Forced conversion is the adoption of a different religion or the adoption of irreligion under duress. Someone who has been forced to convert to a different religion or irreligion may continue, covertly, to adhere to the beliefs and practices which were originally held, while outwardly behaving as a convert. Crypto-Jews, Crypto-Christians, Crypto-Muslims and Crypto-Pagans are historical examples of the latter.

Religion and power
In general, anthropologists have shown that the relationship between religion and politics is complex, especially when it is viewed over the expanse of human history. While religious leaders and the state generally have different aims, both are concerned about power and order; both use reason and emotion to motivate behavior. Throughout history, leaders of religious and political institutions have cooperated, opposed one another, and/or attempted to co-opt each other, for purposes which are both noble and base, and they have implemented programs with a wide range of driving values, from compassion, which is aimed at alleviating current suffering, to brutal change, which is aimed at achieving long-term goals, for the benefit of groups which have ranged from small cliques to all of humanity. The relationship is far from simple. But religion has frequently been used in a coercive manner, and it has also used coercion.

Buddhism
People may express their faith through the act of taking refuge, and conversions usually require people to recite their acceptance of the Triple Gems of Buddhism. However, they may always practice Buddhism without fully abandoning their own religion. According to Chin Human Rights Organisation (CHRO), Christians from the Chin ethnic minority group in Myanmar are facing coercion to convert to Buddhism by state actors and programme.

Christianity

Christianity was a minority religion during much of the middle Roman Classical Period, and the early Christians were persecuted during that time. When Constantine I converted to Christianity, it had already grown to be the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Already under the reign of Constantine I, Christian heretics were being persecuted; beginning in the late 4th century, the ancient pagan religions were also actively suppressed. In the view of many historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from a persecuted religion into a religion which was capable of persecuting and sometimes eager to persecute.

Late Antiquity

On 27 February 380, together with Gratian and Valentinian II, Theodosius I issued the decree Cunctos populos, the so-called Edict of Thessalonica, recorded in the Codex Theodosianus xvi.1.2. This declared Trinitarian Nicene Christianity to be the only legitimate imperial religion and the only one entitled to call itself Catholic. Other Christians he described as "foolish madmen". He also ended official state support for the traditional polytheist religions and customs.

The Codex Theodosianus (Eng. Theodosian Code) was a compilation of the laws of the Roman Empire under the Christian emperors since 312. A commission was established by Theodosius II and his co-emperor Valentinian III on 26 March 429 and the compilation was published by a constitution of 15 February 438. It went into force in the eastern and western parts of the empire on 1 January 439.

It is Our will that all the peoples who are ruled by the administration of Our Clemency shall practice that religion which the divine Peter the Apostle transmitted to the Romans.... The rest, whom We adjudge demented and insane, shall sustain the infamy of heretical dogmas, their meeting places shall not receive the name of churches, and they shall be smitten first by divine vengeance and secondly by the retribution of Our own initiative (Codex Theodosianus XVI 1.2.).

Forced conversions of Jews were carried out with the support of rulers during Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages in Gaul, the Iberian peninsula and in the Byzantine Empire.

In Gregory of Tours' writing, he claimed that the Vandals attempted to force all Spanish Catholics to become Arian Christians during their rule in Spain. Gregory also recounted episodes of forced conversion of Jews by Chilperic I and Avitus of Clermont.

Medieval western Europe
During the Saxon Wars, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, forcibly converted the Saxons from their native Germanic paganism by way of warfare, and law upon conquest. Examples are the Massacre of Verden in 782, when Charlemagne reportedly had 4,500 captive Saxons massacred for rebelling, and the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae, a law imposed on conquered Saxons in 785, after another rebellion and destruction of churches and killing of missionary priests and monks, that prescribed death to those who refused to convert to Christianity.

Forced conversion that occurred after the seventh century generally took place during riots and massacres carried out by mobs and clergy without support of the rulers. In contrast, royal persecutions of Jews from the late eleventh century onward generally took the form of expulsions, with some exceptions, such as conversions of Jews in southern Italy of the 13th century, which were carried out by Dominican Inquisitors but instigated by King Charles II of Naples.

Jews were forced to convert to Christianity by the Crusaders in Lorraine, on the Lower Rhine, in Bavaria and Bohemia, in Mainz and in Worms (see Rhineland massacres, Worms massacre (1096)).

Though he strongly condemned and prohibited forced conversion and baptism by decree, Pope Innocent III suggested in a private letter to a bishop in 1201 that those who agreed to be baptized to avoid torture and intimidation might be compelled to outwardly observe Christianity:

[T]hose who are immersed even though reluctant, do belong to ecclesiastical jurisdiction at least by reason of the sacrament, and might therefore be reasonably compelled to observe the rules of the Christian Faith. It is, to be sure, contrary to the Christian Faith that anyone who is unwilling and wholly opposed to it should be compelled to adopt and observe Christianity. For this reason a valid distinction is made by some between kinds of unwilling ones and kinds of compelled ones. Thus one who is drawn to Christianity by violence, through fear and through torture, and receives the sacrament of Baptism in order to avoid loss, he (like one who comes to Baptism in dissimulation) does receive the impress of Christianity, and may be forced to observe the Christian Faith as one who expressed a conditional willingness though, absolutely speaking, he was unwilling ...

During the Northern Crusades against the pagan Balts and Slavs of northern Europe, forced conversions were a widely used tactic, which received papal sanction. These tactics were first adopted during the Wendish Crusade, but became more widespread during the Livonian Crusade and Prussian Crusade, in which tactics included the killing of hostages, massacre, and the devastation of the lands of tribes that had not yet submitted. Most of the populations of these regions were converted only after the repeated rebellion of native populations that did not want to accept Christianity even after initial forced conversion; in Old Prussia, the tactics employed in the initial conquest and subsequent conversion of the territory resulted in the death of most of the native population, whose language consequently became extinct.

Early modern Iberian peninsula

After the end of Islamic control of Spain, Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492. In Portugal, following an order for their expulsion in 1496, only a handful of them were allowed to leave and the rest of them were forced to convert. Muslims were expelled from Portugal in 1497, and they were gradually forced to convert in the constituent kingdoms of Spain. The forced conversion of Muslims was implemented in the Crown of Castile from 1500 to 1502 and it was implemented in the Crown of Aragon in the 1520s. After the conversions, the so-called "New Christians" were those inhabitants (Sephardic Jews or Mudéjar Muslims) who were baptized under coercion as well as in the face of execution, becoming forced converts from Islam (Moriscos, Conversos and "secret Moors") or converts from Judaism (Conversos, Crypto-Jews and Marranos).

After the forced conversions, when all former Muslims and Jews had ostensibly become Catholic, the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions primarily targeted forced converts from Judaism and Islam, who came under suspicion, because they were either accused of continuing to adhere to their old religion, or they were accused of falling back into it. Jewish conversos who still resided in Spain and frequently practiced Judaism in secret were suspected of being Crypto-Jews by the "Old Christians". The Spanish Inquisition generated much wealth and income for the church and individual inquisitors by confiscating the property of the persecuted. The end of Al-Andalus and the expulsion of the Sephardic Jews from the Iberian Peninsula went hand in hand with the increasing amount of Spanish and Portuguese influence in the world, influence which was exemplified by the Christian conquest of the aboriginal Indian populations of the Americas. The Ottoman Empire and Morocco absorbed most of the Jewish and Muslim refugees, but a large majority of them remained in Spain and Portugal by choosing to be Conversos.

Colonial Americas
During the European colonization of the Americas, forced conversion of the continents' indigenous, non-Christian population was common, especially in South America and Mesoamerica, where the conquest of large indigenous polities like the Inca and Aztec Empires placed colonizers in control of large non-Christian populations. According to some South American leaders and indigenous groups, there were cases among native populations of conversion under the threat of violence, often because they were compelled to after being conquered, and that the Catholic Church cooperated with civil authority to achieve this end.

Eastern Europe
Upon converting to Christianity in the 10th century, Vladimir the Great, the ruler of Kievan Rus', ordered Kiev's citizens to undergo a mass baptism in the Dnieper river.

In the 13th century the pagan populations of the Baltics faced campaigns of forcible conversion by crusading knight corps such as the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Teutonic Order, which often meant simply dispossessing these populations of their lands and property.

After Ivan the Terrible's conquest of the Khanate of Kazan, the Muslim population faced slaughter, expulsion, forced resettlement and conversion to Christianity.

In the 18th century, Elizabeth of Russia launched a campaign of forced conversion of Russia's non-Orthodox subjects, including Muslims and Jews.

Goa inquisition

The Portuguese carried out the Christianisation of Goa in India in the 16th and 17th centuries. The majority of the natives of Goa had converted to Christianity by the end of the 16th century. The Portuguese rulers had implemented state policies encouraging and even rewarding conversions among Hindu subjects. The rapid rise of converts in Goa was mostly the result of Portuguese economic and political control over the Hindus, who were vassals of the Portuguese crown.

In 1567, the conversion of the majority of the native villagers to Christianity allowed the Portuguese to destroy temples in Bardez, with 300 Hindu temples destroyed. Prohibitions were then declared from December 4, 1567, on public performances of Hindu marriages, sacred thread wearing and cremation. All persons above 15 years of age were compelled to listen to Christian preaching, failing which they were punished. In 1583, Hindu temples at Assolna and Cuncolim were also destroyed by the Portuguese army after the majority of the native villagers there had also converted to Christianity.
"The fathers of the Church forbade the Hindus under terrible penalties the use of their own sacred books, and prevented them from all exercise of their religion. They destroyed their temples, and so harassed and interfered with the people that they abandoned the city in large numbers, refusing to remain any longer in a place where they had no liberty, and were liable to imprisonment, torture and death if they worshiped after their own fashion the gods of their fathers", wrote Filippo Sassetti, who was in India from 1578 to 1588.

Papal States

In 1858, Edgardo Mortara was taken from his Jewish parents and raised as a Catholic, because he had been baptized by a maid without his parents' consent or knowledge. This incident was called the Mortara case.

Serbs during World War II in Yugoslavia
During World War II in Yugoslavia, Orthodox Serbs were forcibly converted to Catholicism by the Ustashe.

