Grimm's law is the name for sound laws in Proto-Indo-Germanic languages. In the first century BC some sounds in these languages changed. The law is named after the German linguist Jacob Grimm who described these changes in the early 19th century.

It is known that almost all modern European languages originated in (grew out of) early Indo-European language. Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of these modern languages.

Grimm's law is sometimes called first Germanic sound shift. There also was a second Germanic  sound shift, which mostly affected German dialects, and happened much later.

Historical background
Jacob Grimm based his theory on Danish philologist Rasmus Christian Rask's essay On the Origin of the Icelandic Language.  He examined the relationship between consonants in Germanic languages and other Indo-European languages such as Latin or French. The results of the change in consonants are still visible in English, Dutch, and the Scandinavian languages.

The first Germanic sound shift
A chain shift is a series of interrelated sound changes. The assumption behind the chain shift is that all the phonemes of a language build a balanced system so that a change in one part of the system can cause changes in its other parts.

Many chain shifts are vowel shifts, because many sets of vowels are naturally arranged on a multi-value scale (e.g. vowel height or frontness). However, chain shifts can also occur in consonants. The modern word apple used to be pronounced with b (Gaulish abalom or Lithuanian obuolỹs), a change that occurred with Grimm's law.

Therefore, in terms of consonants, the shift from PIE to Proto-Germanic (PG) can be split into three stages:
 PIE voiceless stop consonants (stops) changing into voiceless fricative consonants (fricatives). The voiceless stops remain unaffected after the letter s.
 PIE unaspirated voiced stops (aspirated consonants) changing into unaspirated voiceless stops.
 PIE aspirated voiced stops changing into unaspirated voiced fricatives and/or unaspirated voiced stops (allophones at the time).

Explanation
The first group of voiceless stop consonants:
 For example, the p-sound changed to an f-sound. Latin pater became father in modern English. Equally, duo became two.
 Additionally, the PIE tréyes became þrīz in Proto-Germanic which turned into the modern English three (as in [ˈθriː]).
 The word káput or more known Latin equivalent corpus shifted towards head.
 Lastly, PIE *kwo- transformed into Old English hwaet.

All the words that consisted of the presented consonants were affected by Grimm's law. Some words may have only undergone one or two of the changes, while others may have undergone all of them.

Similarities in Germanic languages
The impact of the first Germanic sound shift can be followed across most of the Germanic languages.  We can see that many words are, due to the shift, similar (in sound and meaning). Grimm's law provides an insight into why and how core words sound so similar in Germanic languages, yet are in some respects quite distinct from other Indo-European languages:

bh changed into b (English: brother; West Frisian, Dutch: broeder; German: Bruder; Gothic: broþar; Icelandic, Faroese: bróðir; Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: broder)

ǵ switched to k (English: cold; West Frisian: kâld; Dutch: koud; German: kalt; Icelandic, Faroese: kaldur; Danish: kold; Norwegian: kald; Swedish: kall)

These changes also could have created consonant clusters, as in words which contain two or more consonants:

*t with the shift *kt —> *ht (English: eight; West Frisian, Dutch, German: acht; Gothic: ahtáu; Icelandic: átta)

and *k with the shift *kʷt→ht (English: night; West Frisian, Dutch, German: Nacht; Gothic: nahts; Icelandic: nótt)

When did it happen?
It is not possible to exactly say, when it happened. Most people say that this was around 500 BC. This is because that are several loanwords, in Germanic languages, which do not occur before the 5th century BC. There are some examples, that the shift completed in the 1st century BC.

 'cimbri teutonique' - should have been 'chimbri theudonique' after the shift.
 Caesar talks about 'Vacalus' (the River Waal, one of the two main branches of the estuary of the Rhine). About 150 years later, Tacitus uses Vahalis for the same river.
 In De Bello Gallico, Cesar mentions tribes around the river Meuse: "Condruses, Eburones, Caerosos, Paemanos, qui uno nomine Germani appellantur"  (Condrusi, Eburones,Caerosi and Paemani, which are called Germani by name) - (Bello Gallico, 2,4,10). Today, most people think that Eburones is the only Germanic name (with shift); the others are Celtic (without shift).

Linguistics

References

Grimm's law


HOL Light is a member of the HOL theorem prover family. Like the other members, it is a proof assistant for classical higher order logic. Compared with other HOL systems, HOL Light is intended to have relatively simple foundations.  HOL Light is authored and maintained by the mathematician and computer scientist John Harrison. HOL Light is released under the simplified BSD license.

Logical foundations

HOL Light is based on a formulation of type theory with equality
as the only primitive notion. The primitive rules of inference
are the following:

This formulation of type theory is very close to the one described in
section II.2 of  .

References

Further reading

External links
 HOL Light

Free theorem provers
Proof assistants
OCaml software

HOL Light


The Deichtorhallen in Hamburg, Germany, is one of Europe's largest art centers for contemporary art and photography. The two historical buildings dating from 1911 to 1913 are iconic in style, with their open steel-and-glass structures. Their architecture creates a backdrop for spectacular major international exhibitions.

In 2003 the southern hall was dedicated to the medium of photography, creating the House of Photography. Since 2011, the two buildings at the interface of Hamburg's Kunstmeile and Hafencity have been supplemented by a satellite in Hamburg's Harburg district, the Sammlung Falckenberg.

History
Between 1911 and 1914, the "Deichtorhallen" ("the levee gate halls") were built as market halls on the grounds of the former Berliner Bahnhof railway station, Hamburg's counterpart to Berlin's Hamburger Bahnhof. They constitute one of the few surviving examples of industrial architecture from the transitional period between Art Nouveau and 20th century styles. The two halls are open steel structures, the northern hall is a longitudinal edifice boasting three naves and a 3,800 m2 footprint; the southern hall (1,800 m2) is a building with a lantern roof. Rupprecht Matthies created two "language cylinders" visitors can walk through for Deichtorplatz, which is also home to a Richard Serra sculpture. In the northern hall, there is a line of neon writing by Mario Merz and a "Blue Disc" by Imi Knoebel.

The Körber Foundation gifted the restored Deichtorhallen to the City of Hamburg. In 1989, they were assigned to a limited liability company: Deichtorhallen-Ausstellungs GmbH. On 9 November 1989, Deichtorhallen's international art exhibition program opened with the show "Einleuchten", curated by Harald Szeemann.

Deichtorhallen Hamburg has emerged as an exhibition center for photography and contemporary art with three pillars of activities, three institutions under the single Deichtorhallen brand. Since 2009, Dirk Luckow has been artistic director of Deichtorhallen Hamburg.

Exhibitions (selection)
 Wolfgang Tillmans (2001)
 Martin Parr (2004)
 Martin Munkácsi (2005)
 Jonathan Meese (2006)
 Georg Baselitz (2007)
 Erwin Wurm (2007)
 Fischli & Weiss (2008)
 F. C. Gundlach (2008)
 Lillian Bassman / Paul Himmel (2009)
 Herbert Tobias (2009)
 Katharina Fritsch (2009)
 Nobuyoshi Araki (2010)
 Poul Gernes (2010)
 Julia Stoschek Collection (2010)
 Gilbert & George (2011)
 Marilyn Minter (2011)
 Anselm Reyle (2012)
 Horizon Field Hamburg by Antony Gormley (2012)
 Sarah Moon (2015)

References

External links
 Official site of Deichtorhallen Hamburg

Culture in Hamburg
Buildings and structures in Hamburg-Mitte
Museums in Hamburg
Art museums established in 1989
Art museums and galleries in Germany
1989 establishments in West Germany
Tourist attractions in Hamburg
Art Nouveau architecture in Hamburg
Art Nouveau retail buildings
Commercial buildings completed in 1914

Deichtorhallen


The Capt. William Green House (or just the Green House) is a historic colonial house at 391 Vernon Street in Wakefield, Massachusetts.  It is one of Wakefield's oldest surviving buildings.  The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as part of two separate listings.  In 1989 it was listed under the name "Capt. William Green House", and in 1990 it was listed under the name "Green House".

Description and history
The Green House is located on the east side of Vernon Street, in northern Wakefield near its border with Lynnfield.  The house occupies a narrow parcel of land opposite Juniper Avenue that extends down to the Saugus River, which defines the border between the two towns.  The house is a -story wood-frame structure, with a gambrel roof and clapboard siding.  Its facade, oriented to face roughly south, is four irregularly spaced bays wide with the entrance in the second bay from the left, which is roughly centered on the facade.  A large chimney rises from the center of the roofline behind the entrance.  A modern kitchen ell and porch are located to the east and behind the main block.

The oldest portion of this house is a "single-cell" three-bay structure, encompassing the eastern three bays of the main block.  This structure is estimated to have been built about 1680 in Lynnfield, and was moved to this area about 1750 by William Green, who expanded the structure.  His son Caleb moved it to its present location in 1790.  The Green family lands originally included  on the west side of what is now Jordan Street, and  on the east side.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Wakefield, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places listings in Middlesex County, Massachusetts

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Wakefield, Massachusetts
Colonial architecture in Massachusetts

Capt. William Green House


A snow road is a type of winter road, which is a road that is used or trafficable only in the winter. Snow roads make up some or all of the on-land segments of a winter road. The snow is either compacted in place or, when there is not enough of it, is hauled from elsewhere, then compacted. The snow may be processed, for instance, by agitation to reduce the size of the particles before compaction. Additional snow is also used to help protect the vegetation and as a means of improving trafficability. This snow, sometimes referred to as 'snow pavement', can be compacted to various level, depending on requirements and available equipment – a higher compaction will accommodate heavier vehicles and higher tire pressures.

To increase the road's load capacity and its resistance to wear, water can be added onto the snow surface, resulting in a denser pavement and the formation of an ice cap. Ultimately, with a sufficient amount of flooding, an ice layer of significant thickness can be built, for a higher quality road in terms of effectiveness and load bearing capacity. Ice aggregate, typically collected from a nearby frozen lake, is also used on uneven terrain - it is flooded and allowed to freeze.

History

Before the predominance of automobiles, some snowbelt towns compacted snow-covered primary roads to facilitate horse-drawn sleigh traffic. This was accomplished by pulling logs or large, heavy drums (called snow rollers) over new-fallen snow by a team of draft animals.

