Nirvana (Sanskrit: निर्वाण, ; Pali: ) is "blowing out" or "quenching" of the activity of the grasping mind and its related unease. Nirvana is the goal of many Buddhist paths, and marks the soteriological release from worldly suffering and rebirths in saṃsāra. Nirvana is part of the Third Truth on "cessation of dukkha" in the Four Noble Truths, and the "summum bonum of Buddhism and goal of the Eightfold Path."

In the Buddhist tradition, nirvana has commonly been interpreted as the extinction of the "three fires" (in analogy to, but rejecting, the three sacraficial fires of the Vedic ritual), or "three poisons", greed (raga), aversion (dvesha) and ignorance (moha). When these fires are extinguished, release from saṃsāra, the perpetual grasping activity of the mind, or the cycle of rebirth, is attained.

Nirvana has also been claimed by some scholars to be identical with anatta (non-self) and sunyata (emptiness) states though this is hotly contested by other scholars and practicing monks. In time, with the development of the Buddhist doctrine, other interpretations were given, such as the absence of the weaving (vana) of activity of the mind, the elimination of desire, and escape from the woods, cq. the five skandhas or aggregates.

Buddhist Theravada scholastic tradition identifies two types of nirvana: sopadhishesa-nirvana literally "nirvana with a remainder", attained and maintained during life, and parinirvana or anupadhishesa-nirvana, meaning "nirvana without remainder" or final nirvana, achieved on death, a death which is not followed by a rebirth or reincarnation in (according to Buddhist beliefs) the usual way. The founder of Buddhism, the Buddha, is believed to have reached both these states, the first at his Enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree, and the latter at his death many years later.  Most Mahayana authorities have broadly similar ideas, but prefer the terms "abiding" and "non-abiding nirvana" for the two stages.

Nirvana, the quenching of the burning mind, is the highest aim of the Theravada tradition. In the Mahayana tradition, the highest goal is Buddhahood, in which there is no abiding in nirvana. Buddha helps liberate beings from saṃsāra by teaching the Buddhist path. There is no rebirth for Buddha or people who attain nirvana. But his teachings remain in the world for a certain time as a guidance to attain nirvana.

Meaning and etymology
The origin of the term nirvana is probably pre-Buddhist. It was a more or less central concept among the Jains, the Ajivikas, the Buddhists, and certain Hindu traditions.

It generally describes a state of freedom from suffering and rebirth. The ideas of spiritual liberation using different terminology, is found in ancient texts of non-Buddhist Indian traditions, such as in verse 4.4.6 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad of Hinduism.

The term may have been imported into Buddhism with much of its semantic range from these other sramanic movements. However its etymology may not be conclusive for its meaning. Different Buddhist traditions have interpreted the concept in different ways, and the term has had a range of meanings over time.

Extinction and blowing out
One literal interpretation translates nir√vā as "blow out", interpreting nir is a negative, and va as "to blow"., giving a meaning of "blowing out" or "quenching". It is seen to refer to both to the act and the effect of blowing (at something) to put it out, but also the process and outcome of burning out, becoming extinguished.

The term nirvana in the soteriological sense of "blown out, extinguished" state of liberation does not appear in the Vedas nor in the pre-Buddhist Upanishads. According to Collins, "the Buddhists seem to have been the first to call it nirvana."

The term nirvana then became part of an extensive metaphorical structure that was probably established at a very early age in Buddhism. According to Gombrich, the number of three fires alludes to the three fires which a Brahmin had to keep alight, and thereby symbolise life in the world, as a family-man. The meaning of this metaphor was lost in later Buddhism, and other explanations of the word nirvana were sought. Not only passion, hatred and delusion were to be extinguished, but also all cankers (asava) or defilements (khlesa). Later exegetical works developed a whole new set of folk etymological definitions of the word nirvana, using the root vana to refer to "to blow", but re-parsing the word to roots that mean "weaving, sewing", "desire" and "forest or woods":
 vâna, derived from the root word √vā which means "to blow":
 (to) blow (of wind); but also to emit (an odour), be wafted or diffused; nirvana then means "to blow out";
 vāna, derived from the root vana or van which mean "desire",
 nirvana is then explained to mean a state of "without desire, without love, without wish" and one without craving or thirst (taṇhā);
 adding the root √vā which means "to weave or sew"; nirvana is then explained as abandoning the desire which weaves together life after life.
 vāna, derived from the root word vana which also means "woods, forest":
  based on this root, vana has been metaphorically explained by Buddhist scholars as referring to the "forest of defilements", or the five aggregates; nirvana then means "escape from the aggregates", or to be "free from that forest of defilements".

The term nirvana, "to blow out", has also been interpreted as the extinction of the "three fires", or "three poisons", namely of passion or sensuality (raga), aversion or hate (dvesha) and of delusion or ignorance (moha or avidyā).

The "blowing out" does not mean total annihilation, but the extinguishing of a flame. The term nirvana can also be used as a verb: "he or she nirvāṇa-s," or "he or she parinirvānṇa-s" (parinibbāyati).

To unbind
Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu argues that the term nibbāna was apparently derived etymologically from the negative prefix, nir, plus the root vāṇa, or binding: unbinding, and that the associated adjective is nibbuta: unbound, and the associated verb, nibbuti: to unbind. He and others use the term unbinding for nibbana. Ṭhānissaro argues that the early Buddhist association of 'blowing out' with the term arose in light of the way in which the processes of fire were viewed at that time - that a burning fire was seen as clinging to its fuel in a state of hot agitation, and that when going out the fire let go of its fuel and reached a state of freedom, cooling, and peace.

Cessation of the weaving of the mind
Another interpretation of nirvana is the absence of the weaving (vana) of activity of the mind.

To uncover
Matsumoto Shirō (1950-), of the Critical Buddhism group, stated that the original etymological root of nirvana should be considered not as nir√vā, but as nir√vŗ, to "uncover". According to Matsumoto, the original meaning of nirvana was therefore not "to extinguish" but "to uncover" the atman from that which is anatman (not atman). Swanson stated that some Buddhism scholars questioned whether 'blowing out' and 'extinction' etymologies are consistent with the core doctrines of Buddhism, particularly about anatman (non-self) and pratityasamutpada (causality). They saw a problem that considering nirvana as extinction or liberation presupposes a "self" to be extinguished or liberated. However other Buddhist scholars, such as Takasaki Jikidō, disagreed and called the Matsumoto proposal "too far and leaving nothing that can be called Buddhist".

Relationship with other terms

Release and freedom from suffering; moksha, vimutti
Nirvana is used synonymously with moksha (Sanskrit), also vimoksha, or vimutti (Pali), "release, deliverance from suffering". In the Pali-canon two kinds of vimutti are discerned:
 Ceto-vimutti, freedom of mind; it is the qualified freedom from suffering, attained through the practice of concentration meditation (samādhi). Vetter translates this as "release of the heart" which means conquering desire thereby attaining a desire-less state of living.
 Pañña-vimutti, freedom through understanding (prajña); it is the final release from suffering and the end of rebirth, attained through the practice of insight meditation (vipassanā).

Ceto-vimutti becomes permanent, only with the attainment of pañña-vimutti. According to Gombrich and other scholars, these may be a later development within the canon, reflecting a growing emphasis in earliest Buddhism on prajña, instead of the liberating practice of dhyana; it may also reflect a successful assimilation of non-Buddhist meditation practices in ancient India into the Buddhist canon. According to Anālayo, the term uttari-vimutti (highest liberation) is also widely used in the early buddhist texts to refer to liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

Relationship with enlightenment and awakening
Peter Harvey has written that Buddha attained enlightenment, or awakening at age c.35, and final nirvana on his death. The Theravada School sees nirvana as being attained in the non-returner stage of the four stages of enlightenment.

Relationship with ecstasy and bliss
Nirvana is not necessarily related to ecstasy or bliss, although some commentators see such experiences as part of nirvana.

Popular Western usage
L. S. Cousins said that in popular usage nirvana was "the goal of Buddhist discipline,... the final removal of the disturbing mental elements which obstruct a peaceful and clear state of mind, together with a state of awakening from the mental sleep which they induce."

Interpretations of the early Buddhist concept

As a cessation event and the end of rebirth

Numerous modern scholars such as Rupert Gethin, Richard Gombrich, Donald S. Lopez and Paul Williams hold that nirvāṇa (nibbana in Pali), means the 'blowing out' or 'extinguishing' of greed, aversion, and delusion, and that this signifies the permanent cessation of samsara and rebirth.

According to Steven Collins, a synonym widely used for nirvana in early texts is "deathless" or "deathfree" (Pali: amata, sanskrit: amrta) and refers to a condition "where there is no death, because there is also no birth, no coming into existence, nothing made by conditioning, and therefore no time." He also adds that "the most common thing said about nirvana in Buddhist texts is that it is the ending of suffering (dukkha)." Gethin notes, "this is not a 'thing' but an event or experience" that frees one from rebirth in samsara. According to Collins, the term is also widely used as a verb, one therefore "nirvanizes." Gombrich argues that the metaphor used in the texts of flames going out, refers to fires which were kept by priests of Brahmanism, and symbolize life in the world. Nirvana is also called "unconditioned" (asankhata), meaning it is unlike all other conditioned phenomena.

The cycle of rebirth and suffering continues until a being attains nirvana. One requirement for ending this cycle is to extinguish the fires of attachment (raga), aversion (dvesha) and ignorance (moha or avidya). As Bhikkhu Bodhi states "For as long as one is entangled by craving, one remains bound in saṃsāra, the cycle of birth and death; but when all craving has been extirpated, one attains Nibbāna, deliverance from the cycle of birth and death."

According to Donald Swearer, the journey to nirvana is not a journey to a "separate reality" (contra Vedic religion or Jainism), but a move towards calm, equanimity, nonattachment and nonself. In this sense, the soteriological view of early Buddhism is seen as a reaction to earlier Indic metaphysical views. Thomas Kasulis notes that in the early texts, nirvana is often described in negative terms, including "cessation" (nirodha), "the absence of craving" (trsnaksaya), "detachment," "the absence of delusion," and "the unconditioned" (asamskrta). He also notes that there is little discussion in the early Buddhist texts about the metaphysical nature of nirvana, since they seem to hold that metaphysical speculation is an obstacle to the goal. Kasulis mentions the Malunkyaputta sutta which denies any view about the existence of the Buddha after his final bodily death, all positions (the Buddha exists after death, does not exist, both or neither) are rejected. Likewise, another sutta (AN II 161) has Sāriputta saying that asking the question "is there anything else?" after the physical death of someone who has attained nirvana is conceptualizing or proliferating (papañca) about that which is without proliferation (appapañcaṃ) and thus a kind of distorted thinking bound up with the self.

