebadged BMW engine. At the end of the year, Benetton team owner Bernie Ecclestone decided not to compete the following year. This ended the BMW turbo engine. The Arrows team still used the "Megatrons" engine for . They finished fifth in the Constructors' Championship, their best finish in the team's 25-year history.

For , the technical regulations were changed to ban turbocharged engines. During the M12/13 engine's time in F1, the engine had won the 1983 Drivers' Championship and nine Grands Prix. It also took 14 pole positions and set 13 fastest laps.

Williams (2000–2005)

Williams had been very successful using Renault engines. They won the , ,  and  Drivers' Championships. They also won the , , ,  and  Constructors' Championships. When Renault left F1 at the end of 1997, Williams needed a new engine. In , the BMW signed a contract to supply the Williams team with engines.

BMW spent 18 months building and testing a normally aspirated, 3.0 litre V10 engine. The E41 engine was ready to race in the 2000 season. The Williams FW22 with the BMW E41 engine was driven by Ralf Schumacher and Jenson Button. Schumacher scored a podium finish in the engine's first race. The team finished the year with two more podium finishes, and third in the Constructors' Championship.

For , BMW designed a more aggressive P80 engine. The engine had a big power improvement. Schumacher and new team-mate Juan Pablo Montoya scored four race wins. For , the team won only one race with Schumacher at the Malaysian Grand Prix. Montoya took seven pole positions, but was not able to win a single race.

The Williams team was more competitive in . Both drivers won on two time. For , Williams produced the FW26 chassis with a radical nose section. This design did not work very well. Williams slipped to fourth in the Constructors' Championship. Montoya's victory in the Brazilian Grand Prix the team's only win (and the team's final win to date). Both Schumacher and Montoya left the team at the end of the season.

 was the final year of Williams using the BMW engine. The team continued to be less competitive. None of the team's drivers were able to win a race. By this time, BMW was upset with Williams. BMW thought the engine was able to win, and the Williams chassis was the problem. BMW offered to buy Williams outright. They wanted to gain overall control of its Formula One efforts. Frank Williams would not sell the team. BMW chose to buy the rival Sauber team instead for  and end its deal with Williams.

BMW Sauber

BMW bought Swiss team Sauber in June 2005 to form the BMW Sauber F1 Team. The takeover came after BMW's relationship with Williams had deteriorated in the previous months, the partnership ending at the end of the  season. The team was based at Sauber's headquarters in Hinwil, Switzerland and BMW's headquarters in Munich, Germany.

The team scored two podium finishes and came fifth in 2006, its first season in Formula One. This was followed by a second place in 2007 after the McLaren team had been excluded from the championship. Polish driver Robert Kubica took the team's only Grand Prix victory at the 2008 Canadian Grand Prix. Following a poor  season, BMW withdrew from Formula One and sold the team back to founder Peter Sauber.

2006
For the 2006 season, BMW Sauber signed Nick Heidfeld from Williams to be the lead driver, while  World Champion Jacques Villeneuve had his existing two-year contract with Sauber honoured. Robert Kubica was signed as the team's third driver. The team continued to use Sauber's facilities, mostly for chassis construction and wind tunnel testing, while BMW's headquarters in Munich were responsible for building the new 2.4 litre P86 V8 engine, revised technical regulations forcing a change from the 3 litre V10 formula. This replaced the Petronas-badged Ferrari engines which the team had used since 1997. The Sauber team's existing major sponsors, Petronas and Credit Suisse, renewed their contracts with BMW. The team also announced a technical partnership with technology company Intel. The team's new livery, which was maintained throughout its tenure in Formula One, consisted of the traditional BMW blue and white with a hint of red.

Villeneuve scored the team's first points with a seventh-place finish at the Malaysian Grand Prix, after Heidfeld retired from fifth with an engine failure late in the race. Over the first two thirds of the season the drivers picked up points with a succession of seventh and eighth-place finishes, plus a fourth-place finish for Heidfeld at the Australian Grand Prix. The team ran a radical "twin towers" aero enhancement on the front of the car for the French Grand Prix, which was meant improve the flow of air over the top of the chassis. The parts were promptly banned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) as they were adjudged to impede the drivers' vision and thus compromise safety.

