Shane Lee Mark Westley (born 16 June 1965 in Canterbury) is an English former professional footballer and coach.

Playing career
A defender, Westley began his career at Charlton Athletic in 1983 but he made his big breakthrough with Southend United, for whom he made 142 appearances, twice winning promotion out of the (old) Division Four. He spent a spell on loan with Norwich City where he failed to make an appearance before Wolverhampton Wanderers paid £150,000 for his services. After 50 outings he signed for Brentford in a £100,000 deal and made 64 appearances before a brief loan spell back at Southend United.

A move to Cambridge United followed, although he made only 3 appearances before moving to Lincoln City for £7,500 where he made his first strides into management as Assistant Manager to John Beck. Westley played 8 times for Lincoln, bringing to an end a playing career that spanned 283 games and 14 goals along the way.

Managerial career
Beck left Lincoln in March 1998 and Westley was appointed as his replacement, steering the Imps to promotion to the old Division Two at the end of the season. However a poor start resulted in him being sacked in November 1998.

In January 1999, Westley surprisingly took up the position of manager at non-league Barrow, with Beck joining him in a consultancy role. With the club itself in disarray financially, it was a short lived tenure and both Westley and Beck had left by June 1999.

In February 2001, John Beck was re-appointed as manager of Cambridge United, a club he had managed from 1990 to 1992. He appointed Westley as his assistant and they successfully steered the club away from relegation. The following season started poorly however and both Beck and Westley left the club in November 2001.

Personal life
Westley is now Managing Director of Bodywize, a personal training company.

External links

1965 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Canterbury
Footballers from Kent
English men's footballers
Men's association football central defenders
Charlton Athletic F.C. players
Southend United F.C. players
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players
Norwich City F.C. players
Brentford F.C. players
Cambridge United F.C. players
Lincoln City F.C. players
English football managers
Barrow A.F.C. managers
Lincoln City F.C. managers

Shane Westley


Launched in 2007, Amazon Vine is an internal service of Amazon.com that allows manufacturers and publishers to receive reviews for their products on Amazon. Companies pay a fee to Amazon and provide products for review. The products are then passed to Amazon reviewers, who can publish a review. Reviews are not required on any particular item, although Vine members are expected to review most items received. Past and present participating companies include Logitech, HarperCollins, Philips, Samsung, Bose, Sony, Tefal, Microsoft, Breville, Bosch, Garmin, Dyson, Remington, Case Logic, Creative, Braun, Sennheiser, Olympus, LG, Black & Decker, Acer and Walker Books. Reception for the program has been mixed with some people criticizing the program's use of non-professional reviewers while others cited this as a benefit. The Vine program operates independently on Amazon.com, Amazon.co.uk, Amazon.fr, Amazon.de, Amazon.ca and Amazon.es.

Membership
Vine members (known as "Vine Voices") are selected from the Amazon reviewer base, with the site stating that the selection criteria are "based on the trust [the members] earned in the Amazon community for writing accurate and insightful reviews". Previously, there were two Vine newsletters every month from which the Vine Voices could select items to review. The first newsletter appeared on the third Thursday of the month, and the second appeared on the fourth Thursday. Leftover articles from these newsletters went to the "Last Harvest" list, where Vine members could choose unlimited products.

Products available for review originally included essentially any item that was available for sale on Amazon. In return for products received, members were required to post a review within 30 days of delivery. Members were not allowed to sell or give away products received.

The Vine process last changed in October 2016. Vine members can voluntarily check the website for a changing array of items and select an unlimited number of items to review from both their targeted Vine offers or from "Vine for All". This change was in response to increased vendor interest in this program. Another member change was Amazon ending all customer online discussion boards, including the ones that previously existed for Amazon Vine program members, in October 2017.

Beginning July 1, 2015, Vine members in the USA are required to provide tax identification numbers to Amazon before receiving any new materials to review. Amazon uses the estimated tax value (ETV) of products as non-cash, taxable payments to Vine Voices for their services. Ownership of each Vine third-party product transfers to the respective Vine Voice immediately upon the order date, and it is then that the ETV applies for tax purposes. For tax purposes, Amazon issues a 1099 to Vine members. Although included in the Vine Voices list of transferred items, consumable items, such as food, vitamins, and makeup, are valued at $0 and thus have no ETV for the reviewer.

Criticism
The program has been met with criticism over the program's lack of transparency and the professionalism of its reviewers. Kristen McLean, formerly of the Association of Booksellers for Children, commented that Amazon did not initially disclose that publishers paid to have their products included in the Vine program and that "Amazon is not specific about how many people are in the program, how they're chosen." The program also initially met criticism over the visibility of the reviews, with librarian Elizabeth Bird (author and Top 500 Amazon Reviewer) commenting that her reviews were sometimes "shuffled off to the side" while Vine reviews were more prominently and visibly placed. Bird further commented that some of the reviewers were choosing and criticizing books that they were "not the best representative readers for" and that this highlighted the difference between lay readers and professional reviewers, that latter of who would be more able to "give insightful commentary and acknowledge a book's intended audience".

References

Amazon (company)
American review websites

Amazon Vine


The Austro-Prussian War, also by many variant names such as Seven Weeks' War, German Civil War, Brothers War or Fraternal War, known in Germany as  ("German War"),  (; "German war of brothers") and by a variety of other names, was fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, with each also being aided by various allies within the German Confederation. Prussia had also allied with the Kingdom of Italy, linking this conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. The Austro-Prussian War was part of the wider rivalry between Austria and Prussia, and resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states.

The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony. It resulted in the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by the unification of all of the northern German states in the North German Confederation that excluded Austria and the other southern German states, a . The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian realm of Venetia.

Outbreak of war
The war erupted as a result of the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which the two of them had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The crisis started on 26 January 1866, when Prussia protested the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to permit the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, declaring the Austrian decision a breach of the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria replied on 7 February, asserting that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights in the duchies. In March 1866, Austria reinforced its troops along its frontier with Prussia. Prussia responded with a partial mobilization of five divisions on 28 March.

The Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck made an alliance with Italy on 8 April, committing it to the war if Prussia entered one against Austria within three months, which was an obvious incentive for Bismarck to go to war with Austria within three months so that Italy would divert Austrian strength away from Prussia. Austria responded with a mobilization of its Southern Army on the Italian border on 21 April. Italy called for a general mobilization on 26 April and Austria ordered its own general mobilization the next day. Prussia's general mobilization orders were signed in steps on 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 12 May.

When Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the German Diet on 1 June and also decided on 5 June to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June, Prussia declared that the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865 had thereby been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army invaded Hanover, Saxony and the Electorate of Hesse on 15 June. Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June.