In the early texts, the practice of the noble path and the four dhyanas was said to lead to the extinction of the three fires, and then proceed to the cessation of all discursive thoughts and apperceptions, then ceasing all feelings (happiness and sadness). According to Collins, nirvana is associated with a meditative attainment called the 'Cessation of Perception/Ideation and Feeling' (sannavedayitanirodha), also known as the 'Attainment of Cessation' (nirodhasamapatti). In later Buddhism, dhyana practice was deemed sufficient only for the extinguishing of passion and hatred, while delusion was extinguished by insight.

As a metaphysical reality or transcendent consciousness
The Franco-Belgian school of indology held a different view of nirvana. According to this tradition of scholarship, the view of primitive Buddhism was that nirvana was a positive reality, a kind of immortal state (amrta) similar to the godly abode of svarga found in the Edicts of Ashoka.

Peter Harvey has defended the idea that nirvana in the Pali suttas refers to a kind of transformed and transcendent consciousness (viññana) that has "stopped" (nirodhena). According to Harvey this nirvanic consciousness is said to be "objectless", "infinite" (anantam), "unsupported" (appatiṭṭhita) and "non-manifestive" (anidassana) as well as "beyond time and spatial location". Rune Johansson's The Psychology of Nirvana also argues that nirvana could be seen as a transformed state of mind (citta).

Bhikkhu Bodhi, a Theravada monk, translator and scholar, argues that various descriptions of nibbana from the early buddhist texts "convey a more concrete idea of the ultimate goal" which differs from mere cessation and "speak of Nibbana almost as if it were a transcendent state or dimension of being." Bodhi notes that nibbana is sometimes described as a base (ayatana), an unborn and unconditioned state (pada), a reality (dhamma), and an "element" (dhatu). This transcendent state is compared to the ocean, which is "deep, immeasurable, [and] hard to fathom."

Stanislaw Schayer, a Polish scholar, argued in the 1930s that the Nikayas preserve elements of an archaic form of Buddhism which is close to Brahmanical beliefs, which also survived in the Mahayana tradition. Schayer argued that the Theravada and Mahayana traditions could be "divergent, but equally reliable records" of a now lost pre-canonical Buddhism. The Mahayana tradition may have preserved some very old, pre-canonical teachings, which was mostly (but not completely) left out of the Theravada canon. Schayer saw nirvana as an immortal, deathless sphere, and as a transmundane reality. Schayer's position was also defended by Constantin Regamey, who saw the early Buddhist view of nirvana as being similar (but not the same) as some Brahamanical views of an eternal and absolute reality.

Edward Conze had similar ideas about nirvana, citing sources which speak of an eternal and "invisible infinite consciousness, which shines everywhere" as point to the view that nirvana is a kind of Absolute. A similar view was defended by M. Falk, who held that the nirvanic element, as an "essence" or pure consciousness, is immanent within samsara. M. Falk argues that the early Buddhist view of nirvana is that it is an "abode" or "place" of prajña, which is gained by the enlightened. This nirvanic element, as an "essence" or pure consciousness, is immanent within samsara.

A similar view is also defended by Christian Lindtner, who argues that in pre-canonical Buddhism, nirvana is:

According to Christian Lindtner, the original and early Buddhist concepts of nirvana were similar to those found in competing Śramaṇa (strivers/ascetics) traditions such as Jainism and the tradition of the Upanishads. It was not a purely psychological idea, but a concept described in terms of Indian cosmology and a related theory of consciousness. All Indian religions, over time, states Lindtner evolved these ideas, internalizing the state but in different ways because early and later Vedanta continued with the metaphysical idea of Brahman and soul, but Buddhism did not. In this view, the canonical Buddhist views on nirvana was a reaction against early (pre-canonical) Buddhism, along with the assumptions of Jainism and the Upanishadic thought on the idea of personal liberation. As a result of this reaction, nirvana came to be seen as a state of mind, instead of a concrete place. Elements of this precanonical Buddhism may have survived the canonisation, and its subsequent filtering out of ideas, and re-appeared in Mahayana Buddhism. According to Lindtner, the existence of multiple, and contradicting ideas, is also reflected in the works of Nagarjuna, who tried to harmonize these different ideas. According to Lindtner, this lead him to taking a "paradoxical" stance, for instance regarding nirvana, rejecting any positive description.

Referring to this view, Alexander Wynne holds that there is no evidence in the Sutta Pitaka that the Buddha held this view, at best it only shows that "some of the early Buddhists were influenced by their Brahminic peers". Wynne concludes that the Buddha rejected the views of the Vedas and that his teachings present a radical departure from these Brahminical beliefs.

Nirvana with and without remainder of fuel

There are two stages in nirvana, one in life, and one final nirvana upon death; the former is imprecise and general, the latter is precise and specific. The nirvana-in-life marks the life of a monk who has attained complete release from desire and suffering but still has a body, name and life. The nirvana-after-death, also called nirvana-without-substrate, is the complete cessation of everything, including consciousness and rebirth. This main distinction is between the extinguishing of the fires during life, and the final "blowing out" at the moment of death:
 Sa-upādisesa-nibbāna (Pali; Sanskrit sopadhiśeṣa-nirvāṇa), "nirvana with remainder", "nirvana with residue." Nirvana is attained during one's life, when the fires are extinguished. There is still the "residue" of the five skandhas, and a "residue of fuel", which however is not "burning". Nirvana-in-this-life is believed to result in a transformed mind with qualities such as happiness, freedom of negative mental states, peacefulness and non-reactiveness.
 An-up ādisesa-nibbāna (Pali; Sanskrit nir-upadhiśeṣa-nirvāṇa), "nirvana without remainder," "nirvana without residue". This is the final nirvana, or parinirvana or "blowing out" at the moment of death, when there is no fuel left.

The classic Pali sutta definitions for these states are as follows:And what, monks, is the Nibbana element with residue remaining? Here, a monk is an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached his own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, one completely liberated through final knowledge. However, his five sense faculties remain unimpaired, by which he still experiences what is agreeable and disagreeable, still feels pleasure and pain. It is the destruction of lust, hatred, and delusion in him that is called the Nibbana element with residue remaining.And what, monks, is the Nibbana element without residue remaining? Here, a monk is an arahant ... one completely liberated through final knowledge. For him, here in this very life, all that is felt, not being delighted in, will become cool right here. That, monks, is called the Nibbana element without residue remaining.Gombrich explains that the five skandhas or aggregates are the bundles of firewood that fuel the three fires. The Buddhist practitioner ought to "drop" these bundles, so that the fires are no longer fueled and "blow out". When this is done, the bundles still remain as long as this life continues, but they are no longer "on fire." Collins notes that the first type, nirvana in this life is also called bodhi (awakening), nirvana of the defilements or kilesa-(pari)nibbana, and arhatship while nirvana after death is also referred to as the nirvana of the Aggregates, khandha-(pari)nibbana.

What happens with one who has reached nirvana after death is an unanswerable question. According to Walpola Rahula, the five aggregates vanish but there does not remain a mere "nothingness."  Rahula's view, states Gombrich, is not accurate summary of the Buddhist thought, and mirrors the Upanishadic thought.

Anatta, Sunyata
Nirvana is also described in Buddhist texts as identical to anatta (anatman, non-self, lack of any self). Anatta means there is no abiding self or soul in any being or a permanent essence in any thing. This interpretation asserts that all reality is of dependent origination and a worldly construction of each human mind, therefore ultimately a delusion or ignorance. In Buddhist thought, this must be overcome, states Martin Southwold, through "the realization of anatta, which is nirvana".

Nirvana in some Buddhist traditions is described as the realization of sunyata (emptiness or nothingness). Madhyamika Buddhist texts call this as the middle point of all dualities (Middle Way), where all subject-object discrimination and polarities disappear, there is no conventional reality, and the only ultimate reality of emptiness is all that remains.

Synonyms and metaphors

A flame which goes out due to lack of fuel
A commonly used metaphor for nirvana is that of a flame which goes out due to lack of fuel:Just as an oil-lamp burns because of oil and wick, but when the oil and wick are exhausted, and no others are supplied, it goes out through lack of fuel (anaharo nibbayati), so the [enlightened] monk … knows that after the break-up of his body, when further life is exhausted, all feelings which are rejoiced in here will become cool.Collins argues that the Buddhist view of awakening reverses the Vedic view and its metaphors. While in Vedic religion, the fire is seen as a metaphor for the good and for life, Buddhist thought uses the metaphor of fire for the three poisons and for suffering. This can be seen in the Adittapariyaya Sutta commonly called "the fire sermon" as well as in other similar early Buddhist texts. The fire sermon describes the end of the "fires" with a refrain which is used throughout the early texts to describe nibbana:Disenchanted, he becomes dispassionate. Through dispassion, he is fully released. With full release, there is the knowledge, 'Fully released.' He discerns that 'Birth is ended, the holy life fulfilled, the task done. There is nothing further for this world.

An end state, where many adverse aspects of experience have ceased
In the Dhammacakkapavattanasutta, the third noble truth of cessation (associated with nirvana) is defined as: "the fading away without remainder and cessation of that same craving, giving it up, relinquishing it, letting it go, not clinging to it."

Steven Collins lists some examples of synonyms used throughout the Pali texts for Nirvana:the end, (the place, state) without corruptions, the truth, the further (shore), the subtle, very hard to see, without decay, firm, not liable to dissolution, incomparable, without differentiation, peaceful, deathless, excellent, auspicious, rest, the destruction of craving, marvellous, without affliction, whose nature is to be free from affliction, nibbana [presumably here in one or more creative etymology,= e.g., non-forest], without trouble, dispassion, purity, freedom, without attachment, the island, shelter (cave), protection, refuge, final end, the subduing of pride (or 'intoxication'), elimination of thirst, destruction of attachment, cutting off of the round (of rebirth), empty, very hard to obtain, where there is no becoming, without misfortune, where there is nothing made, sorrowfree, without danger, whose nature is to be without danger, profound, hard to see, superior, unexcelled (without superior), unequalled, incomparable, foremost, best, without strife, clean, flawless, stainless, happiness, immeasurable, (a firm) standing point, possessing nothing.

In the Theravada School

In the Theravada Abhidhamma
In the Theravada tradition's Abhidhamma texts, nibbāna is regarded as an uncompounded or unconditioned (asankhata) dhamma (phenomenon, event) which is "transmundane", and which is beyond our normal dualistic conceptions.