Heidfeld scored the team's first podium finish at the Hungarian Grand Prix from tenth on the grid. This race also saw the début of Robert Kubica, who replaced Villeneuve after the latter had crashed heavily at the preceding German Grand Prix. Kubica finished seventh, although he was later disqualified after his car was found to be underweight. The official reason for Villeneuve's absence was that he was recovering from his previous accident, but the team later announced that the driver change was permanent. Kubica scored BMW Sauber's second podium finish of the season at the Italian Grand Prix, after running in third place for most of the race and leading briefly during the first round of pit stops. Heidfeld finished in eighth, but set the team's first fastest lap. The team scored a total of 36 points to finish fifth in the Constructors' Championship, an improvement on Sauber's eighth position with 20 points in .

2007

On 19 October 2006, BMW announced that Robert Kubica would partner Nick Heidfeld for the 2007 Formula One season with Sebastian Vettel taking the test and reserve driver role. Timo Glock was later signed as the team's second test driver. The team launched its 2007 car, the F1.07, on January 16, 2007.

The new car showed promising form throughout winter testing, topping the times sheets on occasions. However, team principal Mario Theissen declared some reliability concerns before the season's opening race in Australia. Kubica retired from fourth place with a gearbox problem, but Heidfeld took over the position and held it to the end of the race. In the early races of the season, Heidfeld and Kubica scored a series of points finishes and established BMW Sauber as the third-fastest team, behind Ferrari and McLaren. Theissen also made the point that the performance gap between BMW Sauber and the two top teams was less than the gap between BMW Sauber and the teams behind it.

The Canadian Grand Prix brought mixed fortunes for the team. While Heidfeld scored BMW Sauber's best result thus far with a second-place finish, Kubica suffered a huge crash that resulted in a long safety car period. The media was initially told Kubica had broken his leg, but it later proved that he had escaped with only a sprained ankle and concussion. Vettel took his place in the United States Grand Prix, finishing in eighth place and therefore becoming the youngest driver to score a Formula One World Championship point. Later in the season, Vettel moved teams to take a race seat at the Toro Rosso team.

Kubica returned to racing action at the French Grand Prix and proved his recovery by finishing in fourth position. Over the remainder of the season, he and Heidfeld continued their form to score a total of 101 points, which secured the team second in the Constructors' Championship after McLaren's disqualification. Heidfeld scored another podium finish at the Hungarian Grand Prix and scored 61 points to Kubica's 39, while Vettel's sole appearance produced an additional point.

2008

On August 21, 2007, BMW confirmed its driver line-up of Heidfeld and Kubica for the  season.
Their 2008 car, the F1.08 was officially launched in Munich at BMW Welt on January 14, 2008. It made its track debut at Valencia the next day, with Robert Kubica driving. Team principal Mario Theissen set the target of the team's first win.

BMW Sauber started the season well with Kubica narrowly missing out on pole after a mistake in his main qualifying lap in Melbourne. He later retired after being hit by Kazuki Nakajima but Heidfeld finished second. Kubica took second in Malaysia, with Heidfeld in 6th setting the fastest lap of the race. The team's points total of 11 was their largest score up to that time. In Bahrain, Kubica scored his and the team's first ever pole position, beating Felipe Massa by just under three hundredths of a second. The team went on to finish 3rd and 4th in the race, equalling their highest round points total and promoting them to first place in the constructors' championship for the first time.

The team also attained a second-place finish in the Monaco Grand Prix with Robert Kubica, beating both Ferraris and only trailing the McLaren of Lewis Hamilton by three seconds.

BMW Sauber's first race victory came in the 2008 Canadian Grand Prix, the team achieving a one-two finish with Robert Kubica's first race win and Nick Heidfeld taking second place. The victory came after Lewis Hamilton collided with Kimi Räikkönen in the pitlane, ending the race for both drivers. Kubica was on a different refueling strategy from Heidfeld, who also briefly led the race before securing the one-two finish for BMW Sauber in comfortable fashion.

