Erhard Kroeger or Kröger (24 March 1905, Riga – 24 September 1987) was a Baltic German SS officer involved in the resettlement of Baltic Germans before World War II. He commanded an Einsatzgruppe in 1941, and was later attached to General Andrey Vlasov and the German sponsored Russian Liberation Army of World War II. He was convicted of war crimes in 1969.

Early years

Erhard Kroeger grew up in Riga, Russian Empire, a member of the historic Baltic German minority there. In his youth, he played ice hockey with Wilfried Strik-Strikfeldt. Kroeger made his name as an SS activist challenging the conservative Baltic German leadership of Wilhelm von Rüdiger and trying to Nazify the Latvian German minority before 1939.

"In July 1937 the new VOMI chief ordered Eric Mundel, who in 1935 had replaced Rüdiger as the leader of the Volksgemeinschaft [Latvian German minority association], to bring Kröger into the leadership."

Germany

At the height of the Sudetenland crisis and Hitler's guarantees that he had no further territorial interests in Europe: "Kröger.…without authorization from Berlin, assured his followers that the Führer had not abandoned them, implying that revision remained a possibility."

SS Sturmbannführer Kroeger was admonished by his SS and VOMI superiors and visited Berlin in September 1939 where he was secretly advised of the Nazi plans to trade Latvia and Estonia to Joseph Stalin. In a post-war document he related:

The only thing that rushed through my mind was the salvation of an essential and closely linked ethnic group which, it seemed to me, was at this moment already threatened with certain destruction without even knowing it.

At a meeting with Heinrich Himmler, Kroeger stressed the serious hostility and animosity of the Communists to the Baltic Germans following the Russian civil war.

The next day Himmler received him for a second time. He had spoken to Hitler, and he told Kroeger that "the Führer agreed with the evacuation of the Baltic German community as a whole, but stipulated that this should be done with the approval of the Soviet government." Himmler also reported that the Baltic Germans were to be settled in those parts of Poland annexed to the Reich, including Posen and West Prussia.

Erhard Kroeger then worked extremely hard to ensure as many as 60,000 Baltic Germans were allowed to leave Estonia and Latvia over the autumn of 1939 to be settled in Germany.

Einsatzkommando

Following the Nazi attack on Soviet Union, SS-Sturmbannführer Erhard Kroeger was part of an Einsatzgruppe between June and November 1941.

From June to November 1941 commanded Einsatzkommando 6 of Einsatzgruppe C. While in command of this unit it murdered 100 Jews at Dobromyl. Kroeger had initially been ordered to kill 307 Jews, but the number to be murdered was reduced after he complained. He was personally present for the killings. Kroeger was decorated with the Iron Cross while commander of the Einsatzkommando.

SS-Oberführer. Head of Sonderkommando Ost which was set up by the SD. In 1943 was enlisted in Division SS "Hohenstaufen". Also Head of the Russian desk in Leitstelle Ost under Arlt from July 1944.

Vlasov

In 1944 the SS took an interest in General Andrey Vlasov and his Russian Liberation Movement and in summer the head of the SS main leadership office, SS Obergruppenführer Gottlob Berger, specifically appointed Kroeger as a formal liaison officer between Vlasov and the SS.

Postwar
Until 1962 he lived under assumed names in the Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland and in Bologna. On 10 January 1962 the District Court of Wuppertal issued an arrest warrant for Kroeger on suspicion that he had been involved in massacres during the war. He was subsequently arrested on 31 December 1965 in Steinmaur-Sünikon in the canton of Zurich. The Land of North Rhine-Westphalia then made a formal extradition request. Kroeger argued that the twenty-year limitation period for prosecution had expired, and that the killings were politically motivated, that he was not present for most of the killings, and that those that he did admit involvement in legitimate wartime reprisals under international law. The Swiss Federal Court rejected this argument, however, and agreed to his extradition. After extradition to Germany and the issuance of a second arrest warrant on 22 February 1966, Kroeger was held in custody from 17 May 1966 until 5 October 1967. On 31 July 1969 Kroeger was sentenced by the District Court of Tuebingen to three years and four months in prison for the mass killing of Jews in Western Ukraine between June 1941 and February 1942.

Literature

 Lumans, Valdis O., "Himmler's Auxiliaries; The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle and the German National Minorities of Europe, 1933–1945" – 1993.   /
 Debórah Dwork and Robert Jan van Pelt, "Auschwitz; 1270 to the Present" – 1996.
 Erhard Kroeger, Dokument 314, in Dietrich A. Loeber, ed. Diktierte Option: Die Umsiedlung der Deutsch-Balten und Lettland (Neumünster : Karl Wachholtz), 1972.
 Strik-Strikfeldt, W. Against Stalin and Hitler: Memoir of the Russian Liberation Movement, 1941–1945. — NY: Day, 1970.

References

1905 births
1987 deaths
Military personnel from Riga
People from the Governorate of Livonia
Baltic-German people
Nazi Party politicians
Members of the Reichstag of Nazi Germany
German memoirists
SS-Oberführer
Einsatzgruppen personnel
Waffen-SS personnel
German male non-fiction writers
Holocaust perpetrators in Ukraine
20th-century memoirists
Latvian emigrants to Germany
Nazis convicted of war crimes
Prisoners and detainees of Germany

Erhard Kroeger


The Russians () are an East Slavic ethnic group indigenous to Eastern Europe, who share a common Russian ancestry, culture, and history. Russian, the most spoken Slavic language, is the shared mother tongue of the Russians; Orthodox Christianity has been their majority religion since the formation of a Russian identity in the Middle Ages. They are the largest Slavic nation and the largest European nation.

The Russians were formed from East Slavic tribes, and their cultural ancestry is based in Kievan Rus'. Genetically, the majority of Russians are very similar to their East Slavic counterparts, unlike Northern Russians, who belong to the Northern European Baltic gene pool. The Russian word for the Russians is derived from the people of Rus' and the territory of Rus'. The Russians share many historical and cultural traits with other European peoples, and especially with other East Slavic ethnic groups, specifically Belarusians and Ukrainians.

The vast majority of Russians live in native Russia, but notable minorities are scattered throughout other post-Soviet states such as Belarus, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Ukraine, and the Baltic states. A large Russian diaspora (sometimes including Russian-speaking non-Russians), estimated at around 25 million people, has developed all over the world, with notable numbers in the United States, Germany, Brazil, and Canada.

Ethnonym
The standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is "Russians" in English. There are two Russian words which are commonly translated into English as "Russians". One is "русские" (russkie), which in modern Russia most often means "ethnic Russians". Another is "россияне" (rossiyane), which denotes "Russian citizens", regardless of ethnicity or religious affiliation.

The name of the Russians derives from the early medieval Rus' people, a group of Norse merchants and warriors who relocated from across the Baltic Sea and founded a state centred on Novgorod that later became Kievan Rus'.

From the early nineteenth century, several politically charged theories of Russian nationality were developed, among them, the ideas of a single "all-Russian nation" encompassing the East Slavic peoples, or a "triune nation" of three brotherly "Great Russian", "Little Russian", and "White Russian" peoples.  Today some consider this as a colonial expression of Russian supremacy. The common view of East Slavs today is of separate Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian nations.

History

Ancient history

The ancestors of modern Russians are the Slavic tribes, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pinsk Marshes, one of the largest wetlands in Europe. The East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev toward present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk toward Novgorod and Rostov. From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in western Russia, and, according to some scholars, slowly but peacefully assimilated the native Finnic peoples, including the Merya, the Muromians, and the Meshchera.

