Jean-Baptiste Stuck (also known by the single moniker "Baptistin," "Batistin" or "Battistin") (6 May 16808 December 1755) was an Italian-French composer and cellist of the Baroque era.

Little is known of Stuck's early years. He was born at Livorno on the coast of Tuscany, came from a merchant family, and was the son of Giovanni-Giacomo Stuck and Barbera Hellerbeck. From 1702 he was in the service of Countess Lemos in Naples. Stuck wrote arias for the performance of the opera L'innocente inganno of Tomaso Albinoni, which was performed under the new title Rodrigo in Algieri on 10 December 1702 in Naples at the Teatro San Bartolimeo.

Shortly thereafter Stuck moved to Paris. In 1705, he published the collection Für das Jahr 1701 through the Ballard publishing house. In Paris, he was a member of the Chapelle royale and a cellist in the service of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. In 1722, he led the cello in the opera orchestra, displacing the bass viol. In 1733 he received French citizenship.  He died in Paris.

Works

Operas
He composed numerous operas, including:
 Méléagre (1709) (Libretto by François-Antoine Jolly)
 Manto la fée (1710) (Libretto by Mennesson)
 Il Gran Cid (Livorno 1715, Naples 1717)
 Polydore (Paris 1730)
and about 15 opera-ballets for Versailles.

Secular Cantatas
Stuck published four books of cantatas, the first three in 1706, 1708, 1711, (titled "Cantates Françoises") and a fourth in 1714 (titled "Cantates Françoises et Italienne"). In 1729, the Concert Spirituel performed another cantata Union de la musique française et italienne.

 Book 1 (1706): "Cantates Françoises à Voix Seule, avec Symphonies = French cantatas for solo voice, with symphonies" Containing: Philomèle.  L'amant impatient. L'amant réconcilié. Contre l'ambition. Le Calme de la nuit.  Céphale et Aurore.
 Book 2 (1708): "Cantates Françoises à Voix Seule et basse-Continue avec et sans Symphonies = French cantatas for solo voice and basso continuo with and without symphonies" Containing: Proserpine. Neptune et Amymone. La Naissance d'Achile. Ariane. Sur la prise de Lérida. Mars jaloux.
 Book 3 (1711): "Cantates Françoises à I. II. Voix et basse-Continue avec Symphonies = French cantatas for one and two voices and basso continuo with symphonies" Containing: Les Bains de Toméry. Héraclite et Démocrite. (Published by Ballard in Paris)
 Book 4 (1714): "Cantates Françoises et Italienne à I. II. Voix et basse-Continue avec Symphonies = French and Italian cantatas for one and two voices and basso continuo with symphonies" Containing: Flore. L'Amour vengé. Diane. Psiché. Les Festes bolonnoises. Cantata (In Italian).

Books 1 and 2 were included in the score library of the contemporary French operatic baritone Gabriel-Vincent Thévenard.

Recordings
Héraclite et Démocrite on "Baroque Cantatas at Versailles." With D'Anna Fortunato, mezzo-soprano; John Ostendorf, bass-baritone; Brewer Ensemble, on original instruments; Rudolph Palmer, conductor. SR-182 Spectrum. LP record. Re-issued as WVH 071 Erasmus. Compact Disc.

Héraclite et Démocrite on "French Cantatas." With Jennifer Smith, soprano; Thierry Félix, baritone; Les Musiciens du Louvre; Marc Minkowski, conductor. 471 730-2 Archiv. Compact Disc.

Héraclite et Démocrite on "Une Soirée chez le Chevalier Chavoye." With Cécile Larroche, soprano; Guillaume Figiel Delpech, counter-tenor; Les Chantres de Saint-Hilaire Sauternes; François-Xavier Lacroux, conductor. Hortus202, Éditions Hortus. Compact Disc, 2021.

Modern Editions

Stuck, Jean-Batiste (Battistin). "Cantatas." Edited by David Tunley. In The Eighteenth Century French Cantata, Volume 4. New York: Garland Publishing, 1990.

This facsimile edition is part of a larger multi-volume monument set and contains all four books of Stuck's French and Italian cantatas. The additional commentary is extensive and contains instrumentation and movement description, librettist, plot synopses and performance history for each of the cantatas.

Stuck, Jean-Batiste (dit Battistin). "Héraclite et Démocrite: Cantate pour soprano et basse avec deux violons." In La Cantate Francaise au XVIIIe siècle, Volume 8. Geneva: Minkoff Reprint, 1984.

This facsimile edition of this single cantata is from a large multi-volume monument set, and is reproduced from Stuck's third Book of Cantatas, published by Ballard in Paris in 1711. The final page consists of a reproduction of a long legal paragraph, "Extrait du Privilege Du Roy," which discusses giving sole printing rights to the publisher Christopher Ballard, based on laws signed by Louis XIV.

Stuck, Jean-Baptiste. Héraclite et Démocrite: Cantata for soprano, bass, two violins and bass continuo. Edited by Conrad Lee. Richmond, England: Green Man Press, 2005.

Conrad Lee has edited this fully modern edition of the cantata, adding a foreword, the libretto in original French and English translation, and resetting the notation in modern type. The edition includes a full score as well as two violin parts, a continuo part and two vocal parts (with figured bass below). In the full score, the figured bass of the original is still included below the keyboard line, but has been realized in notation.

Notes

References

External links

1680 births
1755 deaths
Italian classical cellists
French classical cellists
Italian Baroque composers
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
French classical composers
French male classical composers
18th-century classical composers
18th-century French composers
18th-century Italian male musicians

Jean-Baptiste Stuck


Mitchell Fields (1901 – 1966) was a Romanian-born American sculptor, known for his life-size sculptures, as well as for his portraits. Fields's works belong to the schools of Realism and Social Realism.

Early life
Mitchell Fields (né Mendel Feldman) was born on September 28, 1901, in Belcesti, a small village near Iaşi, Romania; he was the third of five sons of Marku Feldman and Tova Felderman.  In 1907 the family immigrated to the United States and made its home in East Harlem (Manhattan), then an immigrant neighborhood. The parents supported the family by selling vegetables in markets in Manhattan and the Bronx.

Education as an artist
Fields graduated from Stuyvesant High School, then as now a school whose pupils specialized in the sciences and engineering; early on he showed an interest in drawing and sculpture which was encouraged by his teachers. After a year at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken NJ he decided to pursue a career as a sculptor and enrolled at the National Academy of Design School of Fine Arts in New York and the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design in New York. The Beaux-Arts Institute aimed to train architects, sculptors and mural painters in accordance with the agenda of the French École des Beaux-Arts. Its student body consisted mainly of immigrants or first-generation Americans, many of whom came from a working-class background. Fields studied at Beaux-Arts from 1917 until 1927.

Career

On completing his studies Fields began to work as a sculptor; he created in clay and plaster, in marble, and when commissioned to do so, cast his works in bronze. Fields continued living in New York, where he belonged to an informal circle of predominantly Jewish artists whose work was for the most part representational:  Moses Soyer, Raphael Soyer, Ben Shahn, De Hirsh Margules, James Lechay, Myron Lechay, Joseph Kantor, Saul Berman, Tully Filmus, were among the painters; while after World War II the informal "circle" of which he was part included the sculptors Clara Bratt, Chaim Gross, Alexander Archipenko and Jacques Lipchitz.

During the early 1930s Fields was active in the John Reed Club, whose aim was to support leftist and Marxist artists and writers. On occasion Fields produced works with a political message: in 1935 he sculpted a monument to the civilians killed in the February 1934 Vienna Uprising, also known as the Austrian Civil War. The location of this statue is not known. There were, in any case, not many commissions to be had during the Great Depression. As did many artists at the time, Fields worked for the Federal Arts Project of the Work Projects Administration.

During the mid-1930s Fields divided his time between New York and Europe. The Guggenheim Foundation awarded him a fellowship in 1932 which enabled him to live and work in Paris for two years; subsequently, in 1935 a second Guggenheim Fellowship enabled him to reside and work in Moscow. Statues of his were placed in the Gorky Park of Culture and Leisure in Moscow, in the Museum of Modern Western Art in Moscow and in the Pushkin Museum in Moscow, now the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts. "Mother and Child with Oar", a life-size marble statue of a woman holding a baby in one arm and an oar with the other arm, was commissioned for Gorky Park; versions of the same theme by other sculptors were also placed in Gorky Park (Moscow). Attempts at locating this statue have not been successful; it was probably destroyed by German shelling during World War II. A plaster cast of the baby is still extant.

In 1938 Fields, his wife Beatrice (née Meyers) and their infant son Michael David returned to New York City. Fields continued creating sculpture until the entrance of the United States into World War II. Too old to be drafted into the army, he decided to "do his bit" for the war effort by working in a factory which engaged in war production; he operated a lathe on the production line until after the final Allied victory.

In the late 1940s, 1950s and 1960s Fields lived in New York and maintained a studio at 3 Gt. Jones St., New York. He was represented by the  statue Bather in the Philadelphia Museum of Art's 3rd Sculpture International exhibit in 1949. He created a larger-than-life-size portrait bust of the late Albert Einstein which was placed in the Museum of Immigration on Ellis Island.

From time to time Fields taught courses in sculpture at the Art Students League of New York schools in Manhattan and Woodstock, New York, at the National Academy of Design School of Fine Arts in New York, as well as at the University of Iowa (Iowa City).

Career in Israel
From the late 1950s until his death in 1966 Fields spent long periods of time in Israel, where he had a studio at 16 Da Modena St., Tel Aviv. During his stays in Israel he created portraits of personages for public spaces. These personages included Yehiel De-Nur (Ka-tzetnik), author; Yosef Sprinzak, first Speaker of the Knesset; Prof. Chaim Sheba, head of the Medical Corps of the Israel Defense Forces and later director of the Tel Hashomer Hospital and Medical Center, which now bears his name; Member of Knesset Avraham Hertzfeld, as well as works now in private collections.