Hindus in India
In 2009, the Assam Times reported that a group of Hmar militants with about 15 members calling themselves the Manmasi National Christian Army, tried to force Hindu residents of Bhuvan Pahar, Assam to convert to Christianity.

Hinduism

Indian Christians have alleged that Hindu groups in southern Chhattisgarh have forced Christian converts from Hinduism to revert to Hinduism. In the aftermath of the violence, American Christian evangelical groups have claimed that Hindu groups are forcibly reverting Christian converts from Hinduism back to Hinduism. It has also been alleged that these same Hindu groups have used allurements to convert poor Muslims and Christians to Hinduism against their will.

Islam

Islamic law prohibits forced conversion, following the Quranic principle that there is "no compulsion in religion" (). However, episodes of forced conversions have occurred in the history of Islam.

After the Arab conquests a number of Christian Arab tribes suffered enslavement and forced conversion.

Jizya and conversion

Jews and Christians were required to pay the jizya while pagans depending on the four Madhhabs were either required to accept Islam, pay the jizya, be exiled, or be killed. Some historians believe that forced conversion was rare in Islamic history, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. Muslim rulers were often more interested in conquest than conversion. Ira Lapidus points towards "interwoven terms of political and economic benefits and of a sophisticated culture and religion" as appealing to the masses. He writes that:The question of why people convert to Islam has always generated the intense feeling. Earlier generations of European scholars believed that conversions to Islam were made at the point of the sword, and that conquered peoples were given the choice of conversion or death. It is now apparent that conversion by force, while not unknown in Muslim countries, was, in fact, rare. Muslim conquerors ordinarily wished to dominate rather than convert, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. (...) In most cases, worldly and spiritual motives for conversion blended together. Moreover, conversion to Islam did not necessarily imply a complete turning from an old to a totally new life. While it entailed the acceptance of new religious beliefs and membership in a new religious community, most converts retained a deep attachment to the cultures and communities from which they came.Muslim scholars like Abu Hanifa and Abu Yusuf stated that the jizya tax should be paid by Non-Muslims (Kuffar) regardless of their religion, some later and also earlier Muslim jurists did not permit Non-Muslims who are not People of the Book or Ahle-Kitab (Jews, Christians, Sabians) pay the jizya. Instead, they only allowed them (non-Ahle-Kitab) to avoid death by choosing to convert to Islam. Of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence, the Hanafi and Maliki schools allow polytheists to be granted dhimmi status, except Arab polytheists. However, the Shafi'i, Hanbali and Zahiri schools only consider Christians, Jews, and Sabians to be eligible to belong to the dhimmi category.

Wael Hallaq states that in theory, Islamic religious tolerance only applied to those religious groups that Islamic jurisprudence considered to be monotheistic "People of the Book", i.e. Christians, Jews, and Sabians if they paid the jizya tax, while to those excluded from the "People of the Book" were only offered two choices: convert to Islam or fight to the death. In practice, the "People of the Book" designation and dhimmi status were even extended to the non-monotheistic religions of the conquered peoples, such as Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and other non-monotheists.

Druze

The Druze have frequently experienced persecution by different Muslim regimes such as the Shia Ismaili Fatimid State, Mamluk, Sunni Ottoman Empire, and Egypt Eyalet. The persecution of the Druze included massacres, demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places and forced conversion to Islam. Those were no ordinary killings and massacres in the Druze's narrative, they were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative.

Early period

The wars of the Ridda (lit. apostasy) undertaken by Abu Bakr, the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, against Arab tribes who had accepted Islam but refused to pay Zakat and Jizya Tax, have been described by some historians as an instance of forced conversion or "reconversion". The rebellion of these Arab tribes was less a relapse to the pre-Islamic Arabian religion than termination of a political contract they had made with Muhammad. Some of these tribal leaders claimed prophethood, bringing themselves in direct conflict with the Muslim Caliphate.

Two out of the four schools of Islamic law, i.e. Hanafi and Maliki schools, accepted non-Arab polytheists to be eligible for the dhimmi status. Under this doctrine, Arab polytheists were forced to choose between conversion and death. However, according to perception of most Muslim jurists, all Arabs had embraced Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad. Their exclusion therefore had little practical significance after his death in 632.

In the 9th century, the Samaritan population of Palestine faced persecution and attempts at forced conversion at the hands of the rebel leader ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphal troops. Historians recognize that during the Early Middle Ages, the Christian populations living in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies between the 7th and 10th centuries suffered religious discrimination, religious persecution, religious violence, and martyrdom multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers. As People of the Book, Christians under Muslim rule were subjected to dhimmi status (along with Jews, Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians), which was inferior to the status of Muslims. Christians and other religious minorities thus faced religious discrimination and religious persecution in that they were banned from proselytising (for Christians, it was forbidden to evangelize or spread Christianity) in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs. Under sharia, Non-Muslims were obligated to pay jizya and kharaj taxes, together with periodic heavy ransom levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed a significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships forced many Christians to convert to Islam. Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would sell them as slaves to Muslim households where they were forced to convert to Islam. Many Christian martyrs were executed under the Islamic death penalty for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, repudiation of the Islamic religion and subsequent reconversion to Christianity, and blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs.

Umayyad Caliphate
After the Arab conquests a number of Christian Arab tribes suffered enslavement and forced conversion.

The Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I said to Shamala, the Christian Arab leader of the Banu Taghlib: "As you are a chief of the Arabs you shame them all by worshipping the cross; obey my wish and turn Muslim." He replied, 'How so? I am chief of Taghlib, and I fear lest I become a cause of destruction to them all if I and they cease to believe in christ" Enraged Al-Walid had him dragged away on his face and tortured; afterward he commanded him again to convert to Islam or else prepare to "eat his own flesh." The Christian Arab again refused, and the order was carried out: Walid's servants "cut off a slice from Shamala's thigh and roasted it in the fire, and they thrust it into his mouth" and he was blinded during this as well. This event is confirmed by the muslim historian Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani

Almohad Caliphate

There were forced conversions in the 12th century under the Almohad dynasty of North Africa and al-Andalus, who suppressed the dhimmi status of Jews and Christians and gave them the choice between conversion, exile, and being executed. The treatment and persecution of Jews under Almohad rule was a drastic change. Prior to Almohad rule during the Caliphate of Córdoba, Jewish culture experienced a Golden Age. María Rosa Menocal, a specialist in Iberian literature at Yale University, has argued that "tolerance was an inherent aspect of Andalusian society", and that the Jewish dhimmis living under the Caliphate, while allowed fewer rights than Muslims, were still better off than in Christian Europe. Many Jews migrated to al-Andalus, where they were not just tolerated but allowed to practice their faith openly. Christians had also practiced their religion openly in Córdoba, and both Jews and Christians lived openly in Morocco as well.

The first Almohad ruler, Abd al-Mumin, allowed an initial seven-month grace period. Then he forced most of the urban dhimmi population in Morocco, both Jewish and Christian, to convert to Islam. In 1198, the Almohad emir Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur decreed that Jews must wear a dark blue garb, with very large sleeves and a grotesquely oversized hat; his son altered the colour to yellow, a change that may have influenced Catholic ordinances some time later. Those who converted had to wear clothing that identified them as Jews since they were not regarded as sincere Muslims. Cases of mass martyrdom of Jews who refused to convert to Islam are recorded.

Many of the conversions were superficial. Maimonides urged Jews to choose the superficial conversion over martyrdom and argued, "Muslims know very well that we do not mean what we say, and that what we say is only to escape the ruler's punishment and to satisfy him with this simple confession." Abraham Ibn Ezra (1089–1164), who himself fled the persecutions of the Almohads, composed an elegy mourning the destruction of many Jewish communities throughout Spain and the Maghreb under the Almohads. Many Jews fled from territories ruled by the Almohads to Christian lands, and others, like the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands. However, a few Jewish traders still working in North Africa are recorded.

The treatment and persecution of Christians under Almohad rule was a drastic change as well. Many Christians were killed, forced to convert, or forced to flee. Some Christians fled to the Christian kingdoms in the north and west and helped fuel the Reconquista. Christian martyrs who refused to convert to Islam under Almohad rule included:

Daniel and companions, d. 1221
John of Perugia and Peter of Sassoferrato, d. 1231
Saint Serapion of Algiers, d. 1240

Christians under the Almohad rule generally chose to relocate to the Christian principalities (most notably the Kingdom of Asturias) in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, whereas Jews decided to stay in order to keep their properties, and many of them feigned conversion to Islam, while continuing to believe and practice Judaism in secrecy.

During the Almohad persecution, the medieval Jewish philosopher and rabbi Moses Maimonides (1135–1204), one of the leading exponents of the Golden Age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula, wrote his Epistle on Apostasy, in which he permitted Jews to feign apostasy under duress, though strongly recommending leaving the country instead. There is dispute amongst scholars as to whether Maimonides himself converted to Islam in order to freely escape from Almohad territory, and then reconverted back to Judaism in either the Levant or in Egypt. He was later denounced as an apostate and tried in an Islamic court.

Danishmend's campaigns
During his campaigns, Sultan Malik Danishmend swore to forcibly convert the population of the city of Sisiya Comana to Islam and he did so upon capturing it. The governor of Comana forced its population to pray 5 times a day and those who refused to go to the mosque were brought to it by threat of physical violence. Those who continued to drink wine or do other things that Islam forbids were publicly whipped. The fate of the city of Euchaita was similar, with Malik giving the people the option of converting to Islam or death.

Yemen
In the late 1160s, the Yemenite ruler 'Abd-al-Nabī ibn Mahdi left Jews with the choice between conversion to Islam or martyrdom. Ibn Mahdi also imposed his beliefs upon the Muslims besides the Jews. This led to a revival of Jewish messianism, but also led to mass-conversion. The persecution ended in 1173 with the defeat of Ibn Mahdi and conquest of Yemen by the brother of Saladin, and they were allowed to return to their Jewish faith.