Outside archaeological remains, little is known about the predecessors to Russians in general prior to 859 AD, when the Primary Chronicle starts its records. By 600 AD, the Slavs are believed to have split linguistically into southern, western, and eastern branches.

Medieval history

The Rus' state was established in northern Russia in the year 862, which was ruled by the Varangians. Staraya Ladoga and Novgorod became the first major cities of the new union of immigrants from Scandinavia with the Slavs and Finns. In 882, the prince Oleg seized Kiev, thereby uniting the northern and southern lands of the East Slavs under one authority. The state adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state as a result of in-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled it collectively.

After the 13th century, Moscow became a political and cultural center. Moscow has become a center for the unification of Russian lands. By the end of the 15th century, Moscow united the northeastern and northwestern Russian principalities, overthrew the "Mongol yoke" in 1480, and would be transformed into the Tsardom of Russia after Ivan IV was crowned tsar in 1547.

Modern history

In 1721, Tsar Peter the Great renamed his state as the Russian Empire, hoping to associate it with historical and cultural achievements of ancient Rus' – in contrast to his policies oriented towards Western Europe. The state now extended from the eastern borders of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Pacific Ocean, and became a great power; and one of the most powerful states in Europe after the victory over Napoleon. Peasant revolts were common, and all were fiercely suppressed. The Emperor Alexander II abolished Russian serfdom in 1861, but the peasants fared poorly and revolutionary pressures grew. In the following decades, reform efforts such as the Stolypin reforms of 1906–1914, the constitution of 1906, and the State Duma (1906–1917) attempted to open and liberalize the economy and political system, but the Emperors refused to relinquish autocratic rule and resisted sharing their power.

A combination of economic breakdown, war-weariness, and discontent with the autocratic system of government triggered revolution in Russia in 1917. The overthrow of the monarchy initially brought into office a coalition of liberals and moderate socialists, but their failed policies led to seizure of power by the communist Bolsheviks on 25 October 1917 (7 November New Style). In 1922, Soviet Russia, along with Soviet Ukraine, Soviet Belarus, and the Transcaucasian SFSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, officially merging all four republics to form the Soviet Union as a country. Between 1922 and 1991, the history of Russia became essentially the history of the Soviet Union, effectively an ideologically-based state roughly conterminous with the Russian Empire before the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. From its first years, government in the Soviet Union based itself on the one-party rule of the Communists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves, beginning in March 1918. The approach to the building of socialism, however, varied over different periods in Soviet history: from the mixed economy and diverse society and culture of the 1920s through the command economy and repressions of the Joseph Stalin era to the "era of stagnation" from the 1960s to the 1980s. The actions of the Soviet government caused the death of millions of citizens in the famine of 1930–1933 and the Great Purge. The attack by Nazi Germany and the ensuing war, together with the Holocaust, again claimed millions of lives. After the victory of the Soviet Union and the Western Allies, the Soviet Union became a superpower opposing Western countries during the Cold War.

By the mid-1980s, with Soviet economic and political weaknesses becoming acute, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev embarked on major reforms; these culminated in the dissolution of the Soviet Union, leaving Russia again alone and marking the beginning of the post-Soviet Russian period. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic renamed itself the Russian Federation and became one of several successors to the Soviet Union.

Geographic distribution

Ethnic Russians historically migrated within the areas of the former Russian Empire and Soviet Union, though they were sometimes encouraged to re-settle in borderland areas by the Tsarist and later Soviet government. Sometimes ethnic Russian communities, such as the Lipovans who settled in the Danube delta or the Doukhobors in Canada, emigrated as religious dissidents fleeing the central authority.

After the Russian Revolution and the Russian Civil War which started in 1917, many Russians left their homeland to flee the Bolshevik regime, and millions became refugees. Many white émigrés were participants in the White movement, although the term is broadly applied to anyone who may have left the country due to a change in regime.

After the Dissolution of the Soviet Union, an estimated 25 million Russians began living outside the Russian Federation, mostly in the former Soviet Republics. Most Russian re-settlement occurred in Ukraine (about 8 million), Kazakhstan (about 3.8 million), and Belarus (about 785,000), followed by the Baltic States (primarily including 520,000 in Latvia), Uzbekistan (about 650,000) and Kyrgyzstan (about 419,000). In Moldova, the Transnistria region (where 30.4% of the population is Russian) broke away from government control amid fears the country would soon reunite with Romania.

There are also small Russian communities in the Balkans — including Lipovans in the Danube delta — Central European nations such as Germany and Poland, as well as Russians settled in China, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina and Australia. These communities identify themselves to varying degrees as Russians, citizens of these countries, or both.

Significant numbers of Russians emigrated to Canada, Australia and the United States. Brighton Beach, Brooklyn and South Beach, Staten Island in New York City are examples of large communities of recent Russian and Russian-Jewish immigrants. Other examples are Sunny Isles Beach, a northern suburb of Miami, and West Hollywood of the Los Angeles area.

After the Russian Revolution in 1917, many Russians who were identified with the White army moved to China — most of them settling in Harbin and Shanghai. By the 1930s, Harbin had 100,000 Russians. Many of these Russians moved back to the Soviet Union after World War II. Today, a large group in northern China still speak Russian as a second language. Russians (eluosizu) are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China (as the Russ); there are approximately 15,600 Russian Chinese living mostly in northern Xinjiang, and also in Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang.

Ethnographic groups
Among the Russians, a number of ethnographic groups stand out, such as: the Northern Russians, the Southern Russians, the Cossacks, the Goryuns, the Kamchadals, the Polekhs, the Pomors, the Russian Chinese, the Siberians (Siberiaks), Starozhily, some groupings of Old Believers (Kamenschiks, Lipovans, Semeiskie), and others.

The main ones are the Northern and Southern Russian groups. At the same time, the proposal of the ethnographer Dmitry Zelenin in his major work of 1927 Russian (East Slavic) Ethnography to consider them as separate East Slavic peoples did not find support in scientific circles.

Genetics

In accordance with the 2008 research results of Russian and Estonian geneticists, two groups of the Russians are distinguished: the northern and southern populations.

The Central and Southern Russians, to which the majority of Russian populations belong, according to Y chromosome R1a, are included in the general "East European" gene cluster with the rest East and West Slavs (Poles, Czechs and Slovaks), as well as the non-Slavic Hungarians and Aromanians. Genetically, East Slavs are quite similar to West Slavs; such genetic similarity is somewhat unusual for genetics with such a wide settlement of the Slavs, especially the Russians. The high unity of the autosomal markers of the East Slavic populations and their significant differences from the neighboring Finnic, Turkic and Caucasian peoples were revealed.

The Northern Russians, according to mDNA, Y chromosome and autosomal marker CCR5de132, are included in the "North European" gene cluster (the Poles, the Balts, Germanic and Baltic Finnic peoples).

Consequently, the already existing biologo-genetic studies have made all hypotheses about the mixing of the Russians with non-Slavic ethnic groups or their "non-Slavism" obsolete or pseudoscientific. At the same time, the long-standing identification of the Northern Russian and Southern Russian ethnographic groups by ethnologists was confirmed. The previous conclusions of physical anthropologists, historians and linguists (see, in particular, the works of the academician Valentin Yanin) about the proximity of the ancient Novgorod Slavs and their language not to the East, but to west Baltic Slavs. As can be seen from genetic resources, the contemporary Northern Russians also are genetically close of all Slavic peoples only to the Poles and similar to the Balts. However, this does not mean the northern Russians origin from the Balts or the Poles, more likely, that all the peoples of the Nordic gene pool are descendants of Paleo-European population, which has remained around Baltic Sea.