In Abhidhamma texts like the Vibhanga, nibbana or the asankhata-dhatu (unconditioned element) is defined thus:'What is the unconditioned element (asankhata dhatu)? It is the cessation of passion, the cessation of hatred and the cessation of delusion.'The Dhammasangani likewise describes the asankhata dhatu as that reality which is a sphere of experience unproduced by any cause or condition according to L.S. Cousins. The Dhammasangani describes it in numerous ways, such as immeasurable, superior to everything, as not past, present or future, as neither arisen nor not-arisen and as neither within nor without. Cousins also notes that "suggestively, however, it may be reckoned as nama (name) rather than rupa. This does seem to suggest some element of underlying idealism of the kind which emerges later in the vijñanavada."

Furthermore, for the Theravada, nibbana is uniquely the only asankhata dhamma (unconditioned phenomenon) and they argue that nibbana is unitary (cannot be divided). Unlike other schools, they do not recognize different unconditioned phenomena or different types of nirvana (such as the apratistha or non-abiding nirvana of Mahayana).

As noted by Thiện Châu, the Theravadins and the Pudgalavadins "remained strictly faithful to the letter of the sutras" and thus held that nirvana is the only unconditioned dhamma, while other schools also posited various asankhata dhammas (such as the Sarvastivadin view that space or akasa was unconditioned).

Medieval Theravada exegetes
The  fifth century Theravada exegete Buddhaghosa says, in his Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification):It is called nibbana (extinction) because it has gone away from (nikkhanta), has escaped from (nissata), is dissociated from, craving, which has acquired in common usage the name 'fastening (vana)' because, by ensuring successive becoming, craving serves as a joining together, a binding together, a lacing together, of the four kinds of generation, five destinies, seven stations of consciousness and nine abodes of being.Buddhaghosa also criticizes the view that nibbāna is a kind of non-existence or an absence (of the five aggregates). He argues that nibbāna is "apprehendable [by some, namely, the nobles ones] by the [right] means, in other words, by the way that is appropriate to it, [the way of virtue, concentration, and understanding]." Buddhaghosa also argues that if nibbana were a mere absence or a nothingness, it would follow that the Buddhist path would be meaningless.

According to Buddhaghosa, nibbāna is achieved after a long process of committed application to the path of purification, a gradual training extending often over a number of years. To be committed to this path already requires that a seed of wisdom is present in the individual. This wisdom becomes manifest in the experience of awakening (bodhi). Attaining nibbāna, in either the current or some future birth, depends on effort, and is not pre-determined. In the Visuddhimagga, chapter I.v.6, Buddhaghosa identifies various options within the Pali canon for pursuing a path to nirvana. According to Gombrich, this proliferation of possible paths to liberation reflects later doctrinal developments, and a growing emphasis on insight as the main liberative means, instead of the practice of dhyana.

Another influential Pali commentator, Dhammapala, also discussed nibbana in his Udana Commentary (Udanatthakatha). According to Dhammapala, nibbana is an objective reality which is the opposite of samsara. Nibbana has its own nature (sabhava) which is unlike all conditioned phenomena.

Stages of the path to nibbana

The Theravada tradition identifies four progressive stages. The first three lead to favorable rebirths in more pleasant realms of existence, while the last culminates in nirvana as an Arahat who is a fully awakened person. The first three are reborn because they still have some of the fetters, while arhat has abandoned all ten fetters and, upon death will never be reborn in any realm or world, having wholly escaped saṃsāra.

At the start, a monk's mind treats nirvana as an object (nibbanadhatu). This is followed by realizing the insight of three universal lakshana (marks): impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and nonself (anatman). Thereafter the monastic practice aims at eliminating the ten fetters that lead to rebirth.

According to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, individuals up to the level of non-returning may experience nibbāna as an object of consciousness. Certain contemplations with nibbāna as an object of samādhi lead, if developed, to the level of non-returning. At that point of contemplation, which is reached through a progression of insight, if the meditator realizes that even that state is constructed and therefore impermanent, the fetters are destroyed, arahantship is attained, and nibbāna is realized.

Modern Theravada views

K.N. Jayatilleke, a modern Sri Lankan Buddhist philosopher, holds that nirvana must be understood by a careful study of the Pali texts. Jayatilleke argues that the Pali works show that nirvana means 'extinction' as well as 'the highest positive experience of happiness'. Jayatilleke writes that despite the definition of nirvana as 'extinction', this does not mean that it is a kind of annihilation or a state of dormant nonentity, for this contradicts the statements of the Buddha that reject this interpretation. Jayatilleke holds that the early texts clearly proclaim that nothing can be said about the state of the Buddha after paranibbana (the end of his psycho-physical personality) because "we do not have the concepts or words to describe adequately the state of the emancipated person." This transcendent reality which our normal minds cannot grasp is not located in time or space, it is not causally conditioned, and beyond existence and non-existence. Because trying to explain nibbana by means of logic is impossible, the only thing to be done is to explain how to reach it, instead of dwelling on what it "is". Explaining what happens to the Buddha after nibbana is thus said to be an unanswerable.

A similarly apophatic position is also defended by Walpola Rahula, who states that the question of what nirvana is "can never be answered completely and satisfactorily in words, because human language is too poor to express the real nature of the Absolute Truth or Ultimate Reality which is Nirvana." Rahula affirms that nibbana is most often described in negative terms because there is less danger in grasping at these terms, such as "the cessation of continuity and becoming (bhavanirodha)", "the abandoning and destruction of desire and craving for these five aggregates of attachment", and "the extinction of "thirst" (tanhakkhayo)." Rahula also affirms however that nibbana is not a negative or an annihilation, because there is no self to be annihilated and because 'a negative word does not necessarily indicate a negative state'. Rahula also notes that more positive terms are used to describe nibbana such as "freedom" (mutti) and "truth" (sacca). Rahula also agrees that nirvana is unconditioned.

The American Theravada monk Bhikkhu Bodhi has defended the traditional Theravada view which sees nirvana as "a reality transcendent to the entire world of mundane experience, a reality transcendent to all the realms of phenomenal existence."

The Sri Lankan philosopher David Kalupahana has taken a different position, he argues that the Buddha's "main philosophical insight" is the principle of causality (dependent origination) and that this "is operative in all spheres, including the highest state of spiritual development, namely, nirvana." According to Kalupahana "later scholars attempted to distinguish two spheres, one in which causation prevailed and the other which is uncaused. This latter view was, no doubt, the result of a confusion in the meanings of the two terms, sankhata ('compounded') and paticcasamuppanna ('causally conditioned')." Thus, even though nibbana is termed "asankhata" (un-compounded, not-put together) there is no statement in the early texts which say that nirvana is not dependently originated or is uncaused (the term would be appaticcasamuppana). He thus argues that "nirvana is a state where there is 'natural or causal happening' (paticcasamuppada), but not 'organized,' or 'planned' conditioning (sankha-rana)", as well as "a state of perfect mental health (aroga), of perfect happiness (parama sukha), calmness or coolness (sitibhuta), and stability (aneñja), etc. attained in this life, or while one is alive."

Mahasi Sayadaw, one of the most influential 20th century Theravada vipassana teachers, states in his "On the nature of Nibbana" that "nibbana is perfect peace (santi)" and "the complete annihilation of the three cycles of defilement, action, and result of action, which all go to create mind and matter, volitional activities, etc." He further states that for arahants "no new life is formed after his decease-consciousness." Mahasi Sayadaw further states that nibbana is the cessation of the five aggregates which is like "a flame being extinguished". However this doesn't mean that "an arahant as an individual has disappeared" because there is no such thing as an "individual" in an ultimate sense, even though we use this term conventionally. Ultimate however, "there is only a succession of mental and physical phenomena arising and dissolving." For this reason, Mahasi Sayadaw holds that although for an arahant "cessation means the extinction of the successive rise and fall of the aggregates" this is not the view of annihilation (uccheda-diṭṭhi) since there is ultimately no individual to be annihilated. Mahasi further notes that "feeling [vedana] ceases with the parinibbāna of the Arahant" and also that "the cessation of senses is nibbāna" (citing the Pañcattaya Sutta). Mahasi also affirms that even though nibbana is the "cessation of mind, matter, and mental formations" and even the cessation of "formless consciousness", it is not nothing, but it is an "absolute reality" and he also affirms that "the peace of nibbana is real."

Unorthodox interpretations, nibbana as citta, viññana or atta
In Thai Theravada, as well as among some modern Theravada scholars, there are alternative interpretations which differ from the traditional orthodox Theravada view. These interpretations see nibbana as equivalent in some way with either a special kind of mind (pabhassara citta) or a special consciousness called anidassana viññāṇa, "non-manifest" consciousness which is said to be 'luminous'. In one interpretation, the "luminous consciousness" is identical with nibbana. Others disagree, finding it to be not nibbana itself, but instead to be a kind of consciousness accessible only to arahants.

Some teachers of the Thai forest tradition, such as Ajahn Maha Bua taught an idea called "original mind" which when perfected is said to exist as a separate reality from the world and the aggregates. According to Maha Bua, the indestructible mind or citta is characterized by awareness or knowing, which is intrinsically bright (pabhassaram) and radiant, and though it is tangled or "darkened" in samsara, it is not destroyed. This mind is unconditioned, deathless and an independent reality. According to Bua, this mind is impure, but when it is purified of the defilements, it remains abiding in its own foundation. Maha Bua also publicly argued (in a newspaper in 1972) that one could meet with and discuss the teachings with arahants and Buddhas of the past (and that Ajahn Mun had done so) therefore positing that nibbana is a kind of higher existence. Prayudh Payutto, a modern scholar-monk who is widely seen as the most influential authority on Buddhist doctrine in Thailand, has played a prominent role in arguing against the views of Maha Bua, strictly basing his views on the Pali canon to refute such notions.

Ajahns Pasanno and Amaro, contemporary western monastics in the Thai forest tradition, note that these ideas are rooted in a passage in the Anguttara Nikaya (1.61-62) which mentions a certain "pabhassara citta". Citing another passage from the canon which mentions a "consciousness that is signless, boundless, all-luminous" (called anidassana viññāṇa) they state that this "must mean a knowing of a primordial, transcendent nature."

A related view of nibbana has been defended by the American Thai forest monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu. According to Thanissaro, "non-manifestive consciousness" (anidassana viññāṇa) differs from the kinds of consciousness associated to the six sense media, which have a "surface" that they fall upon and arise in response to. In a liberated individual, this is directly experienced, in a way that is free from any dependence on conditions at all. In Thanissaro's view, the luminous, unsupported consciousness associated with nibbana is directly known by noble ones without the mediation of the mental consciousness factor in dependent co-arising, and is the transcending of all objects of mental consciousness. The British academic Peter Harvey has defended a similar view of nibbana as anidassana viññāṇa.