Causes

For several centuries, Central Europe was split into a few large- or medium-sized states and hundreds of tiny entities, which while ostensibly being within the Holy Roman Empire ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor, operated in a largely independent fashion. When an existing Emperor died, seven secular and ecclesiastical princes, each of whom ruled at least one of the states, would elect a new Emperor. Over time the Empire became smaller and by 1789 came to consist of primarily German peoples (aside from Bohemia, Moravia, the southern Netherlands and Slovenia). Aside from five years (1740–1745), the Habsburg family, whose personal territory was Austria, controlled the Emperorship from 1440 to 1806, although it became increasingly ceremonial only as Austria found itself at war at certain times with other states within the Empire, such as Prussia, which in fact defeated Austria during the War of Austrian Succession to seize the province of Silesia in 1742. While Austria was traditionally considered the leader of the German states, Prussia became increasingly powerful and by the late 18th century was ranked as one of the great powers of Europe. Francis II's abolition of the office of Holy Roman Emperor in 1806 also deprived him of his imperial authority over most of German-speaking Europe, though little true authority remained by that time; he did, however, retain firm control of an extensive multi-ethnic empire (most of it outside the previous boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire). After 1815, the German states were once again reorganized into a loose confederation: the German Confederation, under Austrian leadership. Prussia had been contesting Austria's supremacy in Germany since at least 1850, when a war between the two powers had nearly erupted over Prussia's leadership of the Erfurt Union, though at that time Prussia had backed down.

Nationalism

At the time of the war, there was no strong national consciousness in Germany. Michael Hughes notes that in regards to Germany, "nationalism was a minority movement, deeply divided and with only a marginal impact on German political life". German newspapers were almost exclusively concerned with local affairs or their respective state governments, and the individual German states cultivated loyalty towards themselves. While rivalry with France was an important element of German nationalist myth-making, many Germans cooperated with France during the Napoleonic Era, and those who resisted France did not do so out of nationalist sentiment. According to John Breuilly, any sense of a common German identity "was weakly developed and confined to particular groups" and "there was very little demand, certainly at popular level, for unification". The liberal-nationalist concept of a united Germany had also become unpopular following the fall of the Frankfurt Parliament in 1849. One of the strongest social forces in Germany at the time was religion, which provided Germans with common confessional values and identities that transcended national boundaries. This led to a strong confessional rivalry between the southern Catholic and northern Protestant states. Breuilly remarks that the confessional rivalry was so strong that "a Hamburg Lutheran had more in common with a Swedish Lutheran than with an Austrian Catholic". The minor nations of Germany valued their independence and believed that their ability to remain sovereign depended on Austro-Prussian dualism, with neither side allowed to become too powerful. Confessional division also played an important role in German dualism, and there was a strong pressure in Catholic states to support Austria. In the absence of nationalist sentiment, a united German state could only be created through external force. Bismarck recognised this, remarking in 1862 that a united German state could not be forged through "speeches and majority decisions" but only through "blood and iron".

Bismarck
There are many interpretations of Otto von Bismarck's behaviour before the Austrian-Prussian war, which concentrate mainly on the fact that he had a master plan that resulted in this war, the North German Confederation and the unification of Germany. Bismarck maintained that he orchestrated the conflict in order to bring about the North German Confederation, the Franco-Prussian War and the eventual unification of Germany.

On 22 February 1866, Count Károlyi, Austrian ambassador in Berlin, sent a dispatch to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Alexander Mensdorff-Pouilly. He explained to him that Prussian public opinion had become extremely sensitive about the Duchies issue and that he had no doubt that "this artificial exaggeration of the danger by public opinion formed an essential part of the calculations and actions of Count Bismarck [who considered] the annexation of the Duchies ... a matter of life and death for his political existence [and wished] to make it appear such for Prussia too."

Possible evidence can be found in Bismarck's orchestration of the Austrian alliance during the Second Schleswig War against Denmark, which can be seen as his diplomatic "masterstroke". Taylor also believes that the alliance was a "test for Austria rather than a trap" and that the goal was not war with Austria, contradicting what Bismarck later gave in his memoirs as his main reason for establishing the alliance. It was in the Prussian interest to gain an alliance with Austria to defeat Denmark and settle the issue of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The alliance can be regarded as an aid to Prussian expansion, rather than a provocation of war against Austria. Many historians believe that Bismarck was simply a Prussian expansionist, rather than a German nationalist, who sought the unification of Germany. It was at the Gastein Convention that the Austrian alliance was set up to lure Austria into war.

The timing of the Prusso-Italian alliance of 8 April 1866 was perfect, because all other European powers were either bound by alliances that forbade them from entering the conflict, or had domestic problems that had priority. The reason why none of the great powers of Europe intervened is listed below:

Britain: Britain had no stake economically or politically in the war between Prussia and Austria, thus, was not going to intervene.

Russia: Russia was unlikely to enter on the side of Austria, due to ill will over Austrian support of the anti-Russian alliance during the Crimean War and Prussia had stood by Russia during the January Uprising in Poland, signing the Alvensleben Convention of February 1863 with Russia, whereas Austria had not.

France: France was also unlikely to enter on the side of Austria, because Bismarck and Napoleon III met in Biarritz and allegedly discussed whether or not France would intervene in a potential Austro-Prussian war. The details of the discussion are unknown but many historians think Bismarck was guaranteed French neutrality in the event of a war.  Bismarck was aware of his numerical superiority but still "he was not prepared to advise it immediately even though he gave a favourable account of the international situation".

When the Prussian victory became clear, France attempted to extract territorial concessions in the Palatinate, Rhenish Hesse and Luxembourg. In his speech to the Reichstag on 2 May 1871, Bismarck said:

Italy: Italy had already allied itself with Prussia because it wanted Lombardy-Venetia. This meant that Austria would be fighting both Italy and Prussia, without any allies of its own.

Military factors

Bismarck may well have been encouraged to go to war by the advantages of the Prussian army against the Austrian Empire. Taylor wrote that Bismarck was reluctant to pursue war as it "deprived him of control and left the decisions to the generals whose ability he distrusted". (The two most important personalities within the Prussian army were the War Minister Albrecht Graf von Roon and Chief of the General Staff Helmuth Graf von Moltke.) Taylor suggested that Bismarck was hoping to force Austrian leaders into concessions in Germany, rather than provoke war. The truth may be more complicated than simply that Bismarck, who famously said that "politics is the art of the possible", initially sought war with Austria or was initially against the idea of going to war with Austria.

Rival military systems
In 1862, von Roon had implemented several army reforms that ensured that all Prussian citizens were liable to conscription. Before this date, the size of the army had been fixed by earlier laws that had not taken population growth into account, making conscription inequitable and unpopular for this reason. While some Prussian men remained in the army or the reserves until they were forty years old, about one man in three (or even more in some regions where the population had expanded greatly as a result of industrialisation) was assigned minimal service in the , the home guard.

Introducing universal conscription for three years increased the size of the active duty army and provided Prussia with a reserve army equal in size to that which Moltke deployed against Austria. Had France under Napoleon III attempted to intervene against the Prussians, they could have faced him with equal or superior numbers of troops.

Prussian conscript service was one of continuous training and drill, in contrast to the Austrian army where some commanders routinely dismissed infantry conscripts to their homes on permanent leave soon after their induction into the army, retaining only a cadre of long-term soldiers for formal parades and routine duties. Austrian conscripts had to be trained almost from scratch when they were recalled to their units on the outbreak of war. The Prussian army was thus better trained and disciplined than the Austrian army, particularly in the infantry. While Austrian cavalry and artillery were as well trained as their Prussian counterparts, with Austria possessing two elite divisions of heavy cavalry, weapons and tactics had advanced since the Napoleonic Wars and cavalry charges had been rendered obsolete.