See also
 Ice road

References

Bibliography

Abele, G., 1990. Snow roads and runways, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Monograph 90-3, Washington, D.C.
Adam, K.M., 1978. Building and operating winter roads in Canada and Alaska, Indian and Northern Affairs (INAC), Ottawa.
Lang, R.M., Blaisdell, G.L., D'Urso, C., Reinemer, G. and Lesher, M., 1997. Processing snow for high strength roads and runways, Cold Regions Science and Technology, 25: 17-31.
Proskin, S., Groznic, E., Hayley, D., Mathison, F., McGregor, R. and Neth, V., 2011. Guidelines for the Construction and Operation of Winter Roads, Transportation Association of Canada.
Russell-Head, D.S., Budd, W.F. and Moore, P.J., 1984. Compacted snow as a pavement material for runway construction. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 9: 231-247.

Ice roads
Types of roads
Ice in transportation

Snow road


Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25, 1803 – April 27, 1882) was an American author, poet, and philosopher.

Early life
Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1803. His father was a Unitarian minister. He chose not to follow the beliefs of the Unitarians and instead, created his own world view, Transcendentalism. He first wrote about this view in an essay called Nature in 1836. Emerson's father died when he was only eight years old. He studied at school in Boston and went to Harvard University, one of the most well-rated universities in the country.

How he became an author
Many men were heads of a town church in Emerson's family history. His father wanted him to be one, too. In 1817, at the age of 14, he began his education at Harvard College. He finished in 1821 and started to teach in a local school. In 1825, he continued studies at Harvard Divinity School to be a minister. By 1829, he was the head of a church in Boston. Then some events happened that made him change the direction of his life.

In 1831, his wife died. Soon after that, Emerson left America to go on a journey through Europe. He returned after almost a year, then married again in 1833. Emerson didn't want to continue to be the head of a church. Instead, he began speaking in halls and schools. He began writing his thoughts in short writings and speeches. His first essay was "Nature." It would become one of his most popular essays. Then, many scholars know about him after he gave a speech at Harvard Divinity School in 1837. Emerson became an author instead of a head of a town church by creating his own, instead of following someone else's, plan for his life.

Effects on his writings
Emerson's days as a child, when he was the son of a head of a town church, shaped his religious views. He also formed his way of thinking about spiritual topics from his education at Harvard.  These views are present in his philosophy of Transcendentalism, a way of thinking about the connections between man, nature, and the highest being.  Church leaders of Emerson's time focused on religious topics. Emerson instead focused on the everyday lives of people. Even though his father died when he was eight, and his first wife died a few years after marriage, Emerson wrote in a good way about his subjects. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an author who lived during the same time as Emerson, also affected him.

His effect on American society
Emerson had several effects on Americans during his time. The first effect he had was on the value of the individual. He once wrote, "Let us unfetter ourselves of our historical associations and find a pure standard in the idea of man." Up to this time, Americans still looked to England and other European countries for ideas on fashion and ways of thinking. Emerson's writings gave impulse to Americans to be free of European ideas on what is right or good. Along with individualism, Emerson is best known for starting the Transcendentalist movement. This philosophy made important the ideas of self-discovery and the connections between nature, all persons as a group, and the highest being.

End of life
In his later life, Emerson was a close friend of many other important authors and thinkers, including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Stuart Mill, and Thomas Carlyle. He traveled the world, including France, England, Italy and the Middle East. Emerson was active in writing and speaking into the 1870s. However, he started to forget things. He would only read from detailed notes or scripts. By 1879, his memory was so bad that he stopped making public appearances and speeches. He still socialized at private events, but never with the amount of talking that he once did. Walt Whitman described him at a party in 1881 to be a careful listener but he didn't join in any conversations. Within six months, in early 1882, Emerson died of pneumonia in Concord, Massachusetts.

Notable works
 Nature
 Essays, Volumes I & II
The Mountain and The Squirrel
 Representative Men
 English Traits
 Conduct of Life

References

1803 births
1882 deaths
19th-century American poets
19th-century philosophers
American philosophers
Deaths from pneumonia
Infectious disease deaths in Massachusetts
Writers from Massachusetts

Ralph Waldo Emerson


Charles "Cowboy" Morgan Evans (February 19, 1903 – April 15, 1969) was an American champion rodeo sports cowboy and oil field worker from Texas who worked as a rancher and oil drilling foreman the majority of his life.

Evans won the 1927 World Series Rodeo Bulldogging Championship at New York City's Madison Square Garden.  The World Series Rodeo is now known as the National Finals Rodeo (or "NFR"). Cowboy Evan's championship is recorded in the Rodeo Hall of Fame at the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

Early life
Charlie Morgan Evans was born to rancher Andrew Jackson Evans, Sr., and his wife Grace Morgan in the community of Huff, Texas in Archer County. The family was of Scottish and Welsh descent. As an adult, in 1942, Evans legally changed his birth name from Charlie to Charles, but his rodeo name was the one that stuck in the minds of those who knew him. Some oldtimers in parts of Arkansas, where he had a cattle ranch, still remembered Cowboy Morgan Evans in the local American folklore of the late 20th century.

Career and family
Cowboy Evans was known for his unique rodeo steer wrestling competition style of wearing one Western riding boot and one low quarter standard shoe for ease of quick dismount from his horse.  He competed in many rodeos across the United States in both bulldogging and bull riding prior to winning the 1927 world championship.  He worked as a roughneck in the oil exploration and drilling industry, and eventually became a drilling foreman and oilman.  In the early 1930s, Evans toured the United States on the rodeo circuit while maintaining his home of record in Henrietta, Texas.

He married Allie Odessa Jarvis, and together they had two daughters, Mary and Sara, who now reside in Ellis County, Texas, with their daughters, Lori Hiddleston and Morgan Evans and grandsons, Matthew Hiddleston and Landon Rayford nearby.  On 27 May 1945, Evans was awarded his 32nd degree in Scottish Rite Freemasonry, issued in Wichita Falls, Texas, by the Dallas Consistory.  He received his 33rd degree almost two decades later.  Cowboy Morgan Evans died at home in Bonham, Texas, of an apparent heart attack.  He was buried in a Christian ceremony in Bonham, and his life and legacy were honored by his fellow members of Chapter 52 of the Royal Arch Masons.

See also
Equestrianism
Freemasonry
History of rodeo
List of Freemasons
List of Rodeos
Tex Austin

References

Cowboys
1903 births
1969 deaths
People from Archer County, Texas
American people of Welsh descent
Steer wrestlers

Bull riders
People from Henrietta, Texas

Cowboy Morgan Evans


Henry Daniel (March 15, 1786 – October 5, 1873) was a United States representative from Kentucky. He was born in Louisa County, Virginia. He attended the public schools and then moved to Kentucky. He studied law and was admitted to the bar and commenced practice in Mount Sterling, Kentucky.

Daniel was a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1812. He served in the War of 1812 as captain of the Eighth Regiment, United States Infantry, 1813–1815. After the war, he was again a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1819 and 1826.

Daniel was elected as a Jacksonian to the Twentieth, Twenty-first, and Twenty-second Congresses (March 4, 1827 – March 3, 1833). He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1832 to the Twenty-third Congress. After leaving Congress, he resumed the practice of law. He died in Mount Sterling, Kentucky in 1873 and was buried in Macphelah Cemetery.

References

1786 births
1873 deaths
People from Louisa County, Virginia
Members of the Kentucky House of Representatives
People from Mount Sterling, Kentucky
Jacksonian members of the United States House of Representatives from Kentucky
19th-century American politicians

Henry Daniel (politician)


A sports ticket derivative is a type of futures contract specifically for sports tickets.  Typical terms of a ticket future contract stipulate that a ticket to a specific game (typically a championship game, such as Super Bowl or World Series) is delivered to the holder of the contract contingent on a specific team making it to that event.  Ticket futures were first offered by yoonew in 2004, under the title of Team Fantasy Seats.

History
Sports ticket futures were first offered in 2004 by yoonew.  They came in the form of Team Fantasy Seats which allowed investors and fans to buy a contract for a Super Bowl or NCAA Final Four ticket contingent on a specific team reaching the event.

As of September, 2008, yoonew has offered sports ticket derivatives for the Super Bowl, NFC Championship Game, AFC Championship Game, NCAA Men's Final Four, College Football BCS National Championship Game, NBA Finals, MLB World Series, Stanley Cup Finals, and UEFA European Football Championship. Launching in 2011 Ticketscore.com is the current leader within this marketplace offering ticket derivatives for the NFL, MLB, NHL, NBA and major collegiate sports.

How it works
For example, you could purchase a Team Fantasy Seat through yoonew for the New York Giants at a market-based price.  If the Giants make it to the Super Bowl, the holder of the contract receives a Super Bowl ticket at no additional cost. Ticketscore.com allows you to buy into a price reduced team contract and pay over a term of up to 26 weeks.

See also
yoonew
Futures contract
Futures exchange
Ticket resale

References

Sports terminology
Derivatives (finance)

Sports ticket derivative


Evelyn Pearl Furtsch (later Ojeda, April 17, 1914 – March 5, 2015) was an American sprint runner. Furtsch won the gold medal in the 4×100 m relay with teammates Mary Carew, Annette Rogers and Wilhelmina von Bremen at the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.

Biography
Furtsch was born in San Diego, California in 1914. She and her family moved to Orange County when she was 8 years old. During her Junior year at Tustin High School, a gym teacher noticed that she ran very fast. It was brought to the attention of Tustin High School track coach, Vincent Humeston where she was soon training and running with the boys track team. At the time, only big cities and big city schools had organized women's track & field. Humeston got in touch with the Los Angeles Athletic Club, who were at the time, training girls for the 1932 Olympics. In 1931, Furtsch placed in an AAU championship for the only time, when she finished second in the 100 yards.

At the 1932 Olympics, the American women's 4×100 m relay team broke both the Olympic and world record. Although they ran it in 46.9 seconds, the Olympics at that time did not count tenths of a second. The Olympic record, therefore, was recorded at 47.0 seconds, while the world record at 46.9 seconds.

After the Olympics Furtsch studied for two years at Santa Ana College. There was no track team at the college at the time, so she ended her sports career. She married Joe Ojeda, and together with him ran a real estate brokerage company in Santa Ana, California.

Furtsch was the first woman from Orange County to win an Olympic gold medal. She received the Ralph Clark Distinguished Citizen Award in Santa Ana in 1984, and was elected into the Orange County Sports Hall of Fame in 1985. She also received the Ralph Clark Distinguished Citizen Award in Santa Ana.

Furtsch was the last surviving member of the 1932 American 4×100 meter relay team. She turned 100 in April 2014, thus becoming the first female Olympic champion in athletics to live for a century and the first female American Olympic gold medalist to do so. She and Godfrey Rampling are the only Olympic track and field gold medalists to live for a century.