During this period he created a portrait bust of the great Yiddish author Sholem Aleichem. This portrait is on exhibit in the Megiddo Regional Council Library. Fields also attempted a portrait bust of Anne Frank as she might have looked during the last months of her life in hiding with her family in Amsterdam, based upon available photographs from when she was younger. Fields sent photographs of the bust to Frank's father, Otto, who felt that the portrait did not represent his daughter as he remembered her during their last months together. His statue "Young Woman Holding Wounded Bird" is in the School of Nursing of the Sheba Medical Center at Tel Hashomer.

Fields was assisted by Robert Bannet, City Architect of Tel Aviv and head of the team of architects which planned Ramat Aviv. He had many friends among Israeli painters and sculptors; Agnes Adler and David Adler, sculptors who immigrated from Israel to the United States in 1961, are numbered among the latter. Fields made the acquaintance of Batya Lishanski, who was awarded the Dizengoff Prize for her sculpture, and of Marcel Janco, one of the founders of the Dada school of art. His friendships with Israeli painters and sculptors, as well as his observations of the vibrant artistic scene in late 1950s' Israel are described in the chapter which he composed for Assignment in Israel (1960).

Fields's work was to influence that of his eldest grandson, Reuven Fields Sadeh, a sculptor who worked mainly in metal. Although he was only five years old when his grandfather died, Sadeh, who lived and worked in Chapel Hill and Durham, North Carolina, grew up surrounded by Fields's sculpture. His own creations reflected the statuesque, essentially realistic character of his grandfather's work, as well as the latter's uncompromising excellence of craftsmanship.

Mitchell Fields died after a short illness on October 6, 1966. He is buried in Kibbutz Hazorea, Israel; his statue Naomi, which twice enabled him to receive a Guggenheim Fellowship, is exhibited at the entrance to the kibbutz's Wilfrid Israel Museum.

Themes and style

Fields's sculptural language was representational. Having been educated in the tradition of Realism, which subscribed to an ideology of objective reality and rejected what its practitioners saw as the exaggerated emotionalism of nineteenth-century Romanticism, he created life-size (and on occasion over-life-size) statues of the human body, both female and male. Fields depicted women as strong, capable figures, who were simultaneously feminine in a traditional sense. His portrait busts and bas reliefs were articulated in a non-abstract idiom.

As was the case with many American artists from immigrant families who came of age during the Great Depression, some of his works may be seen as part of the Social Realist movement, one of whose aims was to depict the working class as heroic. Yet he did not accept the tenets of Socialist Realism (for whose practitioners the purpose of art was to forward the international agenda of socialism or communism). Indeed, despite his left-wing political views, the large majority of his works do not bear a political message.

Even after World War II, when many American artists moved in the direction of Abstract Expressionism, Fields continued to create within the realist canon. During the early 1950s he began to work in ceramics, producing small tables and household items such as cups and vases. A short-lived attempt to sell the latter via a small business (Sculpture Products) did not succeed commercially. His ceramic art work, with its richly toned glazes and whimsical shapes, was his only attempt at adopting a semi-abstract idiom.

Exhibitions
 Birobidjan Museum, Russia
 Brooklyn Museum, (one-man show)
 Gorky Literary Museum, Moscow
 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
 Museum of Modern Art, New York
 Museum of Modern Western Art, Moscow, USSR, (one-man show)
 Gorky Park of Culture and Leisure, Moscow
 Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts
 Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow
 Whitney Museum, New York
 Wilfrid Israel Museum, Hazorea, Israel
 1939 New York World's Fair

Portrait busts–partial list

 Shalom Aleichem (author)
 Ofra Bannet
 Yehiel De-Nur"Ka-tzetnik" (author)
 Theodore Dreiser (author)
 Albert Einstein (scientist)
 Michael Fields
 Anne Frank (author)
 Avraham Hertzfeld (Member of Israel Knesset)
 Hall Johnson (composer), Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow, Russia
 Hank Lifson
 Nelly
 Romain Rolland (author)
 Yosef Sprinzak (Member and Speaker of Israel Knesset)
 Chaim Sheba (head of Medical Corps, Israel Defense Forces)
 Sonja Tykhayeva (athlete)

Life-size statues–partial list
 Angel
 At Rest
 Bather
 Beatrice
 Blossom
 Discus Thrower
 Fatigue
 Lesson of the Austrian Revolt (semi-life-size)
 Mother and Child – 2 versions
 Mother and Child with Oar
 Naomi
 Torso
 Young Woman Holding Wounded Bird

Prizes and fellowships
 1929 - Helen Foster Barnett prize, National Academy of Design
 1930 – Widener Gold Medal, Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (for Naomi)
 1932 – Guggenheim Fellowship
 1935 – Guggenheim Fellowship
 1945 – elected Associate Member, National Academy of Design
 1949 – Watrous gold medal, National Academy of Design
 1951 – Thomas R. Proctor Award, National Academy of Design (for Michael)
 1955 – Watrous gold medal, National Academy of Design
 1955 – Tiffany Foundation fellowship
 1956 – Tiffany Foundation fellowship
 1965 – Thomas R. Proctor Award, National Academy of Design

References
 Clark, Eliot. History of the National Academy of Design, 1825-1953. 1954
 Davenport, Ray. Ray Davenport's Art Reference:The Gold Edition. 2005
 Dunbier, Lonnie Pierson (Editor)The Artists Bluebook 34,000 North American Artists to March 2005. 2005
 Falk, Peter Hastings (Editor)Who Was Who in American Art. 1999
 Falk, Peter Hastings Annual Exhibition Record, National Academy of Design 1901-1950. 1990
 Falk, Peter Hastings (Editor) Annual Exhibition Record, 1914–68, Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. 1989
 The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, (Russian-language) vol. 45, p. 90.
 Lozowick, Louis. One Hundred Contemporary American Jewish Painters and Sculptors. 1947
 Mallett, Daniel Trowbridge. Index of Artists: International-Biographical. Two Volumes 1935
 Mandelbaum, Bernard (Editor). Assignment in Israel. 1960
 Opitz, Glenn B. (editor) Dictionary of American Sculptors: 18th Century to Present.  1984
 Opitz, Glenn. Dictionary of American Artists. 1982
 Who's Who in American Art-1966. 1966
 Who Was Who in America. Vol. IV 1961-1968. 1968

External links
photo gallery Mitchell Fields
Mitchell Fields at Ask Art
 Reuven Sadeh Fields
 Guggenheim profile
 Smithsonian Archives of American Art photo

1901 births
1966 deaths
American people of Romanian-Jewish descent
Realist artists
Social realism
Socialist realist artists
20th-century American sculptors
20th-century American male artists
American male sculptors
Romanian emigrants to the United States
Place of death missing
Romanian Jews
Romanian sculptors
Beaux-Arts Institute of Design (New York City) alumni
People from East Harlem

Mitchell Fields


Sir Antonio Pappano (born 30 December 1959) is an English-Italian conductor and pianist. He is currently music director of the Royal Opera House and of the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia.  He is scheduled to become chief conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra in 2024.

Early life
Pappano was born in Epping, Essex. Pappano's family had relocated to England from Castelfranco in Miscano near Benevento, Italy, in 1958, and at the time of his birth his parents worked in the restaurant business. His father, Pasquale Pappano, was by vocation a singing teacher.

When Pappano was 13 years old, he moved with his family to Connecticut. After musical training in piano, composition, and conducting, he became a rehearsal accompanist at the New York City Opera at the age of 21.

Career
Pappano attracted the attention of fellow pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim, and became his assistant at the Bayreuth Festival. He worked in Barcelona and Frankfurt, and served as an assistant to Michael Gielen.

Pappano's first conducting appearance at Den Norske Opera was in 1987, and he became music director there in 1990. From 1992 to 2002, Pappano served as music director of Royal Theatre of La Monnaie Brussels, Belgium.  He was principal guest conductor of the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra from 1997 to 1999.  In 2005, Pappano became music director of the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia.  He is scheduled to stand down from the Santa Cecilia post in 2023.

In 2002, Pappano was named the music director of the Royal Opera House (ROH), Covent Garden.  Pappano was the youngest conductor at the orchestra of the ROH, performing for the Royal Opera and Royal Ballet.  At Covent Garden, Pappano and Kasper Holten, the ROH Director of Opera, shared responsibility for production.  The ROH contract has renewed Pappano's contract several times, to 2017, and to 2023. BBC Radio broadcast in 2017 an hour-long documentary of Pappano's preparation of a new production of La Boheme at the Royal Opera House. In March 2021, the ROH announced the latest extension of Pappano's contract through the 2023–2024 season, and the scheduled conclusion of Pappano's tenure at the close of the 2023–2024 season.

Pappano had first guest-conducted the London Symphony Orchestra (LSO) in 1996.  He has returned as guest conductor to the LSO on over 70 occasions, and made several recordings with the LSO.  In March 2021, the LSO announced the appointment of Pappano as its next chief conductor, effective in September 2024.  He is scheduled to hold the title of chief conductor-designate in the orchestra's 2023–2024 London season. He returned to the Metropolitan Opera in 2021 to conduct Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg.

In 2023 he directed the orchestra at the coronation of Charles III and Camilla.

Awards and honours
Pappano's awards and honours include Gramophone's 'Artist of the Year' (2000), the 2003 Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement in Opera, the 2004 Royal Philharmonic Society Music Award, and the Académie du Disque Lyrique's Bruno Walter prize. On 17 January 2013 he received the Incorporated Society of Musicians' Distinguished Musician Award. He was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society in 2015.

Pappano was knighted in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to music.  In 2012, he was made a Cavaliere di Gran Croce of the Republic of Italy.

Personal life
Pappano is married to Pamela Bullock, an American vocal coach and they live in London.