After the team's breakthrough win, development was switched to the 2009 season where new regulations come into play. This greatly annoyed Kubica, (who was leading the championship after the Canadian Grand Prix), as he felt they could have had a realistic chance of taking at least one title. The lack of development was reflected with a drop of form throughout the second half of the season, causing BMW to be outpaced by Renault, Toyota and even Toro Rosso (who started the season as one of the slowest teams) by the end of the season. Despite this, Kubica remained with an outside chance of taking the drivers championship until the Chinese Grand Prix, the 17th round out of 18.

In October the team confirmed that they would stick with Robert Kubica and Nick Heidfeld as their drivers for the  Season.

2009

Although BMW Sauber targeted the  season as the year they would challenge for the title, their start to the season was a disappointment. Kubica was running in 3rd place in the opening round when he collided with Vettel while battling for 2nd place and was forced to retire. Heidfeld then secured the team's first podium of the year in Malaysia, but after 6 races BMW Sauber had collected a mere 6 points, and occupied 8th place in the Constructors' Championship out of 10 teams. A raft of upgrades were set for Turkey, including an improved regenerative braking system (KERS) and a double deck diffuser. While the new diffuser was implemented, the KERS could not be made to fit the new car and both drivers raced without the device. After the qualifying session for the British Grand Prix Mario Theissen announced that the team had decided to halt further development KERS; of which BMW had been one of the strongest proponents, and focus instead on improving the car's aerodynamics. This left Ferrari and McLaren as the only remaining users of the KERS system. In the European Grand Prix at Valencia Robert Kubica scored the team's first points since the race in Turkey.

Following a meeting of the BMW board on July 28, the company held at press conference the following morning in which it confirmed the team's withdrawal from Formula One at the end of 2009. Chairman Dr Norbert Reithofer described the decision as a strategic one. The Formula One Teams Association released a statement in response pledging its support to help the team remain in F1.

On 15 September 2009 it was announced that BMW Sauber had secured a buyer, Qadbak Investments Limited which said to represent European and Middle Eastern interests. However Lotus had been given the 13th and final slot in the 2010 Championship.  The team were awarded what was termed a 14th entry, which hinges either on another team dropping out or all the other teams agreeing to allow 28 cars to enter the 2010 Championship.

On November 22, Swiss newspaper SonntagsZeitung revealed that Qadbak's attempt to purchase the team had failed as it did not have the necessary funds. Qadbak turned out to be a shell company with no assets and no investors behind it. On November 27, 2009 it was announced that Peter Sauber would repurchase the team conditional upon the team receiving a FIA entry for the 2010 season.  The FIA subsequently granted Sauber an entry on December 3. The team used Ferrari engines in .

The team retained the BMW Sauber name for the  season, despite using Ferrari engines.

References

Books

Journals

Footnotes

Other websites

 BMW Sauber F1
 BMW Motorsport

Formula One constructors
Formula One engine manufacturers

BMW in Formula One


The Supreme Court of Missouri, is the state supreme court and the highest court in the state of Missouri. It was established in 1820 and is located in Jefferson City, Missouri.  Missouri voters have approved changes in the state's constitution to give the Supreme Court the sole legal power to hear five types of cases on appeal. Per Article V, Section 3 of the Constitution of Missouri, these cases involve:

The validity of a United States statute or treaty.
The validity of a Missouri statute or constitutional provision.
The state's revenue laws.
Challenges to a statewide elected official's right to hold office.
Anytime the death penalty is imposed.

Unless their case involves one of those five issues, people who want a trial court's decision reviewed must appeal to the Missouri Court of Appeals. Most of these cases involve routine legal questions and end there.  The Court of Appeals is divided geographically into the "Eastern District", "Western District" and "Southern District".