Language

Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia. It is the most spoken native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken Slavic language. Russian is the third-most used language on the Internet after English and Spanish, and is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station, as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.

Culture

Literature
Russian literature is considered to be among the world's most influential and developed. It can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed. By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin. From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama. Romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore. Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet.

The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol. Then came Ivan Turgenev, who mastered both short stories and novels. Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned. Ivan Goncharov is remembered mainly for his novel Oblomov. Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose satire, while Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction. In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist. Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist Ivan Krylov, non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion Belinsky, and playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov and Aleksandr Ostrovsky. The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry. This era had poets such as Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, Konstantin Balmont, Marina Tsvetaeva, Vladimir Mayakovsky, and Osip Mandelshtam. It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely.

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style. Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era. Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov. Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.

Philosophy

Russian philosophy has been greatly influential. Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers of agrarian populism. Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father of anarchism. Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist of anarcho-communism. Mikhail Bakhtin's writings have significantly inspired scholars. Helena Blavatsky gained international following as the leading theoretician of Theosophy, and co-founded the Theosophical Society. Vladimir Lenin, a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as Leninism. Leon Trotsky, on the other hand, founded Trotskyism. Alexander Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher in the second half of the 20th century.

Science

Mikhail Lomonosov proposed the conservation of mass in chemical reactions, discovered the atmosphere of Venus, and founded modern geology. Since the times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and a prominent tutor Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematicians became among the world's most influential. Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry. Sofya Kovalevskaya was a pioneer among women in mathematics in the 19th century. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006, both of which he declined.

Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio, while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser. Zhores Alferov contributed significantly to the creation of modern heterostructure physics and electronics. Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes. Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology. Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in immunology. Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical conditioning. Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.

Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the centers of origin of cultivated plants. Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés. Igor Sikorsky was an aviation pioneer. Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope television systems. Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis. George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky is called the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Valentin Glushko, and many others.

In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6. In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.

Music

Until the 18th-century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances. In the 19th-century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty Handful, and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein. The later tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff, one of the last great champions of the Romantic style of European classical music. World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich, Georgy Sviridov and Alfred Schnittke.

Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists David Oistrakh and Gidon Kremer, cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, pianists Vladimir Horowitz, Sviatoslav Richter, and Emil Gilels, and vocalist Galina Vishnevskaya.

During the Soviet times, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava, and performers such as Alla Pugacheva. Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms. The Ganelin Trio have been described by critics as the greatest ensemble of free-jazz in continental Europe. By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium, DDT, and Kino. Pop music in Russia has continued to flourish since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u. In the recent times, Little Big, a rave band, has gained popularity in Russia and across Europe.

Cinema

Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as The Battleship Potemkin. Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors. Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography. Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a huge impact on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism. Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of a Soldier.

The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema. The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today. In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union. In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space. In 2002, Russian Ark was the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take. Today, the Russian cinema industry continues to expand.

Architecture

The history of Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs, and the architecture of Kievan Rus'. Following the Christianization of Kievan Rus', for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by the Byzantine Empire. Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends into Russia. The 16th-century saw the development of the unique tent-like churches; and the onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture. In the 17th-century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl, gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1690s. After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles. The 18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the splendid works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture. During Alexander I's rule, Empire style became the de facto architectural style, and Nicholas I opened the gate of Eclecticism to Russia. The second half of the 19th-century was dominated by the Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival style. In early 20th-century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend. Prevalent styles of the late 20th-century were the Art Nouveau, Constructivism, and Socialist Classicism.

Religion

Russia's largest religion is Christianity—It has the world's largest Orthodox population. According to differing sociological surveys on religious adherence, between 41% to over 80% of the total population of Russia adhere to the Russian Orthodox Church.

Non-religious Russians may associate themselves with the Orthodox faith for cultural reasons. Some Russian people are Old Believers: a relatively small schismatic group of the Russian Orthodoxy that rejected the liturgical reforms introduced in the 17th century. Other schisms from Orthodoxy include Doukhobors which in the 18th century rejected secular government, the Russian Orthodox priests, icons, all church ritual, the Bible as the supreme source of divine revelation and the divinity of Jesus, and later emigrated into Canada. An even earlier sect were Molokans which formed in 1550 and rejected Czar's divine right to rule, icons, the Trinity as outlined by the Nicene Creed, Orthodox fasts, military service, and practices including water baptism.

Other world religions have negligible representation among ethnic Russians. The largest of these groups are Islam with over 100,000 followers from national minorities, and Baptists with over 85,000 Russian adherents. Others are mostly Pentecostals, Evangelicals, Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans and Jehovah's Witnesses.

Since the fall of the Soviet Union various new religious movements have sprung up and gathered a following among ethnic Russians. The most prominent of these are Rodnovery, the revival of the Slavic native religion also common to other Slavic nations.

Sports

Football is the most popular sport in Russia. The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960, and reached the finals of Euro 1988. In 1956 and 1988, the Soviet Union won gold at the Olympic football tournament. Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008. The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008. Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.

Ice hockey is very popular in Russia. The Soviet Union men's national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence, and the modern-day Russia men's national ice hockey team is among the most successful teams in the sport. Bandy is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport. The Russian national basketball team won the EuroBasket 2007, and the Russian basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams. The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix is held at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park.

Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics; and Russian synchronized swimming is considered to be the world's best. Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing. Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players. Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades. The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow, and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.

See also

 All-Russian nation
 European ethnic groups
 List of Russian artists
 List of Slavic studies journals

References

Citations

Bibliography
  (pdf)

External links

  4.1. Population by nationality
  "People and Cultures: Russians" book published by Russian Academy of Sciences
 Pre-Revolutionary photos of women in Russian folk dress

Ethnic groups in Russia
East Slavs

Russians


Agecroft Hall is a Tudor manor house and estate located at 4305 Sulgrave Road on the James River in the Windsor Farms neighborhood of Richmond, Virginia, United States. The manor house was built in the late 15th century, and was originally located in the Irwell Valley at Agecroft, Pendlebury, then in the historic county of Lancashire, England, but by the 20th century it was unoccupied and in a state of disrepair.

Mr. Thomas C. Williams, Jr. of Richmond, Virginia, a wealthy entrepreneur, purchased Agecroft Hall upon the advice of his architect, Henry G. Morse. During the Country Place Era, when many wealthy American families were building extensive country estates emulating those they had seen in Europe, Mr. Williams, whose business interests included tobacco, banking and shipping wished to build a true English manor house on his 23-acre estate overlooking the James River. The manor house was dismantled, crated, transported across the Atlantic, and reconstructed in Richmond's Windsor Farms neighborhood - then a fashionable new neighborhood being developed by Mr. Williams on the Williams' family farm site, which had long been known as 'Windsor.'

The architect, Mr. Morse, was retained to oversee the reconstruction. The intention was not to replicate Agecroft as it had stood in Lancashire, but rather to create a functional and comfortable mansion reminiscent of its English predecessor. The original floor plan was abandoned and many 20th century conveniences were included. Reconstruction took two years and cost approximately $250,000, a considerable sum for that time. The project was completed during the spring of 1928.

The following year Mr. Williams died, having stipulated in his will that upon his widow's death or relocation, Agecroft Hall would become a house museum.