According to Paul Williams, there is also a trend in modern Thai Theravada that argues that "nirvana is indeed the true Self (Atman; Pali: atta)". This dispute began when the 12th Supreme Patriarch of Thailand published a book of essays in 1939 arguing that while the conditioned world is anatta, nibbana is atta. According to Williams, this interpretation echoes the Mahayana tathāgatagarbha sutras. This position was criticized by Buddhadhasa Bhikkhu, who argued that the not-self (anatta) perspective is what makes Buddhism unique. Fifty years after this dispute, the Dhammakaya Movement also began to teach that nibbana is not anatta, but the "true self" or dhammakaya. According to Williams, this dhammakaya (dharma body) is "a luminous, radiant and clear Buddha figure free of all defilements and situated within the body of the meditator." This view has been strongly criticized as "insulting the Buddha's teaching" and "showing disrespect to the Pali canon" by Prayudh Payutto (In his The Dhammakaya case) and this has led to fervent debates in Thai Buddhist circles.

A related idea, which finds no explicit support in the Pali Canon without interpretation, and is the product of contemporary Theravada practice tradition, despite its absence in the Theravada commentaries and Abhidhamma, is that the mind of the arahant is itself nibbāna. The Canon does not support the identification of the "luminous mind" with nirvanic consciousness, though it plays a role in the realization of nirvāṇa. Upon the destruction of the fetters, according to one scholar, "the shining nibbanic consciousness flashes out" of it, "being without object or support, so transcending all limitations."

Another western monastic in the thai forest tradition, Ajahn Brahmāli, has recently written against all of these views, drawing on a careful study of the Nikāyas. Brahmāli concludes that the "most reasonable interpretation" of final nibbāna is "no more than the cessation of the five khandhas." Brahmāli also notes that there is a kind of samādhi that is attainable only by the awakened and is based on their knowledge of nibbana (but is not nibbana itself), this meditation is what is being referred to by terms such as non-manifest consciousness (anidassana viññāṇa) and unestablished consciousness (appatiṭṭhita viññāṇa).

Bhante Sujato has written extensively to refute this idea as well.

In other Buddhist schools

Sthavira schools

The later Buddhist Abhidharma schools gave different meaning and interpretations of the term, moving away from the original metaphor of the extinction of the "three fires". The Sarvastivada Abhidharma compendium, the Mahavibhasasastra, says of nirvana: As it is the cessation of defilements (klesanirodha), it is called nirvana. As it is the extinction of the triple fires, it is called nirvana. As it is the tranquility of three characteristics, it is called nirvana. As there is separation (viyoga) from bad odor (durgandha), it is called nirvana. As there is separation from destinies (gati), it is called nirvana. Vana means forest and nir means escape. As it is the escape from the forest of the aggregates, it is called nirvana. Vana means weaving and nir means negation. As there is no weaving, it is called nirvana. In a way that one with thread can easily be woven while one without that cannot be woven, in that way one with action (karma) and defilements (klesa) can easily be woven into life and death while an asaiksa who is without any action and defilements cannot be woven into life and death. That is why it is called nirvana. Vana means new birth and nir means negation. As there is no more new birth, it is called nirvana. Vana means bondage and nir means separation. As it is separation from bondage, it is called nirvana. Vana means all discomforts of life and death and nir means passing beyond. As it passes beyond all discomforts of life and death, it is called nirvana.According to Soonil Hwang, the Sarvastivada school held that there were two kinds of nirodha (extinction), extinction without knowledge (apratisamkhyanirodha) and extinction through knowledge (pratisamkhyanirodha), which is the equivalent of nirvana. In the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, extinction through knowledge was equivalent to nirvana, and was defined by its intrinsic nature (svabhava), 'all extinction which is disjunction (visamyoga)'. This dharma is defined by the Abhidharmakosha as "a special understanding, the penetration (pratisamkhyana) of suffering and the other noble truths." Soonil explains the Sarvastivada view of nirvana as "the perpetual separation of an impure dharma from a series of aggregates through the antidote, 'acquisition of disjunction' (visamyogaprapti)." Because the Sarvastivadins held that all dharmas exist in the three times, they saw the destruction of defilements as impossible and thus "the elimination of a defilement is referred to as a 'separation' from the series." Soonil adds:That is to say, the acquisition of the defilement is negated, or technically 'disjoined' (visamyoga), through the power of knowledge that terminates the junction between that defilement and the series of aggregates. By reason of this separation, then, there arises 'the acquisition of disjunction' (visamyogaprapti) that serves as an antidote (pratipaksa), which henceforward prevents the junction between the defilement and this series. The Sarvastivadins also held that nirvana was a real existent (dravyasat) which perpetually protects a series of dharmas from defilements in the past, present and future. Their interpretation of nirvana became an issue of debate between them and the Sautrantika school. For the Sautrantikas, nirvana "was not a real existent but a mere designation (prajñaptisat) and was non-existence succeeding existence (pascadabhava)." It is something merely spoken of conventionally, without an intrinsic nature (svabhava). The Abhidharmakosha, explaining the Sautrantika view of nirvana, states:The extinction through knowledge is, when latent defilements (anusaya) and life (janman) that have already been produced are extinguished, non-arising of further such by the power of knowledge (pratisamkhya).Thus for the Sautrantikas, nirvana was simply the "non-arising of further latent defilement when all latent defilements that have been produced have already been extinguished."

Meanwhile, the Pudgalavada school interpreted nirvana as the single Absolute truth which constitutes "the negation, absence, cessation of all that constitutes the world in which we live, act and suffer". According to Thiện Châu, for the Pudgalavadins, nirvana is seen as totally different than the compounded realm, since it the uncompounded (asamskrta) realm where no compounded things exist, and it is also beyond reasoning and expression. One of the few surviving Pudgalavada texts defines nirvana as:Absolute truth is the definitive cessation of all activities of speech (vac) and of all thoughts (citta). Activity is bodily action (kayakarman): speech (vac) is that of the voice (vakkarman); thought is that of the mind (manaskarman). If these three (actions) cease definitively, that is absolute truth which is Nirvana.

Comparison of the major Sthavira school positions

Mahāsāṃghika
According to Andre Bareau, the Mahāsāṃghika school held that the nirvana reached by arhats was fundamentally inferior to that of the Buddhas. Regarding the nirvana reached by the Buddha, they held that his longevity (ayu), his body (rupa, sarira) and divine power (tejas) were infinite, unlimited and supramundane (lokuttara). Therefore, they held to a kind of docetism which posited that Buddhas only appear to be born into the world and thus when they die and enter nirvana, this is only a fiction. In reality, the Buddha remains in the form of a body of enjoyment (sambhogakaya) and continues to create many forms (nirmana) adapted to the different needs of beings in order to teach them through clever means (upaya).

According to Guang Xing, Mahāsāṃghikas held that there were two aspects of a Buddha's attainment: the true Buddha who is omniscient and omnipotent, and the manifested forms through which he liberates sentient beings through his skillful means. For the Mahāsāṃghikas, the historical Gautama Buddha was merely one of these transformation bodies (Skt. nirmāṇakāya).

Bareau also writes that for the Mahāsāṃghika school, only wisdom (prajña) can reach nirvana, not samadhi. Bareau notes that this might be the source of the prajñaparamita sutras.

Regarding the Ekavyāvahārika branch of the Mahāsāṃghikas, Bareau states that both samsara and nirvana were nominal designations (prajñapti) and devoid of any real substance. According to Nalinaksha Dutt, for the Ekavyāvahārika, all dharmas are conventional and thus unreal (even the absolute was held to be contingent or dependent) while for the Lokottaravada branch, worldly dharmas are unreal but supramundane dharmas like nirvana are real.

In Mahayana Buddhism
The Mahāyāna (Great Vehicle) tradition, which promotes the bodhisattva path as the highest spiritual ideal over the goal of arhatship, envisions different views of nirvāṇa than the Nikaya Buddhist schools. Mahāyāna Buddhism is a diverse group of various Buddhist traditions and therefore there is no single unified Mahāyāna view on nirvāṇa. However, it is generally believed that remaining in saṃsāra in order to help other beings is a noble goal for a Mahāyānist. According to Paul Williams, there are at least two conflicting models on the bodhisattva's attitude to nirvāṇa.

The first model seems to be promoted in the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra and it states that a bodhisattva postpones their nirvāṇa until they have saved numerous sentient beings, then, after reaching Buddhahood, a bodhisattva passes on to cessation just like an arhat (and thus ceases to help others). In this model, their only difference to an arhat is that they have spent aeons helping other beings and have become a Buddha to teach the Dharma. This model seems to have been influential in the early period of Indian Buddhism. Etienne Lamotte, in his analysis of the Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa, notes that this text also supports the idea that after entering complete nirvāṇa (parinirvāṇa), a bodhisattva is "able to do nothing more for gods or for men" and therefore he seeks to obtain "wisdom similar to but slightly inferior to that of the Buddhas, which allows him to remain for a long time in saṃsāra in order to dedicate himself to salvific activity by many and varied skillful means."

The second model is one which does not teach that one must postpone nirvāṇa. This model eventually developed a comprehensive theory of nirvāṇa taught by the Yogacara school and later Indian Mahāyāna, which states there are at least two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called apratiṣṭhita (non-abiding).

Apratiṣṭhita nirvāna

The classic Mahāyāna Yogacara view posits that there are at least two types of nirvana, holding that what is called ''apratiṣṭhita-nirvana'' ("non-abiding", non-localized", "non-fixed") to be the highest nirvana, and more profound than ''pratiṣṭhita-nirvāṇa'', the 'localized', lesser nirvana. According to the classic Indian theory, this lesser, abiding nirvana is achieved by followers of the "inferior" vehicle (hinayana) schools which are said to only work towards their own personal liberation. From this perspective, the hinayana path only leads to one's own liberation, either as sravaka (listener, hearer, or disciple) or as pratyekabuddha (solitary realizer).

According to Robert Buswell and Donald Lopez, ''apratiṣṭhita-nirvana'' is the standard Mahāyāna view of the attainment of a Buddha, which enables them to freely return to samsara in order to help sentient beings, while still being in a kind of nirvana. The Mahāyāna path is thus said to aim at a further realization, namely an active Buddhahood that does not dwell in a static nirvana, but out of compassion (karuṇā) engages in enlightened activity to liberate beings for as long as samsara remains. Apratiṣṭhita-nirvana is said to be reached when bodhisattvas eradicate both the afflictive obstructions (klesavarana) and the obstructions to omniscience (jñeyavarana), and is therefore different than the nirvana of arhats, who have eradicated only the former.