References

External links

Hodak interview 1987
dataOlympics profile

1914 births
2015 deaths
American centenarians
American female sprinters
Athletes (track and field) at the 1932 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in track and field
Medalists at the 1932 Summer Olympics
Track and field athletes from San Diego
Women centenarians
Olympic female sprinters
21st-century American women
Sportspeople from Orange County, California
Tustin High School alumni

Evelyn Furtsch


KMLD is a commercial radio station located in Casper, Wyoming, broadcasting on 94.5 FM.  KMLD airs an oldies music format branded as "Melody 94.5".  The music programming is syndicated by Cumulus Media and is the True Oldies Channel.

All Mt. Rushmore Casper stations are located at 218 N. Wolcott in downtown Casper.

History
This station started at 97.3 FM in 1997, and was owned by Hart Media. The station was later sold along with the other Hart Media Stations to Mountain States Broadcasting. The station was sold once again when Clear Channel Communications bought Mountain States Broadcasting. The present owner is Mt. Rushmore Broadcasting. A short while after being bought by Mt. Rushmore, the station moved down to 94.5 FM.
Citing technical difficulties, the station, along with its five other sister stations went dark for a period of time in August 2011. KVOC, KMLD, and KHOC remained silent as of December 17, 2011. Other than equipment reasons, no further information as to why the three stations were off the air had been provided.

Fines
KMLD, along with other Casper stations owned by Mt. Rushmore Broadcasting were fined $68,000 for using unlicensed Studio/transmitter links, which the company had been using for 16 years. The FCC fined the company $68,000 for "willfully and repeatedly" violating the law, giving the stations' owner 30 days to get licenses for its STLs for KHOC, and sister stations KHOC, KASS, and KQLT.
In 2012, station owner Jan Charles Gray was named in a lawsuit by the U.S. Department of Labor for improperly paying employees. Gray called the claims in the lawsuit "bogus".

In 2013, Gray informed the Casper Star Tribune that the lawsuit and a $68,000 fine for unlicensed STLs were "a lot of baloney." Gray said if the FCC doesn't back down, he plans to "sue them on behalf of every radio owner in America that has been wronged by them".

Previous logo

References

External links
Melody 94.5 Facebook

MLD
Oldies radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 1997
Natrona County, Wyoming
1997 establishments in Wyoming

KMLD


Brandon Grae Dubinsky (born April 29, 1986) is an American former professional ice hockey player. He previously played for the New York Rangers and Columbus Blue Jackets of the National Hockey League (NHL). Dubinsky was drafted 60th overall in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft by the Rangers.

Playing career
Dubinsky was born to a Russian American family, in Anchorage, Alaska. He played minor ice hockey in Anchorage and Seattle through Sno-King Amateur Hockey Association, and graduated from Service High School in 2004. As a youth, he played in the 1999 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Alaska All-Stars.

He spent his junior career with Portland Winter Hawks of the Western Hockey League (WHL) for four years, and was a two-time Western Conference second team All-Star before being drafted in the second round of the 2004 NHL Draft by the New York Rangers.

New York Rangers
Dubinsky played for the Hartford Wolf Pack of the American Hockey League (AHL) for most of the 2006–07 season. He first played for the New York Rangers on March 8, 2007, against the New York Islanders.

Dubinsky scored his first NHL goal against Marc-André Fleury on November 8, 2007, in a 4–2 win against the Pittsburgh Penguins. Dubinsky was the 3rd star of the game. He spent much of the season centering the Rangers' first forward line with Jaromír Jágr and Sean Avery. He was one of sixteen rookies selected to participate in the 2008 YoungStars competition at the 56th NHL All-Star Game in Atlanta. He scored two goals and one assist and was named YoungStars Most Valuable Player. Dubinsky scored his first career playoff goal in the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals against the New Jersey Devils on April 13, 2008.

His successful rookie season was marked on April 4, 2008, when Dubinsky was awarded the Steven McDonald Extra Effort Award for the 2007–08 season and "Rookie of the Year" for the Rangers as voted by his teammates.

On May 12, 2008, Dubinsky scored a hat trick in his first World Championships, in Halifax, Nova Scotia, against Norway. Team USA went on to win the game 9–1.

On November 24, 2008, Dubinsky scored a Gordie Howe hat trick against the Phoenix Coyotes. He squared off against the Coyotes' tough guy Daniel Carcillo protecting the Rangers' netminder Henrik Lundqvist at 2:58 into the first, taking a five-minute major penalty for fighting. He then scored a wraparound goal 1 minute 15 seconds into the second period (which ended up being the game winner). Dubinsky then finished the "Gordie" with an assist to Dan Girardi, who scored a power play goal from the blue line at 7:37 into the third period. The Rangers won the game 4–1 and Dubinsky along with Lundqvist and Zherdev were named the three stars. Ranger coach Tom Renney called the feat a "Gordie Orr hat trick" claiming that Dubinsky "didn't do that well in the fight".

Dubinsky finished his second full season with one point more than his previous season.  Despite a strong start with a game-winning goal in the Rangers' first game  and a streak of 11 points in his first 11 games in 2008–09, he  suffered a 20-game goal-scoring drought.  On April 15, 2009, Dubinsky scored the game-winning goal with 8:17 remaining in the third period of the Rangers' first game of the 2009 Stanley Cup Playoffs, Eastern Conference Quarterfinals against the Washington Capitals.

After holding out at the beginning of the 2009–10 season and missing over a week of training camp, Dubinsky signed a two-year contract worth $3.7 million as a restricted free agent. Dubinsky tallied 3 goals and 10 points on the season before suffering a broken hand in a game against the Calgary Flames on November 7, 2009, which relegated him to the injured reserved list for more than a month.

Dubinsky returned to the Rangers' lineup on December 14 against the Atlanta Thrashers. Four games later, he scored his first goal in more than two months against the Carolina Hurricanes. The goal was the game-winner in a 3–1 Rangers victory. Despite missing over a month due to injury, Dubinsky finished the season with career highs in goals and points. After the 2010–11 season, Dubinsky avoided arbitration with the Rangers and signed a four-year, $16.8 million contract.

On July 23, 2012, Dubinsky was traded, along with Artem Anisimov, Tim Erixon, and a first round draft pick in 2013, to the Columbus Blue Jackets for Rick Nash, minor leaguer Steven Delisle and a conditional third round pick in the same draft. On July 11, 2014, Dubinsky signed a 6-year, $35.1 million contract extension with Columbus.

Columbus Blue Jackets
During the 2012–13 NHL lockout, Dubinsky played for the Alaska Aces of the ECHL and made his Blue Jackets debut once the NHL returned from the work stoppage.

Dubinsky was named an alternate captain of the Blue Jackets on October 8, 2015.

In October 2017 Dubinsky was stripped of his "A", by head coach John Tortorella, and it was given to defenceman Jack Johnson. During the 2017–18 season, Dubinsky suffered a fractured orbital during a fight with Zack Kassian of the Edmonton Oilers on December 12, 2017. He was subsequently placed on long term injured reserve.

Personal life
Dubinsky was born in Anchorage, Alaska.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

International

Awards and honours

References

External links

1986 births
Alaska Aces (ECHL) players
American men's ice hockey centers
American people of Russian descent
Columbus Blue Jackets players
Hartford Wolf Pack players
Ice hockey people from Anchorage, Alaska
Living people
New York Rangers draft picks
New York Rangers players
Portland Winterhawks players

Brandon Dubinsky


The Dionysian Mysteries were a ritual of ancient Greece and Rome which sometimes used intoxicants and other trance-inducing techniques (like dance and music) to remove inhibitions and social constraints, liberating the individual to return to a natural state. It also provided some liberation for men and women marginalized by Greek society, among which were slaves, outlaws, and non-citizens. In their final phase the Mysteries shifted their emphasis from a chthonic, underworld orientation to a transcendental, mystical one, with Dionysus changing his nature accordingly. By its nature as a mystery religion reserved for the initiated, many aspects of the Dionysian cult remain unknown and were lost with the decline of Greco-Roman polytheism; modern knowledge is derived from descriptions, imagery and cross-cultural studies.

Origins

The Dionysian Mysteries of mainland Greece and the Roman Empire are thought to have evolved from a more primitive initiatory cult of unknown origin (perhaps Thracian or Phrygian) which had spread throughout the Mediterranean region by the start of the Classical Greek period. Its spread was associated with the dissemination of wine, a sacrament or entheogen with which it appears always to have been closely associated (though mead may have been the original sacrament). Beginning as a simple rite, it evolved quickly within Greek culture into a popular mystery religion, which absorbed a variety of similar cults (and their gods) in a typically Greek synthesis across its territories; one late form was the Orphic Mysteries. However, all stages of this developmental spectrum appear to have continued in parallel throughout the eastern Mediterranean until late in Greek history and forcible  Christianization.

Early Dionysus cult

The ecstatic cult of Dionysus was originally thought to be a late arrival in Greece from Thrace or Asia Minor, due to its popularity in both locations and Dionysus' non-integration into the Olympian Pantheon. After the deity's name was discovered on Mycenean Linear B tablets, however, this theory was abandoned and the cult is considered indigenous, predating Greek civilization. The absence of an early Olympian Dionysus is today explained by patterns of social exclusion and the cult's marginality, rather than chronology. Whether the cult originated on Minoan Crete (as an aspect of an ancient Zagreus) or Africaor in Thrace or Asia, as a proto-Sabaziusis unanswerable, due to lack of evidence. Some scholars believe it was an adopted cult not native to any of these places and may have been an eclectic cult in its earliest history, although it almost certainly obtained many familiar features from Minoan culture.

Role of wine

The original rite of Dionysus (as introduced into Greece) is associated with a wine cult (not unlike the entheogenic cults of ancient Central America), concerned with the grapevine's cultivation and an understanding of its life cycle (believed to have embodied the living god) and the fermentation of wine from its dismembered body (associated with the god's essence in the underworld). Most importantly, however, the intoxicating and disinhibiting effects of wine were regarded as due to possession by the god's spirit (and, later, as causing this possession). Wine was also poured on the earth and its growing vine, completing the cycle. The cult was not solely concerned with the vine itself, but also with the other components of wine. Wine includes other ingredients (herbal, floral, and resinous) adding to its quality, flavour, and medicinal properties.