According to two Cairo Genizah documents, the Ayyubid ruler of Yemen, al-Malik al-Mu'izz al-Ismail (reigned from 1197 to 1202) had attempted to force the Jews of Aden to convert. The second document details the relief of Jewish community after his murder, and those who had been forced to convert reverted to Judaism. While he did not impose Islam upon the foreign merchants, they were forced to pay triple the normal rate of poll tax.

A measure listed in the legal works by Al-Shawkānī is of forced conversion of Jewish orphans. No date is given for this decree by modern studies nor who issued it. The forced conversion of Jewish orphans was reintroduced under Imam Yahya in 1922. The Orphans' Decree was implemented aggressively for the first ten years. It was re-promulgated in 1928.

Ottoman Empire

A form of forced conversion became institutionalized during the Ottoman Empire in the practice of devşirme, a human levy in which Christian boys were seized and collected from their families (usually in the Balkans), enslaved, forcefully converted to Islam, and then trained as elite military unit within the Ottoman army or for high-ranking service to the sultan. From the mid to late 14th, through early 18th centuries, the devşirme–janissary system enslaved an estimated 500,000 to one million non-Muslim adolescent males. These boys would attain a great education and high social standing after their training and conversion.

In the 17th century, Sabbatai Zevi, a Sephardic Jew whose ancestors were welcomed in the Ottoman Empire during the Spanish Inquisition, proclaimed himself as the Jewish Messiah and called for the abolition of major Jewish laws and customs. After he attracted a large following, he was arrested by the Ottoman authorities and given a choice between execution or conversion to Islam. Zevi opted for a feigned conversion solely to escape the death penalty, and continued to believe and practice Judaism along with his followers in secrecy. The Byzantine historian Doukas recounts two other cases of forced or attempted forced conversion: one of a Christian official who had offended Sultan Murad II, and the other of an archbishop.

Speros Vryonis cites a pastoral letter from 1338 addressed to the residents of Nicaea indicating widespread, forcible conversion by the Turks after it was conquered: "And they [Turks] having captured and enslaved many of our own and violently forced them and dragging them along alas! So that they took up their evil and godlessness."

After the Siege of Nicaea (1328–1331) The Turks began to force the Christian inhabitants who had escaped the massacres to convert to Islam. The patriarch of Constantinople John XIX wrote a message to the people of Nicea shortly after the city was seized. His letter says that "The invaders endeavored to impose their impure religion on the populace, at all costs, intending to make the inhabitants followers of Muhammad". Patriarch advised the Christians to "be steadfast in your religion" and not to forget that the "Turks are masters of your bodies only, but not of your souls.

Apostolos Vakalopoulos comments on the first Ottoman invasions of Europe and Dimitar Angelov gives assessment on the Campaigns on Murad II and Mehmed II and their impact on the conquered native Christian Balkan Christians:

According to historian Demetrios Constantelos, "Mass forced conversions were recorded during the caliphates of Selim I (1512–1520),…Selim II (1566–1574), and Murat III (1574–1595). On the occasion of some anniversary, such as the capture of a city, or a national holiday, many rayahs were forced to apostacize. On the day of the circumcision of Mohammed III great numbers of Christians (Albanians, Greeks, Slavs) were forced to convert to Islam." After reviewing the martyrology of Christians killed by the Ottomans from the fall of Constantinople all the way to the final phases of the Greek War of Independence, Constantelos reports:

For strategic reasons, the Ottomans forcibly converted Christians living in the frontier regions of Macedonia and northern Bulgaria, particularly in the 16th and 17th centuries. Those who refused were either executed or burned alive.

The community budgets of jews was heavily burdened by the repurchasing of Jewish slaves abducted by Arab, Berber, or Turkish pirates, or by military raids. The mental trauma due to captivity and slavery caused unransomed prisoners who had lost family, money, and friends to convert to Islam.

During his travels through the Salt lake region of central Anatolia, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier observed in the town of Mucur, "there are numbers of Greeks who are forced everyday to become Turks".

During the genocide and persecution of Greeks in the 20th century, there were cases of forced conversion to Islam (see also Armenian genocide, Assyrian genocide, and Hamidian massacres).

Iran

Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid dynasty, decreed Twelver Shiism to be the official religion of state and ordered executions of a number of Sunni intellectuals who refused to accept Shiism. Non-Muslims faced frequent persecutions and at times forced conversions under the rule of his dynastic successors. Thus, after the capture of the Hormuz Island, Abbas I required local Christians to convert to Twelver Shia Islam, Abbas II granted his ministers authority to force Jews to become Shia Muslims, and Sultan Husayn decreed forcible conversion of Zoroastrians. In 1839, during the Qajar era the Jewish community in the city of Mashhad was attacked by a mob and subsequently forced to convert to Shia Islam.

In Persia, instances of forced conversion of Jews took place in 1291 and 1318, and those of Baghdad in 1333 and 1344. In 1617 and 1622, a wave of forced conversions and persecution, provoked by the slander of Jewish apostates, swept over  the jews of Persia, sparing neither Nestorian Christians nor Armenians. From 1653 to 1666, during the rengn of Shah Abbas II, all the Jews in Persia were Islamized by force. However, religious freedom was eventually restored. A law im 1656 gave Jewish or Christian converts to Islam exclusive rights of inheritance. This law was alleviated for the Christians as a concession to Pope Alexander VII but remained in force for Jews until the end of the nineteenth century. David Cazés mentions the existence in Tunisia of similar inheritance laws favoring converts to Islam.

India
In an invasion of the Kashmir valley (1015), Mahmud of Ghazni plundered the valley, took many prisoners and carried out conversions to Islam. In his later campaigns, in Mathura, Baran and Kanauj, again, many conversions took place. Those soldiers who surrendered to him were converted to Islam. In Baran (Bulandshahr) alone 10,000 persons were converted to Islam including the king. Tarikh-i-Yamini, Rausat-us-Safa and Tarikh-i-Ferishtah speak of construction of mosques and schools and appointment of preachers and teachers by Mahmud and his successor Masud. Wherever Mahmud went, he insisted on the people to convert to Islam. The raids by Muhammad Ghori and his generals brought in thousands of slaves in the late 12th century, most of whom were compelled to convert as one of the preconditions of their freedom. Sikandar Butshikan (1394–1417) demolished Hindu temples and forcefully converted Hindus.

Aurangzeb employed a number of means to encourage conversions to Islam. The ninth guru of Sikhs, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was beheaded in Delhi on orders of Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam. In a Mughal-Sikh war in 1715, 700 followers of Banda Singh Bahadur were beheaded. Sikhs were executed for not apostatizing from Sikhism. Banda Singh Bahadur was offered a pardon if he converted to Islam. Upon refusal, he was tortured, and was killed with his five-year-old son. Following the execution of Banda, the emperor ordered to apprehend Sikhs anywhere they were found.

18th century ruler Tipu Sultan persecuted the Hindus, Christians and Mappla Muslims. During Sultan's Mysorean invasion of Kerala, hundreds of temples and churches were demolished and ten thousands of Christians and Hindus were killed or converted to Islam by force.

Contemporary period

South Asia

Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, the International Crimes Tribunal tried and convicted several leaders of the Islamic Razakar militias, as well as Bangladesh Muslim Awami league (Forid Uddin Mausood), of war crimes committed against Hindus during the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. The charges included forced conversion of Bengali Hindus to Islam.

India
In the 1998 Prankote massacre, 26 Kashmiri Hindus were beheaded by Islamist militants after their refusal to convert to Islam. The militants struck when the villagers refused demands from the gunmen to convert to Islam and prove their conversion by eating beef.
During the Noakhali riots in 1946, several thousand Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam by Muslim mobs.

Pakistan
Members of minority religions in Pakistan face discrimination every day. This leads to socio-political and economic exclusion and severe marginalization in all aspects of life. In a country that is 96 percent Muslim, targeting of its religious minorities (3 percent), especially Shias, Ahmadis, Hindus and Christians, is widespread.
The rise of Taliban insurgency in Pakistan has been an influential and increasing factor in the persecution of and discrimination against religious minorities, such as Hindus, Christians, Sikhs, and other minorities.

The Human Rights Council of Pakistan has reported that cases of forced conversion are increasing. A 2014 report by the Movement for Solidarity and Peace (MSP) says about 1,000 women in Pakistan are forcibly converted to Islam every year (700 Christian and 300 Hindu).

In 2003, a six-year-old Sikh girl was kidnapped by a member of the Afridi tribe in Northwest Frontier Province; the alleged kidnapper claimed the girl was actually 12 years old, had converted to Islam, and therefore could not be returned to her non-Muslim family. In Pakistan's Sindh province, a distressing pattern of crimes has emerged, including the abduction, coerced conversion to Islam, and subsequent marriage to older Muslim men who are often abductors. These crimes primarily target underage girls from impoverished Hindu families.

Rinkle Kumari, a 19-year Pakistani student, Lata Kumari, and Asha Kumari, a Hindu working in a beauty parlor, were allegedly forced to convert from Hinduism to Islam. They told the judge that they wanted to go with their parents. Their cases were appealed all the way to the Supreme Court of Pakistan. The appeal was admitted but remained unheard ever after. Rinkle was abducted by a gang and "forced" to convert to Islam, before being head shaved.

Sikhs in Hangu district stated they were being pressured to convert to Islam by Yaqoob Khan, the assistant commissioner of Tall Tehsil, in December 2017. However, the Deputy Commissioner of Hangu Shahid Mehmood denied it occurred and claimed that Sikhs were offended during a conversation with Yaqub though it was not intentional.

Many Hindu girls living in Pakistan are kidnapped, forcibly converted and married to Muslims. According to another report from the Movement for Solidarity and Peace, about 1,000 non-Muslim girls are converted to Islam each year in Pakistan. According to the Amarnath Motumal, the vice chairperson of the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, every month, an estimated 20 or more Hindu girls are abducted and converted, although exact figures are impossible to gather. In 2014 alone, 265 legal cases of forced conversion were reported mostly involving Hindu girls.