According to Alan Sponberg, apratiṣṭhita-nirvana is "a nirvana that is not permanently established in, or bound to, any one realm or sphere of activity". This is contrasted with a kind of nirvana which is "permanently established or fixed (pratiṣṭhita) in the transcendent state of nirvana-without-remainder (nirupadhisesa-nirvana)." According to Sponberg this doctrine developed among Yogacara Buddhists who rejected earlier views which were based on an individual liberation aimed at a transcendent state, separated from the mundane sphere of human existence. Mahayana Buddhists rejected this view as inconsistent with the universalist Mahayana ideal of the salvation of all beings and with the absolutist non-dual Mahayana perspective that did not see an ultimate distinction between samsara and nirvana. Sponberg also notes that the Madhyamika school also had a hand in developing this idea, due to their rejection of dualistic concepts which separated samsara and nirvana and their promotion of a form of liberation which was totally without duality.

Though the idea that Buddhas remain active in the world can be traced back to the Mahasamghika school, the term apratiṣṭhita-nirvana seems to be a Yogacara innovation. According to Gadjin Nagao, the term is likely to be an innovation of the Yogacaras, and possibly of the scholar Asanga (fl. 4th century CE). Sponberg states that this doctrine presents a "Soteriological Innovation in Yogacara Buddhism" which can be found mainly in works of the Yogacara school such as the Sandhinirmocana-sutra, the Lankavatarasutra, the Mahayanasutralamkara, and is most fully worked out in the Mahayana-samgraha of Asanga. In Chapter IX of the samgraha, Asanga presents the classic definition of apratiṣṭhita-nirvana in the context of discussing the severing of mental obstacles (avarana):This severing is the apratiṣṭhita-nirvana of the bodhisattva. It has as its characteristic (laksana) the revolution (paravrtti) of the dual base (asraya) in which one relinquishes all defilements (klesa), but does not abandon the world of death and rebirth (samsara). In his commentary on this passage, Asvabhava (6th century), states that the wisdom which leads to this state is termed non-discriminating cognition (nirvikalpaka-jñana) and he also notes that this state is a union of wisdom (prajña) and compassion (karuna): The bodhisattva dwells in this revolution of the base as if in an immaterial realm (arupyadhatu). On the one hand—with respect to his own personal interests (svakartham)—he is fully endowed with superior wisdom (adhiprajña) and is thus not subject to the afflictions (klesa) while on the other hand—with respect to the interests of other beings (parartham)—he is fully endowed with great compassion (mahakaruna) and thus never ceases to dwell in the world of death and re-birth (samsara).  According to Sponberg, in Yogacara, the Buddha's special wisdom that allows participation in both nirvana and samsara, termed non-discriminating cognition (nirvikalpaka-jñana) has various aspects: a negative aspect which is free from discrimination that binds one to samsara and positive and dynamic aspects which intuitively cognize the Absolute and give a Buddha "access to the Absolute without yielding efficacy in the relative."

Paths to Buddhahood
Most sutras of the Mahāyāna tradition, states Jan Nattier, present three alternate goals of the path: Arhatship, Pratyekabuddhahood, and Buddhahood. However, according an influential Mahāyāna text called the Lotus Sutra, while the lesser attainment of individual nirvana is taught as a skillful means by the Buddha in order to help beings of lesser capacities; ultimately, the highest and only goal is the attainment of Buddhahood. The Lotus sutra further states that, although these three paths are seemingly taught by Buddhas as separate vehicles (yana), they are really all just skillful ways (upaya) of teaching a single path (ekayana), which is the bodhisattva path to full Buddhahood. Thus, these three separate goals are not really different at all, the 'lesser' paths are actually just clever teaching devices used by Buddhas to get people to practice, eventually though, they will be led to the one and only path of Mahāyāna and full Buddhahood.

The Mahāyāna commentary the Abhisamayalamkara presents the path of the bodhisattva as a progressive formula of Five Paths (pañcamārga). A practitioner on the Five Paths advances through a progression of ten stages, referred to as the bodhisattva bhūmis (grounds or levels).

Omniscience
The end stage practice of the Mahāyāna removes the imprints of delusions, the obstructions to omniscience (sarvākārajñatā), which prevent simultaneous and direct knowledge of all phenomena. Only Buddhas have overcome these obstructions and, therefore, only Buddhas have omniscience knowledge, which refers to the power of a being in some way to have "simultaneous knowledge of all things whatsoever". From the Mahāyāna point of view, an arhat who has achieved the nirvana of the Lesser Vehicle will still have certain subtle obscurations that prevent the arhat from realizing complete omniscience. When these final obscurations are removed, the practitioner will attain apratiṣṭhita-nirvana and achieve full omniscience.

Buddhahood's bodies

Some Mahāyāna traditions see the Buddha in docetic terms, viewing his visible manifestations as projections from its nirvanic state. According to Etienne Lamotte, Buddhas are always and at all times in nirvana, and their corporeal displays of themselves and their Buddhic careers are ultimately illusory. Lamotte writes of the Buddhas:

This doctrine, developed among the Mahāsaṃghikas, where the historical person, Gautama Buddha, was one of these transformation bodies (Skt. nirmāṇakāya), while the essential Buddha is equated with the transcendental Buddha called dharmakāya. In Mahāyāna, this eventually developed into the doctrine of the "Three Bodies" of the Buddha (Trikaya). This doctrine is interpreted in different ways by the different Mahāyāna traditions. According to Reginald Ray, it is "the body of reality itself, without specific, delimited form, wherein the Buddha is identified with the spiritually charged nature of everything that is."

Buddha-nature

An alternative idea of Mahāyāna nirvana is found in the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras. The title itself means a garbha (womb, matrix, seed) containing Tathagata (Buddha). These Sutras suggest, states Paul Williams, that 'all sentient beings contain a Tathagata' as their 'essence, core or essential inner nature'. The tathāgatagarbha doctrine (also called buddhadhatu, buddha-nature), at its earliest probably appeared about the later part of the 3rd century CE, and is verifiable in Chinese translations of 1st millennium CE. Most scholars consider the tathāgatagarbha doctrine of an 'essential nature' in every living being is equivalent to 'Self', and it contradicts the "no self" (or no soul, no atman, anatta) doctrines in a vast majority of Buddhist texts, leading scholars to posit that the Tathagatagarbha Sutras were written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists. The Mahāyāna tradition thus often discusses nirvana with its concept of the tathāgatagarbha, the innate presence of Buddhahood. According to Alex Wayman, Buddha nature has its roots in the idea of an innately pure luminous mind (prabhasvara citta,) "which is only adventitiously covered over by defilements (agantukaklesa)" lead to the development of the concept of Buddha-nature, the idea that Buddha-hood is already innate, but not recognised.

The tathāgatagarbha has numerous interpretations in the various schools of Mahāyāna and Vajrayana Buddhism. Indian Madhyamaka philosophers generally interpreted the theory as a description of emptiness and as a non implicative negation (a negation which leaves nothing un-negated). According to Karl Brunnholzl, early Indian Yogacaras like Asanga and Vasubandhu referred to the term as "nothing but suchness in the sense of twofold identitylessness". However some later Yogacarins like Ratnakarasanti considered it "equivalent to naturally luminous mind, nondual self-awareness."

The debate as to whether tathāgatagarbha was just a way to refer to emptiness or whether it referred to some kind of mind or consciousness also resumed in Chinese Buddhism, with some Chinese Yogacarins, like Fazang and Ratnamati supporting the idea that it was an eternal non-dual mind, while Chinese Madhyamikas like Jizang rejecting this view and seeing tathāgatagarbha as emptiness and "the middle way."

In some Tantric Buddhist texts such as the Samputa Tantra, nirvana is described as purified, non-dualistic 'superior mind'.

In Tibetan Buddhist philosophy, the debate continues to this day. There are those like the Gelug school, who argue that tathāgatagarbha is just emptiness (described either as dharmadhatu, the nature of phenomena, or a nonimplicative negation). Then there are those who see it as the non-dual union of the mind's unconditioned emptiness and conditioned lucidity (the view of Gorampa of the Sakya school). Others such as the Jonang school and some Kagyu figures, see tathāgatagarbha as a kind of Absolute which "is empty of adventitious defilements which are intrinsically other than it, but is not empty of its own inherent existence".

Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra
According to some scholars, the language used in the tathāgatagarbha genre of sutras can be seen as an attempt to state orthodox Buddhist teachings of dependent origination using positive language. Kosho Yamamoto translates the explanation of nirvana in the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra (c. 100-220 CE) as follows:

In the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, the Buddha speak of four attributes which make up nirvana. Writing on this Mahayana understanding of nirvana, William Edward Soothill and Lewis Hodous state:

See also
 Ataraxia
 Bodhi
 Enlightenment (religious)
 Moksha
 Nibbāna: The Mind Stilled
 Nirvana
 Parinirvana
 Satori
 Śūnyatā

Notes

Further notes on "different paths"

Quotes

Further notes on quotes

References

Sources

Printed sources

  Via Google Books.

Web-sources

Further reading
 Ajahn Brahm, "Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook" (Wisdom Publications 2006) Part II.
 Katukurunde Nanananda, "Nibbana – The Mind Stilled (Vol. I-VII)" (Dharma Grantha Mudrana Bharaya, 2012).
 Ajahn Pasanno & Ajahn Amaro, "The Island : An Anthology of the Buddha's Teachings on Nibbana" (Abhayagiri Publication 2022).
 Kawamura, Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhism, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1981, pp. 11.

 Yogi Kanna, "Nirvana: Absolute Freedom" (Kamath Publishing; 2011) 198 pages.
 Steven Collins. Nirvana: Concept, Imagery, Narrative  (Cambridge University Press; 2010) 204 pages.

External links

 Buddhism for Beginners, "What is nirvana?"

Buddhist philosophical concepts
Buddhist terminology

Nirvana (Buddhism)


Terje Moland Pedersen (born 22 March 1952) is a Norwegian police officer and politician for the Labour Party.

He finished his secondary education in 1972, and graduated from police academy in 1977. From 1974 to 1995 he worked as a police officer, since 1977 in Fredrikstad. He became involved in the trade unions, and was a supervisory council member of Norsk Politiforbund from 1992 to 1996.

He was a member of Fredrikstad municipal council from 1991 to 2005. From 2005 to 2012 he was a State Secretary in the Ministry of Justice and the Police as a part of Stoltenberg's Second Cabinet.

He chaired Borg Port Authority from 1993 to 1996 and 1999 to 2003, was a board member of Viken Havneselskap from 2003 to 2005 and chaired Norwegian Ports Association from 2004 to 2005.

References

1952 births
Living people
Politicians from Fredrikstad
Norwegian police officers
Østfold politicians
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Norwegian state secretaries

Terje Moland Pedersen


The Darwin–Wallace Medal is awarded by the Linnean Society of London for "major advances in evolutionary biology".