Recordings
Pappano records regularly for Warner Classics. His recordings include:
 Harrison Birtwistle: The Minotaur
 Philippe Boesmans: Wintermärchen
 Jules Massenet: Manon, Werther
 Giacomo Puccini: Il Trittico, La Bohème, La Rondine, Tosca, Madama Butterfly
 Gioachino Rossini: Stabat Mater, William Tell
 Giuseppe Verdi: Don Carlo, Il Trovatore, Messa da Requiem, Aida
 Richard Wagner: Tristan und Isolde
 Hugo Wolf: Lieder, with tenor Ian Bostridge
 Antonín Dvořák: Symphony No. 9 & Cello Concerto
 Sergei Rachmaninoff: Symphony No.2
 Sergei Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto No. 1 & Piano Concerto No. 2, with Leif Ove Andsnes

Television
Pappano has presented for the BBC including:
 Pappano's Classical Voices, a four-part series exploring the great roles and the greatest singers of the last 100 years through the prism of the main classical voice types – soprano, tenor, mezzo-soprano, baritone and bass.
 Opera Italia (BBC, 2010) – a three-part series tracing the history of Italian opera. The first episode covers the beginnings of opera, from Monteverdi to Rossini, plus discussing Handel and Mozart who were pivotal in the development of the art form.  The second episode examines six of Verdi's most famous works – Nabucco, Rigoletto, Don Carlo, Otello, Falstaff and La Traviata. The third episode covers five of Puccini's most popular operas – La Boheme, Tosca, Madame Butterfly, Gianni Schicchi and Turandot.

References

Sources
Maeckelbergh, Lucrèce, Antonio Pappano: Con Passione. Snoeck, 2006. .

External links

 IMG Artists page on Antonio Pappano
 Warner Classics page on Antonio Pappano
 Bruce Duffie, Interview with Antonio Pappano, 8 December 1996

1959 births
Living people
British classical pianists
Male classical pianists
Répétiteurs
British male conductors (music)
Music directors (opera)
Italian British musicians
British harpsichordists
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music
Knights Bachelor
Conductors (music) awarded knighthoods
English people of Italian descent
Royal Opera House
Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists
21st-century British conductors (music)
21st-century classical pianists
21st-century British male musicians
20th-century British conductors (music)
20th-century British pianists
20th-century British male musicians
20th-century British musicians
Erato Records artists

Antonio Pappano


A husband is a man involved in a marital relationship, commonly referred to as a spouse. The specific rights, responsibilities, and societal status attributed to a husband can vary significantly across different cultures and historical periods, reflecting a global perspective on this role.

In many parts of the world, monogamous marriage is the prevailing norm, where a husband and wife form the basic unit of a family. Legal systems in numerous countries enforce monogamy and prohibit bigamy and polygamy. Traditionally, husbands often held the position of being the head of the household and the primary provider, a role that was often considered paternalistic. However, the evolving dynamics of modern society have led to a shift in these roles. Today, a husband is not automatically designated as the sole breadwinner, especially when his spouse pursues a more financially rewarding career. This change reflects a global trend in the changing dynamics of gender roles and family structures.

Moreover, the term "husband" continues to be applicable as long as a man remains married. However, it ceases to apply upon the legal dissolution of the marriage through divorce or upon the death of the spouse. Following the death of a spouse, the man is referred to as a widower, while after a divorce, he may be identified as the "ex-husband" of his former spouse. These terms and concepts are recognized worldwide, with cultural and legal variations shaping the specifics of husband-wife relationships on a global scale.

Origin and etymology

The term husband refers to Middle English , from Old English , from Old Norse  (, 'house' + , , present participle of , 'to dwell', so, etymologically, 'a householder').

Related terms
At the conclusion of a valid wedding, the marrying parties acquire the status of married persons and, while the marriage persists, a man is called a husband. In heterosexual marriages the woman is called a wife; in same-sex marriages between males, each male is called a husband.

Although husband is a close term to groom, the latter is a male participant in a wedding ceremony, while a husband is a married man after the wedding and for the duration of the marriage. The term husband refers to the institutionalized role of the married male, while the term father refers to the male in context of his offspring, a state which may or may not indicate that a marriage ceremony has taken place.

In some cases of heterosexual marriage, before the marriage, the forthcoming husband or his family may have received a dowry, or have had to pay a bride price, or both were exchanged. The dowry not only supported the establishment of a household, but also served as a condition that if the husband committed grave offenses upon his wife, he had to return the dowry to the wife or her family. At the time of the marriage, they were made inalienable by the husband.  He might leave his wife (or wives), then widow (or widows), a dower (often a third or a half of his estate) to support her as dowager.

As an external symbol of the fact that they are married, each spouse commonly wears a wedding ring on the ring finger; whether this is on the left or right hand depends on the country's tradition.

Husband further refers to the institutionalized form in relation to the spouse and offspring, unlike father, a term that puts a man into the context of his children. Also compare the similar husbandry, which in the 14th century referred to the care of the household, but today means the "control or judicious use of resources", conservation, and in agriculture, the cultivation of plants and animals, and the science about its profession.

Western culture

Historical status

In premodern heterosexual unions (ancient Roman, medieval, and early modern history), a husband was obliged to protect and support not only his wife and children, but servants and animals of his domain. The father (as the "patron") was awarded much authority, differing from that of his wife (in these cultures, no polygamy existed).

In the Middle Ages and Early Modern European history, it was unusual to marry out of love, but then doing so became an influential ideal. During this period, a husband in a heterosexual marriage had more opportunities in society than his wife, who was not recognized as legally independent.

Contemporary status
In contemporary secularized Western culture, the rights of spouses have been made equal. Civil marriage generally forces the wealthier spouse, the "breadwinner", to provide alimony to the former spouse, even after separation and also after a divorce (see also Law and divorce around the world).

The legal status of marriage allows each spouse to speak on the other's behalf when one is incapacitated (e.g., in a coma); a husband is also responsible for his spouse's child(ren) in states where he is automatically assumed to be the biological father.

Religion

Christianity

In Christianity, according to the Bible, a husband in a heterosexual marriage has a number of duties:
 To present his bride to God throughout their lives as perfectly holy and virtuous as can be.
 To protect his wife with his own life, physically, emotionally and "spiritually".
 To "lay down" his life, counting her more important than himself.
 To lead his wife and his family into the best things for them.
 To be the best that he can be in God's power.
 To not withhold his body from her.

Islam
In Islamic marital jurisprudence, husbands are considered protectors of the household and their wives. As protector, the husband has various rights and obligations that he is expected to fulfill and thus is offered opportunities different from that of his wife or wives, not only in legal and economical affairs of the family but within the family as well. As in most cases in Islam law and culture, everything is related to the Qur'an.

Many Muslims may agree on a perfectly equal relationship. Islam is the only major religion that puts a cap on polygamy, limiting the number of a man's wives to four—provided the husband can do justice to all of them. Although some religions, such as Catholicism for instance, puts a cap on polygamy altogether, or even serial monogamy, allowing one spouse until death does them apart, not even accepting divorce. According to the teachings of Islam, a Muslim man should have a valid reason and have to get permission from his existing wife (without any force) if he requires to marry again. Islam vehemently abhors any intimate relationship outside the bond of marriage.

There is no external sign to show his status as a husband unless he adopted the tradition of wearing a wedding ring.

Hinduism

A Hindu husband traditionally takes his wife to his home. He is expected to provide for her and to prove his abilities to do so. The marriage in Hinduism is a relationship for Seven births (). Before 1951 there was no divorce allowed in Hindu marriage.

In modern times once again after 1951, equal rights for women through society and law jurisdiction is given. In Hinduism, based on the different regions, marriage process is observed differently with the same Saat Pheras around agni kund (light pyre) to be taken to become a husband and wife.

The Encyclopædia Britannica mentions that "In Hindu law, the male members of a joint family, together with their wives, widows, and children, are entitled to support out of the joint property."

Buddhism and Chinese folk religions
China's family laws were changed by the Communist revolution; and in 1950, the People's Republic of China enacted a comprehensive marriage law including provisions giving the spouses equal rights with regard to ownership and management of marital property.

Other cultures
In Japan, before enactment of the Meiji Civil Code of 1898, all of the woman's property such as land or money passed to her husband except for personal clothing and a mirror stand.

Expectation of fidelity

Although there is generally an expectation for a spouse not to have sexual relations with anyone other than his spouse(s), historically, in most cultures, this expectation was not as strong as in the case of wives, a situation which was evident in legal codes which prohibited adultery, with male adultery often being criminalized only if "aggravating" circumstances existed, such as if he brought his mistress into the conjugal home, or if there was public scandal. The double standard was also evident in divorce laws of many countries, such as the UK or Australia, which differentiated between female adultery, which was a ground of adultery by itself, and male adultery, which was a ground only under certain circumstances. This double standard continues to be seen today in many parts of the world. For instance, in the Philippines, a wife can be charged with the crime of adultery (for merely having one act of sexual intercourse with a man other than her husband), while a husband can only be charged with the related crime of concubinage, which is more loosely defined (it requires either keeping the mistress in the family home, or cohabiting with her, or having sexual relations under scandalous circumstances).

A breach of this expectation of fidelity is commonly referred to as adultery or extramarital sex. Historically, adultery has been considered a serious offense, sometimes a crime. Even if that is not so, it may still have legal consequences, particularly a divorce. Adultery may be a factor to consider in a property settlement, it may affect the status of children, the custody of children, etc.

See also

 Cuckquean
 Cuckold
 Female husband
 Husband-selling
 Concubinage
 Hypergamy
 Polygyny
 Polyandry
 Polygamy in Christianity
 Wife

References

Further reading

 Husband appreciation day is celebrated on the third Saturday in April to remind everyone to take a little extra time each year to celebrate these wonderful men and everything they do as husbands.