Scholars have suggested that, given the low alcoholic content of early wine, its effects may have been due to an additional psychoactive ingredient in its sacramental form, supported by iconography showing herbs being mixed with the wine in the kraters, especially preceding ecstatic behavior. Poppy, from which opium is extracted, is a likely candidate, being sometimes worn as a wreath by the god in art. Also, honey and beeswax were often added to wine, introducing an even older drink (mead). Károly Kerényi postulated that this wine lore superseded (and partly absorbed) earlier Neolithic mead lore involving bee swarms associated by the Greeks with Dionysus. Mead and beer (with its cereal base) were incorporated into the domain of Dionysus, perhaps through his identification with the Thracian corn deity Sabazius.

Other plants believed to be viniculturally significant were also included in wine lore such as ivy (thought to counteract drunkenness—thus the opposite of the grapevine—and seen as blooming in winter instead of summer); the fig (a purgative of toxins) and the pine (a wine preservative). The bull (from whose horn wine was drunk) and goat (whose flesh provided wineskins, and whose browsing pruned the vines) were also part of the cult, eventually seen as manifestations of Dionysus. Some of these associations had been linked with fertility deities (like Dionysus) and became part of his new role. An understanding of vinicultural lore and its symbolism is key to understanding the cult which emerged from it, assuming a significance other than winemaking that would encompass life, death and rebirth and providing insight into human psychology.

Rites

The rites were based on a seasonal death-rebirth theme, common among agricultural cults such as the Eleusinian Mysteries. The Osirian Mysteries paralleled the Dionysian, according to contemporary Greek and Egyptian observers. Spirit possession involved liberation from civilization's rules and constraints. It celebrated that which was outside civilized society and a return to primordial nature—which would later assume mystical overtones. It also involved escape from the socialized personality and ego into an ecstatic, deified state or the primal herd (sometimes both). In this sense Dionysus was the beast-god within, or the unconscious mind of modern psychology. Such activity has been interpreted as fertilizing, invigorating, cathartic, liberating and transformative, and so appealed to those on the margins of society: women, slaves, outlaws and "foreigners" (non-citizens, in Greek democracy). All were equal in a cult that inverted their roles, similar to the Roman Saturnalia.

The trance induction central to the cult involved not only chemognosis (an altered state caused by drug use), but an "invocation of spirit" with the bullroarer and communal dancing to drum and pipe. The trances are described in familiar anthropological terms, with characteristic movements (such as the backward head flick found in all trance-inducing cults found today in Afro-American Vodou and its counterparts). As in Vodou rites, certain rhythms were associated with the trance. Rhythms are also found preserved in Greek prose referring to the Dionysian rites (such as Euripides' The Bacchae). This collection of classical quotes describes rites in the Greek countryside in the mountains, to which processions were made on feast days:
Following the torches as they dipped and swayed in the darkness, they climbed mountain paths with head thrown back and eyes glazed, dancing to the beat of the drum which stirred their blood' [or 'staggered drunkenly with what was known as the Dionysus gait']. 'In this state of ekstasis or enthusiasmos, they abandoned themselves, dancing wildly and shouting 'Euoi!' [the god's name] and at that moment of intense rapture became identified with the god himself. They became filled with his spirit and acquired divine powers.

This practice is demonstrated in Greek culture by the Bacchanals of the Maenads, Thyiades and Bacchoi; many Greek rulers considered the cult a threat to civilized society and wished to control it (if not suppress it altogether). The latter failed; the former would succeed in the foundation of a domesticated Dionysianism as a state religion in Athens. This was but one form of Dionysianism—a cult which assumed different forms in different localities (often absorbing indigenous divinities and their rites, as did Dionysus himself). The Greek Bacchoi claimed that, like wine, Dionysus had a different flavour in different regions; reflecting their mythical and cultural soil, he appeared under different names and appearances in different regions.

Dionysian paraphernalia

 Kantharos, drinking cup with large handles, originally the rhyton (drinking horn from a bull), later a kylix, or wine goblet
 Thyrsus, long wand with a pine cone on top, carried by initiates and those possessed by the god
 Stave, once cast into the ground to mark ritual space
 Krater, mixing bowl
 Flagellum, a scourge
 Minoan double axe, once used for sacrificial rites, later replaced by the Greek kopis (curved dagger)
 Retis, hunter's net
 Laurel crown and cloak, purple robe, or leopard or fawnskin nebix
 Hunting boots
 Persona masks
 Bullroarer
 Salpinx, long, straight trumpet
 Pan flute
 Tympanon, a frame drum
 Liknon, sacred basket with fig

Traditional offerings to Dionysus
Musk, civet, frankincense, storax, ivy, grapes, pine, fig, wine, honey, apples, Indian hemp, orchis root, thistle, all wild and domestic trees.

Animals sacred to Dionysus
Dionysus has numerous sacred animals, such as the leopard or bull. Other sacred animals include: lions and other big cats, goats, donkeys, and serpents.

The bull and goat and their "enemies", the panther (or any big catafter the Greeks colonized part of India, Shiva's tiger sometimes replaced the traditional panther or leopard) and the serpent (probably derived from Sabazius, but also found in North African cults); in addition, the dolphin, the lion, and the bee.

Bulls

Dionysus's association with bulls is found in multiple epithets. In The Bacchae, Pentheus, who opposed his worship in the god's origin city of Thebes, saw horns upon Dionysus's head as he started to go mad.

Dionysus's epithets connected to bulls are as follows:

Taurokephalos/Taurokranos/Taurometôpos Greek: Ταυροφαγος; a surname of Dionysus in the Orphic mysteries. (Orph. Hymn. 51. 2.) It also occurs as a surname of rivers and the ocean, which were symbolically represented as bulls, to indicate their fertilising effect upon countries. (Eurip. Iphig. Aul. 275, Orest. 1378 ; Aelian, V. H. ii. 33; Horat. Carm. iv. 14, 25.)

Tauros; a bull, occurs as a surname of Dionysus. (Eurip. Bacch. 918 ; Athen. xi. p. 476; Plut. Quaest. Graec. 36 ; Lycoph. Cass. 209.)

Invocations of Dionysus (from the Orphic hymns)
"I call upon loud-roaring and revelling Dionysus,
primeval, double-natured, thrice-born, Bacchic lord,
wild, ineffable, secretive, two-horned and two-shaped.
Ivy-covered, bull-faced, warlike, howling, pure,
You take raw flesh, you have feasts, wrapt in foliage, decked with grape clusters.
Resourceful Eubouleus, immortal god sired by Zeus
When he mated with Persephone in unspeakable union.
Hearken to my voice, O blessed one,
and with your fair-girdled nymphs breathe on me in a spirit of perfect agape".

"In intoxication, physical or spiritual, the initiate recovers an intensity of feeling which prudence had destroyed; he finds the world full of delight and beauty, and his imagination is suddenly :liberated from the prison of everyday preoccupations. The Bacchic ritual produced what was called 'enthusiasm', which means etymologically having the god enter the worshipper, who believed :that he became one with the god".

Orphic Hymn XLIV. To Dionysus Bassareus
A Hymn
Come, blessed Dionysius [Dionysos], various nam'd, bull-fac'd, begot from Thunder, Bacchus [Bakkhos] fam'd.  Bassarian God, of universal might, whom swords, and blood, and sacred rage delight: In heav'n rejoicing, mad, loud-sounding God, furious inspirer, bearer of the rod: By Gods rever'd, who dwell'st with human kind, propitious come, with much-rejoicing mind.

Orphic Hymn XLV. To Liknitus Bacchus [Liknitos Dionysus]
The Fumigation from Manna.
Liknitan Bacchus [Liknitos Dionysos], bearer of the vine, thee I invoke to bless these rites divine: Florid and gay, of nymphs the blossom bright, and of fair Venus [Aphrodite], Goddess of delight, 'Tis thine mad footsteps with mad nymphs to beat, dancing thro' groves with lightly leaping feet: From Jove's [Zeus'] high counsels nurst by Proserpine [Persephoneia], and born the dread of all the pow'rs divine: Come, blessed pow'r, regard thy suppliant's voice, propitious come, and in these rites rejoice.

Orphic Hymn XLVI. To Bacchus Pericionius [Dionysus Perikionios]
The Fumigation from Aromatics.
Bacchus Pericionius [Dionysos Perikionios], hear my pray'r, who mad'st the house of Cadmus once thy care, With matchless force, his pillars twining round, (when burning thunders shook the solid ground, In flaming, founding torrents borne along), propt by thy grasp indissolubly strong. Come mighty Bacchus to these rites inclin'd, and bless thy suppliants with rejoicing mind.

Inscription about the mysteries in Plovdiv

An ancient Roman inscription written in Ancient Greek dated to 253–255 AD was discovered in the Great Basilica at the Plovdiv (ancient Philippopolis). The inscription refers to the Dionysian Mysteries and also mentions Roman Emperors Valerian and Gallienus. It has been found on a large stele that was used as construction material during the building of the Great Basilica.

See also
Anthesteria, Ascolia, Dionysia, and Lenaia
Ancient Greece and wine
Ancient Rome and wine
Bacchanalia and Liberalia
Dionysus Cup
Greco-Roman mysteries
Hellenistic religion
Theatre Of Dionysus
Tyrnavos, a Greek town, famous for its Dionysian-derived carnival celebrations

References

Further reading
Hillman, D.C.A., The Chemical Muse: Drug Use and the Roots of Western Civilization (MacMillan, 2014).
 Merkelbach, Reinhold, Die Hirten des Dionysos. Die Dionysos-Mysterien der römischen Kaiserzeit und der bukolische Roman des Longus (Stuttgart, Teubner, 1988).
 Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society", Bucknell University Press, 1999.
 Brigitte Le Guen, Les Associations de Technites dionysiaques à l'époque hellénistique, 2 vol. (Nancy, 2001).
 Sophia Aneziri, Die Vereine der dionysischen Techniten im Kontext der hellenistischen Gesellschaft (Stuttgart, 2003).
 Michael B. Cosmopoulos (ed), Greek Mysteries: the archaeology and ritual of ancient Greek secret cults (London, Routledge, 2003).
Muraresku, Brian C. The Immortality Key: The Secret History of the Religion with No Name. Macmillan USA. 2020.
 Delneri, Francesca, I culti misterici stranieri nei frammenti della commedia attica antica (Bologna, Patron Editore, 2006) (Eikasmos, Studi, 13).
 Giovanni Casadio and Patricia A. Johnston (eds), Mystic Cults in Magna Graecia (Austin, TX, University of Texas Press, 2009).
 Hugh Bowden, Mystery Cults of the Ancient World (Princeton, Princeton UP, 2010).
 Richard Noll, Mysteria: Jung and the Ancient Mysteries (unpublished page proofs, 1994).