The medals have been awarded every 50 years, beginning in 1908. That year marked 50 years after the joint presentation of papers by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. These were On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and On the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. The papers were both about natural selection as the main cause of evolution. The papers were presented to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858.

Wallace was one of the first to get of the medal. In his case it was made of gold, rather than the silver versions given to the six other medallists. However, in 2008 the Linnean Society announced that due to the continuing importance of evolutionary research, the medal will be awarded on an annual basis beginning in 2010.

Awardees

1908
The first award was of a gold medal to Alfred Russel Wallace, and silver medals to six other distinguished scientists:

Joseph Dalton Hooker
August Weismann
Ernst Haeckel
Francis Galton
E. Ray Lankester
Eduard Strasburger

1958
20 silver medals were awarded:

Edgar Anderson
Yevgeny Pavlovsky
Maurice Caullery
Bernhard Rensch
Ronald A. Fisher
G. Gaylord Simpson
Carl Rudolf Florin
Carl Skottsberg
Roger Heim
H. Hamshaw Thomas
J.B.S. Haldane
Erik Stensiö
John Hutchinson
Göte Turesson
Julian Huxley
Victor van Straelen
Ernst Mayr
D.M.S. Watson
H.J. Muller
John Christopher Willis (posthumously)

2008
13 silver medals were awarded, including 2 posthumously:

 Nick Barton
 M.W. Chase
 Bryan Clarke
 Joseph Felsenstein
 Stephen Jay Gould (posthumously)
 Peter R. Grant
 Rosemary Grant
 James Mallet
 Lynn Margulis
 John Maynard Smith (posthumously)
 Mohamed Noor
 H. Allen Orr
 Linda Partridge

From 2010
 Brian Charlesworth (2010)
 James A. Lake (2011)
 Loren H. Rieseberg (2012)
 Godfrey Hewitt (2013)
 Dolph Schluter (2014)
 Roger Butlin (2015)
 Pamela S. Soltis and Douglas E. Soltis (2016)

References

Orders, decorations, and medals
Science awards

Darwin–Wallace Medal


Fruita () is a home rule municipality located in western Mesa County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 13,395 at the 2020 United States Census. Fruita is a part of the Grand Junction, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area and lies within the Grand Valley. The geography is identified by the bordering Colorado River (historically known as the Grand River) on the southern edge of the town, the Uncompahgre Plateau known for its pinyon-juniper landscape, and the Book Cliffs range on the northern edge of the Grand Valley. Originally home to the Ute people, white farmers settled the town after founder William Pabor in 1884. Ten years later, Fruita was incorporated.

Fruita started out as a fruit-producing region. Today it is well known for its outdoor sports such as mountain biking, hiking, and rafting, its proximity to the Colorado National Monument, and its annual festivals. Fruita has been the winner of the Governor's Smart Growth and Development Award for four consecutive years. The city motto is "Honor the Past, Envision the Future".

History
Fruita has had steady population growth for over a century, with descendants of many of the original pioneers still living in the area. The first permanent homesteaders in the Fruita area were possibly Mr. and Mrs. Albert Lapham who settled in late 1882. They resided in a pre-existing cabin with a dirt floor and a blanket door. They were followed by other settlers, nearly all of whom were farmers of one sort or another. The present town was established on May 1, 1884, by William E. Pabor, when he formed the Fruita Town and Land Company. In 1886, for the cost of $500 a farmer could buy five acres, 200 fruit trees and water. Pabor recognized the great promise of the Grand Valley and penned a 300-page volume, Colorado as an Agricultural State, in which he spoke of the fruit-growing potential of this area. Having worked with the Horace Greeley Union Colony, he founded the town in a similar way, including the provision that no liquor be sold or manufactured in the town. This provision lasted until it was voted out in the late 1970s.

The original town site was planned for  with a park in the middle. The first water reached the town from the Colorado River in 1907. By 1909, the town center was linked with electricity. In the 1930s, Fruita participated in several government projects, including the Grand Valley Resettlement Project (later Western Slope Farms). Settled in groups of two or three families per area, 34 families were relocated by 1937. Later, the Rural Electrification Project brought electricity to around 800 or 900 farms. Fruita also had a Civilian Conservation Corps, several Works Progress Administration projects including the town library (now the Chamber of Commerce), a federal loan for the new central school (now the Civic Center) and the construction of the Rim Rock Drive to the top of the Colorado National Monument, elevation . Today, the historic activities of Fruita are supported by the efforts of the Fruita Historic Preservation Board and the Lower Valley Heritage Chapter.

From approximately 1900 to 1930, Fruita was a sundown town. Cowboy Charlie Glass was prohibited by law from being buried in the town cemetery, but he was still interred there.

On April 6, 2010, Fruita became the first city in the world to enact a marijuana tax.

Paleontology

In 1900, paleontologist Elmer Riggs and crew, from the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, found the first known Brachiosaurus altithorax at a location later called "Riggs Hill," located off what is now State Highway 340 in Grand Junction. Led here by communications with Dr. S.M. Bradbury of Grand Puns, Riggs had heard that ranchers had been collecting fossils around the area for 20 years. In 1901, Riggs and crew found nearly two thirds of a Brontosaurus skeleton on the northeast side of Dinosaur Hill, in Fruita. This is still considered to be one of the finest specimens known. Later, other sauropod bones were also found, which eventually led to the landmark's name. The animals were from the late Jurassic Age (150 million years ago) and within the  Morrison Formation.

Fossils of the Fruitadens (a heterodontosaurid dinosaur), one of the world's smallest known plant-eating dinosaur, were first found in the Fruita Paleontological Area (within the McInnis Canyons National Conservation Area) off Kings View Road in the 1970s and 1980s. The name means "Fruita tooth". There is a replica on display at the Dinosaur Journey Museum. The museum is a part of the Museum of Western Colorado and has information on local paleontology and geology.

Also found here and named after the town is the Mesozoic mammal Fruitafossor ("Fruita digger"), discovered 2005. It was a small animal at less than 10 grams body mass, and had a lifestyle similar to modern-day armadillos but was not related to them, but rather close to the ancestor of all therian mammals. Thus, this important find proves that the first "modern" mammals lived in the Jurassic already.

The region is within the Dinosaur Diamond Scenic Byway and includes two other nearby dinosaur-related sites: Mygatt-Moore Quarry and Trail Through Time off Interstate 70 exit 2.

Properties
The stone cottage building located at 432 East Aspen Avenue was built in 1938 by the Works Progress Administration. Originally built as the Fruita Museum in order to house geological displays, it has served as the home of the Fruita Times, the town library (1948–1996), and is currently in use by the Fruita Area Chamber of Commerce. Owned by the City of Fruita, it has been on the National Register of Historic Places since 1996.

The two-and-a-half-story, Queen Anne Style stone house at 798 North Mesa Street was built in 1908 by builder A.B. Mahany and first owner Harry Alvah Phillips. It is known locally as the Phillips House and currently run as the Stonehaven Bed and Breakfast. It is bordered by mature cottonwoods, agricultural land, and the Elmwood Cemetery. It is on the National Register of Historic Places.

The two-story Neoclassical building located on 325 East Aspen Avenue was built in 1912 with an addition added in 1936. It was built by the Works Progress Administration as the Central Grade School. In 1993, city and state funds enabled a major renovation, placing it on the State Register of Historic Properties. It currently is the home to the Fruita Civic Center.

Geography
Fruita is located  above sea level in the high desert climate zone on the Colorado Plateau. Surrounding the city limits is the Colorado River, the Colorado National Monument and the Book Cliffs range which extends west into the state of Utah north of Interstate 70.

At the 2020 United States Census, the city had a total area of  including  of water.

Distance from Fruita to: Grand Junction-, Utah-, Montrose-, Glenwood Springs-, Denver-, Salt Lake City-.

Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification Fruita has a cold semi-arid climate, being a dry continental climate. Seasonal differences between the hot summers and cold winters are drastic. Even so, winter days average well above freezing due to solar warming during daytime. The coldest and hottest months of the year are January and July respectively. The annual average precipitation is . Due to the low precipitation, in spite of winter average lows of about , the average year sees just three inches of snow on the ground at the accumulation maximum. The average annual number of growing days is 145 days. The average annual temperature is around . Fruita experiences an average of 300 days of sunshine per year.

Demographics

As of the census of 2020, there were 13,395 people living in the city.

As of the 2020 census, the racial makeup of the city was 87.7% White, 1.30% African American, 2.30% Native American, 0.50% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 8.20% from other races, and 5.80% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.4% of the population.

At the 2020 census there were 4,892 households, out of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them. The median value of owner occupied housing units was $259,300.  The median rent at the time of the census was $1280.  87.7% lived in the same house 1 year ago.

The median income for a household in the city at the 2020 census was $64,029. About 7.8% of families and 12.9% of the population were below the poverty line. 63.0% of the population are in the civilian labor force.

Education
Fruita is a part of the Mesa County School District No. 51. The city has 6 public schools: Fruita Monument High School, Fruita 8/9 School, Fruita Middle School, Shelledy Elementary School (public), Rim Rock Elementary School (public) and Monument Ridge Elementary School (public).

Colorado Mesa University, founded in 1925, is the closest public higher education institution. It is located in the heart of Grand Junction and supports 13 departments and over 400 instructors. Colorado Mesa University Tech provides higher education instruction for academic transfer programs and career technical programs with nine month certificate programs, two year associate degree programs, as well as other courses for career upgrade.

Recreation
The Fruita Community Center has stood as a vibrant hub of recreational, cultural, and social activities since 2011. Located at 324 N Coulson Street, this facility serves as a focal point for the community, offering a wide range of amenities and programs for residents and visitors alike. The indoor pool features lap lanes, a leisure pool, a spa, a drop slide, a climbing wall, and a diving board. It's a popular spot for both exercise and relaxation year-round. Equipped with modern cardio and strength training equipment, the fitness center caters to individuals of all fitness levels. Certified trainers are available to assist with personalized workout plans and you can even join a class. The facility includes a gymnasium for basketball, volleyball, and other indoor sports and activities. It's a versatile facility for both organized sports leagues and casual pick-up games. Various meeting and multipurpose rooms are available for community gatherings, workshops, and events. This includes various meeting rooms, the public library, the Senior Center, a pool party room, and an indoor playground. These spaces can be reserved for both public and private use. Beyond its physical offerings, the Fruita Community Center plays a vital role in fostering a sense of togetherness within the community. It serves as a venue for local clubs, groups, and community organizations to gather and collaborate. Its inclusive atmosphere promotes social connections, wellness, and the overall quality of life for Fruita's residents.