Certain cases may be transferred to the Supreme Court at the Court's own discretion. These include cases of general interest or importance. They look at cases where the laws should be re-examined. They also review cases that the lower court's decision conflicts with an earlier appellate decision. This is similar to the process the United States Supreme Court uses in accepting cases. In addition, the Court of Appeals may transfer a case to the Supreme Court after an opinion is issued. This can be either upon request of one of the parties or at the request of one of the judges on the appellate court.

History
In 1820, when it was first established, there were three judges on the Supreme Court. In 1872 the number was increased to five judges. In 1890, the court was increased again to its present size of seven judges.

In 1890, the court was divided into two divisions. This allowed it to handle more cases and make quicker decisions. In 1976, the two divisions were eliminated by a constitutional amendment. The court now rules on cases En banc (all judges together) so decisions are made by the entire court.

Judicial selection
Judges of the court are selected through the nonpartisan plan, nationally known as the Missouri Plan. Under the plan, the Appellate Judicial Commission submits the names of three nominees to the Governor. If the Governor fails to make an appointment with 60 days of the nominees being named, the Commission shall make the appointment. Once the judge has served for at least a year, he or she is placed on the general election ballot for vote of the people to keep their seat. If retained, judges serve a term of 12 years. The constitution requires that all judges retire by age 70.

References

American courts
Organizations based in Missouri

Supreme Court of Missouri


HMS Lightning was launched in 1806 as a Thais-class fireship. Like the other members of her class she was quickly converted to a sloop. She participated in the second Battle of Copenhagen, captured a number of small prizes, and was sold in 1816.

Design
The Thais-class fireships were built to a design by John Henslow. The Admiralty converted them to sloops as the design was quite similar to that of the Cormorant-class sloops. Between 1811 and 1812 they were re-rated as 20-gun post ships.

Career
Commander Bentinck Cavendish Doyle commissioned Lightning in March 1807 for the North Sea. In August, Lightning was with the British fleet at Copenhagen, where Doyle commanded the naval brigade on shore. With Lightning he was present at the surrender of the Danish Fleet on 7 September. Lightning also received a share, with many other ships in the British fleet at Copenhagen in August–September 1807, of the prize money for the capture of Odifiord and Benedicta (4 and 12 September).

In January and February 1808 Lightning was at Sheerness, being fitted as a sloop. Then on 7 May Doyle sailed Lightning for Brazil. There she was part of the British squadron that supported the House of Braganza, which had fled Portugal for Brazil. The station was not one that would please any British naval officer looking for glory or prize money. The Portuguese nobility discouraged the British squadron from leaving port.

On 8 October 1808, Lightning captured the Dutch armed transport Hoop, which she sent into the Cape of Good Hope. The initial prize money payment was in excess of £2000, of which Doyle would have received a quarter. The House of Braganza, which had just expatriated to Brazil from Portugal, discouraged any vessels of the British squadron attached to them from going to sea.

Lightning captured only one privateer during her career. This occurred on 20 or 21 November 1810 in the North Sea, when she captured the General D'Orsenne, of 14 guns and sixty-nine men. Lightning, , and  were in company when  captured the privateer Confiance on 28 February 1811.  Confiance carried 16 guns and had a crew of 62 men. Doyle was made post captain on 3 April 1811. Around that time Lightning was re-rated to be a post ship, which meant that he could retain command. On 2 February 1812, Lightning sailed for the Leeward Islands.

In August or September 1812, Lightning detained the American droits Republican and Greyhound. On 2 September 1812, Lightning captured the Alligator. Alligator, of Nantucket, was under the command of Captain Obed Swain and on her fifth voyage as a whaler. She had sailed for the Pacific in 1810 and was returning home with 1600 barrels of spermaceti oil.

Two more captures on the Leeward Islands station followed in October and November. On 12 October, Lightning captured the schooner Shepherdess. Then on 17 November Lightning captured the brig Brandy Wine.

In 1813 Lightning recaptured Alexis, brig, of Greenock, carrying sugar, rum, cotton and coffee from Demerara, mounting ten guns, captured on 6 February 1813 by the American privateer .