Speed of mobilization

The Prussian army was locally based, organized in  (military districts, lit.: circles), each containing a Korps headquarters and its component units. Most reservists lived close to their regimental depots and could be swiftly mobilized. Austrian policy was to ensure that units were stationed far from home to prevent them from taking part in separatist revolts. Conscripts on leave or reservists recalled to their units during mobilization faced a journey that might take weeks before they could report to their units, making the Austrian mobilization much slower than that of the Prussian Army.

Speed of concentration
The railway system of Prussia was more extensively developed than that within Austria. Railways made it possible to supply larger numbers of troops than hitherto and allowed the rapid movement of troops within friendly territory. The more efficient Prussian rail network allowed the Prussian army to concentrate more rapidly than the Austrians. Moltke, reviewing his plans to Roon stated, "We have the inestimable advantage of being able to carry our Field Army of 285,000 men over five railway lines and of virtually concentrating them in twenty-five days. ... Austria has only one railway line and it will take her forty-five days to assemble 200,000 men." Moltke had also said earlier, "Nothing could be more welcome to us than to have now the war that we must have."

The Austrian army under Ludwig von Benedek in Bohemia (the present-day Czech Republic) might previously have been expected to enjoy the advantage of the "central position", by being able to concentrate on successive attacking armies strung out along the frontier, but the quicker Prussian concentration nullified this advantage. By the time the Austrians were fully assembled, they would be unable to concentrate against one Prussian army without having the other two instantly attack their flank and rear, threatening their lines of communication.

Armaments and tactics

Prussian infantry were equipped with the Dreyse needle gun, a bolt-action rifle which could be fired faster than the muzzle-loading Lorenz rifles of the Austrian army. In the Franco-Austrian War of 1859, French troops took advantage of poorly trained enemies who did not readjust their gunsights as they got closerthus firing too high at close range. By rapidly closing the range, French troops came to close quarters with an advantage over the Austrian infantry. After the war, the Austrians adopted the same methods, which they termed the  ("shock tactics"). Although they had some warnings of the Prussian weapon, they ignored these and retained .

The Austrian artillery had breech-loading rifled guns which were superior to the Prussian muzzle-loading smooth bore cannon. New Krupp breech-loading cannons were being slowly introduced by the Prussians, but not in numbers large enough to influence outcomes. Despite the Austrian advantage in the quality of their artillery equipment, other limitations prevented these from being effectively used.

The Generals of the Prussian army realized that, in order to stay ahead of their Austrian enemies, they needed to explore new military tactics. They sent officers to travel across the Atlantic Ocean to go and observe the American Civil War. These officers met with high ranking commanders and recorded both Union and Confederate tactics. They wrote about troop movements, artillery positioning, and new methods of attack that worked well for the Americans. These officers then travelled back to Prussia and briefed their generals about these observations. Some officers, such as Justus Scheibert, published their adventures in America for the public to enjoy.

Economic factors

In 1866, the Prussian economy was rapidly growing, partly as a result of the , which gave Prussia an advantage in the war. Prussia could equip its armies with breech-loading rifles and later with new Krupp breech-loading artillery but the Austrian economy was suffering from the effects of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the Second Italian War of Independence. Austria had only one bank, the Creditanstalt, and the state was heavily in debt. Historian Christopher Clark wrote that there is little to suggest that Prussia had an overwhelming economic and industrial advantage over Austria and wrote that a larger portion of the Prussian population was engaged in agriculture than in the Austrian population and that Austrian industry could produce the most sophisticated weapons in the war (rifled artillery). The Austro-Prussian War ended quickly and was fought mainly with existing weapons and munitions, which reduced the influence of economic and industrial power relative to politics and military culture.

Alliances

Before the war started, both the Austrian and Prussian governments sought to rally allies in Germany. On 15 June Bismarck offered territorial compensation in the Grand Duchy of Hesse to the Electorate of Hesse, if Elector Frederick William were to ally with Prussia. The proposition grievously offended Frederick William's "legitimist sensibilities" and the monarch joined the Austrians, despite the Hessian  voting for neutrality. King George V of Hanover during the spring of 1866 was contacted by Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph about establishing a coalition against the Prussians, but his success took some time. The Hanoverian monarch concluded that his kingdom would fall if it were to fight against the Prussian armies.

Most of the southern German states sided with Austria against Prussia. Those that sided with Austria included the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Württemberg. Smaller middle states such as Baden, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau also joined with Austria. Many of the German princes allied with the Habsburgs principally out of a desire to keep their thrones.

Most of the northern German states joined Prussia, in particular Oldenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Brunswick. The Kingdom of Italy participated in the war with Prussia, because Austria held Venetia and other, smaller territories wanted by Italy to further the process of Italian unification. In return for Italian aid against Austria, Bismarck agreed not to make a separate peace until Italy had obtained Venetia.

Notably, the other foreign powers abstained from this war. French Emperor Napoleon III, who expected a Prussian defeat, chose to remain out of the war to strengthen his negotiating position for territory along the Rhine, while the Russian Empire still bore a grudge against Austria from the Crimean War.

Course of the war

The first war between two major continental powers in seven years, it used many of the same technologies as the Second Italian War of Independence, including railways to concentrate troops during mobilization and telegraphy to enhance long-distance communication. The Prussian Army used von Dreyse's breech-loading needle gun, which could be rapidly loaded while the soldier was seeking cover on the ground, whereas the Austrian muzzle-loading rifles could be loaded only slowly, and generally from a standing position.

The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia. Prussian Chief of General Staff Helmuth von Moltke had planned meticulously for the war. He rapidly mobilized the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of Silesia. There, the Prussian armies, led nominally by King William I, converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Králové) on 3 July. The Prussian Army of the Elbe advanced on the Austrian left wing, and the First Army on the center, prematurely; they risked being counter-flanked on their own left. Victory therefore depended on the timely arrival of the Second Army on the left wing. This was achieved through the brilliant work of its Chief of Staff, Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal. Superior Prussian organization and élan decided the battle against Austrian numerical superiority, and the victory was near total, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure. An armistice between Prussia and Austria came into effect at noon on 22 July. A preliminary peace was signed on 26 July at Nikolsburg.

Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main campaign. Hanover's army defeated Prussia at the Second Battle of Langensalza on 27 June 1866, but, within a few days, they were forced to surrender by superior numbers. Prussian armies fought against Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and the Hessian states on the river Main, reaching Nuremberg and Frankfurt. The Bavarian fortress of Würzburg was shelled by Prussian artillery, but the garrison defended its position until armistice day.

The Austrians were more successful in their war with Italy, defeating the Italians on land at the Battle of Custoza (24 June), and on sea at the Battle of Lissa (20 July). However, Italy's "Hunters of the Alps" led by Garibaldi defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Bezzecca on 21 July, conquered the lower part of Trentino, and moved towards Trento. The Prussian peace with Austria forced the Italian government to seek an armistice with Austria on 12 August. According to the Treaty of Vienna, signed on 12 October, Austria ceded Veneto to France, which, in turn, ceded it to Italy.