Biking
The area surrounding Fruita is renowned for its mountain, road, and gravel biking trails. The most notable mountain biking areas include the North Fruita Desert/18 Road trail system (Chutes and Ladders, Zippety-do-da, Edge Loop, Joe's Ridge, Prime Cut, Kessel Run, and others) and the Kokopelli Trailhead region (Mary's Loop, Horsethief Bench, Lion's Loop, Moore Fun, Rustler's Loop, Steve's Loop, Troy Built, and others). Kokopelli Trail is a 142-mile (229 km) continuous single and double track trail connecting the nearby town of Loma to Moab, Utah. Road biking is also a favorite sport in the high desert climate of Fruita. Many ride the 46-mile (74 km) loop along the Colorado National Monument overlooking the Grand Valley. The Fruita Farms/Highline Lake Loop is also popular, stretching from the town to the lake and back. Gravel biking has more recently gained traction in the area. The Fruita and Palisade Gravel Adventure Field Guide is a free booklet that details the best trails and the history of them, along with maps. There are multiple bike shops where people can buy new bikes or parts as well as get repairs. Colorado Backcountry Biker, Over the Edge Sports, Pedaling Innovations, and Canfield Bikes are all conveniently within city limits for all biking needs.

Birding
Many common and rare birds can be seen here, including ash-throated and gray flycatchers, bald eagles, blue herons, pinyon jays, and peregrine falcons, as well as some rare breeds such as red-throated loon and red-necked grebe. The best birding locations are the Colorado River, Colorado National Monument and Highline Lake State Park. The Grand Valley Audubon and the Colorado Birding Society are good sources of local information on birding. See also List of birds of Colorado.

Water Sports
Rafting, kayaking, boating, and canoeing: The Colorado River, located just a short drive away, offers various sections suitable for different skill levels. You can embark on thrilling whitewater adventures or opt for a more leisurely float through scenic canyons.

Stand-Up Paddle boarding: There are multiple opportunities for paddle boarding, including the James M. Robb State Park, Imondi Wake Zone (which also offers wakeboarding and a water obstacle course), Snooks Bottom Open Space, Highline Lake, and calmer spots in the Colorado River.

Swimming: For indoor swimming, the Fruita Community Center offers a swimming pool and hot tub. There are also plenty of places to swim outdoors such as Highline Lake, James M. Robb State Park, and more.

Exploring Waterfalls: The area around Fruita features some stunning waterfalls, like Connected Lakes, No Throughfare Canyon, Big Dominguez Canyon, and Rifle Falls, which are worth visiting. These natural wonders are often surrounded by lush vegetation and provide a refreshing escape from the heat.

Golf
Adobe Creek National Golf Course, located at 876 18 1/2 Road, offers three nine-hole courses nestled along Adobe Creek and the Colorado River. There are four golf courses available in Grand Junction.

Hiking and horseback riding

There are hiking and horseback riding trails of variable lengths available in nearby McInnis Canyons National Conservation Area including Devil's Canyon, Pollock Bench, Black Ridge Canyons Wilderness (Knowles Canyon, Mee Canyon, Moore Canyon, Rattlesnake Canyon), Colorado National Monument (Canyon Rim Trail, Coke Ovens Trail, Liberty Cap Trail, Monument Canyon Trail, Otto's Trail, Serpent's Trail, Window Rock Trail), Dinosaur Hill, Highline Lake State Park, and Rabbit Valley.

Hunting and Fishing
Big Game Hunting: Fruita and its surrounding areas are known for their excellent big game hunting. Hunters flock to the region in pursuit of deer and elk. The vast public lands, including the Grand Mesa, Uncompahgre, and Gunnison National Forests, offer ample acreage for both rifle and archery hunting. The hunting season typically starts in the fall, and hunters are required to obtain the appropriate licenses and follow state regulations.

Small Game and Upland Bird Hunting: Fruita and the western slope of Colorado also offer opportunities for small game and upland bird hunting. This includes hunting for species like rabbits, squirrels, grouse, and pheasants. The local terrain, including sagebrush flats and piñon-juniper woodlands, provides suitable habitats for these game animals.

Waterfowl Hunting: The Colorado River and nearby wetlands attract waterfowl hunters in search of ducks and geese. The region's diverse waterways and marshy areas provide ideal habitats for waterfowl, and hunters can access public lands or private hunting clubs to pursue this activity.

Trout Fishing: The rivers, streams, and lakes in and around Fruita offer some of the best trout fishing in Colorado. The Colorado River itself is home to a variety of trout species, including rainbow, brown, and cutthroat trout. Additionally, high mountain lakes in nearby areas provide opportunities for pristine alpine trout fishing.

Warm ater Fishing: In addition to trout, the region's lakes and reservoirs support a variety of warm ater fish species, including bass, catfish, crappie, and sunfish. Local fishing spots like Highline Lake State Park and Mack Mesa Lake are popular destinations for warm water anglers.

Fly Fishing: Fruita and the surrounding region are a haven for fly anglers. The crystal-clear streams and rivers provide an excellent environment for fly fishing enthusiasts looking to test their skills against wary trout. Local fly shops can provide guidance on the best flies and techniques for the season

Ice Fishing: In the winter months, when lakes freeze over, ice fishing becomes a popular activity. Anglers can drill holes in the ice and fish for a variety of species, including trout and perch.

Parks

Town parks in Fruita include Circle Park at the junction of Mesa Street and Aspen Avenue, Comstock Park at 725 Galena Circle, Heritage Park at 210 I-70 Frontage Road, Little Salt Wash at 1135 18 Road, Raptor Skate Park at 273 North Cherry,
Reed Park at 250 South Elm, Roberson Park at 280 West Roberson Drive, Triangle Park at 103 South Coulson Street, and Veteran's Memorial Park at 342 Hwy 340. The James M. Robb Colorado River State Park encompasses 890 acres located on State Highway 340.

The Colorado National Monument is almost  of semi-arid wilderness, rising more than  above the city of Fruita. Native wildlife such as eagles, bighorn sheep, and mule deer can be seen in the area.

The Riverfront Trail system follows the Colorado River through Mesa County through cottonwood groves, wetlands, and marshes. It is home to over 200 different species of birds, three endangered species of fish, and an abundance of small animals. The trail project is still in progress and plans to connect Fruita to Palisade via a paved recreation trail. The project is a collaboration of several cities, Mesa County, and state agencies and overseen by the Colorado Riverfront Commission.

Rodeo
Rimrock Rodeo takes place from June through August every Tuesday evening through the summer. A series of events showcase riders: there is a "Mutton Busting" event and the Professional Rodeo Riders "Grand Entry" event.

Running
Fruita runners take part in town races such as the July PteRANodon Ptrot, the February Sweet Heart Run, and the annual Rim Rock marathon held in November atop the Colorado National Monument. Trail running is also popular and takes place on any of the hiking trails. The Desert RATS Trail Running Festival includes 5, 10, 25, and  trail races in April, as well as the Desert RATS multi-day supported trail race along the Kokopelli's Trail from Loma to Moab.

Arts and culture
Fruita's art scene has become increasingly popular as the city has aimed to recognize artists. The 2023 Fruita Fall Festival theme was "Paint the Town" and focused on local art heavily with a mural contest, art contest, and the annual art walk. The HeART of Fruita is another program. In 2023, the Fruita Arts and Culture Board began to ask artists to submit applications for sculptures that will be up around the city for a year before the next applications open. Orbit Art Space, FARM, and Lithic Bookstore and Gallery provide spaces for local artists to show off and sell their work. Community art can also be seen in the Fruita Civic Center, where photos by locals are hung in the lobby and replaced monthly. Major music events of the region include the Summer Thursday night concerts, the Riverfront Concert Series, various artists at local venues, and Country Jam in the nearby town of Mack. Shows also take place during the annual Fat Tire Festival and the Fruita Fall Festival. The Mesa County Public Library - Fruita Branch is housed in the Fruita Community Center at 324 North Coulson Street. Nearly 7,000 square feet (650 m2), the facility includes a reading room with fireplace, program room and meeting rooms. The Grand Junction Sentinel, and the Grand Junction Free Press serve the current events needs of the region. There are several active civic groups, including the Fruita Lions Club, Fruita Masons, and Fruita Rotary Club, as well as the non-profit Fruita Thrift shop that has been supporting the town's activities for over 50 years. The city was involved with the 2000 independent horror movie "Machine Head"

Festivals

Fat Tire
Single-track mountain biking enthusiasts and friends have been celebrating the hundreds of miles of mountain bike trails around the area of Fruita and western Colorado at this festival since 1996. The three days include races, live music, a beer garden and parties. It is held every year at the end of April.

Mike the Headless Chicken
Fruita is known for Mike the Headless Chicken, a chicken who lived for 18 months after his head was cut off. Lloyd Olsen, the remover of Mike's head, continued to give him food and water with an eye dropper. He grew to be almost . Mike went on to tour the country as a side show. A festival in his honor is held each May in Fruita.

Fall
Voted "Best of the West" by the Grand Junction Daily Sentinel's readership in 2001, 2002, 2006, 2008 and 2009, the Fruita Fall Festival started in 1914 as a harvest festival for the local fruit production industry and has evolved to a major event. It includes three days of events with music, carnival rides, a parade, a bed race, a baking and canning contest, a youth pet and talent show, two stages of music, and arts and crafts vendors. The event is celebrated on the last full weekend in September.

Transportation

Air
The nearest commercial airport is Grand Junction Regional Airport (GJT) in Grand Junction  east. Allegiant Airlines, American Airlines, and SkyWest Airlines (flying as United Express) provide direct service to Dallas/Fort Worth, Denver, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Phoenix and Salt Lake City. Charter companies Colorado Flight Center and Denver Air Connection providing connections to nearby regional destinations.

Bus
Fruita is on Route 8 of the Grand Valley Transit, the operating regional bus transportation system. The bus connects Fruita stops with the Mesa Mall on U.S. Highway 6 and 50 at the 24 1/2 Road.

Highways
Fruita lies off exit 19 of Interstate 70, along U.S. Highway 6 and 50 and at the western end of State Highway 340. The State Highway 139 connects  west with the northern city of Rangely and Dinosaur National Monument.

Rail
The nearest passenger train station is  southeast at the Grand Junction Amtrak station. This station is served by the California Zephyr train. It was originally built by the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad. The mainline, now used by the Union Pacific Railroad and BNSF Railway, runs east–west along the city which serves industrial rail use.