History

The hall was one of three manor houses owned by the Prestwich family from 1292 when Edmund Crouchback, Earl of Lancaster, granted land on the banks of the River Irwell in Lancashire to Adam de Prestwich. In 1350, Johanna de Tetlow, daughter of Alice de Prestwich and Jordan de Tetlow, married Richard de Langley of Middleton after the deaths of her parents and brothers – possibly from the plague. The name "Agecroft", meaning "field of wild celery" (from ache and croft) was adopted circa 1376, the old name of Pendlebury being dropped for the manor but not for the village. Subsequently, the Langleys lived at Agecroft Hall until 1561 when the male line failed. The Langleys were a powerful local family for several centuries with major land holdings across the area.

Robert Langley was the last male heir of the Langleys. The first Robert Langley (1379–1446) was a ward of John of Gaunt and later supported the claim of Gaunt's son as Henry IV in the overthrow of King Richard II. The second Robert Langley (1462–1547) supported Henry VII and received a lifetime annuity from him. And yet another Robert Langley (1506–1561) was granted a knighthood by Edward VI and later received a general pardon from Queen Elizabeth. By this time the Langleys were very prosperous and had intermarried with all the great Lancashire families. But Sir Robert and his wife Cecily de Trafford had no son and on his death the property was divided equally between his four daughters.
Dorothy, the eldest, married James Assheton from Chadderton. Margaret married John Reddish of Reddish. Catherine married Thomas Legh, a younger son of Sir Piers Legh of Lyme. Anne, his third daughter inherited Agecroft Hall as part of her portion and subsequently married William Dauntesey.

Richard Langley's brother, William (1315-1386) was Rector of Middleton. Another brother, was the grandfather of Bishop Thomas Langley who entered the service of John of Gaunt and became Lord Chancellor of England, Keeper of the Privy Seal and Bishop of Durham. He was also elected a Cardinal, but refused the appointment. Bishop Thomas paid for the rebuilding of St Leonard's Church, Middleton, which was reconsecrated in 1412.

In the 1662 Hearth Tax returns, Agecroft Hall was recorded as having 11 hearths out of a total of 35 in the whole of Pendlebury.

At the end of the 19th century, industrialisation swept through the Irwell Valley. Coal pits were opened all around Agecroft Hall, railway tracks were cut across the manor and mining subsidence above the Clifton Hall Colliery made a dirty lake on the edge of the estate. The house fell into disrepair and was sold at auction in 1925 to Mr & Mrs Thomas C. Williams. Today, Agecroft Hall stands re-created on the banks of the James River, in a setting chosen to be reminiscent of its original site at Agecroft near the River Irwell. Agecroft's grounds reflect English gardens with Elizabethan aromatics and were designed by Charles Gillette.

Babes in the Wood

Cyril Bracegidle in his book Dark River: Irwell asserts that legend has it that the tale of the Babes in the Wood was inspired by an incident at the hall during the reign of Edward III. On the morning of the Feast of the Ascension (the 40th Day after Easter Sunday) in 1374, young Roger Langley and his sister escaped from the villainous Robert de Holland and his men and hid in the forest which covered the slopes of the Irwell Valley, cared for by loyal retainers, until their guardian, John of Gaunt, the first Duke of Lancaster, rescued them. However, other sources attribute the story to an incident in Wayland Wood, Norfolk.

Gallery

See also
Virginia House, a neighboring building also moved from England.
National Register of Historic Places listings in Richmond, Virginia

References

External links

 Agecroft Hall
 The Story of "Agecroft Hall", Home to the Lords of the Manor of Prestwich
 Photos of the Hall and gardens in Virginia

Country houses in Greater Manchester
Houses in Richmond, Virginia
History of Salford
Museums in Richmond, Virginia
Relocated buildings and structures in Virginia
Relocated houses
Historic house museums in Virginia
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
Tudor architecture
Tudor Revival architecture in Virginia
National Register of Historic Places in Richmond, Virginia
Houses completed in 1926

Agecroft Hall


Alasdair Mackie "Algy" Ward (born 11 Julie 1959, in Croydon, Surrey; deed 17 Mey 2023) wis an Inglis rock bass guitarist an sangster.

Biography
He wis first active as a member o the Australie punk baund The Saints (playin on their seicont an third albums Eternally Yours an Prehistoric Sounds) afore joinin Breetish group The Damned an playin on Machine Gun Etiquette (1979). He plays on Live at the Moonlight Club (The School Bullies) an aw.

Ward foondit an frontit the seminal New Wave o Breetish Hivy Metal ootfit Tank till he retired in 2010.

Algy an his less-famous brither Iain (a roadie wi Motörhead, The Undertones an The Ramones for years) baith lived in Kent.

References

Inglis rock bass guitarists
The Damned members
2023 daiths
1959 births
Fowk frae Croydon

Algy Ward


Ibrahim Lodi (d. 21 April 1526) was the last sultan of Delhi. He was an ethnic Pashtun. He became sultan in 1517 after Sikandar Lodi died. Sikandar was his father and Ibrahim was soon challenged by his younger brother, Jalal Kahn. Ibrahim had military skills. But unlike his father he lacked tact.

He faced a number of rebellions. The Mewar ruler Rana Sangram Singh extended his empire right up to western Uttar Pradesh and threatened to attack Agra. There was rebellion in the East also. Ibrahim Lodi also displeased the nobility when he replaced old and senior commanders by younger ones who were loyal to him. He further alienated them by throwing some of the older noblemen in prison. His Afghan nobility eventually invited Babur to invade India. In 1526, the Mughal forces of Babur, the king of Kabulistan, defeated Ibrahim's much larger army in the 1st Battle of Panipat. Ibrahim was killed during the battle. It is estimated that Babur's forces numbered around 12,000 men. His army had between 20 to 24 pieces of field artillery. Ibrahim Lodi had around 30,000-40,000 men along with at least 100 war elephants. After Ibrahim Lodi was overthrown, the mughals invaded India.

References-

Sultans
Indian royalty

Ibrahim Lodi


Thatching is building a roof with dry vegetation such as straw, reeds, sedge (Cladium mariscus), rushes, heather, or palm branches. The vegetation is put on top of each other so as to make sure water stays away from the inner roof.

Thatch can occasionally catch fire. This is one reason for its replacement by slates in modern buildings. Ceramic slates for roofing can be made by industry, and have replaced natural slates in modern housing. Thatched rooves were once a source of fires, but slates are fireproof. That explains the gradual decline in thatched rooves.

Roofs
Natural materials

Thatching


Richard W. Knostman  (August 9, 1931 – March 16, 2022) was an American former professional basketball player.

He attended Wamego High School in Wamego, Kansas.  A 6' 6" center, Knostman played at Kansas State University.  He was a third-team All-American in 1951-52 and a second team All-American in 1952-53.  He was also All-Conference in the Big 7 Conference in 1952 and 1953.

Knostman was a three-year lettermen for head coach Jack Gardner from 1950 to 1953.  He helped guide the Wildcats to a 61-13 (.824) record, including three consecutive final top-10 finishes and a runner-up finish at the 1951 NCAA Final Four.

Knostman is one of just 12 players in Kansas State history to be named a first team All-American.  He earned this recognition from the Helms Foundation, Look magazine and the Newspaper Enterprises Association as a senior in 1953 after averaging 22.7 points in helping the Wildcats to a 17-4 overall record and a final ranking of number 9 in the UPI and number 12 in the AP polls.  Knostman was also recognized as a second team All-American by The Associated Press, United Press International, Colliers and International News Service.