Major battles

 24 June, Battle of Custoza: Austrian army defeats Italian army.
 27 June, Battle of Náchod: Prussians defeat Austrians.
 27 June, Battle of Trautenau (Trutnov): Austrians check Prussian advance but with heavy losses.
 27 June, Battle of Langensalza: Hanover's army defeats Prussia's. However, Hanover surrenders two days later.
 29 June, Battle of Gitschin (Jičín): Prussians defeat Austrians.
 3 July, Battle of Königgrätz (Sadová): decisive Prussian victory against Austrians.
 10 July, Battle of Kissingen: Prussians defeat the Bavarians (7th Army Corps of the German Confederation).
 20 July, Battle of Lissa (Vis): the Austrian fleet decisively defeats the Italian one.
 21 July, Battle of Bezzecca: Giuseppe Garibaldi's "Hunters of the Alps" defeat an Austrian army.
 22 July (last day of the war), Battle of Lamacs (Lamač): Austrians defend Bratislava against Prussian army.
 24 July, Battle of Tauberbischofsheim, the Federal 8th Corps (Württemberg, Baden, Hesse and Nassau) is defeated by Prussia and northern Württemberg is occupied.

Aftermath and consequences

In order to prevent "unnecessary bitterness of feeling or desire for revenge" and forestall intervention by France or Russia, Bismarck pushed King William I of Prussia to make peace with the Austrians rapidly, rather than continue the war in hopes of further gains. William had "planned to install both the crown prince of Hanover and the nephew of the elector of Hesse as titular grand dukes in small territorial residuals of their dynastic inheritance" due to opposition in the government cabinet, including Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia, to the annexation of several German states. The Austrians accepted mediation from France's Napoleon III. The Peace of Prague on 23 August 1866 resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation, Prussian annexation of four of Austria's former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. This left Prussia free to form the North German Confederation the next year, incorporating all the German states north of the Main River. Prussia chose not to seek Austrian territory for itself, and this made it possible for Prussia and Austria to ally in the future, since Austria felt threatened more by Italian and Pan-Slavic irredentism than by Prussia. The war left Prussia dominant in German politics (since Austria was now excluded from Germany and no longer the top German power). The northern states protested against their annexation to Prussia, and both the dethroned rulers and the local population lamented the loss of their nation's sovereignity.

Local resistance and regional loyalty led Hans von Hardenberg, the civil commissioner who oversaw the integration of Hanover into Prussia, to remark that "As a whole the Hanoverians are a tougher, less accommodating tribe than the Saxons. Their particularism rests not solely on Prussophobia .. . but above all on a deep-rooted conviction that life is nowhere better than in Hanover. Theirs is a solid ... national feeling". The protests of George V of Hanover and the local population proved to be an effective obstacle to Hanover's assimilation into Prussia, and led to the founding of the German-Hanoverian Party, which received 46.6% of the Hanoverian vote in the March 1871 Reichstag election. Hostility to annexation was also felt in smaller annexed kingdoms such as Hesse, where the dethroned Prince Frederick William of Hesse-Kassel strongly condemned "the usurpation of the Electorate of Hesse by the crown of Prussia". Anti-annexationist petitions were organised and reached a significant number of signatures, with a separatist petition in Hanover reaching half a million signatures. In Nassau, Prussian soldiers were reportedly attacked by locals "with stones and axes"; according to Jasper Heinzen, "brawls between occupation troops and local veterans soon became so prevalent that one historian has called these incidents the most distinctive inaugural feature of the Prussian era".

Anti-Prussian and separatist sentiment in newly annexed kingdoms continued into 1871, as local Prussian authorities complained about "a not insignificant number" of deserters from Hanover and Schleswig, and the population reacted to the Franco-Prussian War with "recurrent acts of sabotage on telegraph lines, latent French sympathies, and a widespread disinterest in the establishment of armed home guards". Nevertheless, the formed North German Confederation would go on to win the war and annex Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg in 1871. According to Geoffrey Wawro, the political and military power accumulated by Prussia allowed it to annex the northern German states in 1866 and then "force the Catholic states very much against their will into a federal union" in 1871. The resulting German Empire would become one of the most influential European powers.

For the defeated parties and Schleswig-Holstein
In addition to war reparations, the following territorial changes took place:
 Austria: Surrendered the province of Venetia to France, but then Napoleon III handed it to Italy as agreed in a secret treaty with Prussia. Austria then lost all official influence over member states of the former German Confederation. Austria's defeat was a telling blow to Habsburg rule; the Empire was transformed via the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 into the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary in the following year. Additionally Austria was also excluded from Germany.
 Schleswig and Holstein: Became the Prussian Province of Schleswig-Holstein.
 Hanover: Annexed by Prussia, became the Province of Hanover.
 Hesse-Darmstadt: Surrendered to Prussia the small territory it had acquired earlier in 1866 on the extinction of the ruling house of Hesse-Homburg. The northern half of the remaining land joined the North German Confederation.
 Nassau, Hesse-Kassel, Frankfurt: Annexed by Prussia. Combined with the territory surrendered by Hesse-Darmstadt to form the new Province of Hesse-Nassau.
 Saxony, Saxe-Meiningen, Reuss-Greiz, Schaumburg-Lippe: Spared from annexation but joined the North German Confederation in the following year.

For the neutral parties and Liechtenstein

The war meant the end of the German Confederation. Those states who remained neutral or passive during the conflict took different actions after the Prague treaty:

 Liechtenstein: Became an independent state and declared permanent neutrality, while maintaining close political ties with Austria. Accused by Bismarck of having manipulated the Confederation Diet vote, the Principality had sent 80 men out on the Imperial side against the Italian volunteers but did not engage in any fighting.
 Limburg and Luxembourg: The Treaty of London (1867) declared both of these states to be part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Limburg became the Dutch province of Limburg. Luxembourg was guaranteed independence and neutrality from its three surrounding neighbours (Belgium, France, and Prussia), but it rejoined the German customs union, the Zollverein, and remained a member until its dissolution in 1919.
 Reuss-Schleiz, Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt: Joined the North German Confederation.

Austrian desire for revenge
The Austrian Chancellor Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust was "impatient to take his revenge on Bismarck for Sadowa". As a preliminary step, the  with Hungary was "rapidly concluded". Beust "persuaded Francis Joseph to accept Magyar demands which he had until then rejected", but Austrian plans fell short of French hopes (e.g. Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen proposed a plan which required the French army to fight alone for six weeks in order to allow Austrian mobilisation). Victor Emmanuel II and the Italian government wanted to join this potential alliance, but Italian public opinion was bitterly opposed so long as Napoleon III kept a French garrison in Rome protecting Pope Pius IX, thereby denying Italy the possession of its capital (Rome had been declared capital of Italy in March 1861, when the first Italian Parliament had met in Turin). Napoleon III was not strictly opposed to this (in response to a French minister of State's declaration that Italy would never lay its hands on Rome, the Emperor had commented "You know, in politics, one should never say 'never) and had made various proposals for resolving the Roman Question, but Pius IX rejected them all. Despite his support for Italian unification, Napoleon could not press the issue for fear of angering Catholics in France. Raffaele de Cesare, an Italian journalist, political scientist, and author, noted that:

Another reason that Beust's supposedly desired revanche against Prussia did not materialize is seen in the fact that, in 1870, the Hungarian Prime Minister Gyula Andrássy was "vigorously opposed".