Notable people
Pat Ament (born 1946) – climber, author
Maggie Baird (born 1959) – actress, screenwriter, singer-songwriter, mother of singer Billie Eilish
George Elder (1921–2022) – Major League Baseball player
John Otto (1870–1952) – trailblazer and first superintendent of the Colorado National Monument
Elmer Riggs (1869–1963) – paleontologist from the Chicago Field Museum

See also

Grand River
Grand Valley
James M. Robb – Colorado River State Park
Old Spanish National Historic Trail

References

External links

City of Fruita website
CDOT map of the City of Fruita
Fruita tourism website
Fruita Chamber of Commerce
Dinosaur Journey Museum

Cities in Mesa County, Colorado
Colorado Western Slope
Cities in Colorado
Sundown towns in the United States

Fruita, Colorado


The term Variable Control Voice Actuator (VCVA) refers to a digital recording technology developed by Olympus, which is implemented in many of their digital voice recorders. It prevents the recording of silence, so pauses in a speaker's dictation do not waste time, power or recording space.

Function
When the microphone picks up an arbitrary level of sound, the VCVA initiates recording, and when volume detected by that microphone dips down below said threshold the VCVA stops recording.

References

Digital audio recording

Variable Control Voice Actuator


Philip Dimitrov Dimitrov ( ) (born 31 March 1955) is a Bulgarian politician, Prime Minister of Bulgaria  1991 – 1992, MP in the 36th (1991 – 1994), 37th (1994 – 1997) and the 40th (2005 – 2007) National Assembly, and MEP from January 2007 to May 2007.

Biography
Dimitrov was born in Sofia. He graduated from the First English High School, Sofia, in 1973 and later he graduated with a law degree from Sofia University in 1977, and then undertook further study in the field of individual and group psychotherapy and worked with outpatients  using the psycho-dynamic approach. He worked as an attorney in Sofia between 1979 and 1990, serving as Secretary of the Bulgarian Attorneys' Union from 1989 onwards. Bulgarian media had alleged that his office served as a Communist-era secret police hideout. He reacted immediately by giving the first order, in spite of reluctance from his allies, to reveal information on any citizen's request about whether there was any data of his/her links with the secret police, thus making the first  break through the inaccessibility of the secret police files. The first act of the next Government was abolishing this order. Similarly in the context of the time false rumors were spread about alleged homosexualism, alleged use of Communist privileges for entering high school and/or university and alleged family  connections with the Communist party.

Career
Dimitrov was active in the Union of Democratic Forces, a broad coalition against the rule of the Bulgarian Communist Party. He was elected vice-president of the Green Party. He became a member of its 'National Coordination Council' in 1990, and was its President from December that year until December 1994. He has been a member of the Executive Council of the UDF since February 1997.

Dimitrov led the UDF to victory in the 1991 election, becoming the first elected Prime Minister in 47 years who was not either a Communist or a fellow traveller. His government was the first since that time with no Communist participation.He remained in office until losing a vote of confidence that he called in the late fall of 1992. During its term of office (until the end of 1992), his government managed to make the new democratic institutions work and started an ambitious set of democratic political and economic reforms. Under his administration, observance of human rights became an irrevocable legal and ethical norm and previous ethnic tensions and abuses were eliminated. Foreign policy focused on integration into Europe and the West. Bulgaria was the first country to recognize Macedonia (now Republic of Northern Macedonia) unconditionally as a sovereign state. His government abolished the restrictions to  private initiative and started establishing a free market system, which literally changed most Bulgarian cities within half a year. He insisted on the large-scale restitution of nationalized properties, although he himself had none, and his government made the first practical steps allowing citizens to re-claim property that had been confiscated by the state.

According to his opponents, Dimitrov is responsible for the collapse of the Bulgarian agriculture after 1991  by restoring the land of the state-owned cooperative farms to its legitimate owners immediately instead of allowing a gradual transition from state-owned to private-owned agriculture. The problem was that all of these owners were old people, who received small pieces of land, and they had no machinery and physical strength to cultivate these lands. The infrastructure of the cooperative farms (water systems, machines, buildings etc.) was left without any supervision, and it was quickly destroyed and stolen. This had a devastating effect for the Bulgarian agriculture. The production of agricultural goods collapsed, many people in the agriculture sector became unemployed, and the population in the Bulgarian villages dropped."

His government made possible the swift restitution of citizenship and property rights for all Jewish Bulgarian emigrants (see also Jews in Bulgaria).

He served in the 36th, 37th, and 40th legislatures of the National Assembly, having been elected in Sofia for the UDF on each occasion. In 2005, he was elected Deputy Speaker of the 40th National Assembly. He authored or introduced among other bills the Bill for Abolition of Mandatory Military Service and (several times) bills on preventing and sanctioning Conflict of Interest. He was a member of the Bulgarian Parliament Delegation for Relations with the European Parliament. In January through June 2007 he was a member of the European Parliament and Deputy Chairman of the Committee on Constitutional Affairs.

In April 1997 he was appointed Ambassador of Bulgaria at the UN, New York and from August 1998 to January 2002 he was Ambassador of Bulgaria to the US.

His inability to compromise led to vetoing his candidacy both for President (fall of 2006) and Leader of the list of candidates for the European parliament (spring of 2007). In spite of his quiet withdrawal, the UDF lost both elections heavily. In the fall of 2007, he was rejected by the government as a candidate for the position of Judge at the European Court of Human Rights (Strasbourg). In July 2008, he declared that he was voluntarily leaving politics for good.

In 2004 he was a Special Envoy of the President of the CSCE (Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe) for Armenia and Azerbaijan. He was a visiting scholar in the Woodrow Wilson Center in 2003. Philip Dimitrov has taught political sciences in the American University in Bulgaria between 2002 and 2008, led post graduate programme at the University of Toronto (2007) and was visiting professor at Christopher Newport University in Newport News, Virginia (2008 - 2009). He holds PhD in Political Science and is Distinguished professor (Reader) at the New Bulgarian University

Since 2004 Dimitrov has been a Member of the Club of Madrid, an independent non-profit organization composed of 88 democratic former Presidents and Prime Ministers from 58 different countries. The Club de Madrid's objective is to promote "Democracy that Delivers".

In 2004 he was Senior member of the NED-CLS team for democratic experience exchange with Georgia. He was member of the Board of the New Bulgarian University, Honorary Chairman of the board of the George Marshal Association – Bulgaria and Program Director at the 'Bulgarian Institute for Legal Development'.

He was appointed Head of Delegation of the European Union to the Republic of Georgia and served there between 2010 and 2014.

Since 2015 he has been member of the Constitutional Court of Bulgaria

In September 1999, Mr. Dimitrov was granted the Truman-Reagan Freedom Award for his contribution to overcoming Communism.

Family
He is married to Elena Gueorguieva, MD.

Publications
 For They Lived, Oh Lord - a novel, 1991 (The Balkans in the first half of the 14th century) (in Bulgarian)
 The True Story of the Round Table Knights, 1997 (in Bulgarian)
 The Myths of Bulgarian Transition, 2002 (in Bulgarian)
  Light of Men, 2003(in Bulgarian) and 2019 (in English)  (The history of the early church)
 Jumping into the Atlantic, Woodrow Wilson Center, 2003 (in English)
 The New Democracies and the Transatlantic Link, 2004 (in Bulgarian)
 Political Representation after Communism, 2010 (in Bulgarian)
 Revisiting the Beginning of the Bulgarian Transition, 2016 (in English)
 Brothers (2019) (History of the Balkans IX-XI century) (in Bulgarian)

References

Prime Ministers of Bulgaria
MEPs for Bulgaria 2007
Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria) MEPs
Permanent Representatives of Bulgaria to the United Nations
Ambassadors of Bulgaria to the United States
Ambassadors of the European Union to Georgia (country)
Christopher Newport University
1955 births
Living people
Politicians from Sofia
Bulgarian conservatives
Bulgarian officials of the European Union
Diplomats from Sofia

Philip Dimitrov


Ahmed Rushdi, (; April 24, 1934 – April 11, 1983) was a legendary Pakistani playback singer. He was "an important contributor to the Golden age of Pakistani movie music." Rushdi is acclaimed as one of the greatest singers ever lived in south Asia. He is considered to be one of the most famous and versatile singers of the subcontinent. He is also considered to be the first regular pop singer of south Asia. and credited as having sung the "first-ever South asian" pop song. In 1954, he recorded the official National anthem of Pakistan with several other singers. Rushdi has recorded the highest number of movie songs in the history of Pakistani cinema in many languages. He suffered from poor health during the latter part of his life and died of a heart attack at the age of 48, after recording approximately five thousand movie songs for 583 released movies. Besides popular music, Rushdi also helped popularize the ghazals of Naseer Turabi. In 2003, 20 years after his death, Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf awarded him the Sitara-e-Imtiaz.

Popularity
Many of his contemporaries compared his music with that of classically trained singers, although Rushdi never had any influences from any classical singer. He is famously known as Magician of voice and his popularity also turned traditional classical singers against him but did not affect his fame and his death is termed as irreparable loss to the industry. Actor Waheed Murad declared Rushdi's song, "Bhooli hui hoon daastan", his favorite song. Music directors like M.Ashraf and Nisar Bazmi also hold centaury partnerships with Ahmed Rushdi and they have composed hundreds of songs for him. According to complete songography, M.Ashraf composed 734 songs in 211 movies for Rushdi but available figures indicate a composition of 132 songs in 100 movies for him. The first movie of this pair was Speran in 1961 and the last was Hero in 1983. Ahmed Rushdi influenced many singers in music industry.

Death
Since 1976, Ahmed Rushdi was a heart patient and his doctors advised him to abstain from singing but Rushdi refused by saying that music was his life. When he had a second heart attack in 1981, he was composing a musical album in the voice of singer Mujeeb Aalam. On the night of April 11, 1983, he had a third heart attack. He was immediately taken to the hospital but pronounced dead by the doctors. He was 48. Rushdi was buried at Sakhi Hassan Graveyard, Karachi. His last non movie song was "Aaney walo suno" which was a duet with Mehnaz.

Awards
Nigar Awards
 1961 - Best Male Playback Singer for the song "Chand Sa Mukhra Gora Badan" in movie Saperan
 1962 - Best Male Playback Singer for the song "Gol Gappey Wala" in movie Mehtaab
 1963 - Best Male Playback Singer for the song "Kisi Chaman Mei Raho" in movie Anchal
 1966 - Best Male Playback Singer for the song "Akeley Na Jana" in movie Armaan
 1970 - Best Male Playback Singer for the song "Aey Abr-e-Karam" in movie Naseeb Apna Apna
 2004 - Life Time Achievement Award

References

1934 births
1983 deaths
Pakistani singers
Disease-related deaths in Pakistan
Deaths from myocardial infarction

Ahmed Rushdi