Knostman first earned All-America accolades as a junior when he led Kansas State to a 19-5 overall record and a final ranking of number 3 in the AP and number 6 in the UPI polls.  He averaged 16.3 points in 24 games en route to collecting second team All-American honors from the Converse Yearbook and third team accolades from The Associated Press.  He was also twice selected first team All-Big Seven.

Knostman averaged 7.5 points in 29 games as a sophomore in 1950-51 in helping Kansas State advance to their first and only NCAA Championship game, where the Wildcats lost to Kentucky.

Despite having played over 50 years ago, Knostman still ranks among the top 5 in 17 single-game, season and/or career statistical categories in school history, including tops in most free throws attempted in a game (26 vs. Oklahoma on Feb. 14, 1953).  He also ranks in the top 5 in several career categories, including second in free throws attempted (541), third in free throws made (349) and fifth in rebounding (774) and rebounding average (10.5 rpg.).  Knostman also places second in single-season scoring average (22.7 ppg.; 1953) and third in rebounding average (13.3 rpg.; 1952).  He is one of just 19 players in school history to top 1,000 points, while he ranks 13th on the all-time scoring list with 1,083 points and 14th in career scoring average (14.6 ppg.).  Knostman remains one of the few Wildcats to average a double-double for his career with 14.6 points and 10.5 rebounds in 74 games.

Knostman was selected by the Syracuse Nationals in the 1953 NBA draft.  His career lasted five games and he scored a total of 13 points.

He died on March 16, 2022, in Arizona.

Career statistics

NBA
Source

Regular season

References

1931 births
2022 deaths
All-American college men's basketball players
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Kansas
Centers (basketball)
Kansas State Wildcats men's basketball players
People from Wamego, Kansas
Power forwards (basketball)
Syracuse Nationals draft picks
Syracuse Nationals players

Dick Knostman


Joey's Case is a crime novel by the American writer K. C. Constantine set in 1980s Rocksburg, a fictional, blue-collar, Rust Belt town in Western Pennsylvania, modeled on the author's hometown of McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania, adjacent to Pittsburgh.

Plot
Mario Balzic is the protagonist, an atypical detective for the genre, a Serbo-Italian American cop, middle-aged, unpretentious, a family man who asks questions and uses more sense than force.

The novel opens with a former coal miner, Albert Castelucci, asking Balzic to investigate the killing of his son. He feels the state police in charge of the case have botched the investigation, but when Balzic begins, he finds more puzzles than he first expected.

Publishing details and honors
It is the eighth book in the seventeen-volume Rocksburg series and was nominated for the Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Novel in 1989.

References

1988 American novels
Novels by K. C. Constantine
American crime novels
Novels set in Pennsylvania
Mysterious Press books

Joey's Case


Robert Hazard Edwards (born May 26, 1935) is an American educator who was the seventh president of Carleton College and the thirteenth president of Bowdoin College.

Education and early career
A graduate of Deerfield Academy, Edwards attended Princeton University and graduated magna cum laude with an A.B. in English in 1957 after completing a senior thesis titled "The Lesson of the Master." He also earned a B.A. and an M.A. at Cambridge University and an LL.B. from Harvard Law School. In 1961, after law school, he earned admission to the U.S. federal bar. For several years he worked for the U.S. State Department  on matters related to African countries that had been colonies and were making the transition to independent nationhood. After leaving the U.S. government, he joined the Ford Foundation, where he worked from 1965 to 1977 in Pakistan and New York, heading the foundation's Middle East and Africa Office.

Carleton College
In 1977 Edwards became president of Carleton College.  As Carleton's president, he helped launch the "Science, Technology, and Public Policy" program and expanded and remodeled the school's library.  While at Carleton, he was a respected leader who challenged the faculty and raised awareness throughout the community.  When he left in 1986, he received an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters.

Work for the Aga Khan
After leaving Carleton, Edwards returned to Pakistan, going to Karachi to join the Secretariat of His Highness the Aga Khan, heading the Department of Health, Education and Housing. He also served on the board of trustees of Aga Khan University from 1987-1990.

Bowdoin College
In 1990, he became president of Bowdoin, where he significantly changed the college's governance and residential life.  In 1995, he merged all board members from Trustees and Overseers into a single Board of Trustees.  The next year, the Trustees voted to phase out fraternities, immediately terminating the recruitment of new members, and to abolish fraternities entirely by 2000. The college acquired all fraternity chapter houses by the summer of 2000, to be absorbed after renovation into the college's new residential house system.

Additionally, the sizes of both the faculty and student body were expanded, from 130.8 to 154.8, and from 1410 to 1600, respectively.  In the midst of a $135 million capital campaign starting in 1994 and ending in 1998 (with $136 million), the college's campus and academic programs were dramatically expanded.  During his tenure, many Academic buildings were constructed or renovated included Druckenmiller, Cleaveland and Searles Halls, Memorial Hall and Wish Theatres, Hawthorne Longfellow Library and the Coastal Studies Center. Additionally, several new residential halls, a new student union, a new fitness center, and a new dining complex were built and several new programs were established including the Educational Technology Center, the Learning and Teaching Center, the Off-Campus Studies office, and the Coastal Studies Program.

In 1999, Edwards became a member of the board of trustees of Aga Khan University again.  He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2000 and was succeeded by Barry Mills in 2001.

Colby College awarded Edwards an honorary degree in 2001.

References

External links
Robert H. Edwards, Administrative Records, 1950-2002.
History of the President's Office, Carleton College
https://web.archive.org/web/20081011235044/http://www.aku.edu/university/bot/rhe.shtml
http://www.carlwiki.org/Robert_Edwards

1935 births
Presidents of Bowdoin College
Presidents of Carleton College
Princeton University alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Living people

Robert H. Edwards


Cycling Southland is a cycling club based at the SIT Zero Fees Velodrome in Invercargill, New Zealand. It manages all Southland road and track cycling activities at Club and Centre level along with responsibility for delivering events like the SBS Bank Tour of Southland and major national and international track cycling events including Oceania and New Zealand Elite and Age Group Track Cycling Championships.

In 2012 Cycling Southland hosted the 2012 UCI Juniors Track World Championships after the UCI awarded the event to Invercargill, following a joint application by Cycling Southland and BikeNZ.

References

External links
 Cycling Southland Website
 Tour of Southland Website

Cycling clubs
Cycling organisations in New Zealand
Sports clubs and teams in Invercargill
Sport in Southland, New Zealand

Cycling Southland


The Chișinău Botanical Garden of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova () was founded in 1950 by the Russian Academy of Science. The garden is located in Chișinău, Botanica, Moldova, and covers an area of 76 hectares. In 1973, a new botanical garden was established in the Botanica sector of Chișinău. Two years later, the garden was given the status of a Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of Moldovan SSR.  There are around ten thousand species of plants in the garden.

Concerns
In 2001, a large portion of the botanical garden was leased to private companies, including Elat, which established a series of restaurants, playgrounds, ice cream parlors, and a zoo. The popularity of the botanical garden surged; thousands of visitors came, and between 300 and 400 cars entered the garden daily. The administration also reported up to 30–40 weddings per weekend.

These activities were brought to the attention of several ecological organizations in Moldova. Alexandru Ciubotaru, the director of the Botanical Garden, explained that the Academy of Science of Moldova allowed the commercialization of the garden because they were, at the time, under-budgeted by the Moldovan Government. "We only receive 800,000 lei a year and the heating alone costs 1.2 million lei," he said. However, because Elat dishonored many of the agreements that it signed, the administration of the botanical garden has repeatedly asked  to revoke the contract.