Dionysus
Cult of Dionysus
Greco-Roman mysteries

Dionysian Mysteries


The Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology is Brown University's teaching and research museum. The museum has a  gallery in Manning Hall on Brown's campus in Providence, Rhode Island. Its Collections Research Center is located in nearby Bristol, Rhode Island.

Background

History
The Haffenreffer Museum's origins lie in the private collection of industrialist Rudolf F. Haffenreffer. In 1917, Haffenreffer acquired the Mount Hope Grant, a Bristol estate that encompassed the home of Wampanoag sachem Metacomet. Haffenreffer discovered a number of artifacts on the property and acquired others during trips through the Western United States. In 1928, he constructed the Haffenreffer Museum of the American Indian to house his collection. Following his death in 1954, Haffenreffer's family donated his collection and estate to Brown University. Under the tenure of founding director J. Louis Giddings, the museum's scope expanded to include artifacts from the Arctic, Africa, and the Pacific.

In 1995 Brown, under the leadership of President Vartan Gregorian, purchased the Old Stone Bank and Benoni Cooke House as part of a plan to relocate the museum's collection and galleries to Downtown Providence. Brown sold the bank building in 2009, abandoning the plan.

In 2006, the Haffenreffer Museum opened a gallery in Manning Hall on Brown's central campus. In 2019, the museum again announced a plan to relocate its collection from Bristol to a consolidated site in Providence, adjacent to the Brown campus. The inventory and planned relocation of the museum's collections is supported by a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

Mission
The Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology is Brown University's teaching museum. A resource across the university, it aims to inspire creative and critical thinking about culture by fostering an interdisciplinary understanding of the material world. It provides opportunities for faculty and students to work with collections and the public, teaching through objects and programs in classrooms, in the CultureLab and exhibitions in Manning Hall, and at the Collections Research Center.

Exhibitions

Changing exhibitions in the museum's gallery in Manning Hall, at the center of Brown University's campus, highlight the museum's collections from around the world and the work of Brown University faculty, staff and students. The museum also offers public lectures, performances, symposia, festivals, school activities, and a broad range of programs and events for all ages.

Educational programs
In addition to extensive educational programs for Brown students, centered in the CultureLab in the Manning Gallery, the Museum provides structured group programs delivered to local schools and an extensive array of public lectures.

Collections

Artifacts
The Museum's holdings total approximately one million items. While strongest in Native North American materials, the museum also contains significant material from Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, including:
 900,000 archeological artifacts excavated by Arctic researchers from National Park Service and Bureau of Land Management lands in Alaska (a federal repository)
 70,000 archeological and 6,000 ethnological objects from elsewhere in North America
 2,500 archeological and 3,000 ethnological items from South and Central America
 40 archeological and 3,000 ethnological items from Africa, some by contemporary artisans
 400 archeological and 400 ethnological items from Europe
 1,100 ethnological items from Asia
 1,500 ethnological items from Oceania

Images
The Haffenreffer Museum Research Collections Center's photographic archive, in addition to collection record shots, contains photographs from the founder's archives, the Spinden collection of images of Central and South America, and field photographs that accompanied collections. The Center library has some 10,000 volumes. Highlights of the collection include:

 Herbert Spinden Photographic Archive, with over 20,000 images and documents related to Central American archaeology and ethnography from the early 20th century, including many images of important archaeological sites that have since been altered or destroyed.
 The Kensinger Collection has over 5,000 photographs and related field notes and texts from anthropologist Ken Kensinger's research with the Cashinahua of Peru from 1960 to 1996
 The Conti Collection has over 3,000 photographs dating from the late 1950s through to the early 1970s taken by Rhode Island photographer Gino Conti, primarily on the Hopi, Apache and Navaho reservations and in Mexico.
 Photographs of Southwest prehistoric petroglyphs taken by Salvatore Mancini, many of which are published by the Museum in the book Terra Incognita.
 Lithographs, serigraphs, and two dimensional artwork by and about the Inuit, the Ainu, Plains Indians and many others.

See also
John Whipple Potter Jenks

References

External links
 The Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology, Brown University

Museums in Providence, Rhode Island
Archaeological museums in the United States
Ethnographic museums in the United States
Anthropology museums in the United States
Native American museums in Rhode Island
Pre-Columbian art museums in the United States
African art museums in the United States
Bristol, Rhode Island
Brown University
University museums in Rhode Island
Association of Science-Technology Centers member institutions
Science museums in Rhode Island
Museums established in 1955
1955 establishments in Rhode Island

Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology


The EFDA Nations Cup, was a Country vs Country competition for Formula Opel cars between 1990 and 1998. It had always been Dan Partel's dream to stage a race that pitted drivers in equal cars racing for their country. The Formula Opel/Vauxhall one make racing series offered the best opportunity for such an event.

The 1990 EFDA Nations Cup (Nation Cup I) was held at Spa-Francorchamps, Belgium (19–20 July 1990).

Final positions

References

External links
 Fastlines International
 Driver Database

EFDA Nations Cup
EFDA Nations Cup seasons
EFDA Nations Cup

1990 EFDA Nations Cup


Alexander Kamloop Black (1832 – December 14, 1913) was a political figure in Manitoba. He represented St. Pauls from 1876 to 1878 in the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba.

He was born in Île-à-la-Crosse, the son of Samuel Black and Angelique Cameron. In 1859, Black married Margaret Miller. He was elected to the Manitoba assembly in an 1876 by-election held following the death of Curtis Bird. Black died in San Francisco.

References

1832 births
1913 deaths
Members of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba
Canadian Métis people
Métis politicians

Alexander Black (Canadian politician)


The Bristol International Exhibition was held on Ashton Meadows in the Bower Ashton area of Bristol, England in 1914. The exhibition which had been planned since 1912 was a commercial venture and not fully supported by the civic dignitaries of the city which caused difficulties raising the funds needed. Most of the construction of the venues was from wooden frames covered by plasterboard and occurred in just 2 months prior to opening. It opened on 28 May 1914 was closed on 6 June. Further funding was raised and the exhibition reopened, but continued to struggle with lower than expected attendance and, following several court hearings, finally closed on 15 August just after the outbreak of World War I.

The site covered  next to the River Avon and was served by two railway stations. The venues included: an International Pavilion and a concert hall, a replica of Bristol Castle, a representation of "Old Plymouth" with a replica of the Revenge and the Dominions Pavilion. Other attractions included a Scenic Railway roller coaster and buildings representing "Shakespeare's England". The entire site was lit by electric lighting including the Pageant Ground which had a grandstand holding 4,000 people.

After the premature closure of the exhibition the site was used, until 1919, as barracks for The Gloucestershire Regiment. Some buildings became warehouses after the troops left but all had been demolished before World War II when the site was again used for troops and then squatters housing. There are no structures on the site which is now used for allotments, a cricket club and the horse and dog section of Avon and Somerset Constabulary. In 2022 construction started on housing on part of the site.

Planning

Plans for the exhibition were laid in 1912. The initial directors were local business leaders, but they were soon replaced by the merchant John Bellham and theatre artist and director Leolyn Gustav Hart who had been involved in The Festival of Empire which was held at The Crystal Palace in London in 1911, to celebrate the coronation of King George V. The idea was to hold a colonial exhibition to encourage local business and trade with the British dominions. Support from some of the leaders of the city's civic leaders was limited as many were already involved in organising the annual exhibition of the Royal Agricultural Society of England which was to be held in Bristol in 1913 on Durdham Down.

In 1913 shares were issued in the company and the rental of the site was agreed with the owners, the city corporation () and the Great Western Railway (). Publicity for the event was distributed to newspapers in April 1913 and extensive coverage detailed plans for the exhibition buildings, concerts, music competitions and pageants. The pageants were planned by John Henderson and themed around the history of Bristol during the periods 875–1373, 1486–1663 and 1764–1831. A cast of 1,200 local people was planned.

The company planning the exhibition raised funds from a variety of backers based on accounts which projected an income of £186,882 which would include entrance fees from 2 million visitors, and expenditure of £145,966 including £59,000 construction costs. Clearance of the site started at the end of 1913 but was then delayed until March 1914 after the finance had been agreed. During the two months before the exhibition was due to open in May, an average of 2,000 workers per week employed by the Westminster Construction Company Ltd were on site.

Site

The site, which was also known as Ashton Fields or Rownham Fields as well as Ashton Meadows, covered  and was served by two railway stations Clifton Bridge railway station and Ashton Gate railway station which was renamed Exhibition Station for the duration of the event. The triangular site was bordered by the River Avon on the north, a road called Ashton Avenue on the east and the railway tracks on the west, with a bridge over the other set of railway tracks running across the site. Each of the exhibition halls was built of a timber frame cladded with plasterboard and mouldings made from fibre and gypsum given them a white appearance and it became known locally and in some press reports as the White City.

The major buildings included the International Pavilion and a concert hall with a capacity of 5,000. A replica of Bristol Castle was erected at the northern end of the site to hold military exhibits next to the Dominions Pavilion which was intended to showcase the products of the dominions. South of these was the Pageant Ground with seating for 4,000 in the grandstand. Other exhibits included a Scenic Railway roller coaster and buildings representing "Shakespeare's England", designed by Jennie Cornwallis-West (better known as Lady Randolph Churchill), which had been successfully exhibited at Earls Court Exhibition Centre in 1912. The electric lighting which was installed by the Bristol Corporation Electricity Department, was still innovative and expensive. It involved over  of cable including under the river.

Exhibition

Although incomplete the exhibition was officially opened on 28 May 1914 by John Swaish the Lord Mayor of Bristol. The day included tours for journalists, a concert and choir followed by a firework display.

Visitors entered the exhibition via an avenue of murals on canvas representing agriculture, trade landscapes or culture from Rhodesia, India, Australia and Malaysia. They then passed over a foot bridge over the railway and approached the International Pavilion which was  high and covered a floor space of . It held exhibits related to industry and manufacturing. The next section included the Egyptian gardens and colonnade. The music pavilion could hold 4,000 customers, with a large dance floor, an orchestra and space for a choir of up to 1,200. The pleasure side of the exhibition included the figure of eight roller coaster, a jungle area where the performances included lions, and entertainments such as a hall of mirrors and rifle range. "Shakespeare's England" consisted of "old-world" architecture and was adjacent to the "Dominions Garden" with its bandstand close to the Dominions Pavilion and a fine arts gallery. Near the replica of Bristol Castle was a representation of "Old Plymouth" with a replica of the Revenge the flagship of Francis Drake against the Spanish Armada.