A total of 57 Hindus converted in Pasrur during May 14–19. On May 14, 35 Hindus of the same family were forced to convert by their employer because his sales dropped after Muslims started boycotting his eatable items as they were prepared by Hindus as well as their persecution by the Muslim employees of neighbouring shops according to their relatives. Since the impoverished Hindu had no other way to earn and needed to keep the job to survive, they converted. 14 members of another family converted on May 17 since no one was employing them, later another Hindu man and his family of eight under pressure from Muslims to avoid their land being grabbed.

In 2017, the Sikh community in Hangu district of Pakistan's Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province alleged that they were "being forced to convert to Islam" by a government official. Farid Chand Singh, who filed the complaint, has claimed that Assistant Commissioner Tehsil Tall Yaqoob Khan was allegedly forcing Sikhs to convert to Islam and the residents of Doaba area are being tortured religiously. According to reports, about 60 Sikhs of Doaba had demanded security from the administration.

Many Hindus voluntarily convert to Islam in order to acquire Watan Cards and National Identification Cards. These converts are also given land and money. For example, 428 poor Hindus in Matli were converted between 2009 and 2011 by the Madrassa Baitul Islam, a Deobandi seminary in Matli, which pays off the debts of Hindus converting to Islam. Another example is the conversion of 250 Hindus to Islam in Chohar Jamali area in Thatta. Conversions are also carried out by Ex Hindu Baba Deen Mohammad Shaikh mission which converted 108,000 people to Islam since 1989.

Within Pakistan, the southern province of Sindh had over 1,000 forced conversions of Christian and Hindu girls according to the annual report of the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan in 2018. According to victims' families and activists, Mian Abdul Haq, who is a local political and religious leader in Sindh, has been accused of being responsible for forced conversions of girls within the province.

More than 100 Hindus in Sindh converted to Islam in June 2020 to escape discrimination and economic pressures. Islamic charities and clerics offer incentives of jobs or land to impoverished minorities on the condition that they convert. New York Times summarised the view of Hindu groups that these seemingly voluntary conversions "take place under such economic duress that they are tantamount to a forced conversion anyway."

In October 2020, the Pakistani High Court upheld the validity of a forced marriage between 44-year-old Ali Azhar and 13-year-old Christian Arzoo Raja. Raja was abducted by Azhar, forcibly wed to Azhar and then forcibly converted to Islam by Azhar. Pakistan has been found in breach of its international commitments to safeguard non-Muslim girls from exploitation by influential factions and criminal elements, as forced conversions have become commonplace within the nation. This concerning trend is on the rise, notably observed in the districts of Tharparkar, Umerkot, and Mirpur Khas in Sindh.

Indonesia
In 2012, over 1000 Catholic children in East Timor, removed from their families, were reported to being held in Indonesia without consent of their parents, forcibly converted to Islam, educated in Islamic schools and naturalized. Other reports claim forced conversion of minority Ahmadiyya sect Muslims to Sunni Islam, with the use of violence.

In 2001 the Indonesian army evacuated hundreds of Christian refugees from the remote Kesui and Teor islands in Maluku after the refugees stated that they had been forced to convert to Islam. According to reports, some of the men had been circumcised against their will, and a paramilitary group involved in the incident confirmed that circumcisions had taken place while denying any element of coercion.

In 2017, many members of the Orang Rimba tribe, especially children, were being forced to renounce their folk religion and convert to Islam.

West Asia

There have been a number of reports of attempts to forcibly convert religious minorities in Iraq. The Yazidi people of northern Iraq, who follow an ethnoreligious syncretic faith, have been threatened with forced conversion by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, who consider their practices to be Satanism. UN investigators have reported mass killings of Yazidi men and boys who refused to convert to Islam. In Baghdad, hundreds of Assyrian Christians fled their homes in 2007 when a local extremist group announced that they had to convert to Islam, pay the jizya or die. In March 2007, the BBC reported that people in the Mandaean ethnic and religious minority in Iraq alleged that they were being targeted by Islamist insurgents, who offered them the choice of conversion or death.

In 2006, two journalists of the Fox News Network were kidnapped at gunpoint in the Gaza Strip by a previously unknown militant group. After being forced to read statements on videotape proclaiming that they had converted to Islam, they were released by their captors.

Allegations of Coptic Christian girls being forced to marry Arab Muslim men and convert to Islam in Egypt have been reported by a number of news and advocacy organizations and have sparked public protests. According to a 2009 report by the US State Department, observers have found it extremely difficult to determine whether compulsion was used, and in recent years no such cases have been independently verified.

Coptic women and girls are abducted, forced to convert to Islam and marry Muslim men. In 2009, the Washington, D.C.-based group Christian Solidarity International published a study of the abductions and forced marriages and the anguish felt by the young women because returning to Christianity is against the law. Further allegations of organised abduction of Copts, trafficking and police collusion continue in 2017.

United Kingdom
According to the UK prison officers' union, some Muslim prisoners in the UK have been forcibly converting fellow inmates to Islam in prisons. An independent government report published in 2023 found that there have been multiple cases of Muslim gangs threatening non-muslim prisoners to "convert or get hurt".

In 2007, a Sikh girl's family claimed that she had been forcibly converted to Islam, and they received a police guard after being attacked by an armed gang, although the "Police said no one was injured in the incident".

In response to these news stories, an open letter to Sir Ian Blair, signed by ten Hindu academics, argued that claims that Hindu and Sikh girls were being forcefully converted were "part of an arsenal of myths propagated by right-wing Hindu supremacist organisations in India". The Muslim Council of Britain issued a press release pointing out there is a lack of evidence of any forced conversions and suggested it is an underhand attempt to smear the British Muslim population.

An academic paper by Katy Sian published in the journal South Asian Popular Culture in 2011 explored the question of how "'forced' conversion narratives" arose around the Sikh diaspora in the United Kingdom. Sian, who reports that claims of conversion through courtship on campuses are widespread in the UK, indicates that rather than relying on actual evidence they primarily rest on the word of "a friend of a friend" or on personal anecdote. According to Sian, the narrative is similar to accusations of "white slavery" lodged against the Jewish community and foreigners to the UK and the US, with the former having ties to antisemitism that mirror the Islamophobia betrayed by the modern narrative. Sian expanded on these views in 2013's Mistaken Identities, Forced Conversions, and Postcolonial Formations.

In 2018, a report by a Sikh activist organisation, Sikh Youth UK, entitled "The Religiously Aggravated Sexual Exploitation of Young Sikh Women Across the UK" made allegations of similarities between the case of Sikh Women and the Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal. However in 2019, this report was criticised by researchers and an official UK government report lead by two Sikh academics for false and misleading information. It noted: "The RASE report lacks solid data, methodological transparency and rigour. It is filled instead with sweeping generalisations and poorly substantiated claims around the nature and scale of abuse of Sikh girls and causal factors driving it. It appealed heavily to historical tensions between Sikhs and Muslims and narratives of honour in a way that seemed designed to whip up fear and hate".

Judaism
Under the Hasmonean Kingdom, the Idumeans were forced to convert to Judaism, by threat of exile or death, depending on the source.
In Eusebíus, Christianity, and Judaism, Harold W. Attridge claims that Josephus' account was accurate and that Alexander Jannaeus (around 80 BCE) demolished the city of Pella in Moab, because the inhabitants refused to adopt Jewish national customs. Maurice Sartre writes of the "policy of forced Judaization adopted by Hyrcanos, Aristobulus I and Jannaeus", who offered "the conquered peoples a choice between expulsion or conversion," William Horbury postulates that an existing small Jewish population in Lower Galilee was massively expanded by forced conversion around 104 BCE.

In 2009, the BBC claimed that in 524 CE the Himyarite Kingdom, who had adopted Judaism as the de facto state religion two centuries earlier, led by King Yusuf Dhu Nuwas, had offered residents of a village in what is now Saudi Arabia the choice between conversion to Judaism or death, and that 20,000 Christians had then been massacred. During the reign of Dhu Nuwas, a political-power transferring process began and during it, the Himyarite kingdom became a tributary of the Kingdom of Aksum, which had adopted Christianity as its de facto state religion two centuries earlier. This process was completed by the time of the reign of Ma'dīkarib Yafur (519-522), a Christian who was appointed by the Aksumites. A coup d'état ensued, with Dhu Nuwas assuming authority after the killing of the Aksumite garrison in Zafar. A general was sent against Najrān, a predominantly Christian oasis, with a good number of Jews, who refused to recognize his authority. The general blocked the caravan route which connected Najrān with Eastern Arabia and he also persecuted the Christian population of Najrān.  Dhu Nuwas campaign eventually killed between 11,500 and 14,000, and took a similar number of prisoners. A severe drought in the 6th century weakened the Himyarite kingdom and contributed to its eventual conquest by the Kingdom of Aksum in 525.

Atheism

Eastern Bloc

Under the doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union, there was a "government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism" conducted by communists. This program included the overarching objective to establish not only a fundamentally materialistic conception of the universe, but to foster "direct and open criticism of the religious outlook" by means of establishing an "anti-religious trend" across the entire school. The Russian Orthodox Church, for centuries the strongest of all Orthodox Churches, was violently suppressed. Revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin wrote that every religious idea and every idea of God "is unutterable vileness... of the most dangerous kind, 'contagion of the most abominable kind". Many priests were killed and imprisoned. Thousands of churches were closed, some turned into hospitals. In 1925, the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the persecution.

Christopher Marsh, a professor at Baylor University writes that "Tracing the social nature of religion from Schleiermacher and Feurbach to Marx, Engels, and Lenin... the idea of religion as a social product evolved to the point of policies aimed at the forced conversion of believers to atheism."
Jonathan Blake of the Department of Political Science at Columbia University elucidates the history of this practice in the USSR, stating that:

Across Eastern Europe following World War II, the parts of the Nazi Empire conquered by the Soviet Red Army, and Yugoslavia became one party communist states and the project of coercive conversion continued. The Soviet Union ended its war time truce against the Russian Orthodox Church, and extended its persecutions to the newly communist Eastern bloc: "In Poland, Hungary, Lithuania and other Eastern European countries, Catholic leaders who were unwilling to be silent were denounced, publicly humiliated or imprisoned by the communists. Leaders of the national Orthodox Churches in Romania and Bulgaria had to be cautious and submissive", wrote Blainey. While the churches were generally not as severely treated as they had been in the USSR, nearly all their schools and many of their churches were closed, and they lost their formerly prominent roles in public life. Children were taught atheism, and clergy were imprisoned by the thousands.