In 2005, the botanical garden received 700,000 lei from the Moldovan Ministry of Finance and was able to change its heating system, reducing heating costs to about 280,000 lei. The director said that the garden would slowly solve most of its problems on its own, refusing to renew the lease with Elat, which expired on July 7, 2005.

References

Chișinău
1950 establishments in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic
Botanical gardens in Moldova


Monika Krupa ( Aksiuczyc, born 3 December 1977) is a Polish chess player who holds the FIDE title of Woman Grandmaster (2008).

Chess career
Between 1991 and 1994 she won the Polish Junior Chess Championship's titles. Four times (1991, 1994, 1996, and 1997) represented Poland at the World Junior Chess Championship. The best result was eighth place in 1997 in Medellín in category under the age of 20.
In 1995 she first time appeared in the Polish Women's Chess Championship's final and taking fifth place. Later Monika won silver medal in 1997. She won gold (2011), 2 silver (2008, 2010) and bronze (2009) medals in Polish Women's Team Chess Championships.

Monika Krupa played for Poland in European Team Chess Championship:
 In 1997, at first reserve board in the 2nd European Team Chess Championship (women) in Pula (+1, =1, -1).

The winner in the Swiss-system tournaments in Olomouc (1998), Lubniewice (2002), Wroclaw (2005) and Olomouc tournament Proclient Cup (2006). In 2008, she placed third in tournament in Mariánské Lázně and complete third norm for Woman Grandmaster (WGM) title.

Currently she represents the color of Wroclaw club "Polonia". Monika also known as Scrabble and Sudoku player.

In 2013 Monika together with her husband Krzysztof released book "Królestwo geniuszu i fantazji" ("The Kingdom of genius and imagination") (), with the preface written by Grandmaster Vassily Ivanchuk.

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
Polish female chess players
Polish chess players
Chess woman grandmasters

Monika Krupa


Soleuvre (, , ) is a town in the commune of Sanem, in the canton of Esch-sur-Alzette in south-western Luxembourg.  , the town has a population of 5,471. In 2001, Soleuvre was the fourteenth-largest town in Luxembourg, and the largest that is not the most populous in its own commune (Sanem's administrative centre, Belvaux, is larger).

See also
Zolwerknapp

Sanem
Towns in Luxembourg

Soleuvre


A decathlon is a sporting event. It has ten track and field events. The combined events are: 100 meters, 400 meters, 1500 meters, 110 meters hurdles, long jump, high jump, pole vault, discus throw, javelin throw and shot put.

The word decathlon comes from the Greek language. It has two parts; δέκα (déka, meaning "ten") and ἄθλος (áthlos, or ἄθλον, áthlon, meaning "feat").

Events in athletics
Summer Olympic sports

Decathlon


Ann Fienup-Riordan (d. 1948 Denver, Colorado, ABD), Amerikalı  kültürel antropoloji uzmanı olan antropolog.

Çalışma alanı Alaska'da Yupik Eskimoları üzerine olup Anchorage'da yaşamaktadır.

Doktora tezi 1980 yılında Chicago Üniversitesinde kültürel antropoloji dalında Yupik kültürü üzerine 1976-77 yıllarında Nelson Adasında yaptığı saha çalışmasıdır.

Çalışmaları
 1983 : The Nelson Island Eskimo: Social Structure and Ritual Distribution. Anchorage, AK: Alaska Pacific University Press.
 1986 : "When Our Bad Season Comes: A Cultural Account of Subsistence Harvesting & Harvest Disruption on the Yukon Delta". Alaska Anthropological Assn.
 1990 : Eskimo Essays: Yup'ik Lives and How We See Them. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
 1991 : The Real People and the Children of Thunder: The Yup'Ik Eskimo Encounter With Moravian Missionaries John and Edith Kilbuck. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
 1994 : Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. [computer file]
 1995 : "Freeze Frame: Alaska Eskimos in the Movies". Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
 1996 : The Living Tradition of Yup'ik Masks: Agayuliyararput (Our Way of Making Prayer). Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
 2000 : Hunting Tradition in a Changing World: Yup'ik Lives in Alaska Today. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
 2000 : "Where the Echo Began: and Other Oral Traditions from Southwestern Alaska Recorded by Hans Himmelheber Ed". Anchorage, AK: University of Alaska Press.
 2001 : What's in a Name? Becoming a Real Person in a Yup'ik Community. University of Nebraska Press.
 2005 : (ortak: Alice Rearden)  "Wise Words of the Yup'ik People: We Talk to You because We Love You". University of Nebraska Press.
 2005 : (ortak: Marie Meade ve Alice Rearden)  "Yup'ik Words of Wisdom: Yupiit Qanruyutait". University of Nebraska Press.

 Sergileri
"Agayuliyararput (Our Way of Making Prayer): The Living Tradition of Yup'ik Masks". Beginning at the University of Alaska Museum, Fairbanks, and Alaska State Museum, Juneau in 1996, the exhibition than traveled to the National Museum of the American Indian, New York, Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C., ending at the Seattle (Wash.) Art Museum in 1998.
"Yuungnaqpiallerput (The Way We Genuinely Live): Masterworks of Yupik Science and Survival". The exhibition opened in 2007 at the Anchorage Museum and from 2009-2010 traveled to museums in Fairbanks, Juneau, and Washington, DC.

 Ödülleri
 Yılın Tarihçisi (Historian of the Year''), Alaska Historical Society, 1991, 2001
 Distinguished Humanities Educator (Alaska), 2001
 Denali Award, 2000, Alaska Federation of Natives, for the greatest contribution by a non-Native

Ayrıca bakınız
Alaska Yerli Dil Merkezi

Kaynakça
Arctic Studies Center

Amerikalı antropologlar
1948 doğumlular
Yaşayan insanlar

Ann Fienup-Riordan


Choti Bahu 2 () is the second season of an Indian television drama series. The series premiered on February 15, 2011. It currently airs every Mon-Fri 7:30 pm on Zee TV channel. It is about the lives of Radhika and Dev. It is a different story than the first season. It has a different storyline and even some characters except for Dev and Radhika which are played by Avinash Sachdev and Rubina Dilaik respectively. The show is very popular and gains good TRP with an average of 2–3.

Plot
Radhika, a Brahmin by birth, was adopted and brought up by a family of weavers in a small town. Dev visited the town with his family, met Radhika and became good friends. One day, while Radhika and Dev playing in a temple, they reached a place where 50 couples were getting married. Dev rubbed sindoor on Radhika's forehead, which she had gotten on her head by accident. This caused them to get married without their knowledge. When a priest who witnessed Dev and Radhika's "wedding" comes to Radhika's home and tells her parents that Radhika is married, Radhika tries to tell Dev this but is unable to meet him again.

After 12 years

One night after college, Radhika meets Dev. They spend time together but Radhika feels bad that she is attracted to someone else. Later on, she finds out that Dev is the one she had married as a child and tells him the truth. Under obligations, he tells her to marry Rohan. She tries to make him accept many times, but he refuses.

Radhika is unable to get married to Rohan after all. A fire starts and Rohan gets badly burned, though Radhika is saved. Dev meets Radhika in the hospital and asks her what caused the fire. She tells him that Rohan knows that she loves someone else; Dev gets angry at this and tells her he hates her. Radhika decides to get into their house as the choti bahu and wife of Dev without telling anyone so she can gain Dev's trust back.