Terms for men

Husband


A manual transmission (MT), also known as manual gearbox, standard transmission (in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States), or stick shift (in the United States), is a multi-speed motor vehicle transmission system, where gear changes require the driver to manually select the gears by operating a gear stick and clutch (which is usually a foot pedal for cars or a hand lever for motorcycles).

Early automobiles used sliding-mesh manual transmissions with up to three forward gear ratios. Since the 1950s, constant-mesh manual transmissions have become increasingly commonplace and the number of forward ratios has increased to 5-speed and 6-speed manual transmissions for current vehicles.

The alternative to a manual transmission is an automatic transmission; common types of automatic transmissions are the hydraulic automatic transmission (AT), and the continuously variable transmission (CVT), whereas the automated manual transmission (AMT) and dual-clutch transmission (DCT) are internally similar to a conventional manual transmission, but are shifted automatically.

Alternately, there are transmissions which facilitate automatic clutch operation, but the driver's input is still required to manually change gears; namely semi-automatic transmissions. These systems are based on the design of a conventional manual transmission, with a gear shifter, and are mechanically similar to a conventional manual transmission, with the driver's control and input still required for manually changing gears (like with a standard manual transmission), but the clutch system is completely automated, and the mechanical linkage for the clutch pedal is completely replaced by an actuator, servo, or solenoid and sensors, which operate the clutch system automatically, when the driver touches or moves the gearshift. This removes the need for a physical clutch pedal.

Overview
A manual transmission requires the driver to operate the gear stick and clutch in order to change gears (unlike an automatic transmission or semi-automatic transmission, where one (typically the clutch) or both of these functions are automated). Most manual transmissions for cars allow the driver to select any gear ratio at any time, for example shifting from second to fourth gear, or fifth to third gear. However, sequential manual transmissions, which are commonly used in motorcycles and racing cars, only allow the driver to select the next-higher or next-lower gear.

In a vehicle with a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engine's crankshaft, therefore rotating at engine speed. A clutch disc sits between the flywheel and the transmission pressure plate which is attached to the transmission input shaft, controlling whether the transmission is connected to the engine or not. The clutch pedal controls the pressure plate ('clutch engaged- the clutch pedal is not being pressed) or not connected to the engine (clutch disengaged- the clutch pedal is being pressed down). When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged (i.e., clutch pedal up), the flywheel spins the clutch pressure plate and hence the transmission.

The design of most manual transmissions for cars is that gear ratios are selected by locking selected gear pairs to the output shaft inside the transmission. This is a fundamental difference compared with a typical hydraulic automatic transmission, which uses an epicyclic (planetary) design, and a hydraulic torque converter. An automatic transmission that allows the driver to control the gear selection (such as shift paddles or "+/-" positions on the gear selector) is called a manumatic transmission, and is not considered a manual transmission. Some automatic transmissions are based on the mechanical build and internal design of a manual transmission but have added components (such as computer-controlled actuators and sensors) which automatically control the timing and speed of the gear shifts and clutch; this design is typically called an automated manual transmission (or sometimes a clutchless manual transmission).

Contemporary manual transmissions for cars typically use five or six forward gears ratios and one reverse gear, however, transmissions with between two and seven gears have been produced at times. Transmissions for trucks and other heavy equipment often have between eight and twenty-five gears, in order to keep the engine speed within the optimal power band for all typical road speeds. Operating such transmissions often uses the same pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gears.

 History
 1890s to 1940s

Many of the first automobiles were rear-engined, with a simple belt-drive functioning as a single-speed transmission. The 1891 Panhard et Levassor is considered a significant advance in automotive transmissions since it used a three-speed manual transmission. This transmission, along with many similar designs that it inspired, was a non-synchronous (also called sliding-mesh) design where gear changes involved sliding the gears along their shafts so that the desired cogs became meshed. The driver was therefore required to use careful timing and throttle manipulation when shifting, so the gears would be spinning at roughly the same speed when engaged; otherwise, the teeth would refuse to mesh. This was difficult to achieve, so gear changes were often accompanied by grinding or crunching sounds, resulting in the gearboxes being nicknamed "crash boxes". Even after passenger cars had switched to synchronous transmissions (i.e. with synchronizers), many transmissions for heavy trucks, motorcycles and racing cars remained non-synchronous, in order to withstand the forces required or provide a faster shift time.

 1950s to 1980s

The first car to use a manual transmission with synchromesh was the 1929 Cadillac, however most cars continued to use non-synchronous transmissions until at least the 1950s. In 1947, Porsche patented the split ring synchromesh system, which went on to become the most common design for passenger cars. The 1952 Porsche 356 was the first car to use a transmission with synchromesh on all forward gears. In the early 1950s, most cars only had synchromesh for the shift from third gear to second gear (drivers' manuals in vehicles suggested that if the driver needed to shift from second to first, it was best to come to a complete stop beforehand).

Up until the late 1970s, most transmissions had three or four forward gear ratios, although five-speed manual transmissions were occasionally used in sports cars such as the 1948 Ferrari 166 Inter and the 1953 Alfa Romeo 1900 Super Sprint. Five-speed transmissions became widespread during the 1980s, as did the use of synchromesh on all forward gears.

 1990s to present
Six-speed manual transmissions started to emerge in high-performance vehicles in the early 1990s, such as the 1990 BMW 850i and the 1992 Ferrari 456. The first 6-speed manual transmission was introduced in the 1967 Alfa Romeo 33 Stradale. The first 7-speed manual transmission was introduced in the 2012 Porsche 911 (991).

In 2008, 75.2% of vehicles produced in Western Europe were equipped with manual transmission, versus 16.1% with automatic and 8.7% with other.

Internals

Shafts
A manual transmission has several shafts with various gears and other components attached to them. Most modern passenger cars use 'constant-mesh' transmissions consisting of three shafts: an input shaft, a countershaft (also called a layshaft) and an output shaft.

The input shaft is connected to the engine and spins at engine speed whenever the clutch is engaged. The countershaft has gears of various sizes, which are permanently meshed with the corresponding gear on the input shaft. The gears on the output shaft are also permanently meshed with a corresponding gear on the countershaft, however, the output shaft gears are able to rotate independently of the output shaft itself (through the use of bearings located between the gears and the shaft). Through the use of collars (operated using the shift rods), the speed of the output shaft becomes temporarily locked to the speed of the selected gear. Some transmission designs—such as in the Volvo 850 and S70—have two countershafts, both driving an output pinion meshing with the front-wheel-drive transaxle's ring gear. This allows for a narrower transmission since the length of each countershaft is halved compared with one that contains four gears and two shifters.

The fixed and free gears can be mounted on either the input or output shaft or both. For example, a five-speed transmission might have the first-to-second selectors on the countershaft, but the third-to-fourth selector and the fifth selector on the main shaft. This means that when the vehicle is stopped and idling in neutral with the clutch engaged and the input shaft spinning, the third-, fourth-, and fifth-gear pairs do not rotate.

When neutral is selected, none of the gears on the output shaft are locked to the shaft, allowing the input and output shafts to rotate independently. For reverse gear, an idler gear is used to reverse the direction in which the output shaft rotates. In many transmissions, the input and output shafts can be directly locked together (bypassing the countershaft) to create a 1:1 gear ratio which is referred to as direct-drive.

In a transmission for longitudinal engined vehicles (e.g. most rear-wheel-drive cars), it is common for the input shaft and output shaft to be located on the same axis, since this reduces the torsional forces to which the transmission casing must withstand. The assembly consisting of both the input and output shafts is referred to as the main shaft (although sometimes this term refers to just the input shaft or output shaft). Independent rotation of the input and output shafts is made possible by one shaft being located inside the hollow bore of the other shaft, with a bearing located between the two shafts.

In a transmission for transverse engined vehicles (e.g., front-wheel-drive cars), there are usually only two shafts: input and countershaft (sometimes called input and output). The input shaft runs the whole length of the gearbox, and there is no separate input pinion. These transmissions also have an integral differential unit, which is connected via a pinion gear at the end of the counter/output shaft.

Dog clutch
In a modern constant-mesh manual transmission, the gear teeth are permanently in contact with each other, and dog clutches (sometimes called dog teeth) are used to select the gear ratio for the transmission. When the dog clutches for all gears are disengaged (i.e. when the transmission is in neutral), all of the gears are able to spin freely around the output shaft. When the driver selects a gear, the dog clutch for that gear is engaged (via the gear selector rods), locking the transmission's output shaft to a particular gear set. This means the output shaft rotates at the same speed as the selected gear, thus determining the gear ratio of the transmission.

The dog clutch is a sliding selector mechanism that sits around the output shaft. It has teeth to fit into the splines on the shaft, forcing that shaft to rotate at the same speed as the gear hub. However, the clutch can move back and forth on the shaft, to either engage or disengage the splines. This movement is controlled by a selector fork that is linked to the gear lever. The fork does not rotate, so it is attached to a collar bearing on the selector. The selector is typically symmetric: it slides between two gears and has a synchromesh and teeth on each side in order to lock either gear to the shaft. Unlike some other types of clutches (such as the foot-operated clutch of a manual-transmission car), a dog clutch provides non-slip coupling and is not suited to intentional slipping.

Synchromesh

In order to provide smooth gearshifts without requiring the driver to manually match the engine revs for each gearshift, most modern passenger car transmissions use 'synchromesh' (also called 'synchronizer rings') on the forward gears. These devices automatically match the speed of the input shaft with that of the gear being selected, thus removing the need for the driver to use techniques such as double-clutching. The synchromesh transmission was invented in 1919 by Earl Avery Thompson and first used on production cars by Cadillac in 1928.