Financial problems

On 6 June, just eight days after the official opening, Leolyn Hart closed the exhibition and told workmen who were still finishing some of the displays not to come into work. Gate receipts were poor and the original funding of £100,000 had been exhausted. The debenture holders wanted the exhibition to stay open to try to recoup some of their losses. Arthur Collins was appointed as the receiver and attempted to raise further funds from local supporters. It reopened on 10 June and further funding was obtained from backers in London. New managers were appointed who criticised Bristolians for not backing the exhibition. Although a winding-up order had been submitted by a creditor, on 26 June the receiver announced that further money had been raised and plans for additional attractions were in place. Daily pageants and a variety of lectures were included in the programme.

The daily pageants ran from 29 June to 18 July but failed to recoup the initial outlay. A further court hearing was held on 20 July and the company responsible for the exhibition was wound up, although it stayed open and attendances increased. The exhibition closed for good on 15 August soon after the declaration of hostilities which became the First World War.

Subsequent use

And after closure the buildings were then used for troop barracks and a drill hall by troops from 'Bristol's Own' the 12th Battalion The Gloucestershire Regiment. The last troops left the site in January 1919 and the equipment sold off. During the 1920s some of the buildings were used as warehouses, but were removed by the 1930s. In World War II the site was again used for barracks for troops, and in the post war period squatted by those made homeless during the bombing of the Bristol Blitz. All of the buildings have since been removed. The site is now used for sports pitches including the Bedminster Cricket Club, the White City Allotments and the former horse and dog section of Avon and Somerset Constabulary.

References

Bibliography

Festivals in England
20th century in Bristol
1914 festivals

Bristol International Exhibition


Battle of Turaida was one of the biggest battles of Livonian crusade between Estonian tribes and Livonian Brothers of the Sword. The battle took place around modern Turaida, Latvia.

Battle
By summer of 1211, a larger military plan had been made by Estonian counties whose objective was to capture the stronghold held by Caupo of Turaida and thereafter attack Riga. Estonian troops from the mainland and the Oeselian fleet arrived accordingly on an appointed date at the stronghold of Turaida. The stronghold was surrounded and the attack began. The besiegers promised to keep attacking until they either took the stronghold or the Livs inside agreed to join the Estonians for the attack on Riga.

Soon after, a large Crusader reinforcement army arrived from Riga with whom a fierce battle began. The Livonian and German crossbowmen from the stronghold also charged out to join the attack. The Estonian forces were caught between two enemy forces, which made them fall back. They regrouped on a hill between the stronghold and the Gauja river. The battle lasted from morning to night, and eventually the Estonians were forced to surrender and agree to being baptized. At night, however, they secretly tried to escape to the sea along the Gauja using their ships. Unfortunately for them, the Germans had built a bridge with towers on the river, where they fired upon the fleeing Estonians with spears and arrows. The next night the Oeselians left their ships and broke away using the roads on the mainland.

The Estonian losses were heavy, which was further elaborated in the Chronicle of Livonia. Approximately 2,000 were killed with nearly the same amount of captured horses and over 300 ships captured as well. These are most likely exaggerations.

See also
Battle of Turaida

References

Turaida 1211
Turaida 1211
1211 in Europe
Turaida 1211
Turaida 1211
Battles in Latvia
Vidzeme
Turaida 1211

Battle of Turaida (1211)


David John Scheffer (born September 18, 1953) is an American lawyer and diplomat who served as the first United States Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues, during President Bill Clinton's second term in office. He is the Mayer Brown/Robert A. Helman Professor of Law at Northwestern University School of Law, where he directed the Center for International Human Rights from 2006 to 2019.

Scheffer received B.A.s from Harvard and Oxford University, and an LL.M. from Georgetown University Law Center. He began his legal career at the international law firm Coudert Brothers, working for a time in their Singapore office. He also served as counsel to the U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs. During Clinton's first term, he was initially the senior advisor to Madeleine Albright, who then served as ambassador to the United Nations. Scheffer then sat on the Deputies Committee of the National Security Council from 1993 until 1996, and then became the first Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues.

As ambassador, Scheffer participated in the creation of the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, and the Khmer Rouge tribunal. He also led the U.S. negotiating team in United Nations talks on the International Criminal Court. Though Scheffer signed the Rome Statute that established the ICC on behalf of the U.S. in 2000, he was a highly vocal critic of many aspects of the court and the negotiation process. He particularly opposed the prohibition on any party making reservations to the Rome Statute and the manner in which the Statute structured the court's jurisdiction. Clinton's successor, George W. Bush, later withdrew the signature of the U.S.

Scheffer has also taught classes on international law and war crimes as a law professor at Northwestern, Georgetown, Columbia, Duke, and George Washington University. He is an endorser of the Genocide Intervention Network.

In his capacity as director of the Center for International Human Rights and afterwards, Scheffer runs the Cambodia Tribunal Monitor website, the primary source for accessing news, information, and video of trial proceedings from the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia.

In December 2011, Scheffer published a memoir and history, All the Missing Souls: A Personal History of the War Crimes Tribunals about the rise of international tribunals in the 1990s.  On January 18, 2012, Scheffer was appointed by Secretary General Ban Ki-moon as the U.N. Special Expert to advise on the United Nations Assistance to the Khmer Rouge Trials.

He was awarded a 2013 Berlin Prize Fellowship at the American Academy in Berlin.

References

External links
 Cambodia Tribunal Monitor

 Faculty profile at Northwestern University Law School
 Foreign Policy article on the 2011 arrest of Ratko Mladic, "The Least Wanted Most Wanted Man"
 Foreign Policy article on enforcing the ICC's 2011 al-Qaddafi arrest warrant, "Justice League"
 David Scheffer at the American Academy Berlin as Bosch Public Policy Fellow

1953 births
Living people
United States Ambassadors-at-Large for War Crimes Issues
Clinton administration personnel
20th-century American lawyers
Alumni of the University of Oxford
American legal scholars
Duke University faculty
Place of birth missing (living people)
International law scholars
Harvard University alumni
Georgetown University Law Center alumni
Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law faculty

David Scheffer


Terry Dintenfass (April 4, 1920 – October 26, 2004) was an American art dealer.

Career
Terry Dintenfass established her first gallery, the D Contemporary, in 1954 in the lobby of the Traymore Hotel in Atlantic City, New Jersey, where she sold the work of Milton Avery, Georgia O'Keeffe, Ben Shahn, John Marin, Max Weber, among others. She showed work on consignment from prominent New York dealers, and became especially close to Edith Halpert, whose Downtown Gallery represented the estate of Arthur Dove. In 1959, Dintenfass moved to Manhattan and opened the Terry Dintenfass Gallery. She was part of a wave of women dealers, along with Halpert, Grace Borgenicht, Betty Parsons, Antoinette M. Kraushaar, Joan Washburn and others, who worked the New York art market between the 1940s to the 1980s.

Dintenfass took a keen interest in social and political issues. She showed the works of African-American artists including Jacob Lawrence, whom she would represent for 25 years, Raymond Saunders, and Horace Pippin. Dintenfass notably represented African-American artists in a time when Manhattan galleries displayed little African-American art. The "Social Realist" painters Philip Evergood and Robert Gwathmey helped shape the gallery with a strong social consciousness. Once settled in New York, Dintenfass became the protégé of Edith Halpert. When Halpert retired in the early 1960s, the Arthur Dove estate joined Terry Dintenfass, Inc. which then had a stable of William King, Gwathmey, Evergood, Sidney Goodman, Hyman Bloom, Antonio Frasconi, among others, and later the sculptor Elisabeth Frink.

The gallery represented these artists for much of the last three to four decades and is now involved in their secondary market. The gallery continues to represent the estate of Arthur Dove. After maintaining a gallery in Manhattan for nearly 40 years, Dintenfass retired in 1999 and died in 2004. Her business is currently run by her son Andrew and his wife Ann.

Dintenfass' only full sibling was psychopharmacologist and two-time Lasker Award winner Nathan Schellenberg Kline.

External links
 Terry Dintenfass, Inc.
 www.TerryDintenfass.com

References

American art dealers
Women art dealers
1920 births
2004 deaths

Terry Dintenfass


Wraith (Zak-Del) is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Although Wraith first appears in the prologue as a vision,<ref>Annihilation: Conquest Prologue</ref> his first physical appearance was in Annihilation Conquest: Wraith #1 in Annihilation: Conquest.

Publication history
Wraith first appeared in Annihilation: Conquest: Wraith #1 (2007) and was created by Javier Grillo-Marxuach and Kyle Hotz. Wraith returned in Donny Cates and Geoff Shaw's 2019 relaunch of Guardians of the Galaxy.

Fictional character biography
Wraith is the son of Kree scientist Sim-Del, who created a power source sufficient to "light an entire galaxy". Kree society banished him, but he continued his work, using the power source to turn the barren planetoid he inhabited into a paradise. The Kree then destroyed him, his wife, and all traces of his work. However, his son was sent off on an escape ship. The ship drifted into The Exoteric Latitude, the space of the Nameless, an offshoot of the Kree, who were once ancient Kree explorers lost thousands of years ago, and their bodies were invaded by the Exolon, parasites that feed on the souls of living creatures. The Nameless made Zak-Del one of their own and were promptly infected with the Exolon. Because he had become a Nameless, he was subjected to endless self-inflicted torture, as this is the only way a Nameless can remember their life before losing their soul. He was haunted by the image of the signet ring worn by the man who killed his parents, and that is what brings him to Kree space — to hunt down that man. Wraith defeated the leader of the Nameless, and he stole their polymorphic weapon and a ship that transported him back into the galaxy to hunt down the man. Although his time with the Nameless made him rather cold and show brutal efficiency as a fighter, Wraith retains some pragmatic yet, moral standards.

Wraith first appeared when he incapacitated an entire Phalanx battle-cruiser, drawing the attention of both the Phalanx and the Resistance forces led by Ra-Venn opposing them. Because he capably made the Phalanx feel fear, as both sides wished to add him to their ranks. He gets tracked by the Phalanx to the resistance's base, and in allowing them to escape, he is captured and brought before Ronan the Accuser, head of the Kree empire since the end of the Annihilation War, now a slave and Head Inquisitor of the Phalanx. Though Ronan subjects Wraith to all manners of horrible torture, inflicting more pain than any Kree can withstand, Wraith refuses to give up his origins, finally prompting an infuriated Ronan to attempt to impale him on a spike. Wraith pulls himself off and immediately heals. Ronan states that due to his seeming immunity to pain, he is not Kree, but something else, like a wraith. It amuses the son of Sim-Del, and he decides that Wraith is a suitable new name for himself. Wraith then divulges his origins. He says that he pities Ronan because he is a slave. The Accuser decides the highest degree of torture he could inflict would be to make Wraith a slave to the Phalanx for all time, and he promptly infects Wraith with Phalanx technology.