Lightning, , and  were in company on 6 March 1814 at the recapture of the Diamond. Twelve days later, on 18 March, Lightning recaptured the brig Favourite, of 126 tons and six men, which had been sailing from Waterford to Bilbao.

At about this time Lightning was escorting Spanish troops to Corruna. Doyle transferred to command Madagascar and Captain George Rennie took command of Lightning in August 1814 and sailed her for North America.

Fate
The Admiralty put Lightning up for sale 28 August 1816. She was sold at Deptford for £1,100 on the day she went on sale.

Notes

Citations

References

Sloops of the Royal Navy
1806 ships

HMS Lightning (1806)


Amos Milton Musser (May 20, 1830 – September 24, 1909) was a Mormon pioneer who served in many church and community roles, including as an Assistant Church Historian of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints from 1902 until his death.

Early life
Musser was born at Donegal, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.  Musser's father Samuel Musser died when he was two years old. The family moved to the vicinity of Quincy, Illinois in 1837. By this time his mother had gotten remarried to Abraham Bitner. When Musser was about 16 he was in the Battle of Nauvoo and then was driven with his mother and siblings into Iowa.  After he left Nauvoo Musser worked as a store clerk in Eddyville, Iowa. Musser was not baptized a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints until he arrived at Council Bluffs, Iowa in 1851.

Church service
On arriving in Utah Territory in 1851 as part of the Easton Kelsey Company, Musser became a clerk in the tithing office. The following year Musser was among the early Latter-day Saint missionaries to travel to India. R. Lanier Britsch's book Nothing More Heroic on this early LDS Church mission in India was written as if narrated by Musser. After this mission he returned to Utah in the William G. Young Company of 1857.

From 1860 to 1876 Musser served as a traveling bishop in Utah.  He was one of the most active traveling bishops and would visit all the major settlements in Utah at least twice a year.

In 1876, he was appointed assistant trustee-in-trust of the Church, a top ranking position in overseeing the assets and properties of the Church.  Shortly after this he was sent on a mission to the eastern United States.

Musser had served for several years as a clerk in the Church Historians office prior to his appointment as Assistant Church Historian in 1902.

Community service in Utah
Musser held several positions with the Deseret Agricultural and Manufacturing society.  He was connected with the Utah Bee Association and the Utah Silk Association.  Musser was one of the incorporators of Zion's Bank and Trust company.  He was also involved with promoting several plans to build railroads. While serving as traveling bishop Musser served as the general superintendent of the Deseret Telegraph Company. Musser served as Fish and Game Commissioner of Utah Territory from the late 1870s through the early 1890s.

Writer
Musser wrote many pro-Mormon pamphlets. He was also the editor of the Utah Farmer, an agricultural magazine, and The Palantic, a pro-Mormon literary magazine.

He wrote several pamphlets in defense of the faith of the Latter-day Saints. He authored "To The Press Of The United States" (Philadelphia, May 1877), a press release defending the faith in response to charges that the Latter-day Saints are a "blood-thirsty people" in newspaper coverage of the trial and execution of John D. Lee for his role in the Mountain Meadows Massacre.

Personal life and legacy
Musser married his first wife Ann Leaver on January 31, 1858. Musser also married Mary Elizabeth White in 1864, Belinda Marden Pratt in 1872 and Anna Seegmiller in 1874. Belinda was a daughter of Parley P. Pratt. Musser is the father of Joseph White Musser, who became a leader in the Mormon fundamentalist movement.

Musser died of "surgical shock" in Salt Lake City, Utah at age 79.

The community of Milton in Morgan County, Utah was named for A. Milton Musser.

References

1830 births
1909 deaths
19th-century Mormon missionaries
American Mormon missionaries in India
American Mormon missionaries in the United States
American leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Converts to Mormonism
Mormon pioneers
Official historians of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
People from Eddyville, Iowa
People from Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
Writers from Pennsylvania
Writers from Utah

A. Milton Musser