After all the misunderstandings are cleared, the family accepts Dev and Radhika's relationship and Dev and Radhika are soon to be wed. However, because of social norms, everyone calls Radhikha an unchaste woman. To end this problem, Dadaji calls off Dev's marriage with Radikha and fixes it with Barkha. On the eve of Barkha and Dev's wedding, Barkha, wishing to help Radhika, lies to Radikha that she has told Dadaji about what happened 12 years ago and Dadaji has accepted her and will let her become Dev's wife. Radhika therefore dresses up in Barkha's wedding dress and takes the wedding vows with Dev.

After Dadaji realizes that Dev married Radikha instead of Barkha, he suffers a fatal heart attack. The Purohit family decides that Dev will pretend to be married to Barkha in the public eye, and Radhika will perform all of the normal tasks at home.

Radhika obediently performs all the duties of a choti bahu. Barkha puts sleeping powder in Dev's juice, causing him to become unconscious. Barkha then reveals that she loves Dev and Radhika overhears everything. Barkha realizes this and decides to kill Radhika to get Dev's love. Barkha murders Radhika by driving into her with a car twice. In a twist, Radhika returns after a month, but this time is different — she has become confident and fearless. This is because Kanha, the god Radhika is devoted to, has disguised himself as Radhika to put an end to Barkha's crimes, as Dev is made only for Radhika.

The rest of the story tells how Kanha teaches Barkha her lesson. One day, when Kanha is at home as Radhika, Dev asks her if she's alright. Radhikha asks why, and Dev tells her he saw her outside the temple begging for help. This is actually the real Radhika, who was reborn after Barkha tried to suffocate her. Dev is later poisoned by a juice that Barkha got originally for Radhika, and the family believes Radhika did it. Barkha repeatedly tries to get Radhika out of the house.

Then the real Radhika comes in the house. However, Kahna helps Radhika throughout everything. Barkha tries to murder Radhika again, but Dev stops her. The entire family then appears and disgraces Barkha, finally knowing her true nature. However, as Radhika faints, Barkha flees and successfully escapes. Later in the day, while Radhika and Dev go into the forest, Barkha tries to kill both of them, thinking that if she can't have Dev, no one can. However, everyone thinks she dies instead. The monastery was being taken by the bharawaj family which was however Radhikas real family. Ruby wants to kill Radhika even though she is her twin sister and that is the reason why she wants to kill her. Radhika and Dev both go to mumbai to radhika's house but Dev feels uncomfortable when they get a unwelcoming welcome from Ruby. Ruby and Jolly (Rubys brother who loves her so much) try to make a plan to throw Dev and radhika out of the house. When everyone comes to the party and Radhika finds out that everyone was using her to get the
monastery land and humiliate her husband she severs all ties with them and try to find krishnas idol and leave but Khana comes and tell Radhika she has to stay back alone because of the battle against right and wrong. Radika stays back but Dev and her in laws get mad at her and Radhika s family think that she did that for money and she became greedy. In the morning Radikha was doing a puja without an idol and ruby comes but she is not her self but an evil spirit comes and possessed her body and "Ruby" strangles Radhika but doesn't succeed. Radhika thinks that there is a bad omen when the mirror shatters and the curtains flow when the windows are closed. In the middle of the night Ruby suddenly enters the purohit house in Dev and Radhika s room. The spirit ruby faints after seeing khanas photo. Dev is confused and the family.the next morning Ruby s family come to pick her up but the spirit comes in her and she says that she wants to stay and says that the monastery will stay with her. Then after a few incidents Radhika and Dev find out that Ruby is possessed by an evil spirit and the priest says that either Ruby or Radhika have to live but to take away the evil spirit radhika must go to a cave that leads to the world of death. she has to get an antidote that will take the evil spirit out of ruby's body. Radhika faces snakes and poisonous plants. She survives by praying to Kanha . At home sonia (Radhika's step-mother aunt), Rb (Radhika and Ruby s father), and Jolly think Dev is talking rubbish when he tells them that ruby is possessed by an evil spirit and she cant get out of the house. Sonia thinks that this is an opportunity to get the bharadwaj property and ruby would die. Jolly tells Ruby who is suffering that Dev is talking rubbish and takes off Kanha's locket to protect ruby then the spirit comes in ruby and kicks Jolly out. Jolly is shocked and so is the family. Radhika gets the antidote and tries to give it to ruby but the spirit flies and Tries to kill ruby radhika saves her and ruby says sorry to everyone for being to rude. Then she dies. Everyone agrees that she is dead but radhika does not. She goes to the temple and tells Kanha to bring her to life but she kills herself instead and dies and talks to Kanha. Kanha says that this is her destiny but radhika changed it and she isn't supposed to die. Radhika tells kanha to bring her to life and kanha listens and ruby comes to life. Ruby is sad and begs to khana to bring her to life and promises him she will never be bad to radhika. She tells radhika she will change and Jolly also says to khana and puts his gun before kanha and promises he will never do anything illegal but just let his sister come to life. Radhika comes to life and ruby and Jolly thank khana. Sonia and the others cant believe it. Sonia is mad then she wont get the property. Rb says that his first wife who is radhika's mother savatri died when radhika and ruby were babies and took radhika to mansaraam. Rb admits that Kanha exists and everyone bow down and thank kanha. SO far everyone has changed except Sonia.

Characters
Radhika (Rubina Dilaik)
Radhika was adopted by Mansaram after her mother's death. An ardent follower of Krishna, Radhika was married off to Dev in her childhood itself. Radhika is selected as the bride for Rohan and after marriage becomes the Choti Bahu of the Purohit family. Radhika is unaware of the fact the Dev, the Purohit's domestic help, is her real husband. She feels a spiritual connect with Dev at their first meeting itself. Radhika discovers the fact that Dev is her first husband but is unable to reveal it to him. Later on, Barka buries Radhika alive to get her true love, but since Radhika was a ardent devoteee of lord kanha, kanha promises radhika to take good care of the family while he is imposting her. Radhika finds out her real dad and sister and finds out the turth that her mother took her there for a festivel and died in an accident.

Dev Raj Purohit (Avinash Sachdev)
Twenty three-year-old Dev is a Purohit by birth. However, the truth is known only to Dadaji and Dai Maa. Principled and upright, Dev got married to Radhika when both were children. Dev completely forgets about his marriage and Radhika as he grows into an adult. However, destiny helps him meet Radhika when she is selected as the bride for Rohan.

Maheshwari Gopaldas Purohit (Pragati Mehra)
Eldest daughter-in-law.

Rohan Harinath Purohit (Saurav Chakrabarti)
Padma's son. He and Dev used to friends and was intended to get married to Radhika. But when he found out Dev and Radhika love each other, he pretended to be mad and many times tried to kill Dev. When Rohan exposed himself as sane to Dev and Radhika, he forcefully tried to get Radhika accepted as his wife and tried to kill Dev when he intervened. (Dev's friend and half-brother, antagonist)

Virat Gopaldas Purohit (Micckie Dudaaney)
Maheshwari's son

Padma Harinath Purohit (Sushmita Daan)
Second daughter-in-law

Dai Maa (Gopi Desai)
Dev's guardian is the protagonist and she loves Dev and Radhika the most out of the whole family. She works for the purohits but they treat her like a mother. Dai Maa has a very strong heart and believes in khana whole heartedly. Dai Maa treated and still treat Dev like her son when no one knew who his real parents were but since they found out that paad maa is his mother but she loves him like his mother.

Dadaji (Rakesh Pandey)
Dev's dead grandfather. He is the former head priest. He always knew who Dev's real parents were. Dadaji fell off the stairs when Mareshwari pushed him off to become head priestess. Dadaji died in a heart attack when he found out that Dev married Radhika instead of Barkha.