Wraith remains steadfast and enters a self-induced coma-like state, causing frustration in Ronan and annoyance in the Phalanx. A vision of Sim-Del in Wraith's mind convinces him to continue fighting, as only the punishment of the man with the signet ring could set his and his wife's spirits free. His father also convinces him that he cannot find the man alone, and so Wraith enlists the help of Super-Skrull and Praxagora. The trio escape and meet up with the Resistance, saving them from a Phalanx warship. Although he has little interest in the war with the Phalanx, Wraith accepts the offer to join the Resistance and fight the Phalanx in return for their help in tracking down the people who murdered his family. With Wraith and crew's assistance, the rebellion manages to capture a Phalanx scientist who has information on the Phalanx's super weapon. After determining the deployment point and the time of the attack, the fleet launches a suicide mission to deliver Wraith, Super-Skrull and Praxagora to the scene, where they infiltrate the Phalanx fleet and find the weapon, a Phalanx-infected Supreme Intelligence. Here Wraith again sees his father's spirit, speaking through the Supreme Intelligence, who instructs him not to stop the weapon, but to let it activate, and then to release the Exolon and absorb the Supreme Intelligence's soul, not only saving the Kree, but also dealing a massive blow to the Phalanx and freeing Ronan from the Phalanx's control. Wraith also convinces Ronan to overcome his shame and lead the Kree against their captors. He himself remains with the resistance, not revealing what he has truly done, to later use the Supreme Intelligence's soul to become a beacon of hope for the people.

Wraith and allies travels to the planet Kree-Lar, a ceded territory of the Kree that is home to Ravenous (the former right-hand man of Annihilus from "Annihilation" storyline) and enemies to the Kree, at Ronan's behest. Wraith makes his wariness and distrust of this mission clear to Ronan before their ship is attacked and are sent crashing into the planet. The group land on the surface and found that the Phalanx engaging warfare with the Ravenous, but Wraith uses his Exolon parasites paralyze the Phalanx and stop the fighting. Recognizing Wraith being the key to dealing with the Phalanx, the Ravenous agreed to allow the group to see their leader. During the audience, Wraith demonstrates his powers the Ravenous before subduing him, allowing Ronan to access the secret chamber underneath the throne. Ronan leads Wraith the 15,000 Kree Sentries that lays dormant in the chamber, which Wraith and Praxagora reprogrammed to make the sentries immune to the Phalanx's abilities. As Ronan launches the 15,000 Kree Sentries to Hala to destroy all Phalanx and Phalanx-infected Kree on the Kree homeworld Hala, Wraith stands quietly aside as he watches Ronan enacts his plans and orders Ravenous to get them a ship to travel to Hala. Upon arriving in Hala's space system, the group notices other forces are fighting against the Phalanx, Praxagora is possessed by Ultron, who is the Phalanx Technarchy's primary director, and stuns Wraith so he can transfer his essence into the Sentries and adds them to his army. Ultron kills Praxagora and explodes the ship, but Wraith and the others are saved by the Super-Skrull' force field, who takes them Hala's surface. Upon seeing Adam Warlock and Phyla-Vell battling a giant-size Ultron, Wraith aids them by using the Exolon to trapped Ultron in his current body, allowing Phyla-Vell to finished him off. After the battle, Wraith uses his Exolon to purge any Phalanx-infected Kree citizens before continuing on his quest to find his family's killer.Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A-Z Update #1

After Gamora killed Thanos in Infinity Wars, Wraith attended Thanos's funeral and witness Starfox showing all the guests a recording of Thanos stating that he uploaded his consciousness in a new body before his death. While Wraith watches everyone angrily debate whether Thanos was telling the truth, they are attack by the Black Order, who steals Thanos's body and rip open a hole in space, sending Wraith and everyone else into the rip. Wraith and many others are saved by Gladiator and the Shi'ar Empire, allowing Starfox to continue recruit warriors to find Gamora, the most likely candidate to be Thanos's new body. Wraith brings up the issue of the Black Order, but Starfox assure they are searching for them and Nebula states that the team should track down Nova to find Gamora's location. The Dark Guardians found Nova and ambush him, wounding him enough to crash land onto a planet. Wraith demands Nova to tell Gamora's location, stating the fact he does not want to harm him if does have to. Wraith also reveals his reason for helping Starfox is so he could find Knull, the ancient malevolent primordial deity who created the Klyntar and the Exolon. Wraith wants to have Knull free him from the Exolon parasites. When Gladiator and Cosmic Ghost Rider orders him to back off, Nova takes the chance to fly off again, but the team plans to track down again. As Nebula predicted, Nova leads them to Gamora, who was about Star-Lord's ship, and attack. Amidst the chaotic battle, Starfox and his team easily overwhelmed the Guardians and captured Gamora. After delivering Gamora to Starfox, Wraith demanded that Starfox uphold his part of their bargain. Starfox handed Wraith a flashdrive of all the information he collected on Knull, though he told Wraith the intel is not very much. When the Black Order and Hela appeared, Wraith did not intervene since he already got what he needed.

Eventually Wraith tracked down Knull on Klyntar and discovered the Exolon were discarded offshoots created by Knull, and had them stripped from him. After being kicked off into the space by Knull, he discovered that Knull also has an opposite, a god of light, and transported to Earth to tell Eddie Brock and died in the process.

Powers and abilities
Wraith is experienced fighter and possesses an unidentified polymorphic weapon which can take on a variety of forms, including a gun, a whip, a small blade, and devices like binoculars. As a Kree, Wraith possesses his species' unique physiology, having far greater natural attributes than a human and is resistant to poisons, toxins and diseases. Due to the Exolon parasites that infect and maintain his body, he possesses enhanced speed, strength and agility greater than a normal Kree, as well as an ability to heal himself from even the most egregious of wounds. He also does not age and cannot die, at least not in any way yet shown. By summoning swarms of Exolon, he can strike fear into his opponents, and, because the Exolon feed on souls, swarms of it appear—at least to the Phalanx— to eat the exposed soul of a living being. Due to the nature of the Nameless and their rituals of inflicting pain on themselves, he also has an unnaturally high tolerance for pain, not screaming or making any other negative reactions to it. Due to not being alive in a conventional sense, Wraith also has an unspecific degree of immortality and is immune to scanners as he is not identified as a life-form. The Exolon also grants Wraith the ability to absorb energy blasts and the souls of other beings.

In other media
Television
Wraith appears in Guardians of the Galaxy, voiced by Jeff Bennett. This version's father was killed after he chose to have himself and a weapon he had created be destroyed by a black hole rather than be used by Ronan the Accuser. Ever since, Zak-Del blamed Gamora for what happened, as she had brought his father to Ronan, and swore revenge.

Video games
 Wraith appears in Marvel: Avengers Alliance 2.
 Wraith appears as a Toy Box townsperson in Disney Infinity 2.0 and Disney Infinity 3.0. Wraith appears in Minecraft as a DLC skin in the Guardians of the Galaxy Skin Pack.
Although he does not physically appear in Marvel's Guardians of the Galaxy'', a profile of Wraith can be accessed in the Nova Corps' database.

Collected editions

References

External links
 Wraith (Zak-Del) at Marvel Wiki

Comics characters introduced in 2007
Fictional whip users
Marvel Comics aliens
Marvel Comics extraterrestrial superheroes
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Kree
Marvel Comics male superheroes

Wraith (Zak-Del)


St John the Baptist with Four Saints or St John the Baptist Among Other Saints is a 1515 oil on canvas painting by Andrea Previtali, displayed in the first side-chapel on the north side of the nave of the church of Santo Spirito in Bergamo, the artist's birthplace. It was the artist's first public commission after his return to Bergamo from Venice.

The work shows (left to right) Nicholas of Bari (referring to the commissioners' generosity), Saint Bartholomew (an apostle of Jesus, and in reference to Bartolomeo Casotti de Mazzoleni, one of the work's commissioners along with his brother Giacomo), John the Baptist (patron of the Lateran Canons who had recently taken over the running of Santo Spirito), Blessed Giacomo da Bergamo (to whom the Lateran Canons had a particular devotion) and Saint Joseph (a patron saint of the city).

References

Bibliography

1515 paintings
Paintings in Bergamo
Paintings by Andrea Previtali
Paintings of Saint Nicholas
Paintings depicting John the Baptist
Paintings of Saint Joseph
Paintings of Bartholomew the Apostle

St John the Baptist with Four Saints


John Rackham (26 December 168218 November 1720), commonly known as Calico Jack, was an English pirate captain operating in the Bahamas and in Cuba during the early 18th century. His nickname was derived from the calico clothing that he wore, while Jack is a nickname for "John".

Rackham was active towards the end (1718–1720) of the "Golden Age of Piracy". He is most remembered for having two female crew members: Mary Read and his lover, Anne Bonny.

Rackham deposed Charles Vane from his position as captain of the sloop Ranger, then cruised the Leeward Islands, Jamaica Channel and Windward Passage. He accepted the King's Pardon in 1719 and moved to New Providence, where he met Anne Bonny, who was married to James Bonny at the time. He returned to piracy in 1720 by stealing a British sloop and Anne joined him. Their new crew included Mary Read, who was disguised as a man at the time. After a short run, Rackham was captured by Jonathan Barnet, an English privateer, in 1720, put on trial by Sir Nicholas Lawes, Governor of Jamaica, and hanged in November of that year in Port Royal, Jamaica.

Early life and career
Little is known of Rackham's upbringing or early life, except that he was English and born around 1682. The first record of him is as quartermaster on Charles Vane's brigantine Ranger in 1718, operating out of New Providence island in the Bahamas, which was a notorious base for pirates known as the "Pirates' republic". Vane and his crew robbed several ships outside New York City, then encountered a large French man-of-war. The ship was at least twice as large as Vane's brigantine, and it immediately pursued them. Vane commanded a retreat from battle, claiming caution as his reason. Jack Rackham quickly spoke up and contested the decision, suggesting that they fight the man-of-war because it would have plenty of riches. In addition, he argued, if they captured the ship, it would place a much larger ship at their disposal. Of the approximately ninety-one men on the ship, only fifteen supported Vane in his decision. Vane declared that the captain's decision is considered final and despite the overwhelming support for Rackham's cry to fight they fled the man-of-war.
On 24 November 1718, Rackham called a vote in which the men branded Vane a coward and removed him from the captaincy, making Calico Jack the next captain. Rackham gave Vane and his fifteen supporters the other ship in the fleet, along with a decent supply of ammunition and goods.