The need for synchromesh in a constant-mesh transmission is that the dog clutches require the input shaft speed to match that of the gear being selected; otherwise, the dog teeth will fail to engage and a loud grinding sound will be heard as they clatter together. Therefore, to speed up or slow down the input shaft as required, cone-shaped brass synchronizer rings are attached to each gear. When the driver moves the gearshift lever towards the next gear, these synchronizer rings press on the cone-shaped sleeve on the dog collar so that the friction forces can reduce the difference in rotational speeds. Once these speeds are equalized, the dog clutch can engage, and thus the new gear is now in use. In a modern gearbox, the action of all of these components is so smooth and fast it is hardly noticed. Many transmissions do not include synchromesh on the reverse gear (see Reverse gear section below).

The synchromesh system must also prevent the collar from bridging the locking rings while the speeds are still being synchronized. This is achieved through 'blocker rings' (also called 'baulk rings'). The synchro ring rotates slightly because of the frictional torque from the cone clutch. In this position, the dog clutch is prevented from engaging. Once the speeds are synchronized, friction on the blocker ring is relieved and the blocker ring twists slightly, bringing into alignment certain grooves or notches that allow the dog clutch to fall into the engagement.

Common metals for synchronizer rings are brass and steel, and are produced either by forging or sheet metal shaping. The latter involves stamping the piece out of a sheet metal strip and then machining to obtain the exact shape required. The rings are sometimes coated with anti-wear linings (also called 'friction linings') made from molybdenum, iron, bronze or carbon (with the latter usually reserved for high-performance transmissions due to their high cost).

Mechanical wear of the synchronizer rings and sleeves can cause the synchromesh system to become ineffective over time. These rings and sleeves have to overcome the momentum of the entire input shaft and clutch disk during each gearshift (and also the momentum and power of the engine, if the driver attempts a gearshift without fully disengaging the clutch). Larger differences in speed between the input shaft and the gear require higher friction forces from the synchromesh components, potentially increasing their wear rate.

Reverse gear
Even in modern transmissions where all of the forward gears are in a constant-mesh configuration, often the reverse gear uses the older sliding-mesh ("crash box") configuration. This means that moving the gearshift lever into reverse results in gears moving to mesh together. Another unique aspect of the reverse gear is that it consists of two gears—an idler gear on the countershaft and another gear on the output shaft—and both of these are directly fixed to the shaft (i.e. they are always rotating at the same speed as the shaft). These gears are usually spur gears with straight-cut teeth which—unlike the helical teeth used for forward gear—results in a whining sound as the vehicle moves in reverse.

When reverse gear is selected, the idler gear is physically moved to mesh with the corresponding gears on the input and output shafts. To avoid grinding as the gears begin to the mesh, they need to be stationary. Since the input shaft is often still spinning due to momentum (even after the car has stopped), a mechanism is needed to stop the input shaft, such as using the synchronizer rings for fifth gear. However, some vehicles do employ a synchromesh system for the reverse gear, thus preventing possible crunching if reverse gear is selected while the input shaft is still spinning.

Most transmissions include a lockout mechanism to prevent reverse gear from being accidentally selected while the car is moving forwards. This can take the form of a collar underneath the gear knob which needs to be lifted or requiring extra force to push the gearshift lever into the plane of reverse gear.

 Non-synchronous transmission

Another design of transmission that is used in older cars, trucks, and tractors, is a non-synchronous transmission (also known as a crash gearbox). Non-synchronous transmissions use a sliding-mesh (or constant-mesh, in later years) design and have the nickname "crash" because the difficulty in changing gears can lead to gear shifts accompanied by crashing/crunching noises.

 Clutch

Vehicles with manual transmissions use a clutch to manage the linkage between the engine and the transmission, and decouple the transmission from the engine during gearshifts and when the vehicle is stationary. Without a clutch, the engine would stall any time the vehicle stopped, and changing gears would be difficult (deselecting a gear while the transmission requires the driver to adjust the throttle so that the transmission is not under load, and selecting a gear requires the engine RPM to be at the exact speed that matches the road speed for the gear being selected).

Most motor vehicles use a pedal to operate the clutch; except for motorcycles, which usually have a clutch lever on the left handlebar.

 Gear shift types

In most vehicles with a manual transmission, the driver selects gears by manipulating a lever called a gear stick (also called a gearshift, gear lever or shifter''). In most automobiles, the gear stick is located on the floor between the driver and front passenger, but some cars have a gear stick that is mounted to the steering column or center console.

The movement of the gear stick is transferred (via solid linkages or cables) to the selector forks within the transmission.

Motorcycles typically employ sequential manual transmissions, although the shift pattern is modified slightly for safety reasons. Gear selection is usually via the left-foot (or, on older motorcycles; right-foot) shift lever with a layout of

"Three on the tree" vs. "four on the floor"
During the period when U.S. vehicles usually had only three forward speeds, the most common gear-shifter location was on the steering column, a layout that was sometimes called "three on the tree". By contrast, high-performance cars, and European vehicles in general, mostly used a four-speed transmission with floor-mounted shifters. That layout was referred to as "four on the floor".

Most FR (front-engined, rear-wheel drive) vehicles have a transmission that sits between the driver and the front passenger seat. Floor-mounted shifters are often connected directly to the transmission. FF (front-engined, front-wheel drive) vehicles, RR (rear-engined, rear-wheel drive) vehicles and front-engined vehicles with rear-mounted gearboxes often require a mechanical linkage to connect the shifter to the transmission.

Column-mounted shifter

Some vehicles have a gear lever mounted on the steering column. A 3-speed column shifter, which came to be popularly known as a "three on the tree", began appearing in America in the late 1930s and became common during the 1940s and 1950s. If a U.S. vehicle was equipped with overdrive, it was very likely to be a Borg-Warner type, operated by briefly backing off the accelerator pedal when above  to enable, and momentarily flooring the same pedal to return to normal gear. The control simply disables overdrive for such situations as parking on a hill or preventing unwanted shifting into overdrive.

Later, European and Japanese models began to have 4-speed column shifters with this shift pattern:

A majority of American-spec vehicles sold in the U.S. and Canada had a 3-speed column-mounted shifter—the first generation Chevrolet/GMC vans of 1964–70 vintage had an ultra-rare 4-speed column shifter. The column-mounted manual shifter disappeared in North America by the mid-1980s, last appearing in the 1987 Chevrolet pickup truck. Prior to 1980, the GM X platform compacts (Chevrolet Nova and its rebadged corporate clones) were the final passenger cars to have a column-mounted manual shifter. Outside North America, the column-mounted shifter remained in production. All Toyota Crown and Nissan Cedric taxis in Hong Kong had the 4-speed column shift until 1999 when automatic transmissions were first offered. Since the late 1980s or early 1990s, a 5-speed column shifter has been offered in some vans sold in Asia and Europe, such as Toyota Hiace, Mitsubishi L400 and the first-gen Fiat Ducato.

Column shifters are mechanically similar to floor shifters, although shifting occurs in a vertical plane instead of a horizontal one. Because the shifter is further away from the transmission, and the movements at the shifter and at the transmission are in different planes, column shifters require more complicated linkage than floor shifters. Advantages of a column shifter are the ability to switch between the two most commonly used gears—second and third—without letting go of the steering wheel, and the lack of interference with passenger seating space in vehicles equipped with a bench seat.

Console-mounted shifter
Some smaller cars in the 1950s and 1960s, such as Citroën 2CV, Renault 4 and early Renault 5 feature a shifter in the dash panel. This was cheaper to manufacture than a column shifter and more practical, as the gearbox was mounted in front of the engine. The linkage for the shifter could then be positioned on top of the engine. The disadvantage is that shifting is less comfortable and usually slower to operate.

Newer small cars and MPVs, like the Suzuki MR Wagon, the Fiat Multipla, the Toyota Matrix, the Pontiac Vibe, the Chrysler RT platform cars, the Honda Element, the Honda Civic, the Daihatsu Sigra, and the Honda Avancier, may feature a manual or automatic transmission gear shifter located on the vehicle's instrument panel, similar to the mid-1950s Chryslers and Powerglide Corvairs. Console-mounted shifters are similar to floor-mounted gear shifters in that most of the ones used in modern vehicles operate on a horizontal plane and can be mounted to the vehicle's transmission in much the same way a floor-mounted shifter can. However, because of the location of the gear shifter in comparison to the locations of the column shifter and the floor shifter, as well as the positioning of the shifter to the rest of the controls on the panel often require that the gearshift be mounted in a space that does not feature a lot of controls integral to the vehicle's operation, or frequently used controls, such as those for the stereo system or HVAC system, to help prevent accidental activation or driver confusion, especially in right-hand drive vehicles.

More and more small cars and vans from manufacturers such as Suzuki, Honda, and Volkswagen are featuring console shifters in that they free up space on the floor for other features such as storage compartments without requiring that the gear shift be mounted on the steering column. Also, the basic location of the gear shift in comparison to the column shifter makes console shifters easier to operate than column shifters.

External overdrive

In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, fuel-efficient highway cruising with low engine speed was in some cases enabled on vehicles equipped with 3- or 4-speed transmissions by means of a separate overdrive unit in or behind the rear housing of the transmission. This was actuated either manually while in high gear by throwing a switch or pressing a button on the gearshift knob or on the steering column, or automatically by momentarily lifting the foot from the accelerator with the vehicle traveling above a certain road speed. Automatic overdrives were disengaged by flooring the accelerator, and a lockout control was provided to enable the driver to disable overdrive and operate the transmission as a normal (non-overdrive) transmission.

The term 'overdrive' is also used to describe a gear with a ratio of less than one (e.g., if the top gear of the transmission has a ratio of 0.8:1).

Push starting
Vehicles with a manual transmission can often be push started when the starter motor is not operational, such as when the car has a dead battery or when the starter motor itself has malfunctioned and is unable to deliver sufficient rotational energy to turn the engine over.

When push-starting, the energy generated by the wheels moving on the road is transferred to the driveshaft, then the transmission, and eventually the crankshaft. When the crankshaft spins as a result of the energy generated by the rolling of the vehicle, the motor is cranked over. This simulates what the starter is intended for and operates in a similar way to crank handles on very old cars from the early 20th century, with the cranking motion being replaced by the pushing of the car.