In the Eastern Bloc, Christian churches, Jewish synagogues and Islamic mosques were forcibly "converted into museums of atheism." Historical essayist Andrei Brezianu expounds upon this situation, specifically in the Socialist Republic of Romania, writing that scientific atheism was "aggressively applied to Moldova, immediately after the 1940 annexation, when churches were profaned, clergy assaulted, and signs and public symbols of religion were prohibited"; he provides an example of this phenomenon, further writing that "St. Theodora Church in downtown Chişinău was converted into the city's Museum of Scientific Atheism". Marxist-Leninist regimes treated religious believers as subversives or abnormal, sometimes relegating them to psychiatric hospitals and reeducation. Nevertheless, historian Emily Baran writes that "some accounts suggest the conversion to militant atheism did not always end individuals' existential questions".

French Revolution
During the French Revolution, a campaign of dechristianization happened which included removal and destruction of religious objects from places of worship; English librarian Thomas Hartwell Horne and biblical scholar Samuel Davidson write that "churches were converted into 'temples of reason,' in which atheistical and licentious homilies were substituted for the proscribed service".

Unlike later establishments of state atheism by communist regimes, the French Revolutionary experiment was short (seven months), incomplete and inconsistent. Even though it was brief, the French experiment was particularly notable because it influenced atheists such as Ludwig Feuerbach, Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx.

East Asia

The emergence of communist states across East Asia after World War Two saw religion purged by atheist regimes across China, North Korea and much of Indo-China. In 1949, China became a communist state under the leadership of Mao Zedong's Chinese Communist Party. Prior to this takeover, China itself was previously a cradle of religious thought since ancient times, being the birthplace of Confucianism and Daoism, and Buddhists arrived in the first century CE. Under Mao, China became an officially atheist state, and even though some religious practices were permitted to continue under State supervision, religious groups which are considered a threat to law and order have been suppressed—such as Tibetan Buddhism from 1959 and Falun Gong in recent years. Religious schools and social institutions were closed, foreign missionaries were expelled, and local religious practices were discouraged. During the Cultural Revolution, Mao instigated "struggles" against the Four Olds: "old ideas, customs, culture, and habits of mind". In 1999, the Communist Party launched a three-year drive to promote atheism in Tibet, saying that intensifying atheist propaganda is "especially important for Tibet because atheism plays an extremely important role in promoting economic construction, social advancement and socialist spiritual civilization in the region".

As of November 2018, in present-day China, the government has detained many people in internment camps, "where Uighur Muslims are remade into atheist Chinese subjects". For children who were forcibly taken away from their parents, the Chinese government has established "orphanages" with the aim of "converting future generations of Uighur Muslim children into loyal subjects who embrace atheism".

Revolutionary Mexico

Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, and 130 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 as originally enacted were anticlerical and enormously restricted religious freedoms. At first the anticlerical provisions were only sporadically enforced, but when President Plutarco Elías Calles took office, he enforced the provisions strictly. Calles' Mexico has been characterized as an atheist state and his program as being one to eradicate religion in Mexico.

All religions had their properties expropriated, and these became part of government wealth. There was a forced expulsion of foreign clergy and the seizure of Church properties. Article 27 prohibited any future acquisition of such property by the churches, and prohibited religious corporations and ministers from
establishing or directing primary schools. This second prohibition was sometimes interpreted to mean that the Church could not give religious instruction to children within the churches on Sundays, seen as destroying the ability of Catholics to be educated in their own religion.

The Constitution of 1917 also closed and forbade the existence of monastic orders (article 5), forbade any religious activity outside of church buildings (now owned by the government), and mandated that such religious activity would be overseen by the government (article 24).

On June 14, 1926, President Calles enacted anticlerical legislation known formally as The Law Reforming the Penal Code and unofficially as the Calles Law. His anti-Catholic actions included outlawing religious orders, depriving the Church of property rights and depriving the clergy of civil liberties, including their right to a trial by jury (in cases involving anti-clerical laws) and the right to vote. Catholic antipathy towards Calles was enhanced because of his vocal atheism.

Due to the strict enforcement of anti-clerical laws, people in strongly Catholic areas, especially the states of Jalisco, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Colima and Michoacán, began to oppose him, and this opposition led to the Cristero War from 1926 to 1929, which was characterized by brutal atrocities on both sides. Some Cristeros applied terrorist tactics, while the Mexican government persecuted the clergy, killing suspected Cristeros and supporters and often retaliating against innocent individuals. In Tabasco state, the so-called "Red Shirts" began to act.

A truce was negotiated with the assistance of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Whitney Morrow. Calles, however, did not abide by the terms of the truce – in violation of its terms, he had approximately 500 Cristero leaders and 5,000 other Cristeros shot, frequently in their homes in front of their spouses and children. Particularly offensive to Catholics after the supposed truce was Calles' insistence on a complete state monopoly on education, suppressing all Catholic education and introducing "socialist" education in its place: "We must enter and take possession of the mind of childhood, the mind of youth". The persecution continued as Calles maintained control under his Maximato and did not relent until 1940, when President Manuel Ávila Camacho, a believing Catholic, took office. This attempt to indoctrinate the youth in atheism was begun in 1934 by amending Article 3 to the Mexican Constitution to eradicate religion by mandating "socialist education", which "in addition to removing all religious doctrine" would "combat fanaticism and prejudices", "build[ing] in the youth a rational and exact concept of the universe and of social life". In 1946 this "socialist education" was removed from the constitution and the document returned to the less egregious generalized secular education.
The effects of the war on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934 at least 40 priests were killed. Where there were 4,500 priests operating within the country before the rebellion, in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, and assassination. By 1935, 17 states had no priest at all.

See also

References

Christianization
Islamization
Persecution by atheist states
Religious policy

Forced conversion


Meri Kristiina Mäkelä (born 20 November 1992) is a Finnish athlete whose specialty is the triple jump. She has competed in two Olympics and four World Athletics Championships, with the best result of 9th in 2022 . Her personal bests in the event are 14.64 m outdoors (achieved in 2022 in Munich, Germany) and 14.38 m indoors (2019, Gallur, Madrid, Spain).

Competition record

References

External links

1992 births
Living people
Finnish female triple jumpers
World Athletics Championships athletes for Finland
People from Orimattila
Athletes (track and field) at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic athletes for Finland
Finnish Athletics Championships winners
Athletes (track and field) at the 2020 Summer Olympics
Sportspeople from Päijät-Häme
European Athletics Championships medalists
European Games competitors for Finland
Athletes (track and field) at the 2023 European Games

Kristiina Mäkelä


Spectacular may refer to:
 "Spectacular" (Graham Coxon song), a 2004 song by Graham Coxon
 "Spectacular" (Kiely Williams song), the 2010 debut single by Kiely Williams
 Spectacular (album), a 2012 album by ZE:A
 Spectacular!, a 2009 television movie produced by Nickelodeon
 Spectacular (singer) (born 1976), Jamaican reggae artist
 Restoration spectacular, an elaborately staged "machine play" popular in Restoration-era London
 "Spectacular" Blue Smith, a member of Pretty Ricky
 Spectacular mark, a term for a type of mark in Australian rules football

See also
 Spectacle, refers to an event that is memorable for the appearance it creates

Spectacular


St Modwen's is a Church of England parish church situated in Burton upon Trent in Staffordshire, England. It is part of the Diocese of Lichfield. The church is dedicated to St Modwen, or Modwenna, a nun who founded an abbey at Burton in the 7th century.

It replaced the remains of the church of Burton Abbey which was used by the town after the dissolution of the abbey.

St Modwen's New Church
The current church building, which overlooks Burton's market square, was begun in 1719, first used for services in 1723, and finally completed by 1728. It is built in red sandstone and comprises an aisled five-bay nave with galleries on the north, west, and south, an apse, and a western narthex with central tower, north and south gallery stairs, and internal porch. Designed in a Classical style by the brothers Richard and William Smith of Tettenhall, it is similar to St Alkmund's Church at Whitchurch, Shropshire, built by William to the designs of John Barker. William died in 1724 and Richard in 1726, and the church was completed by their younger brother Francis Smith of Warwick. In the 1730s Richard Wilkes, a Staffordshire antiquary, described the church as 'elegant and beautiful', giving 'pleasure to all that behold or enter it'. The west tower is of three stages and has a balustrade with urns and round windows with radial glazing bars. The apse has wide Doric pilasters at the opening and between the windows. The nave arcades have tall Doric piers without an entablature, the flat ceiling has a deep cove, and the nave galleries cut across the high, arched windows of the aisles.

The church is Grade I listed and contains a 15th-century font, an organ case built in 1771 for an organ made by John Snetzler and a monument to Lady Fowler by Sir Richard Westmacott of 1825.

Anthony Greatorex was the organist at St Modwen's from 1771 and was succeeded as organist by his son, the composer Thomas Greatorex. His son, Thomas the younger, went on to be organist at Holy Trinity, Burton on Trent.

Regular service are on Sunday mornings at 11 am: Holy Communion (first and third Sundays) and Matins (second and fourth); and Wednesdays at 1045: Holy Communion (1662). The church is open most Saturdays between 1000 and 1200 when refreshments are available.

The vicar is also vicar of St Paul's and St Aidan's.

See also
Grade I listed churches in Staffordshire
Listed buildings in Burton (civil parish)

References

External links
 St Modwen's

Church of England church buildings in the Borough of East Staffordshire
Saint Modwen
Grade I listed churches in Staffordshire
18th-century Church of England church buildings

St Modwen's, Burton upon Trent


Grodno State Medical University (educational establishment "Grodno State Medical University" – GrSMU;  — ГрДМУ) is a university in Grodno, Belarus. It specialises in medicine and medical psychology. It is the oldest medical school in Belarus and is considered, according to some international sources, the best medical university in Belarus.