See also
 Wars and battles involving Prussia

Citations

General sources

External links

 Further information about the war

1866 in Germany
1866 in Prussia
1866 in the Austrian Empire
War
Conflicts in 1866
History of Schleswig-Holstein
Wars involving Baden
Wars involving Bavaria
Wars involving Hesse-Kassel
Wars involving Italy
Wars involving Liechtenstein
Wars involving Saxony
Wars involving Waldeck
Wars involving Württemberg
William I, German Emperor
Franz Joseph I of Austria

Austro-Prussian War


Terry Leyden (born 1 October 1945) is an Irish former Fianna Fáil politician who served as a Senator (elected on the Labour Panel) from September 2002 to March 2020, and previously during December 1992 (after being nominated by the Taoiseach). He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1977 to 1992, and as a Minister of State from March to December 1982, and from 1987 to 1992.

He was elected to Roscommon County Council in 1974, and re-elected in 1979 and 1985. Leyden was elected to Dáil Éireann at his first attempt, in the 1977 general election, when he was returned to the 21st Dáil as a TD for the Roscommon–Leitrim constituency. He was returned for the new Roscommon constituency at the 1981 general election, and re-elected a further four times before losing his seat at the 1992 general election in the new Longford–Roscommon constituency.

From March to December 1982, he served as Minister of State at the Department of Transport and Minister of State at the Department of Posts and Telegraphs. He then served as Minister of State at the Department of Health from 1987 to 1989, and as Minister of State at the Department of Industry and Commerce from 1989 to 1992.

Following his Dáil defeat he sat very briefly in the 19th Seanad, having been nominated by the Taoiseach Albert Reynolds on 2 December 1992. After the 19th Seanad last sat on 17 December 1992 he stood unsuccessfully in the 1993 election to Seanad Éireann on the Administrative Panel, and was unsuccessful again in 1997 when seeking election on the Industrial and Commercial Panel.

Leyden was re-elected to Roscommon County Council in 1999, a position that he held until the ending of the dual mandate in 2003 – because by that time he was also a Senator. Leyden was also a member of the Western Health Board from 1992 to 2002, and was Chairman from 2001 to 2002.

He was elected to the 22nd Seanad on the Labour Panel in September 2002 and re-elected in 2007, 2011 and 2016. He was the Fianna Fáil Seanad spokesperson on Children and European Affairs.

In May 2010, he invoked Parliamentary privilege and accused The Irish Times columnist Fintan O'Toole of incitement to riot, which O'Toole denied. This came about as a result of the latter's addressing of a demonstration against the bank bailouts proposed by the Government, which later turned violent.

In July 2013, he claimed that Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini were "good Christians" while speaking in the Seanad. On realising the absurd nature of his comments, he apologised to the chair and admitted he was distracted.

He was a member of the Royal Institute of the Architects of Ireland by virtue of inclusion on the "Minister's List". Prior to his inclusion on the RIAI register he was a member of the Irish Architects Society, the majority of whose members did not have formal qualifications for entry on the architect's register.

He was the Fianna Fáil Seanad spokesperson on Communications, Climate Change and Natural Resources. He retired from politics at the 2020 Seanad election.

References

External links

1945 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Galway
Fianna Fáil TDs
Members of Roscommon County Council
Members of the 21st Dáil
Members of the 22nd Dáil
Members of the 23rd Dáil
Members of the 24th Dáil
Members of the 25th Dáil
Members of the 26th Dáil
Members of the 19th Seanad
Members of the 22nd Seanad
Members of the 23rd Seanad
Members of the 24th Seanad
Members of the 25th Seanad
Ministers of State of the 23rd Dáil
Ministers of State of the 25th Dáil
Ministers of State of the 26th Dáil
Nominated members of Seanad Éireann
Fianna Fáil senators
Labour Panel senators

Terry Leyden


A dogfight is a close air fight between fighter planes. It often involves turning, climbing, and swirling.

Dogfights started during World War I when the fighter planes did not have many weapons.

The first aerial dogfight occurred during the Battle of Cer (15–24 August 1914), when Serbian aviator Miodrag Tomić encountered an Austro-Hungarian plane while performing a reconnaissance mission over Austro-Hungarian positions. The Austro-Hungarian pilot initially waved, and Tomić waved back. The Austro-Hungarian pilot then fired at Tomić with his revolver.  Tomić produced a pistol of his own and fired back. Tomić managed to escape, and within several weeks, all Serbian and Austro-Hungarian planes were fitted with machine-guns.

Modern weapons such as homing missiles did not exist in that time, and planes could only fight each other with machine guns. Since the machine guns were only useful at close range, the planes had to fly very close together to have combat. Pilots had to fly with many maneuvers to try to not be shot, and be able to shoot the enemy planes. This new type of flying was named dogfighting. Fighter planes made just for this type of flying were sometimes called dogfighters. During World War II many had autocannons firing small, explosive artillery shells. They kept farther apart so they would not be destroyed quickly.

In modern air combat, there are many long range weapons that can be used before dogfighting. Homing missiles can be fired much further away from the target than machine guns, and will automatically try to follow the target. These types of weapons make dogfighting less common, but modern planes still have Gatling guns, which are more advanced kinds of machine guns. This is because dogfighting still happens sometimes.

References

Military aviation

Dogfight


Parviz Kimiavi (; born 1939, in Tehran) is an Iranian (Persian) film director, screenwriter, editor and one of the most prominent figures of Persian cinema of the 20th century.

Kimiavi studied photography and film at l'École Louis Lumière (Louis Lumiere School of Cinematography) and IDHEC. His works gained critical success and won several prizes in important international events such as Berlin and Cannes.

Filmography: Directing
The Old Man and His Stone Garden (Piremard va bagh-e sangi'ash, 2004)
Iran Is My Homeland (Iran sara-ye man ast, 1999)
Simone Weil (1988) (TV)
Zourkhaneh: The House of Strength (Zourkhaneh: La maison de force, 1988) (TV)
Blue Jeans (Blue jean, Le, 1984) (TV)
Oswaldo Rodriguez (1983) (TV)
Portrait of a Tunisian Boy (Portrait d'un jeune Tunisien, 1982) (TV)
The Trench (Tranche, La, 1981) (TV)
OK Mister! (1979)
The Garden of Stones (Bagh-e Sangi, 1976)
The Mongols (Mogholha, 1973)
P Like Pelican (P mesle pelican, 1972)
Gowharshad Mosque (Masjed-e gowharshad, 1971)
Mashhad's Bazaar (Bazar-e mashhad, 1970)
From Bojnurd to Quchan (Bojnurd ta quchan, 1970)
Shiraz 70 (Shiraz-e 70, 1970)
Oh Guardian of Deers (Ya zamen-e ahu, 1970)
The Hills of Qaytariyeh (Tappehaye qaytariyeh, 1969)

Awards and honours
Silver Bear: 26th Berlin International Film Festival (1976 - The Garden of Stones (Bagh-e Sangi))

References

External links

1939 births
Living people
Iranian film directors
Persian-language film directors
Film people from Tehran

Parviz Kimiavi


Kush was an American rap metal band formed in 2000 by rapper B-Real, Deftones guitarist Stephen Carpenter, and former Fear Factory members Raymond Herrera and Christian Olde Wolbers.