Driving techniques
Recently, many automatic transmissions have included more gear ratios than their manual counterparts.

In some countries, a driving license issued for vehicles with an automatic transmission is not valid for driving vehicles with a manual transmission, but a license for manual transmissions covers both.

Hill starts
Starting from a stationary position in a manual transmission vehicle requires extra torque to accelerate the vehicle up the hill, with the potential for the vehicle to roll backward in the time it takes to move the driver's foot from the brake pedal to the accelerator pedal (to increase the engine RPM before letting out the clutch). A traditional method of hill starts in a manual transmission car is to use the parking brake (also called "handbrake", "emergency brake", or "e-brake") to hold the vehicle stationary. This means that the driver's right foot is not needed to operate the brake pedal, freeing it up to be used on the accelerator pedal instead. Once the required engine RPM is obtained, the driver can release the clutch, also releasing the parking brake as the clutch engages.

A device called the hill-holder was introduced on the 1936 Studebaker. Many modern vehicles use an electronically actuated parking brake, which often includes a hill-holder feature whereby the parking brake is automatically released as the driven wheels start to receive power from the engine.

In many light-duty vehicles, skilled drivers can slip the clutch just barely enough to hold the vehicle from much rollback during the second while the right foot is moving from the brake pedal to the accelerator pedal; this method effectively solves the hill-holding problem without any parking brake use and with negligible clutch life reduction, although it requires some skill.

Other driving techniques
 Rev-matching is where the driver uses the throttle to match the revs to the road speed so that gear changes are not jerky. This is commonly used by drivers with non-synchromesh gearboxes, or those driving racing vehicles
 Double-clutching is required on non-synchro gearboxes. To double-clutch while downshifting: depress the clutch pedal and move the gear lever to neutral, release the clutch pedal, "blip" the throttle to speed up the layshaft to increase the rotational speed of the lower gear, depress the clutch pedal again, move the gear lever to the lower gear, then release the clutch pedal.
 Heel-and-toe shifting is where the driver uses one foot to modulate the brake and accelerator pedal simultaneously to allow for rev matching under braking.
 Rowing, block shifting or skip shifting is the technique of downshifting more than one gear in order to reduce wear and tear on the gearbox. Rev-matching may need to be used to create a smooth shift. Combining this with Heel-and Toe downshifting provides for maximum braking when going from top gear to a much lower gear, and optimal engine RPM for exiting the corner.

Synchronized downshift rev-matching system
The synchronized down shift rev-matching system is a computer-controlled technology that mimics the manual rev-matching technique.

Truck transmissions

Some trucks have transmissions that look and behave like ordinary consumer vehicle transmissions—these transmissions are used on lighter trucks, typically have up to 6 gears, and usually have synchromesh.

For trucks needing more gears, the standard "H" pattern can be complicated for some truck drivers, so additional controls are used to select additional gears. The "H" pattern is retained, then an additional control selects among alternatives. In older trucks, the control is often a separate lever mounted on the floor or more recently a pneumatic switch mounted on the "H" lever; in newer trucks, the control is often an electrical switch mounted on the "H" lever. Multi-control transmissions are built in much higher power ratings but rarely use synchromesh.

There are several common alternatives for the shifting pattern. The standard types are:

Range transmissions use an "H" pattern through a narrow range of gears, then a "range" control shifts the "H" pattern between high and low ranges. For example, an 8-speed range transmission has an H shift pattern with four gears. The first through fourth gears are accessed when a low range is selected. To access the fifth through eighth gears, the range selector is moved to high range, and the gear lever again shifted through the first through fourth gear positions. In high range, the first gear position becomes fifth, the second gear position becomes sixth, and so on.
Splitter transmissions use an "H" pattern with a wide range of gears, and the other selector splits each sequential gear position in two: First gear is in the first position/low split, second gear is in the first position/high split, third gear is in second position/low split, fourth gear is in second position/high split, and so on.
Range-splitter transmissions combine range-splitting and gear-splitting. This allows even more gear ratios. Both a range selector and a splitter selector are provided.

Although there are many gear positions, shifting through gears usually follows a regular pattern. For example, a series of up shifts might use "move to splitter direct; move to splitter overdrive; move the shift lever to No. 2 and move splitter to underdrive; move splitter to direct; move splitter to overdrive; move the shifter to No. 3 and move splitter to underdrive"; and so on. In older trucks using floor-mounted levers, a bigger problem is common gear shifts require the drivers to move their hands between shift levers in a single shift, and without synchromesh, shifts must be carefully timed or the transmission will not engage. For this reason, some splitter transmissions have an additional "under under" range, so when the splitter is already in "under" it can be quickly downshifted again, without the delay of a double shift.

Modern truck transmissions are most commonly "range-splitter". The most common 13-speed has a standard H pattern, and the pattern from the left upper corner is as follows: R, down to L, over and up to 1, down to 2, up and over to 3, down to 4. The "butterfly" range lever in the center front of the knob is flipped up to high range while in 4th, then shifted back to 1. The 1 through 4 positions of the knob is repeated. Also, each can be split using the thumb-actuated under-overdrive lever on the left side of the knob while in high range. The "thumb" lever is not available in low range, except in 18 speeds; 1 through 4 in the low range can be split using the thumb lever and L can be split with the "Butterfly" lever. L cannot be split using the thumb lever in either the 13- or 18-speed. The 9-speed transmission is like a 13-speed without the under-overdrive thumb lever.

Truck transmissions use many physical layouts. For example, the output of an N-speed transmission may drive an M-speed secondary transmission, giving a total of N*M gear combinations. Transmissions may be in separate cases with a shaft in between; in separate cases bolted together; or all in one case, using the same lubricating oil. The second transmission is often called a "Brownie" or "Brownie box" after a popular brand. With a third transmission, gears are multiplied yet again, giving greater range or closer spacing. Some trucks thus have dozens of gear positions, although most are duplicates. Sometimes a secondary transmission is integrated with the differential in the rear axle, called a "two-speed rear end". Two-speed differentials are always splitters. In newer transmissions, there may be two counter shafts, so each main shaft gear can be driven from one or the other countershaft; this allows construction with short and robust countershafts, while still allowing many gear combinations inside a single gear case.

Heavy-duty transmissions are mostly non-synchromesh. Sometimes synchromesh adds weight that could be payload, and is one more thing to fail, and drivers spend thousands of hours driving so can take the time to learn to drive efficiently with a non-synchromesh transmission. Float shifting (also called "floating gears") is changing gears without disengaging the clutch, usually on a non-synchronized transmission used by large trucks. Since the clutch is not used, it is easy to mismatch speeds of gears, and the driver can quickly cause major (and expensive) damage to the gears and the transmission.

Heavy trucks are usually powered with diesel engines. Diesel truck engines from the 1970s and earlier tend to have a narrow power band, so they need many close-spaced gears. Starting with the 1968 Maxidyne, diesel truck engines have increasingly used turbochargers and electronic controls that widen the power band, allowing fewer and fewer gear ratios. As of 2021, fleet operators often use 9, 10, 13, or 18-speed transmissions, but automated manual transmissions are becoming more common on heavy vehicles, as they can improve efficiency and drivability, reduce the barrier to entry for new drivers, and may improve safety by allowing the driver to concentrate on road conditions.

Lubrication

Manual transmissions are lubricated with gear oil (or engine oil in some vehicles) which must be changed periodically in some vehicles, although not as frequently as the fluid in an automatic transmission. Gear oil has a characteristic aroma because it contains added sulfur-bearing anti-wear compounds. These compounds are used to reduce the high sliding friction by the helical gear cut of the teeth (this cut eliminates the characteristic whine of straight-cut spur gears). On motorcycles with "wet" clutches (clutch is bathed in engine oil), there is usually nothing separating the lower part of the engine from the transmission, so the same oil lubricates both the engine and transmission.

See also

Automatic transmission
Diesel–electric transmission
Freewheel
Gear train
Non-synchronous transmission
Overdrive (mechanics)
Preselector gearbox
Torque converter
Transmission (mechanics)

References

External links

 As Stick Shifts Fade Into Obscurity, Collectors See Opportunity 24 June 2021 New York Times article by Rob Sass

Automotive transmission technologies
Automobile transmissions

Manual transmission


The Kineo Cottage Row Historic District encompasses a collection of seven summer resort cottages on the Mount Kineo peninsula, which juts into Moosehead Lake in central Maine.  The cottages were built between 1900 and 1912 as part of the Mount Kineo resort complex, one of interior Maine's most successful summer resorts of the early 20th century, and are its only major surviving component.  The cottages were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.

Setting and history
Moosehead Lake is the largest lake in New England, stretching north for  from Greenville, Maine.  About halfway up the lake stands Mount Kineo, which stands on a peninsula jutting west into the lake and rises  above it.  A flat neck of land extends southward from the mountain, on which the Mount Kineo Resort was developed beginning in the 1880s.  The resort included a large hotel (which burned down in the 1930s) built in 1884, a golf course, and the nearby Breakwater sporting lodge.  In 1901 the resort management embarked on a campaign to build new "cottages" for lease to wealthy clients, hiring the architectural firm of Coombs and Gibbs for the purpose.  The cottages were part of the resort's heyday years between 1910 and the 1930s, and of a revival period between 1947 and 1970.  They were part of efforts later in the 20th century to restart the resort on a smaller scale.  The seven cottages were sold entirely into private hands as part of a condominium association in 1989.

The cottages are situated in a row on the western shore of the peninsula.  They all share architectural characteristics with each other, and with the main hotel building.  Predominantly Shingle style in design, these buildings included corner towers typical of the Queen Anne style, hanging bay windows over concave shingled bases, and leaded glass windows.  All have expansive verandas, and have a main entrance facing south, toward where the hotel stood.  Most of the cottages share basic floor plan and layout with at least one other in the group, to the point where the Birch Cottage is a near duplicate of Fir Cottage.  They are described below in order, from north to south, using names given to them in 1970, when the cottage property was subdivided from the rest of the resort.