History

GrSMU is the successor of the first medical school in Belarus, the Grodno Medical Academy, established in 1775 by Antoni Tyzenhaus, former mayor of Grodno, to improve the almost nonexistent healthcare system in the city. Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert, French botanist, Freemason and medical doctor, became its first rector. Under his rule were trained first doctors (former illiterate peasants) built a botanical garden and a chemist's shop. The academy in 1781 was reorganized into the Medicine Faculty of Vilna University. The medical school was renovated only during Soviet-era time in 1958. Firstly, it was a small university. Officially got its university status only in 2000.

Structure
Nowadays, the university has 6 faculties:

Faculty of General Medicine
Faculty of Pediatrics
Faculty of Medical Psychology
Faculty of Diagnostic Studies
Faculty of Advanced Training and Retraining
Faculty of International Students

There are 45 departments of university spread across the city. Main building, completed in 1974, located at Gorkogo st. 80.

Modern status
University does conduct research. It takes part in EU's Trans-European Mobility Programme for University Studies. Also, GrSMU publishes its own medical journal.
Grodno State Medical University was recognised as one of the best of its kind in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), according Expert RA. And the best medical university in Belarus.

Notable people
 Metropolitan Philaret (1935–2021)

References

Medical schools in Belarus
1958 establishments in Europe

Grodno State Medical University


The Looking Glass War is a 1970 British neo-noir action-thriller film directed by Frank Pierson based on the 1965 novel by John le Carré The Looking Glass War.

Plot
After an MI6 agent carrying a roll of film containing flyover photographs of the East German town of Kalkstadt is found dead and the film goes missing, MI6 concludes he was killed by the Stasi to cover up the presence of a new rocket system based on the V-2. The rocket was previously spotted in vague, on-the-ground photos, and if real, its existence would be a violation of international agreements. A source entices MI6 with another set of photos that conclusively confirms the rocket's existence, and only after receiving payment does he reveal that the photos are being held in Kalkstadt itself by his father. MI6 members John Avery, Haldane, and their superior LeClerc hatch a plan to retrieve the photos and verify the rocket by sending a lone operative over the East German border to Kalkstadt. Polish defector Leiser, who illegally entered England to be with a woman who is bearing his child, is vetted for the role by MI6 and offered UK citizenship if he agrees to work for them. Leiser accepts, to be with his child.

Leiser is quickly trained in self-defense and survival skills at an MI6 safehouse, and taught how to use a portable radio transmitter to send coded messages. Not long before the mission, however, he briefly escapes his handlers to meet with his girlfriend. When she tells him that she had their child aborted, Leiser is deeply distraught and loses the motivation to carry out the mission, but changes his mind after bonding with Avery over a night of drinking. Leiser crosses the border into East Germany under cover of night, while the MI6 agents monitor for his radio messages from a West German cabin. On the way in, Leiser cuts his hand badly on the barbed wire fence and is forced to kill a young East German border guard who sees him. In the morning, the dead border guard is discovered and becomes a major news story.

Leiser is picked up by a lorry driver, but kills the driver after he demands sexual favours for the ride.  Leiser continues driving the lorry until he passes out from exhaustion, at which point a local girl and her brother board and drive for him. When the lorry is stopped at a military checkpoint, the girl covers for Leiser, but the soldiers still run his papers. The Stasi immediately notice inconsistencies in Leiser's circumstances and identify him as the person who breached the border and killed the guard, but the soldiers are ordered to let him go so that his intentions can be determined. At a lake, the girl submerges the lorry and Leiser leaves the girl and her brother behind.

In Kalkstadt, Leiser finally reaches his destination, but learns that the photographs never existed and MI6's source was a con artist. Despondent and feverish from his infected hand, Leiser attempts to leave town but is stopped by the Stasi, who tell him that the roads are closed and he must stay at a hotel. He reunites with the girl and is taken to her apartment, where she explains that she knows he is from the West and wants to leave the country with him. That night, the MI6 operation is ordered to shut down since it caused an international incident; at the same time, Leiser witnesses the East German rocket being transported through Kalkstadt's streets. As Leiser frantically relays his observation over radio, the Stasi pick up his transmission and triangulate his location, then gun him and the girl down. At the West German cabin, Avery is disillusioned by LeClerc's revelation that Leiser had always been considered expendable; he was given an obsolete radio to make it seem he was working alone, and he was denied a pistol so the West could not be accused of an act of war. In the end, it is implied that the East German rocket was only an elaborate bluff intended to provoke the West. The roll of film lost by the dead MI6 agent is found by a group of children who open it up and destroy it while playing.

Cast
Christopher Jones as Leiser
Pia Degermark as The Girl
Ralph Richardson as LeClerc
Paul Rogers as Haldane
Anthony Hopkins as John Avery
Susan George as Susan
Ray McAnally as Undersecretary of State
Robert Urquhart as Johnson
Anna Massey as Avery's Wife
Vivian Pickles as Mrs. King
Maxine Audley as Mrs. LeClerc
Cyril Shaps as East German Detective
Michael Robbins as Truck Driver
Timothy West as Taylor
Frederick Jaeger as The Pilot
Peter Swanwick as Finnish Policeman
Paul Maxwell as CIA Man
Guy Deghy as Fritsche
Ernest Walder as Radio Engineer
Patrick Wright as East German Policeman (VoPo)
Sylva Langova as East German Woman
David Scheur as Russian Officer
Allan McClelland as Doctor
Angela Down as Chelsea Girl
Robert Wilde as English Policeman
Nicholas Stewart as German Boy
Linda Hedger as Taylor's Child
Russell Lewis as Avery's Child

See also
 List of British films of 1970

External links

1970 films
British spy films
Cold War spy films
Films based on works by John le Carré
Films directed by Frank Pierson
1970s spy films
1970s action thriller films
1970s English-language films
1970s German-language films
Films based on British novels
British action thriller films
Films about MI6
Columbia Pictures films
1970 drama films
Films set in East Germany
Films about the KGB
1970 multilingual films
British multilingual films
1970s British films

The Looking Glass War (film)


The Centre for Russian Music is a research centre based at Goldsmiths, University of London. The main purpose of the centre is to promote research, publication and performance. It offers interdisciplinary activities focused on cultural, social, political and musical problems of Russian modern history and based on its archival collections. The Centre for Russian Music works in collaboration with the Serge Prokofiev Archive and the Alfred Schnittke Archive which contains manuscripts, facsimiles of all scores (including unfinished ones), private papers, sketches, photos, films, tapes of Schnittke's own performances and talks, all published scores, books and articles on Schnittke, and all existing recordings of his music. The Centre for Russian Music  works under the supervision of an international board of advisors. Its director until 2014 was the cellist and musicologist Alexander Ivashkin. The Centre is used by researchers and students from many countries, and makes its materials available to any interested scholar. Current researchers included Blanc Wan.

Serge Prokofiev Archive
The Serge Prokofiev Archive is the only archive in the world wholly dedicated to this composer. Established at Goldsmiths College in 1994, the Archive was an initiative of Lina Prokofiev, the composer's first wife. After her death in 1989, the Foundation decided to set up and support an archive where all available materials relating to Prokofiev, including family papers, would be regrouped under one roof.

Alfred Schnittke Archive
The Archive was founded in 1999 and contains facsimile copies of almost every score that Alfred Schnittke completed, many original and unfinished scores, sketches, documentary material relating to premieres/commissions and an extensive collection of secondary sources relating to Schnittke's work.

Special collections
Malcolm Henbury Ballan's collection of Russian Piano Music (including many rare first editions);
Malcolm Henbury Ballan's collection of orchestral and chamber scores;
Special collection of post-Soviet scores, recordings and document;
Nikolai Korndorf's archive;
Giles Roche's collection of the scores, recordings and books

Partnership Institution
The Centre for Russian Music has collaborated with following research and educational institutions:

 Centre for Contemporary Music, Moscow, Russia;
 The Russian Music Academy, Moscow, Russia;
 The Alfred Schnittke Academy, Hamburg, Germany;
 The State Institute of Arts Studies, Moscow;
 The State Schnittke Institute, Moscow;
 The Rakhmaninov Institute, Tambov, Russia;
 The Rutgers University, USA;
 The Ohio State University, USA;
 The Yale University, USA (The Prokofiev Society of America);
 The University of California, USA;
 The University d'Evry, France;
 The Shostakovich Centre, Paris, France;
 The D.D.Shostakovich Archives, Moscow, Russia;
 The Rostropovich Archive, St Petersburg, Russia;
 The Saratov State Conservatoire (The Schnittke Centre), Saratov, Russia;
 The Russian State Archive for Literature and Arts (RGALI);
 The Russian Composers Union Library and Archives;
 The State Museum of Musical Culture Archive;
 The University of Canterbury, New Zealand;
 The University of Manchester;
 The University of Edinburgh (Slavic Languages Department);
 The SSEES, University of London;
 The British Film Institute;
 The Royal Musical Association;
 The Moscow Conservatory, Russia;
 The Glinka Conservatoire, Nizhni Novgorod, Russia;
 The Compozitor Publishers, St Petersburg, Russia;
 The Bolshoi Opera House and Archives, Moscow, Russia;
 The Birmingham University;
 The Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance, London;
 The School of Advanced Studies, Institute of Musical Research, London

References

External links
 Research Centre for Russian Music
 Goldsmiths, University of London

Research institutes in the United Kingdom
Russian music
Goldsmiths, University of London

Centre for Russian Music


Dindigul district is an administrative region in the south of Tamil Nadu, India. The district was carved out of Madurai district in 1985. The Dindigul city is the headquarters of the district. It has an area of 6266.64 km2 and comprises three Revenue Divisions, nine Taluks, and 14 Panchayat Unions.According to 2011 census of India, Dindigul district had a population of 2,159,775 with a sex-ratio of 998 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929.

Economy
In 2006, the Ministry of Panchayati Raj named Dindigul one of the country's 250 most backward districts (out of a total of 640). It is one of the six districts in Tamil Nadu currently receiving funds from Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme (BRGF).

References

Dindigul district

Dindigul district


John F. Mims (November 10, 1815 – April 30, 1856) sixth mayor of Atlanta and agent of the Georgia Railroad & Banking Company.