History
The project was first announced in 2000. "Dr. Kush" was chosen as an alternate name in case the original band name was already in use. In November 2000, it was reported that seven tracks had been completed. In 2001, B-Real expressed an interest in releasing the band's debut album by the following year or in 2003. Kush performed at the fifth annual Cypress Hill Smoke Out in 2002, opening with a song entitled "Psycho Killer", one of ten completed tracks that were prepared for an eventual album. B-Real stated that the band's music is "unlike any other rap-metal type stuff. It's a little bit more aggressive. And the way I attack it from a lyrical standpoint is totally different from what I do with Cypress. Cypress is more street-orientated. With Kush, it's a little bit of everything." In April 2002, it was reported that Kush had completed its debut album, but that it would be difficult to release because all of the band members were signed to different labels. In November 2002, it was reported that the album was not completed, but that it was getting close to completion. To date, no material from the band has been released officially, but demos have been leaked on various file sharing sites.

In 2014, during a Reddit AMA, B-Real indicated the project was stalled by "record labels fighting".

Band members
 B-Real — vocals
 Stephen Carpenter — guitar
 Christian Olde Wolbers — bass
 Raymond Herrera — drums

References

American rap metal musical groups
Heavy metal musical groups from California
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Musical groups established in 2000

Kush (band)


Lovro Toman (10 August 1827 – 15 August 1870) was a Slovene Romantic nationalist revolutionary activist during the Revolution of 1848, known as the person who in Ljubljana, at the Wolf Street 8, raised the Slovene tricolor for the first time in history in response to a German flag raised on top of the Ljubljana Castle. Later he helped founding one of the first Slovene publishing houses, the Slovenska matica. He was a Slovene national conservative politician and member of the Austrian Parliament. Together with Janez Bleiweis and Etbin Henrik Costa, he was part of the leadership of the Old Slovene party.

Life
He was born in a wealthy entrepreneurial family in the Upper Carniolan village of Kamna Gorica, in what was then the Austrian Empire, present-day Slovenia.

After graduating from the classical lyceum in Ljubljana in 1845, he enrolled at the University of Vienna, where he studied law. During his student years, he became influenced by Romantic nationalist ideas. He rose to prominence as a political activist during the Revolution of 1848.

In April 1848, he was among the students who first raised the Slovenian flag in the center of Ljubljana. After the revolution, he continued his studies and graduated from the University of Graz.

In 1853, he married the poet Josipina Urbančič Turnograjska, who came from one of the wealthiest families in Carniola. The two lived in Graz until her early death in 1854.

He died in Rondaun near Vienna, and was buried in his native village of Kamna Gorica.

Political career
After his wife's death he moved to Radovljica, where he worked as a lawyer.

In 1861, he was elected to the Austrian Parliament. In the 1860s, he became one of the most powerful leaders of the conservative Old Slovene party, together with Janez Bleiweis, Luka Svetec, and Etbin Henrik Costa.

He was also considered among the most popular Slovene politicians in the 19th century. He was known for his vigorous temperament and for his many public functions. Among other things, he was the founder of the Slovenska matica publishing house and served as its first chairman. His overwhelming influence in the political decision-making in the Slovene National Movement was frequently criticized by his opponents, who sometimes mockingly referred to Carniola as "Tomania".

Controversies
In 1867, he was involved in a scandal around the construction of the railway line between Ljubljana and Tarvisio. He was accused by his opponents of having sold out his vote in favour of the Austro-Hungarian compromise, which he had previously opposed, in order to achieve the license for the construction of the railway line. These charges were probably unsubstantiated.

References

1827 births
1870 deaths
People from the Municipality of Radovljica
Slovenian Roman Catholics
Old Slovenes politicians
Members of the Austrian House of Deputies (1861–1867)
Members of the Austrian House of Deputies (1867–1870)
Members of the Diet of the Duchy of Carniola
Carniolan lawyers
University of Vienna alumni
University of Graz alumni

Lovro Toman


Michael John Nunn (born April 14, 1963) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1984 to 2002. He is a two-weight world champion, having held the IBF middleweight title from 1988 to 1991, and the WBA super middleweight title from 1992 to 1994. During both those reigns, he also held the lineal championship. In 2004, Nunn was sentenced to 24 years in prison for drug trafficking; he was released in February 2019.

Amateur career
Nunn won three Iowa Golden Gloves titles and posted an amateur record of 168-8. At the 1984 Olympic trials, U.S. boxing officials asked Nunn, who was boxing as a 156-pounder, to move up to the 165-pound division. They wanted to clear the way for Frank Tate, the eventual Olympic gold medalist, who was being heralded as America's next great middleweight. Tate's last loss was to Nunn.

After agreeing to move up in weight, Nunn boxed Virgil Hill at the Olympic trials in Fort Worth, Texas. Hill defeated Nunn by a 4-1 decision. Nunn and Hill boxed again at the Olympic box-offs in Las Vegas, Nevada. Nunn won the first box-off by a 5-0 decision. In the second box-off, Hill dropped Nunn and won by a 5-0 decision to make the Olympic team as the U.S. representative in the 165-pound division.

Professional career

Middleweight
Nunn turned professional in 1984. After winning his first thirty fights, he fought IBF middleweight title-holder Frank Tate, who was 23-0. The fight took place on July 28, 1988 at Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas. Nunn won the title by a ninth-round knockout.

In his first title defense, he knocked out Juan Roldan in the eighth round. His second defense was a stunning first-round knockout of Sumbu Kalambay to capture the vacant lineal middleweight championship. Nunn's next two title defenses were twelve-round majority decision wins over Iran Barkley and Marlon Starling. For his fifth defense, Nunn went to France and knocked out Donald Curry in ten rounds. On May 10, 1991, in his hometown of Davenport, Iowa, Nunn lost his title in a big upset to James Toney. Nunn, well ahead on points after ten rounds, was knocked out after being dropped by a left hook in the eleventh round.

Super middleweight
After the loss, Nunn moved up a weight division to super middleweight and won the NABF title with a tenth-round stoppage against Randall Yonker. On September 12, 1992, Nunn won the WBA and lineal super middleweight titles with a controversial twelve-round split decision over Victor Cordoba. The WBA ordered a rematch, which took place on January 30, 1993. Nunn fought much better in the rematch, winning by a one-sided twelve-round unanimous decision.