Fir Cottage
Fir Cottage was built in 1901, and its design is unambiguously attributable to Coombs and Gibbs.  Because of its position at the far north of the row on a sloping lot, it stands higher than the other cottages.

Elm Cottage
Elm Cottage was built in 1905 and altered in 1912.  Originally L-shaped in plan, its tower was added in 1912, and the crook of the L was enclosed.  Unlike most of the other cottages, it is predominantly finished in clapboards instead of shingles.

Dogwood Cottage
Dogwood Cottage, built sometime between 1901 and 1904, is essentially Dutch Colonial Revival in design, with a shingled exterior and Shingle style details.  It has an engaged porch (giving the second floor more square footage), with turned posts and balusters in the Queen Anne style.

Cedar Cottage
Cedar Cottage is similar in its exterior styling to Dogwood, as a Dutch Colonial with Shingle features, with an interior layout that is nearly identical to that of Fir Cottage.  It may have been designed by Coombs and Gibbs, or merely been an built on altered plans.

Oak Lodge
Oak Lodge, built in 1912 on the site of a former sporting clubhouse, was the last of the seven to be built, and is the only one designed as a duplex.  Built at the same that an annex was built onto the main hotel, it has a distinct Craftsman flavor to its design, with ribbon windows and exposed rafter tails.  The building's two units are mirror images, and have been at times combined into a single unit.

Birch Cottage
Built between 1905 and 1907, this building is a near replica of Fir Cottage, differing only in some details on the tower.  Its interior has been altered to expose the interior truss system from which its second floor is suspended, enabling it to have a large living room without posts.

Alpen Cottage
Alpen Cottage was built in 1904, and may also be a Coombs and Gibbs design.  It has a gambrel roof, and its porch is partially exterior and partially engaged, with Tuscan columns supporting the overhanging second story on that portion.

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in Piscataquis County, Maine

References

Queen Anne architecture in Maine
Shingle Style architecture in Maine
Buildings and structures completed in 1912
Buildings and structures in Piscataquis County, Maine
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
1912 establishments in Maine
National Register of Historic Places in Piscataquis County, Maine

Kineo Cottage Row Historic District


Bone Thugs-N-Harmony (formerly known as B.O.N.E. Enterprises) is an American hip hop group. Its members are Bizzy Bone, Wish Bone, Layzie Bone, Krayzie Bone, and Flesh-n-Bone. The group was signed to Ruthless Records in late 1993, when they debuted with their EP Creepin on ah Come Up. The EP included their breakout hit single "Thuggish Ruggish Bone". Their hit song "Tha Crossroads", won a Grammy Award in 1997. It was a tribute to Eazy-E.

The group is considered as one of the greatest hip hop groups of all time. Bone Thugs-n-Harmony is the only group that has worked with Tupac Shakur, the Notorious B.I.G., Eazy-E, and Big Pun while they were all still alive. About.com ranked them number 12 on its list of the 25 Best Rap Groups of All Time. MTV called them "the most melodic hip-hop group of all time."

Discography

Studio albums
Faces of Death (1993)
E. 1999 Eternal (1995)
The Art of War (1997)
BTNHResurrection (2000)
Thug World Order (2002)
Thug Stories (2006)
Strength & Loyalty (2007)
Uni5: The World's Enemy (2010)
The Art of War: World War III (2013)
New Waves (2017)

Extended plays
Creepin on ah Come Up (1994)
Bone 4 Life (2005)

References

Musical groups from Ohio

Bone Thugs-n-Harmony


Atlus West, formerly known as Atlus U.S.A., Inc., is the North American publishing branch of Japanese video game company Atlus, primarily known for localizing games for both them and other third-party developers. Its first original role-playing game was Revelations: Persona on the PlayStation, described by staff as an attempt to break into the Western role-playing game market and establish the company's Megami Tensei franchise through its Persona sub-series.

The company was founded in 1991 as a North American publishing branch for Atlus to break into the role-playing video game market at the time. In November 2013, Atlus USA was restructured to be governed under Sega of America after Sega Sammy acquired their parent company through Index Corporation. Despite the publishing divisions merging, Sega and Atlus continued to operate as separate entities, with all existing Atlus franchises remaining under their pre-established Atlus brand.

Atlus West is notable in its localization approach in preserving as much of the original material as possible, including any cultural references. Outside of being the American publishing subsidiary for the Japanese parent developer, Atlus West acts as an English localizer and publisher for Japanese games, similarly to Aksys Games, NIS America, and Xseed Games. In addition to their own properties, Atlus West's localization and publishing efforts has introduced several notable third-party games to the West including Demon's Souls and the Ogre Battle and Guilty Gear series.

History

Origins and name

Atlus Co., Ltd, a Japanese game developer founded in 1986, had been publishing its own games in its native country since the release of Puzzle Boy in 1989. Its North American branch was first established in Irvine, California on January 18, 1991, under the name Atlus Software, but traces its origins as Asuka Technologies founded on February 27, 1989. The branch was eventually succeeded by Atlus USA on April 1, 1999, becoming a separate subsidiary to Atlus. At the time of its inauguration in 1999, Atlus USA was owned at 85.7% by the Japanese parent company, with the remaining stock being shared among four employees. Atlus USA was formed because Atlus wanted to establish a local company in the United States. In 2010, Atlus' then-owner Index Corporation renamed Atlus USA to Index Digital Media and dissolved its Japanese parent company. The Atlus brand was preserved for Index's video games. In 2014, one year after Index Corporation was purchased by Sega, Index Digital Media reverted to being Atlus USA. Between 2019 and 2020, Atlus USA changed its public brand name to Atlus West.

Notable staff
The current president is Naoto Hiraoka (who is also the Senior Vice President for Sega of America publishing). One of the previous public relations managers was John Hardin, while one of the original staff members was market manager Gail Salamanca. Several personnel have had recurring roles during the history of Atlus USA from their work on both Atlus products and third-party games. A major contributor is Yu Namba, general localization project leader. Namba joined Atlus USA following the release of Revelations: Persona in 1996, and his first work was for Persona 2: Eternal Punishment. He would later work on the later Persona games, and multiple Megami Tensei games including Shin Megami Tensei: Nocturne and the Digital Devil Saga duology. Another key member for some time was Nich Maragos: formerly a journalist working at 1UP.com, he joined Atlus USA's localization team in 2006 where his first projects were the third Devil Summoner game Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army and Persona 3 FES. He worked on the greater majority of games localized during the following nine years before moving to work for Nintendo Treehouse prior to 2016. Other prominent staff include Bill Alexander, a vice president of Atlus USA who was project leader on Odin Sphere; Tomm Hulett, who worked on the Digital Devil Saga duology, Stella Deus: The Gate of Eternity, and was project leader for Trauma Center: Under the Knife; and Mike Meeker, who acted as editor for both Persona 4 and Odin Sphere.

Localization approach
The branch's stated aim was to publish high-quality Japanese games in North America. While Atlus had become famous in Japan for the Megami Tensei role-playing franchise, the series was deemed too dark to be released overseas despite a recognized market: a major part of this was their use of religious imagery and taboo, which ran counter to potential publishers' content guidelines for overseas releases. It was eventually decided to bring over entries from the franchise to help establish Atlus in the West, as they did not have a role-playing series to compete with other major series such as Final Fantasy, Suikoden and Breath of Fire.

When Atlus USA first localized Revelations: Persona, the first role-playing game localized by the team, was handled by a small staff of six full-time employees, meaning that localizing the game was a huge task. The staff was later expanded, although they would be affected by staff and resource limitations for other early projects. Since the release of Persona 2: Eternal Punishment in 1999, Atlus has adopted a policy of keeping their localizations as close as possible to the original Japanese versions, a tradition they have followed to the present day. The first mainline game to be released in the West was Shin Megami Tensei: Nocturne in 2004. It was decided based upon the success of mature Western games such as the Grand Theft Auto series. As per their resolution, they kept it as close as possible to the original, consulting the Japanese guides and game source code so they would not make mistakes with demon names.

Following the release of Shin Megami Tensei: Nocturne, the "Shin Megami Tensei" moniker was attached to games released in the West across the core games and its various subseries. This was done to help with marketing, and worked in their favor due to all their selected games being part of the wider Megami Tensei series. For some games, such as entries in the Persona series, the moniker has been dropped. A notable exception from Atlus' localization history is the massively multiplayer online role-playing game Shin Megami Tensei: Imagine, which was localized by Aeria Games, who consulted with Atlus to make sure their work was faithful to the series.

The first stage of Atlus' localization process is familiarization with the game. The time the developers can access the game varies, with this stage beginning after completion of the master version for in-house products and after release for third-party games. The project leader receives all text files and relevant graphic assets while the translators play the game itself in its unlocalized form. This approach is vital as, from the main scenario to potential side quests or other smaller narrative elements, it was important to know context and point-of-view so they could be accurately localized. The localization process begins after this, taking varying lengths of time depending on the project: some took a very short time, while others required several months work. If there is voiced dialogue, the English voice recording can further extend the process. The programming stage, where the localized assets are inserted into the game, is given to the original developers as Atlus USA have no in-house programmers. After this comes the quality assurance (QA) testing, necessary to find and correct any bugs or text typos that occurred during the programming stage. Finally the game is sent for manufacturer approval, before moving to manufacturing. Further programming and QA work may be needed if the manufacturer is unsatisfied, and the manufacturing process can take varying amounts of time based on the game's medium. Their QA process was reassessed following the release of Shin Megami Tensei IV: Apocalypse in 2016, which had unlocalized text which appeared under certain circumstances. For games developed by other companies, Atlus USA also makes inquiries about the game's availability for licensing, then purchase an import copy, and if they are impressed make a pitch to the game's developers.