In the late 1840s he founded a flour mill with Lemuel Grant, Richard Peters and his younger brother William Peters but it didn't do well with competition from Mark A. Cooper's mill in north Georgia but was still important for the diversification of the city's enterprises. The wood-fired steam engine was used for the Confederate Powder Works in Augusta, Georgia.

As mayor he built the first city hall and commissioned the first city map, produced by Edward A. Vincent in 1853. An illness forced him to resign in October 1853 and a special election was held two weeks later. He died in 1856 and is buried at Oakland Cemetery.

References

Mayors of Atlanta
1815 births
1856 deaths
19th-century American politicians
Burials at Oakland Cemetery (Atlanta)

John Mims


An orienteering course is composed of a start point, a series of control points, and a finish point. Controls are marked with a white and orange flag in the terrain, and corresponding purple symbols on an orienteering map. The challenge is to complete the course by visiting all control points in the shortest possible time, aided only by the map and a compass.

Course types and lengths
Courses can have varying degrees of difficulty, both technical and physical. Courses for children and novices are made easy, while experienced competitors may face extremely challenging courses. Technical difficulty is determined primarily by the terrain and the navigational problems of crossing that terrain to locate the feature on which the control is placed. Linear features such as fences, walls, and paths generally offer low difficulty; natural features such as forest or open moor can offer high difficulty. Physical difficulty is determined by the length of the course, the amount of climb, and the kinds of terrain (rocky, boggy, undergrowth etc.). General guidelines for orienteering courses are available from the International Orienteering Federation and national orienteering sport bodies.

Both the British Orienteering Federation (BOF) and Orienteering USA (OUSA) have formal systems that define levels of technical difficulty. The BOF system has 5 levels whereas the OUSA system has 7. In both systems, novices start on a course with a technical and physical difficulty of 1 and progress according to their age, experience, and ability up to a course with a technical and physical difficulty of 5. Great care is taken to ensure that developing juniors are provided with a course that gives them a satisfying challenge without pushing them beyond their current ability.

Advanced courses can be divided into long distance, middle distance and sprint. For instance, a long course can have expected winning times up to 100 minutes (elite men), or 80 minutes (elite women), while a sprint course will have expected winning times 12–15 minutes. As competitor speed is dependent on the terrain there is no fixed distance for course lengths, instead the course length is derived from an expected winning time, and the actual course length will vary according to the difficulty of the terrain and expected fitness of the best participants.

Relay
In a relay, all teams run the same overall course, with each team member running a part of the overall course. Different teams will run the course in a different order e.g. if the overall course consists of parts A, B, and C, teams may run ABC, BCA, or CAB.

Course planning

When designing a course, the aim is to present a course that is suited to the ability of the competitor, and such that orienteering skills (fast map reading, running in rough terrain, finding the best route, etc.) rather than luck most likely will decide the outcome of the competition. A fair course requires a reliable map, unambiguous control points, accurate placement of control points on the map, and good and challenging course legs between the control points.

For International and National events courses are provided according to the age of the competitor e.g. M21E is a course for men aged over 21 and who are classed as 'elite'. For other events a simplified structure is used: both the British Orienteering Federation (BOF) and Orienteering USA (OUSA) have guidelines for these courses which incorporate the levels of technical difficulty.  The BOF system has 5 levels of technical difficulty and the OUSA system has 3.  In both systems, White courses have the least technical challenge, followed by Yellow and Orange.  In both systems, all other courses (Red, Blue, Green, Brown, Black) are for advanced competitors and vary only in their degree and kind of physical challenge.  In the BOF system, White and Yellow together correspond to OUSA White; Orange corresponds more or less to OUSA Yellow; and Light Green corresponds to OUSA Orange.

In OUSA, the guidelines for designing course levels are as follows:

White—2-3 kilometers, winning time: 25-30 min., age up to 12

Control points should be close together, large and very easy (f.ex. trail junctions). The path should be along linear features, like trails, roads and stone walls. No compass needed. No route choice necessary. The most common complaint is that the white course was too hard. It's not unusual for an 8-year-old to be doing the course on their own. Especially the first controls should be easy.

Yellow—3-5 kilometers, 35–40 minutes, age 13-14 and novices

The basic course should be along linear features, but the controls should be large and set back 25-50m from a linear feature. Limited compass use. Legs should be 200-600m. The first couple controls should be especially easy to allow people to familiarize themselves with the map.

Orange—4.5-7 kilometers, 50-55 min., intermediate

Controls should be moderately difficult. Navigation should not be primarily along paths. A compass is necessary. Course choice is actively encouraged. However, every control should be within 100m of an attack point, or obvious feature, and beyond the control should be a linear catch feature, so that the runner knows when s/he has gone too far. On no more than two legs should navigation rely solely on compass and counting paces. Orange course are often perceived as much more difficult than yellow. Once you can reliably complete orange courses, you have learned the basic skill.

There is also a Green course, Brown, Red, and Blue in the U.S. Yellow, Orange and Green are the only ones available to the JROTC branches, and are the usual choices for most civilians.

There is generally almost no overlap between white, yellow and orange controls. The requirements of each are fundamentally different. However, for brown, green, red and blue courses, the control requirements are basically the same. The advanced courses differ in length and degree of strenuousness. Finding the controls should require skill rather than luck. They should therefore be placed at a small identifiable feature—depressions, knolls, small reentrants—not in the middle of a field of tall grass, but also not too close to the top of a hill that anyone can find. Try to avoid legs which just require physical effort but no skill. Place controls before linear features instead of after them so that more skilled navigators have an advantage. Legs should be shorter if you don't follow linear features and should be no closer than 200m to a linear feature. At least one leg should be around 800m. Route choice should be maximized to favor those who choose the best routes. Often brown and green courses are run by older, but skilled orienteers. Therefore, steep inclines should be avoided. Vision and eye injury is a consideration on these courses.

Computer software is available which helps in the planning of courses and can be used for pre-printing courses on orienteering maps. Current software includes Condes, and OCAD.

References

External links
Condes official website
OCAD official website

Orienteering
Sports terminology

Course (orienteering)


Florence Maria Temko (October 20, 1921 – November 12, 2009), a pioneer in spreading origami in the United States, was perhaps the most prolific author on this subject. With fifty-five books to her credit on paper arts and folk crafts, she was a strong influence on interested beginners in the art of paperfolding. Some of them later developed complex origami designs previously unimaginable and applied their expertise into advanced innovations in the fields of art and science.

Early life
She was born Florence Maria Marx, in London, the daughter of Erich and Erna Marx. She studied at Wycombe Abbey, St. George's Business College and the London School of Economics, but her education was interrupted by World War II. She also studied at the New School for Social Research in New York.

Personal life
She met US Army Sergeant Leonard Temko, and they married in 1945. In 1946, they settled in New Jersey and had three children: Joan A Temko, and twins Stephen Temko and Ronald Temko.

They divorced in 1968, and she married her second husband Henry Petzel in 1969. In 1982, they moved to San Diego, and divorced in the late 1990s.

Later work
Her credits include audience participating lectures and workshops at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. She made two films for The National Film Board of Canada and BFA Educational Films. Florence authored 12 craft books including, in cooperation with the U.S. Committee for UNICEF, the book "Folk Crafts For World Friendship" (illustrated by Yaroslava Surmach Mills)which describes crafts from many nations, including the craft's origin, customs relating to the craft and step-by-step instructions.

Her involvement as a consultant to the Mingei International Museum in San Diego, California, resulted in the mounting of the "Masterworks of Origami" exhibition there in 2003. Other museums in the United States and other countries subsequently recognized origami as an art form and set up their own exhibitions.

Her books continue to circulate well, especially in libraries, because readers find they can follow the clear step-by-step directions easily and there are various levels of complexity presented in each book. Among the many original origami designs created by her are some of the most popular: Rooster, Penguin, Star Bowl, Squawker Action Toy, Mortar Board Graduation Hat, Thanksgiving Turkey, and the Zig-Zag Sculpture.

She died on November 12, 2009 at her home in La Jolla, California.

References

External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20091028021308/http://www.bloominxpressions.com/origami.htm
http://www.origami-resource-center.com/Temko-Index.html
http://www.origami-usa.org/
Sign On San Diego obituary
Times, London obituary

1921 births
2009 deaths
Origami artists
Writers from London
People educated at Wycombe Abbey
British emigrants to the United States

Florence Temko


The Loves of Robert Burns is a 1930 British historical musical film directed by Herbert Wilcox and starring Joseph Hislop, Dorothy Seacombe and Eve Gray. It depicts the life of the Scottish poet Robert Burns.

Cast
 Joseph Hislop ...  Robert Burns
 Dorothy Seacombe ...  Jean Armour
 Eve Gray ...  Mary Campbell
 Nancy Price ...  Posie Nancy
 Jean Cadell ...  Mrs. Burns
 C. V. France ...  Lord Farquhar
 Neil Kenyon ...  Tam the Tinkler
 George Baker ...  Soldier
 Harold Saxon-Snell ...  Gavin Hamilton
 Craighall Sherry ...  James Armour
 Wilfred Shine ...  Sailor

Production
The film was the first joint production between Herbert Wilcox Productions, and His Master's Voice gramophone company. The aim of this was to give Wilcox access to their celebrity recording stars such as Chaliapin, John McCormick, Galli-Curci, Yehudi Menuhin and others. For the lead he cast the Scottish tenor Joseph Hislop.

Reception
Wilcox later wrote it was "a good film, I thought, but not commercially successful" which led to the gramophone company ending the relationship with Wilcox. "Had I chosen a less indigenous subject and a greater name star, the story might have been vastly different," wrote Wlcox.