In his fifth title defense, Nunn lost the title to Steve Little by a twelve-round split decision on February 26, 1994, in another huge upset. On December 17, 1994, Nunn traveled to Ecuador to fight Frankie Liles in an attempt to regain the lineal and WBA super middleweight titles. In a very close fight, Liles, who had defeated Little in his previous fight to win the title, defeated Nunn by a twelve-round unanimous decision.

Light heavyweight
After nine consecutive wins, Nunn got another title shot. On March 21, 1998, he fought Graciano Rocchigiani for the vacant WBC light heavyweight title in Germany. Nunn lost by a twelve-round split decision, with the judges favouring Rocchigiani's fewer, more solid punches over Nunn's much higher volume of lighter shots.

On January 23, 2002, Nunn defeated Vinson Durhan by a ten-round unanimous decision at Caesars Indiana in Bridgeport, Indiana. It would be his last fight. He finished with a record of 58-4 with 37 knockouts.

Arrest and sentencing
On August 6, 2002, at a hotel in his hometown of Davenport, Iowa, Nunn was arrested after paying an undercover agent $200 for one kilogram of cocaine, which had a street value of $24,000. In May 2003, he pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy to distribute cocaine. The following January, Nunn was sentenced to 292 months in federal prison by U.S. District Judge William Gritzer, who agreed to a higher sentencing guideline after considering Nunn's long history of drug trafficking and the likelihood that he used a firearm during drug deals.

During the three-day sentencing hearing, prosecutors called witnesses who testified about Nunn's drug activity dating back to 1993. Nunn, who accepted responsibility for buying drugs in August 2002, denied his involvement in drug trafficking. He pointed out that several of the witnesses were in prison and could have their sentences reduced for providing testimony.

Nunn, who was defiant throughout the hearing, accused government lawyers of lying and scheming against him. "You guys haven't shown me nothing," Nunn said in his statement to the judge. "Where are your facts, Mr. Prosecutor?"

Nunn was released from federal prison on August 8, 2019.

Professional boxing record

Personal
Nunn's brother in law is Roger Craig, a professional American football player who married Nunn's sister.

See also
List of middleweight boxing champions
List of super middleweight boxing champions
List of WBA world champions
List of IBF world champions

References

External links

1963 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Davenport, Iowa
World Boxing Association champions
International Boxing Federation champions
Boxers from Iowa
American male boxers
Light-heavyweight boxers
Southpaw boxers
World middleweight boxing champions
World super-middleweight boxing champions
American drug traffickers
American sportspeople convicted of crimes

Michael Nunn


Ganiyu Olarenwaju Solomon (born 19 December 1959) is a Nigerian politician. He was senator for the Lagos West constituency from 5 June 2007 to 6 June 2015. He is a member of the Action Congress (AC), now All Progressives Congress (APC). He is a former president of the Rotary Club of Isolo

Early life and education

Solomon was born on 19 December 1959. His father, Alhaji Rafiu Ishola Solomon, was politically influential as a contemporary of the first civilian governor of Lagos State, Alhaji Lateef Jakande.
Solomon attended Oke-Ona Grammar School, Abeokuta, Ogun State.
He obtained a B.Sc. in political science from the University of Lagos, and went into a private IT services business. Later he went into the property business, before entering politics during the regime of late General Sani Abacha.

Political career
He was elected into the Lagos State House of Assembly on the Democratic Party of Nigeria (DPN) platform in 1998, but did not take his seat before Abacha's death. During the return to democracy in 1999 with the Nigerian Fourth Republic, Solomon was elected chairman of Mushin Local Government Area of Lagos State on the Alliance for Democracy (AD) platform.
In 2003 he was a contender to be Alliance For Democracy (AD) Senate candidate for Lagos West, but was defeated by the incumbent senator Tokunbo Afikuyomi. His supporters greeted the primary results with violence, and governor Bola Tinubu was unable to leave the scene of the vote for several hours as the mob battled with police outside and other electoral observers.
Solomon ran instead for the federal House of Assembly for Mushin Federal Constituency 1 and was elected.

In April 2007, Solomon was elected to the Senate on the Action Congress (AC) platform for the Lagos West constituency.
After taking his seat in the Senate, he was appointed to committees on Works, Sports, Rules & Business, Integration & Cooperation and Capital Markets (Chairman).
In a mid-term evaluation of senators in May 2009, ThisDay noted that he had sponsored bills on amendment of the National Directorate of Act, Electronic Commerce, Whistleblowers Protection, Institute of Capital Market Registrars and Elderly Persons Centre, and had  sponsored or co-sponsored ten motions.
He was appointed chairman of the Senate Committee on Capital Market.
His GOS Foundation provides assistance in skills acquisition, educational development, micro-credit, healthcare and poverty alleviation.

In the run-up to the April 2011 elections, Solomon was unopposed in his bid in the Action Congress of Nigeria primaries to run for reelection.
He was reelected on 9 April.

In September 2011, it was reported that Solomon was arguing with ACN National Legal Advisor Muiz Banire over who would be the next Mushin Local Government Chairman. The bickering threatened to tear the party apart, with PDP chieftain Waheed Lawon saying it was making it more likely for the PDP to "sweep both Mushin and Surulere at the upcoming local government elections." But eventually the spirit of oneness prevailed through the intervention of the ACN elders which culminated in the emergence of the ACN candidate as the winner of Mushin Local Government Chairmanship election. Solomon participated in the 2014 APC governorship primaries ahead of the 2015 election

Ganiyu Olanrewaju Solomon (GOS) was recently introduced as a new member of Lagos State Governor Advisory Council (GAC)

In October 2022, Ganiyu Olanrewaju Solomon (GOS) was appointed as Director General of the Lagos State All Progressives Congress (APC) Campaign Council along with some grassroot politicians.

References

Members of the Senate (Nigeria)
Living people
1959 births
Members of the Lagos State House of Assembly
Alliance for Democracy (Nigeria) politicians
Action Congress of Nigeria politicians
All Progressives Congress politicians
University of Lagos alumni
Yoruba politicians
21st-century Nigerian politicians

Ganiyu Solomon


Klaus G. Troitzsch (* 28. November 1946, in Ilsede-Oberg, Lower Saxony) is a German sociologist. He became famous for introducing the method of computer-based simulation in the social sciences. He was professor and director of the Institute for IS Research at University of Koblenz-Landau (as of 01/01/2023 University of Koblenz).

Career
Klaus G. Troitzsch studied sociology and political science at the University of Hamburg and the University of Cologne. In the 1970s Troitzsch was active politician. He served for the German liberal party (FDP) in the parliament of Hamburg, from 1972 to 1974 as an assistant and later (from 1974 to 1978) as a member, and also as executive secretary. In 1979 he completed his PhD in political sciences at the University of Hamburg and returned to academia, first as a senior researcher at the University of Koblenz-Landau, and then, from 1986, as full professor. From 1987 to 1992 he served the faculty of computer science of the University of Koblenz-Landau as dean and from 1992 to 2000 as vice-dean. In 2001, he received an honorary doctorate from the Dnipropetrovsk National University (Ukraine). Troitzsch became professor emeritus in 2012.