Captain Rackham
Rackham made a career of plundering small vessels close to shore once he became captain. He and his crew captured the Kingston, a small Jamaican vessel, and made it their flagship. They made several conquests in the West Indies, taking a couple of large ships off Bermuda.

In 1719, Rackham sailed into Nassau in the Bahamas, taking advantage of a general amnesty for pirates to obtain a royal pardon and commission from Governor Woodes Rogers. Rogers had been sent to the Bahamas to address the problem of pirates in the Caribbean who had started to attack and steal from British ships.

In December, he captured the merchant ship Kingston. The Kingston had a rich cargo, and promised to be a big score for Rackham and his crew. Unfortunately for him, the Kingston had been taken within sight of Port Royal, where outraged merchants outfitted bounty hunters to go after him. They caught up with him in February 1719, while his ship and the Kingston were anchored at Isla de los Pinos off Cuba. Rackham and most of his men were on shore at the time, escaping capture by hiding in the woods, but their ship and rich trophy were taken away.

Captain Charles Johnson describes how Rackham stole a sloop in his seminal 1724 book A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the most notorious Pyrates. Rackham and his men were at a town in Cuba refitting their small sloop when a Spanish warship charged with patrolling the Cuban coast entered the harbour, along with a small English sloop which they had captured. The Spanish warship saw the pirates but could not get at them at low tide, so they anchored in the harbour entrance to wait for morning. That night, Rackham and his men rowed over to the captured English sloop and overpowered the Spanish guards there. As dawn broke, the warship began blasting Rackham's old ship, now empty, as Rackham and his men silently sailed past in their new prize.

Rackham and his men made their way back to Nassau, where they appeared before Governor Rogers and asked for the royal pardon, claiming that Vane had forced them to become pirates. Rogers hated Vane and chose to believe them, granting them the pardon and allowing them to stay. Their time as honest men, however, did not last long.

Anne Bonny
While in port, Rackham began an affair with Anne Bonny, wife of sailor James Bonny, who was employed by Governor Rogers. James Bonny learned about the relationship and brought Anne to Governor Rogers, who ordered her whipped on charges of adultery. Rackham offered to buy Anne in a "divorce by purchase", because he liked her, but her husband sternly refused. This caused Anne to flee Nassau and run away with Rackham. The pair (with a new crew) escaped to sea together, voiding Rackham's pardon, by stealing a sloop belonging to John Ham. They sailed the Caribbean for two months, taking over other pirate ships. Rackham would often invite the crew of ships that he attacked to join his own. Anne became pregnant and went home to Cuba to have the child.

Capture, trial and death

In September 1720, Bahamian Governor Woodes Rogers issued a proclamation declaring Rackham and his crew pirates—although it was not published until October 1720.  After publication of the warrant, pirate hunter Jonathan Barnet and former pirate Jean Bonadvis started in pursuit of Rackham, who was cruising near Jamaica capturing numerous small fishing vessels and terrorizing fishermen along the northern Jamaican coastline.

Rackham and his crew had been sailing west, towards Negril. On or around October 31, 1720 Rackham's sloop was laid at anchor and fired a gun which caught the attention of Jean Bonadvis' sloop. Bonadvis reported this to Barnet who sailed to investigate the sloop. At 10 PM Barnet called out to the sloop and inquired who they were. The reply was "John Rackham from Cuba" and Barnet immediately ordered him to strike his colors. Someone (Barnet testified that because of it being so dark he could not identify who) replied that they would not surrender and fired a swivel gun at Barnet's sloop. Barnet ordered a broadside which destroyed the boom on Rackham's ship and his crew called for quarter.

Barnet had the men put ashore at Davis's Cove near Lucea, Jamaica, where Major Richard James, a militia officer, placed them under arrest. Rackham and his crew were brought to Spanish Town, Jamaica, in November 1720, where they were tried and convicted of piracy and sentenced to be hanged.

Rackham was executed in Port Royal on 18 November 1720, his body then gibbeted on display on a very small islet at a main entrance to Port Royal now known as Rackham's Cay.

Fate of his crew
Anne Bonny and Mary Read both claimed to be pregnant at their trials, ten days after Rackham's execution, and so were given a temporary stay, and imprisoned at Fort Charles until the claim was proven. Read died in her cell in April 1721, most likely of fever related to childbirth. There is no historical record of Bonny's release or of her execution.

George Fetherston (Master), Richard Corner (Quarter-Master), John Davis, and John Howell were executed along with Jack Rackham in Port Royal. Patrick Carty, Thomas Earl, James Dobbin and Noah Harwood were executed the next day in Kingston.

The day after Rackham's trial, former crew members John "Old Dad the Cooper" Fenwick (alias "Fenis") and Thomas Bourn (alias Brown) were separately tried and convicted for mutinies committed in mid-June 1720 off Hispaniola.

Nine men who had been caught drinking with Rackham's crew (John Eaton, Edward Warner, Thomas Baker, Thomas Quick, John Cole, Benjamin Palmer, Walter Rouse, John Hanson, and John Howard) were tried and convicted on 24 January 1721. On 17 February John Eaton, Thomas Quick and Thomas Baker were executed at Gallows Point, at Port Royal, and the next day John Cole, John Howard and Benjamin Palmer, were executed at Kingston. The fate of the remaining three (Edward Warner, Walter Rouse and John Hanson) is unknown.

Jolly Roger flag

The flag commonly associated with Rackham depicts a white skull above crossed swords on a black background, and Rackham is sometimes credited with inventing or designing the Jolly Roger design. At trial, however, no witness described Rackham ever using such a flag, only noting that his sloop flew "a white pendant" (pennon). The skull-and-crossed-swords design likely dates to the early 20th century, and attaching it to Calico Jack can be traced to a 1959 book by Hans Leip.

In popular culture
 Jack Rackham is featured in the 2013 video game Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag as a side character and minor antagonist.
 Jack Rackham is one of the major characters in the 2014 Starz television series Black Sails, portrayed by Toby Schmitz.
 Jack Rackham appears with Bonny and Read in the Audible serial podcast Hell Cats, by Carina Rodney.
 Jack is one of nine historical pirates to appear as enemies in Sid Meier's Pirates!
 Jack is one of sixteen historical pirates selectable as "Pirate King" in Tropico 2: Pirate Cove
 The German heavy metal band Running Wild released a song named "Calico Jack" on their 1988 album Port Royal.
 In the Octonauts stories and television series, Kwazii's grandfather is named Calico Jack.
 The pirate Red Rackham (in the Tintin story Red Rackham's Treasure) is likely named after John Rackham.
 In the manga One Piece, the character Calico Yorki is named after Calico Jack.
 In Our Flag Means Death, Calico Jack (played by Will Arnett) shows up as an old friend and ex-lover of Blackbeard's in episode 8.

Notes

References

Further reading
 Nelson, James L. (2004) A Short Life and A Merry One. Ithaca NY: McBooks.

 The entire trial transcript is available in the book The Pirate Trial of Anne Bonny and Mary Read by Tamara J. Eastman and Constance Bond
 Johnson, Captain Charles, A General History of the Pyrates: From their first rise and settlement in the island of Providence, to the present time. London: T. Warner. First published in 1724, with the second volume published 1728, both later attributed to Daniel Defoe. Note that the General History's details of the capture of the merchant ship Neptune by Charles Vane in September 1718 conflict with the court records of both Charles Vane and Robert Deal, his quartermaster.
 The Tryals of Captain John Rackam and Other Pirates, 1721, by Robert Baldwin, in The Colonial Office Records in The Public Records Office at Kew, (ref: CO 137/14f.9). This details the trials of Jack Rackam, Mary Read, Anne Bonny, and Charles Vane.

1682 births
1720 deaths
17th-century English people
18th-century English people
18th-century pirates
British pirates
English folklore
Pardoned pirates
Quartermasters
Executed English people
People executed for piracy
People executed by the Kingdom of Great Britain
People executed by the Colony of Jamaica by hanging
Burials at sea
Nicknames in crime

Calico Jack


S v Combrink is an important case in South African law, heard in the Supreme Court of Appeal by Brand JA, Ponnan JA and Shongwe JA on May 25, 2011, with judgment handed down on June 23. BC Bredenkamp SC appeared for the appellant, and JJ Kotze for the State. Its significance lies primarily in the area of punishment and sentencing.

Facts
The appellant, a farmer, had fired two shots at an unidentified person walking across farmland, who had not responded to his calls. The second shot struck and killed that person. The farmer was convicted of murder by a single judge in the circuit court of the North Gauteng High Court and sentenced to fifteen years' imprisonment, five of which were suspended on the usual conditions. An appeal to the full bench of that court was dismissed in respect of the conviction but upheld in respect of sentence, the court substituting the trial court's sentence with one of ten years' imprisonment.

Judgement
In an appeal to the Supreme Court of Appeal, it was held that, accepting the evidence of the witness, the appellant (who was a very good marksman) must subjectively have foreseen, when he aimed the second shot at the same place as the first, the possibility that the bullet could ricochet after striking a stone or some other object and in the process strike the deceased. Regardless of that foreseeable possibility, he went on to shoot. He was therefore guilty of murder, the intention being dolus eventualis.

The court held that, given the public incense with sentences which appeared to favour a particular group in society, courts had to be conscious and sensitive to cases which appeared to have racial or discriminatory connotations, especially when dealing with the question of sentence. Public interest was one of the essential considerations in determining an appropriate sentence. The public interest against discrimination was not necessarily in discrimination between black and white but rather between people in general, who perceive others, with prejudice, to be different or inferior to them. It was this perception that the judiciary should address. The effect of hate crimes went far beyond the victims and served to traumatise whole communities and damaged South African society. Without the decision makers in the criminal justice system being attuned to these issues, it would not be possible properly to combat hate crimes.

See also
 Dolus eventualis
 Intention (criminal law)
 Mens rea
 Sentence (law)
 South African criminal law
 South African law

References
 S v Combrink 2012 (1) SACR 93 (SCA).

Notes

Supreme Court of Appeal of South Africa cases
2011 in South African law
2011 in case law
South African criminal case law

S v Combrink