Critical reception
The New York Times wrote, "another film which was manufactured with a particular eye to American consumption has on its showing here fallen far short of standards set by British critics...It was thought that the story of the Scottish poet whose fame has been spread throughout the world by his fervently admiring countrymen would command a certain amount of universal appeal. An undoubted opportunity has been missed in that respect. Joseph Hislop, a well-known and popular tenor, was selected for the rôle of the poet, and he does his part, so far as the rendering of a series of Burns's famous songs is concerned, as well as could be desired. On the other hand, the photographic work is much below the standard and the character of Bobbie is divested of most of those qualities which endeared him to his readers as a man as his verse commended him to them as a poet. "The Loves of Robert Burns," indeed, was so unsatisfactory to the London public that it was withdrawn at the end of one week's trial at a central cinema, although it had been largely advertised in advance. Herbert Wilcox was the producer and apparently he fell between two stools—that of finding a singer who could do justice to Bobbie Burns's "Comin' Through the Rye" and other equally famous ballads, and an actor who could present an adequate picture of Robbie the man" ; and more recently, TV Guide called it a "poorly produced life of the famed writer that is short on fact and long on fancy. Hislop, a noted operatic tenor, is about the best thing the film has going. He gives a fairly good performance and handles the songs well. However the script is a joke. Though the title implies that several
affairs will be dealt with, in reality there are only two. Gray and Seacombe are Hislop's two lovers, both historically inaccurate. The film shows Seacombe being seduced and being made into "an honest woman" by Burns, when in reality they married and had several children. This story gives them no
family at all. The Scottish settings are used nicely, but the actors keep forgetting what country they are in and their accents change from scene to scene. Better to buy an anthology of Burns' work than to deal with the mess here."

References

Wilcox, Herbert, Twenty Five Thousand Sunsets, 1967

External links

1930 films
British historical musical films
1930s English-language films
Films directed by Herbert Wilcox
1930s historical musical films
Cultural depictions of Robert Burns
British black-and-white films
British and Dominions Studios films
Films shot at Imperial Studios, Elstree
1930s British films

The Loves of Robert Burns


Moritz Pasch (8 November 1843, Breslau, Prussia (now Wrocław, Poland) – 20 September 1930, Bad Homburg, Germany) was a German mathematician of Jewish ancestry specializing in the foundations of geometry. He completed his Ph.D. at the University of Breslau at only 22 years of age. He taught at the University of Giessen, where he is known to have supervised 30 doctorates.

In 1882, Pasch published a book, Vorlesungen über neuere Geometrie, calling for the grounding of Euclidean geometry in more precise primitive notions and axioms, and for greater care in the deductive methods employed to develop the subject. He drew attention to a number of heretofore unnoted tacit assumptions in Euclid's Elements. He then argued that mathematical reasoning should not invoke the physical interpretation of the primitive terms, but should instead rely solely on formal manipulations justified by axioms. This book is the point of departure for:
Similarly concerned Italians: Peano, Mario Pieri, Alessandro Padoa
Hilbert's work on geometry and mathematical axiomatics in general;
All modern thinking about the foundations of Euclidean geometry.

Pasch is perhaps best remembered for Pasch's axiom:

Given three noncollinear points a, b, c and a line X not containing any of these points, if X includes a point between a and b, then X also includes one and only one of the following: a point between a and c, or a point between b and c.

In other words, if a line crosses one side of a triangle, that line must also cross one of the two remaining sides of the same triangle.

Selected publications
 Vorlesungen über neuere Geometrie, Leipzig 1882;
 Einleitung in die Differential- und Integralrechnung, Leipzig 1882
 Grundlagen der Analysis, Leipzig, 1908
 Mathematik und Logik, Leipzig, 1919
  Die Begriffsswelt des Mathematikers in der Vorhalll der Geometrie, Leipzig, 1922

Translations

See also
Pasch's theorem
Pasch hypergraph
Ordered geometry

References

External links

 The Mathematics Genealogy Project: Pasch.

1843 births
1930 deaths
19th-century German Jews
19th-century German mathematicians
Geometers
20th-century German mathematicians

Moritz Pasch


Resonance is a Graphic adventure video game developed by American studio XII Games and published by Wadjet Eye Games.

Plot
Ed (voiced by Edward Bauer) is the assistant to Professor Javier Morales, a brilliant particle physicist. He encounters Anna (Sarah Elmaleh) on a train, and they become friendly. When he arrives at the laboratory, he meets Detective Bennett (Logan Cunningham), who is responding to an emergency call. Some sort of disaster has taken place; the lab has been destroyed, and Professor Morales is dead. Meanwhile, political blogger Ray (Daryl Lathon) is investigating a mysterious organisation known as Antevorta at the behest of a shadowy source, and uncovers a database of the DNA sequences of everyone in the country hidden in a hospital. While taking Morales to the hospital, Ed and Bennett encounter both Ray and Anna, who is a doctor and Morales's niece. Ed reveals that Morales was working on a technology called Resonance, which could be used as a deadly weapon in the wrong hands, and the four of them set out to discover who is responsible for Morales's death and ensure that they do not take hold of his research. That night, Anna is attacked by an intruder in her apartment and flees for her life, escaping her attacker and reuniting with Ed and Bennett.

The four of them discover that Morales had a secret vault somewhere in the city, and surmise that his research must be stored there. Bennet steals the blueprints of the laboratory from the police archives and Ray secures Morales's credit history from a contact of his. The exact details of the vault have been stolen from the security firm who designed it, but they are able to locate it regardless. The four protagonists break into the vault, which is in the tunnels below the laboratory. As they reach the vault, Bennett is held at gunpoint with Ed accusing him of being bribed by Antevorta. When Anna accesses the vault computer, she discovers that Morales was not her uncle, but her father. She has the opportunity to download or delete the Resonance research, but before she acts, Bennett suddenly realizes that Ed had been traveling far out of his way on the metro in order to be on the line Anna rode at the start of the game, and that he is the Antevorta plant. Ed shoots Anna, steals the Resonance devices, and flees.

Upon leaving the vault, Bennett and Ray discover that they have been blamed for both Anna and Morales's murders, and are now wanted men. They are summoned to a meeting with the man who stole the vault plans, who is also Ray's source, and who works for Antevorta. From there they are able to track Ed down to the hospital, where he is attempting to destroy the Antevorta database. He has placed the Resonance devices, taken from the vault, in the basement and on the roof so that the database lies between them. After finding and taking the one in the basement, Ray and Bennett see a television broadcast revealing a series of terrible Resonance attacks is occurring all over the world. They rush to the rooftop to confront Ed, who holds them at gunpoint and sets the timer to fire the Resonance devices in a few minutes. He reveals that he was once the pawn of Antevorta, who compelled him to become close to Anna under false pretenses and aid them in stealing Resonance. He explains that Antevorta is responsible for the global attacks, intending them as a false flag with the aim of securing political power. From here, there are two possible endings:

Ending 1: Ray positions himself so that when the Resonance devices fire, Ed is unknowingly standing directly in between them, and is vaporized. They are unable to prevent the President from enacting legislation giving Antevorta sweeping political power. Later, Ray has written a news article revealing the truth behind what has happened, but he and Bennett have been offered a full pardon in exchange for their silence. The game ends with the player deciding whether or not to publish the article.
Ending 2: Ray agrees with Ed that Antevorta must be stopped, and shows him the device Ed presumed to be in the basement. Ed subsequently halts the timer. Bennett protests, refusing to aid a murderer, and Ed shoots and kills him in response. Ed and Ray exit the rooftop, and the scene fades to black. The resonance explosion is then shown, vaporizing a crater in the side of the hospital (presumably where Antevorta is located). Later, Ray has written a news article revealing the truth behind what has happened, but Ed urges him not to publish it, as world powers have united against the attacks, and he fears their knowing the truth will ruin the peace. Despite his protestations, Ray publishes the article.
Finale: The aftermath of the player's choices plays out in the form of newspaper headlines behind the closing credits.

Gameplay
The game's graphics have what IGN called a "retro, low-res pixel art aesthetic". After a series of brief vignettes in which the player controls one character at a time, they are able to switch between any of the four characters at will, using the menu at the top of the screen. They are controlled through a simplified point and click interface, in the style of traditional adventure games from LucasArts and Sierra Entertainment. Many puzzles require multiple characters in order to solve them, such as one in which Ed must crawl into a ventilation shaft while Bennett controls the flow of water through a series of pipes. All four protagonists have areas only they can access or characters who only they can speak to, though most actions can be performed by any of them. All four will offer slightly different descriptions of objects or characters when looking at them.

In addition to a traditional inventory, the player is able to drag objects from the gameworld into a menu which represents the character's memory, which allows them to ask about the object in question when talking to NPCs or one another. The game also consists of several puzzles which the player must solve, including a block-moving puzzle box and a hallucinatory maze.

Resonance features a creator's commentary mode. When this is active, hotspots are inserted into the gameworld which, when clicked, will trigger an audio commentary from either Vince Twelve or Dave and Janet Gilbert, describing various elements of the background and making of the game.

Development
Vince Twelve worked on the game in his spare time for five years, writing, designing, programming, and creating the special effects for the game. Towards the end of that period the game was taken on by Wadjet Eye Games, with Dave Gilbert taking on the role of executive producer and voice director, and Janet Gilbert the role of full-time programmer, the only person to work full-time on the project at any point.  Vince Twelve continued on as project manager and writer.  Working together, they were able to complete and publish the game. The game was on Kickstarter in late 2009.

Reception

Resonance received "generally favorable reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Reviewing it for Kotaku, Kate Cox said, "Resonance is the best classic-style adventure game I've played in ages. Go get it now," and a Destructoid review called it "a fresh, modern mystery (which has) set the bar rather high for other adventure game developers, and not just indies...it might have been over all too quickly, but it was undoubtedly worth the five year wait." The GameSpot review was more critical, stating that the "script relies on cliches to fill in for real characterization and personal development (and) the dialogue is also weak, both in and of itself and with regard to how it fits in with Resonances scenes."

Resonance was awarded several AGS Awards, it was awarded Best Gameplay, Best Independent Adventure, and Best Traditional Adventure as selected by both the staff and readers of the site.

Resonance was also named the best indie adventure game of 2012 by Indie Games Plus. The site also listed Resonance at #9 among the top 12 indie games of 2012.

References

External links

2012 video games
Adventure Game Studio games
AGS Award winners
Indie games
Kickstarter-funded video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Point-and-click adventure games
Single-player video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games featuring female protagonists
Wadjet Eye Games games
Windows games

Resonance (video game)