Mohini Virat Purohit (Sangeeta Kapure)
Mohini is Virat's wife and loves shopping and makeup and dressing up. Mohini is a talker and whenever there's a problems she makes a joke. Mohini doesn't like to work in the kitchen.

Gopaldas Purohit (Chayan Trivedi)
Virat's father. Gopaldas is a protagonist and he likes to recite riddles and jokes. He loves his family and doesn't like to see them hurt even when his wife and son try to hurt them.

Mansaram (Aditya Lakhia)
Radhika's father

Chhenu (Sidharth Sen)
Radhika's brother

Barkha (Benaf Dadachandji)
Radhika's friend & main female antagonist now dead. But sources say that she will return to the show in the guise of a bride and trouble Radhika and Dev, ultimately killing Dev and bringing him into the other world.

Kanha (Nishant Shokeen/Pracheen Chauhan)
Lord Krishna

Asur (Aman Verma)
Male Antagonist now dead. Radhika killed him and is a devil that Barkha hired to kill fake radhika.

Ruby Bhardwaj (Rubina Dilaik)
Radhika's sister and was antagonist and is now protagonist who now loves radhika she is a twin sister of her.

Rishikesh Bhardwaj RB (Vinay Jain)
Radhika's & Ruby's biological father.

Sonia Bhardwaj (Kishwar Merchant)
Ruby's stepmother, Jolly's mother & RB's second wife

Radha Rani/Madhvi (Srishty Rode)
Lord Krishna's partner & Rohan's fake wife

Awards

Other websites
Official Site

Soap operas
2011 Indian television series debuts
2012 television series endings

Chotti Bahu 2


Albert Millaud was a French journalist, writer and stage author, born in Paris, 13 January 1844, and died in the same city on 23 October 1892.

Life and career
He was the son of the banker Moïse Millaud, the founder of Le Petit Journal.

He studied law (obtaining his doctorate in 1866), but turned his energies to literature and in 1865 published a volume of poetry entitled Fantaisies de jeunesse.

Under the pseudonym Oronte, he wrote articles for La Gazette de Hollande and La Revue de poche which he founded with Abel d'Avrecourt.

For his daily articles in Le Figaro, where he covered parliamentary affairs, he also used the pseudonyms La Bruyère, Saint-Simon, Paul Hémery, Lafontaine and Baron Grimm.

Millaud's first play, written in 1872, was Le Péché véniel. He was the author of the libretto for several opérettes for Jacques Offenbach, Charles Lecocq and Hervé. He married the singer Anna Judic, for whom he wrote Lilli, Niniche, La Roussotte, La Femme à papa and most memorably Mam'zelle Nitouche (in collaboration with Henri Meilhac).

He became a chevalier de la Légion d'honneur in 1877.

Works

Theatre
 1872: Le Péché véniel, one-act verse play
 1873: Plutus in collaboration with Gaston Jollivet (later an opéra comique, see below)
 1877: La Farce de la femme muette, after Rabelais, first performed at the Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin
 1877: Le Collier d'or, one-act verse play
 1882: Lili, comédie-vaudeville in 3 acts, with Alfred Hennequin et Ernest Blum, first performed in Paris at the Théâtre des Variétés on 11 January 1882
 1891: Le Fiacre 117, play in three acts, with Émile de Najac

Music
 1873: La Quenouille de verre: opéra-bouffe en 3 actes, music by Grisart
 1874: Madame l'archiduc, opéra-bouffe, in three acts, music by Jacques Offenbach
 1875: La Créole, music by Jacques Offenbach
 1875: Les Hannetons, revue de printemps in three acts, five tableaux (with Eugène Grangé), music by Jacques Offenbach
 1875: Plutus, opéra comique in three acts, music by Charles Lecocq
 1878: Niniche, comédie-vaudeville in three acts, with Alfred Hennequin, music by Marius Boullard, first performed at the Théâtre des Variétés on 15 February 1878
 1879: La Femme à papa, comédie-opérette in three acts, with Alfred Hennequin, music by Hervé, first performed at the Théâtre des Variétés on 3 December 1879.
 1881: La Roussotte, comédie-vaudeville in three acts and a prologue, music by Lecocq, Hervé, etc.
 1883: Mam'zelle Nitouche, with Henri Meilhac, music by Hervé
 1886: Egmont, drame-lyrique in four acts, with Albert Wolff, music by Gaston Salvayre

Literature
 1865: Fantaisies de jeunesse -  Librairie du Petit Journal
 1866: Physiologies parisiennes under the pseudonym « La Bruyère ». 120 dessins de Caran d'Ache
 1869-1872: Petite Némésis
 1873: Voyage d'un fantaisiste : Vienne, le Danube, Constantinople
 1876: Lettres du Baron Grimm : Souvenirs, Historiettes et Anecdotes parlementaires
 1878: Les Petites Comédies de la politique
 La Comédie du jour sous la république athénienne - Illustrations de Caran d'Ache.
 Croquis parlementaire

References

19th-century French dramatists and playwrights
19th-century French journalists
French opera librettists
1844 births
1892 deaths
Knights of the Legion of Honour
Le Figaro people

Albert Millaud


The Downs Link is a 59.1km path linking the North Downs to the South Downs through the counties of Surrey & Sussex in South East England. The path can be used by pedestrians, bicyclists and horse riders.

Route & History
Most of the path follows two abandon railways, the Cranleigh Line and the Steyning Line. These railways were closed in the 1960s in the Beeching Axe. The former railways were purchased by the local councils in 1974 where the routes could be used by the public for walking. In 1984 the local authorities worked together and established a 48km long path. The path has been extended over time and now is a continuous 59km route with only a few sections using residential streets.

Sussex

Downs Link


Janet Simpson Ferguson Niven FCPath, (20 August 1902 – 15 July 1974) was a British histologist and pathologist.

Janet Niven graduated from the University of Glasgow with a first class Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery degree in 1925. She was the first woman to win the Brunton Memorial Prize, awarded to the most distinguished medical graduate each year. During her time working at the University of Glasgow, she was awarded the Faulds Research Fellowship (1924 - 1928), the McCunn Scholarship (1928 - 1940), and the Carnegie Research Fellowship (1940 - 1942). In 1932, she was awarded an MD for her research on tissue culture and became a lecturer in the Pathology Department (1932-1946), as well as working as an assistant pathologist at the Western Infirmary. In 1967, she was awarded an honorary LL.D by the University of Glasgow, traditionally awarded for a portfolio of advanced research.

During the Second World War, Niven joined the Royal Army Medical Corps as a pathologist and rose to the rank of Major. Her work included the preparation of viruses to study common diseases and vaccines against scrub fever for the soldiers.

In 1947, she moved to the MRC National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), first working in the Division of Bacteriology and Virus Research and then becoming Head of the Laboratory of Cytopathology. She is known for her contribution to the development of safety testing procedures for polio vaccines used in the United Kingdom. She published many research papers on the host response to microbial and virus infections, on the recognition and characterisation of particular animal and human pathogens, and on the development and exploitation of fluorescence microscopy for the study of cellular and viral nucleic acids. She retired from NIMR in 1967, and her obituary called her 'a world authority on certain aspects of virus diseases'.

References

Sources
 Janet Simpson Ferguson Niven (1974).  Lancet 2 (7877):416-417.

1902 births
1974 deaths
British pathologists
Women pathologists
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Academics of the University of Glasgow
National Institute for Medical Research faculty
20th-century British medical doctors
20th-century British women scientists
Fellows of the Royal College of Pathologists

Janet Niven