The Digital Devil Saga duology was the first Megami Tensei product to make extensive use of voice acting. As the Japanese version used famous Japanese actors, the localization team picked well-known English voice actors for the lead roles, and took extra care lip-synching the English dialogue. For voice acting, the team tried to choose actors who could properly and accurately portray the characters, and sometimes made additions to better distinguish the characters in a way understandable to a Western audience. A cited example was the Digital Devil Saga duology, where character Cielo was given a Jamaican accent to help portray his easy-going and friendly personality. Atlus USA tries to keep voice actors consistent between games which use the same cast of characters, but when a voice actor is unavailable, they will recast with an actor who sounds as close as possible to the original so there is minimal disruption to continuity.

Changes
Despite their dominant policy of keeping games intact when translating from Japanese to English, some concessions have needed to be made with releases. When discussing the differences between localizing Shin Megami Tensei IV and the mobile port of the original Shin Megami Tensei, Nich Maragos said that while Shin Megami Tensei IV had a dialogue-driven story, Shin Megami Tensei used briefer and more to-the-point dialogue, in addition to having a strict character limit for dialogue boxes, making the latter a more challenging project. Shin Megami Tensei: Strange Journey was the first game to be developed with a Western audience in mind, which changed how the team were required to approach the localization. For the third Devil Summoner, the localization team added 1920s slang  to the script so its setting in a fictionalized version of the Taishō period would sound authentic. They also removed a mahjong minigame as there was no tutorial for players unfamiliar with the game, and its rewards for playing were meager.

The most information about the difficulties of localization have been for the Persona series. Revelations: Persona, the first role-playing game localized by the team, was handled by a small staff of six full-time employees, meaning that localizing the game was a huge task. They were also faced with the problem of the numerous Japanese cultural references the game contained. Nearly all references to Japanese culture were removed, with the setting changing from Japan to North America. This meant that the names and ethnicity of all character were altered, with the most notable being the character Masao Inaba being turned from a Japanese to an African American boy named Mark. Revelations: Persona has become notorious for the number of changes made to the game's content for its Western release. Atlus USA's next original game, Persona 2: Eternal Punishment, was described as a "halfway point" in their localization style: while they kept as faithful as possible to the original script, they needed to take the alterations to Revelations: Persona into account for character names. The first Persona game was later remade, and this allowed the staff to completely redo the localization, changing everything to be more faithful to the original with the exception of a few fan favorites.

For Persona 3 and Persona 4, Japanese honorifics were retained despite it being a contentious decision among fans. Humor that was focused on a knowledge of Japanese culture also needed to be either changed completely, or adjusted so that it would be understandable. In Persona 3, references to the first Shin Megami Tensei were changed to those of the first two localized Persona games. Some issues with language have caused changes to be made: Persona 3 character Mitsuru Kirijo's second language was changed from English to French, and class questions based around language needed to be entirely redone. Some character names were altered, such as the stagename of Persona 4 character Rise Kujikawa. For Persona 4 Golden, an expanded remake of Persona 4, the main trouble was finding a suitable voice actress for new character Marie. For Persona Q: Shadow of the Labyrinth, this approach was taken, and added dialogue was inserted to explain aspects of the game's fourth dungeon, which was themed around a Japanese culture festival.

For games outside the Megami Tensei franchises, changes have been less prominent due to many of their games taking place in fictional universes without references to popular culture. The script for Odin Sphere was inspired by the work of William Shakespeare, but the team were faced with difficulties with the auto-scrolling dialogue and text bubbles. When recording, the voice actors needed to time their performances to the scrolling dialogue, and the text bubbles needed to be individually resized while also keeping the English translation as close and concise as possible. 3D Dot Game Heroes required little to no changes, as its original script was already replete with Easter eggs and references to the classic video games it was giving homage to. Stella Deus also underwent minimal alterations, including preserving the story's religious themes.

Publishing

During its early lifetime, before it had fully established itself, Atlus USA was a third-party publisher for Sony, Nintendo and Sega for their respective home console systems. Their first Megami Tensei release was the action spin-off Jack Bros.; their first role-playing release was Revelations: Persona for the PlayStation. The next original game to be released by Atlus USA was Persona 2: Eternal Punishment: its prequel Innocent Sin was considered, but workload and content issues meant that it remained exclusive to Japan. Despite fan demand, the greater majority of Atlus' early games remain exclusive to Japan due to their age and the company wishing to focus on their latest games.

In addition to their own franchises such as Megami Tensei and Trauma Center, the company notably localised several third-party series and individual games. These include Ogre Battle from Quest Corporation, Baroque from Sting Entertainment, the original Guilty Gear by Arc System Works, and Demon's Souls by FromSoftware. Despite their wide reputation for publishing role-playing games, they have also branched out into other genres with games such as Galleon. Two games that the company localized but did not publish were Disgaea: Hour of Darkness and Phantom Brave: while they handled localization and sales distribution, the game's original Japanese developers and publishers Nippon Ichi Software handled Western publicity and publishing. The reverse has also been done; Lunacy, for example, was translated and localized by Sega of America, but licensed to Atlus USA for publication and marketing in North America. A different notable third-party game was Citizens of Earth, an independent game developed by Eden Industries that was picked up by Atlus following difficulties securing funding for the game. A similar event was when Atlus picked up Demon's Souls for publication after the game was rejected for Western publication by Sony Computer Entertainment. A recurring partner is Vanillaware: their first game, Odin Sphere, was published in 2007. Atlus later picked up the publishing rights to Dragon's Crown after original publisher UTV Ignition Entertainment ran into financial trouble. As part of their agreement to publish Dragon's Crown, Atlus had right of first refusal for Vanillaware's next game, and they ended up publishing the company's sci-fi game 13 Sentinels: Aegis Rim.

Before 2017, Atlus did not have a European branch, meaning that their games were released through third-party publishers, which has in turn traditionally resulted in delays of at least several months between the European and North American releases. The first Atlus game to be published in Europe was Shin Megami Tensei: Nocturne followed by the Digital Devil Saga duology. These games were published by Ghostlight, who would go on to publish other games including Devil Survivor and its sequel. Other later publishing partners include Koei (Devil Summoner: Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army, Persona 3); Square Enix (Odin Sphere, Persona 4); 505 Games (Stella Deus); NIS America (Persona 4 Golden, Persona Q, Odin Sphere Leifthrasir); Deep Silver (Persona 5, Shin Megami Tensei IV: Apocalypse); and Namco Bandai Games (Demon's Souls). Despite lacking a European branch for some time, Atlus has published games digitally in Europe, including the remake of the first Persona, Persona 4 Arena and Aquria-developed game The Caligula Effect. A European branch was finally opened within Sega of Europe's offices in 2017, allowing them to release special editions of their properties directly in Europe.

Third-party games published

References

External links

American companies established in 1991
Video game companies of the United States
Video game companies established in 1991
Video game publishers
Sega Sammy Holdings
American subsidiaries of foreign companies
Companies based in Irvine, California
1991 establishments in California

Atlus USA


Thomas Boyd Mason (January 12, 1919 – March 9, 2007) was an American United States Attorney  for the Western District of Virginia (1961–1969), and an actor.

Biography
Mason was appointed United States Attorney for the Western District of Virginia by John F. Kennedy in 1961.  Prior to this appointment, Mason and Kennedy had served together in the South Pacific as naval officers during World War II, and Mason was subsequently a district campaign coordinator for Kennedy's presidential bid.
Mason served as U.S. Attorney for two terms, until 1969. The current U.S. attorney's offices in Roanoke are named for Mason.

After his second term, he took a job at Norfolk and Western Railway working as a liaison to the General Assembly. He retired in 1983.

Achievements
Mason graduated from the University of Virginia School of Law in 1941. He worked as a general practice lawyer in Lynchburg for 10 years. From 1956 to 1961 he worked for the People's National Bank and Trust Company in Lynchburg as both trust officer and later, as vice president.

Aside from his successes in law and politics, Mason is also well known for his talents on stage. Mason began acting while a freshman at Hampden-Sydney College. In 1971, he began acting again with Hollins College Theatre, Showtimers and Mill Mountain Theatre. He was especially known for his stage portrayals of Elwood P. Dowd in Harvey, and Norman Thayer in On Golden Pond.

Mason appeared in four feature films: Crimes of the Heart, In a Shallow Grave, Mississippi Burning and Gods and Generals. He also appeared in made-for-television movies.

Friends credited Mason's charisma, sharp wit, love of life and genuine interest in people that propelled him to success. "Tom was a citizen of the world," said former state Del. Clifton Woodrum III, who knew Mason from his time as federal prosecutor. "Anything that involved people, he would excel at. … The worst mood I ever saw him in was cheerful."

References

External links

External links

1919 births
2007 deaths
American male film actors
Lawyers from Roanoke, Virginia
Male actors from Virginia
United States Attorneys for the Western District of Virginia
University of Virginia School of Law alumni
Hampden–Sydney College alumni
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American lawyers
United States Navy personnel of World War II

Thomas B. Mason


The Anointed or The Anointed One may refer to:

 The Messiah, the savior and liberator in Abrahamic religions
 The Christ (title), the Messiah in Christianity
 A person prophesied in Daniel 9:25 who will come (or appear, or be known publicly) after 490 (Sixty-nine Sevens) years from a word (or command) to restore and rebuild Jerusalem
 Isa, or Jesus, in Islamic theology
 The 'anointed', a group of Christians according to the belief of Jehovah's Witnesses
 Anointed One (Buffy the Vampire Slayer), a character from the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer
 "The Anointed One" (song), a song by Ted Leo and the Pharmacists
 The Anointed, a novel by Clyde Brion Davis
 The Anointed One: An Inside Look At Nevada Politics, a book by about politics in Nevada, US, by Jon Ralston

See also
 Anointing, a ritual process also known as Unction
 Anointed Quorum

The Anointed One