Work
Troitzsch is a pioneer in the methodological development of computer-based simulation in the social sciences, especially the method of agent-based modeling in the social sciences. In the field of computational social sciences, Troitzsch's focus lies on the one hand on agent-based modeling and on the other hand on microsimulation. He published one of the most important textbooks in that area "Simulation for the Social Scientist", now in its second edition (together with Nigel Gilbert). Further, he was among the founders of the Research Committee on Modelling and Simulation of the German Sociological Association and the SimSoc Consortium, which publishes the Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation.  he was the first Treasurer of the European Social Simulation Association. He has been involved in several research projects funded by the European Union, for instance Freshwater Integrated Resources Management with Agents (FIRMA) and OCOPOMO.

Troitzsch organized also several conferences in the social sciences, for instance the third annual conference of the European Social Simulation Association, (ESSA 2005), Epistemological Perspectives on Simulation (EPOS) in 2004, the 26th European Conference on Modelling and Simulation (ECMS) and, for twelve years, an annual summer school on social simulation (the Advanced Simulation Workshop/Zuma Workshop on Simulation for Social Scientists).

References

1946 births
German sociologists
Living people
People from Peine (district)
Members of the Hamburg Parliament
Academic staff of the University of Koblenz and Landau
University of Hamburg alumni
University of Cologne alumni

Klaus G. Troitzsch


The 1952 Chicago Cardinals season was the 33rd season the team was in the league. The team improved on their previous output of 3–9, winning four games. They failed to qualify for the playoffs for the fourth consecutive season.

Schedule

Standings

References

Chicago Cardinals
1952
Chicago Card

1952 Chicago Cardinals season


The laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (or lateroposterior tegmental nucleus) is a nucleus situated in the brainstem, spanning the midbrain tegmentum and the pontine tegmentum. Its location is one-third of the way from the pedunculopontine nucleus to the thalamus, inferior to the pineal gland.

Function
The laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT) sends cholinergic (acetylcholine) projections to many subcortical and cortical structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, substantia nigra (dopamine neurons), ventral tegmental area (dopamine neurons), cortex (with bidirectional connections with the prefrontal cortex).

The laterodorsal tegmental nucleus may be involved in modulating sustained attention or in mediating alerting responses, and also in the generation of REM sleep (along with the pedunculopontine nucleus).

Brainstem

Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus


Sonny & Cher were an American pop and entertainment duo in the 1960s and 1970s, made up of husband and wife Sonny Bono and Cher. The couple started their career in the mid-1960s as R&B backing singers for record producer Phil Spector.

The pair first achieved fame with two hit songs in 1965, "Baby Don't Go" and "I Got You Babe". Signing with Atco/Atlantic Records, they released three studio albums in the late 1960s, as well as the soundtrack recordings for two unsuccessful movies, Good Timesand Chastity, with Cher contributing vocals to one cut, "Chastity's Song (Band of Thieves)". In 1972, after three years of silence, the couple returned to the studio and released two other albums under the MCA/Kapp Records label.

In the 1970s, they also positioned themselves as media personalities with two top ten TV shows in the US, The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour and The Sonny & Cher Show. The couple's career as a duo ended in 1975 following their divorce. In the decade they spent together, Sonny and Cher were nominated for two Grammy Awards and sold over 40 million records worldwide. Rolling Stone ranked them No. 18 on its list of the 20 Greatest Duos of All Time.

Couples
Musical duos
American entertainers
Cher

Sonny & Cher


Simon Grynaeus (born Simon Griner; 1493 – 1 August 1541) was a German scholar and theologian of the Protestant Reformation.

Biography
Grynaeus was the son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian peasant, and was born at Veringendorf, in Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. He adopted the name "Grynaeus" from the epithet of Apollo in Virgil. He was a schoolmate of Melanchthon at Pforzheim, whence he went to the University of Vienna, distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Hellenist.

His appointment as rector of a school at Buda was of no long continuance: his views excited the zeal of the Dominicans, and he was thrown into prison. He gained his freedom at the instance of Hungarian magnates, visited Melanchthon at Wittenberg, and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the University of Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from 1526. His Zwinglian view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with his Catholic colleagues. From 1526, he had corresponded with John Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited him to Basel, which Erasmus had just left. The university being disorganized, Grynaeus pursued his studies, and in 1531 visited England for research in libraries.

A commendatory letter from Erasmus gained him the good offices of Sir Thomas More. He returned to Basel charged with the task of collecting the opinions of continental reformers on the subject of Henry VIII's divorce, and was present at the death of Oecolampadius (24 November 1531). He now, while holding the chair of Greek, was appointed extraordinary professor of theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the New Testament.

In 1534, Duke Ulrich called him to Württemberg in aid of the Reformation there, as well as for the reconstitution of the University of Tübingen, which he carried out in concert with Ambrosius Blarer of Constance. Two years later, he had an active hand in the so-called First Helvetic Confession (the work of Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536); also in the conferences which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg Concord (1536).

At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics and Protestants, he was the sole representative of the Swiss churches, being deputed by the authorities of Basel. He died suddenly by the plague at Basel on 1 August 1541. A brilliant scholar, a mediating theologian, and personally of lovable temperament, his influence was great and wisely exercised. Erasmus and John Calvin were among his correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch, Aristotle and John Chrysostom, and the editing of the first printed version of Euclid's Elements in ancient Greek.

Family
His son Samuel (1539–1599) was professor of jurisprudence at Basel. His nephew Thomas (1512–1564) was professor at Basel and minister in Rötteln, and left four distinguished sons of whom Johann Jakob was a leader in the religious affairs of Basel. The last of the direct descendants of Simon Grynaeus was his namesake Simon (1725–1799), translator into German of French and English anti-deistical works, and author of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776).

References
 This work in turn cites:
 Pierre Bayle, Dictionnaire
 W.T. Streuber in Hauck's Realencyklopädie (1899)
 Streuber, S. Grynaei epistolae, for bibliography (1847)

External links

1493 births
1541 deaths
16th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians
16th-century German Protestant theologians
16th-century German male writers
German Calvinist and Reformed theologians
German male non-fiction writers
People from Sigmaringen (district)

Simon Grynaeus


Per Lasson (April 18, 1859 — June 6, 1883) was a Norwegian composer.

Biography
He was born in Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway.
He was the son of barrister Christian Lasson (1830–93) and Alexandra Cathrine Henriette von Munthe af Morgenstierne (1838–81).
His sisters included  painter Oda Krohg (1860–1935) and cabaret singer  Bokken Lasson (1871–1970). His sister Alexandra married painter Frits Thaulow, and his sister Soffi married Danish poet Holger Drachmann.

In 1876, he began law studies in Kristiania. In 1882, he developed a malignant tumor in the palate. He was operated on in Norway and Germany but died the following year.

His musical compositions were  modest in number, consisting of 15 songs and 9 piano pieces besides an orchestra overture. His most notable composition is the piano solo Crescendo! (1882).

References

External links

1859 births
1883 deaths
19th-century Norwegian composers
19th-century Norwegian male musicians
Norwegian male composers

Per Lasson