Godwin is an English-language surname with Anglo-Saxon origins. It means God's friend and is thus equivalent to Theophilus, Jedediah, Amadeus and Reuel.
However, the word "Godwin" can also mean "helper of mankind"

Surname or only known name

House of Godwin

 Ancestry of the Godwins
 Godwin, Earl of Wessex (died 1053), earl in England under the Danish king Cnut the Great
 Harold Godwinson
 Edmund, son of Harold Godwinson
 Godwin, son of Harold Godwinson
 Harold, son of Harold Godwinson
 Magnus, son of Harold Godwinson
 Ulf, son of Harold Godwinson
 Gyrth Godwinson
 Sweyn Godwinson
 Tostig Godwinson
 Leofwine Godwinson
 Wulfnoth Godwinson

Politics and governance
 Abraham Godwin (1763–1835), New Jersey General Assembly 1802–1806, Elector for Andrew Jackson 1828
 Abraham Godwin Jr. (1791–1849), New Jersey General Assembly 1821–1832, took vote to D.C. for Presidential Election 1840
 Hannibal Lafayette Godwin (1873–1929), North Carolina Congressman
 Mary Wollstonecraft, later Mary Godwin (1759–1797), English author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
 Mills E. Godwin Jr. (1914–1999), Governor of Virginia
 Richard Godwin (1922–2005), First Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics
 William Godwin (1756–1836), English political philosopher

Religion
 Godwin of Stavelot, English saint
 Francis Godwin (1562–1633), English bishop and historian
Godwin (bishop), bishop of Lichfield  – 1017
 Jeff Godwin, American fundamentalist, former rock musician
 Thomas Godwin (bishop) (1517–1590), bishop of Bath and Wells

Arts and entertainment
 Catherine Grace Godwin (1798–1845), Scottish poet
 Edward William Godwin (1833–1886), English architect
 Elizabeth Ayton Godwin (1817–1889), English hymnwriter, religious poet
 Fay Godwin (1931–2005), British photographer
 Frank Godwin (1889–1959), American illustrator, creator of Connie comic strip
 Frank Godwin (film producer) (1917–2012), English film producer
 Gail Godwin (born 1937), American novelist and short story writer
 George Stanley Godwin (1889–1974), English author
 Jeff Godwin, American fundamentalist, former rock musician
 Joscelyn Godwin (born 1945), English musicologist and translator
 Mary Godwin (artist) (1887–1960), British artist
 Mary Shelley (née Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin; 1797–1851), English author of Frankenstein
 Parke Godwin (1929–2013), American writer
 Parke Godwin (journalist) (1816–1904), American journalist
 Paul Godwin (1902–1982), Polish violinist and bandleader
 Peter Godwin (born 1957), Zimbabwean author and journalist
 Peter Godwin (singer), English new wave musician
 Robert Godwin (born 1958), British author
 Ted Godwin (1933–2013), Canadian artist
 Tom Godwin (1915–1980), American science fiction author

Science
 George Godwin (1813–1888), British architect, town planner and journalist
 Harry Godwin (1901–1985), English botanist
 Henry Haversham Godwin-Austen (1834–1923), English geologist and ornithologist
 Linda M. Godwin (born 1952), American astronaut
 Robert Alfred Cloynes Godwin-Austen (1808–1884), English geologist

Sport
 Billy Godwin (born 1964), American college baseball coach
 Chris Godwin (born 1996), American football player
 John Godwin (baseball) (1877–1956), American baseball player
 Neville Godwin (born 1975), South African tennis player
 Terry Godwin (born 1996), American football player
 Tommy Godwin (footballer) (1927–1996), Irish footballer
 Tommy Godwin (cyclist, born 1912) (1912–1975), English cyclist and world record holder for miles covered in a year
 Tommy Godwin (cyclist, born 1920) (1920–2012), British track cyclist active during the 1940s and 1950s
 Verdi Godwin (1926–2013), English footballer
 Wayne Godwin (born 1982), English rugby player

Military
 Captain Abraham Godwin (1724–1777), Captain of Marines on the USS Lady Washington in the American Revolutionary War
 Bill Godwin, Rhodesian brigadier
 Elizabeth Godwin, British army captain and first female officer of The Life Guards
 James Godwin, American admiral
 James Gowing Godwin (1923–1995), New Zealand military aviator
 John Godwin (Royal Navy officer) (1919–1945), British Naval Reserve officer during World War II

Other people
 Becky Godwin (1954–1968), daughter of Virginia Governor Godwin, killed by lightning
 Glen Stewart Godwin (born 1958), American murderer, former FBI Ten Most Wanted fugitive
 Mike Godwin (born 1956), American lawyer, created Godwin's law of Internet discussions (mentioning Hitler)

Given name
 Godwin Emefiele, Nigerian banker
 Godwin Igwebuike (born 1994), American football player
 Godwin Olofua, Nigerian badminton player
 Godwin Samararatne, Sri Lankan teacher

Fictional characters
 Neil Godwin, from The Office

Places
 Godwin, North Carolina
 Godwin-Austen Glacier

Other uses
 General Godwin, convict ship
 "Godwin" (Korede Bello song), a song by Nigerian artiste Korede Bello
 Godwin's law on comparison with Nazis, named after American lawyer Mike Godwin
 Mills E. Godwin High School

See also
 House of Godwin, Anglo-Saxon family
 Goodwin (disambiguation)
 List of Old English (Anglo-Saxon) surnames

English-language surnames

Godwin


Military step or march is a regular, ordered and synchronized walking of military formations.

History

The steady, regular marching step was a marked feature of Roman legions. Vegetius, the author of the only surviving treatise on the Roman Empire's military, De Re Militari, recognized the importance of:

constant practice of marching quick and together. Nor is anything of more consequence either on the march or in the line than that they should keep their ranks with the greatest exactness. For troops who march in an irregular and disorderly manner are always in great danger of being defeated. They should march with the common military step twenty miles in five summer-hours, and with the full step, which is quicker, twenty-four miles in the same number of hours. If they exceed this pace, they no longer march but run, and no certain rate can be assigned.

Military marching of foot formations into a battle was a common practice in most European countries for centuries, and was even carried over into the new world as recently as the American War of Independence. Since then, it has been phased out by advances in military equipment and tactics; however, foot drill remains an important part of military education and training.

Marching types  and commands

The following commands specify different types of marching:

 Quick March: This is an instruction to begin marching at the Quick March speed with the left foot. The standard pace is 116 beats per minute with a  step, with variations for individual regiments, the pace given by the commander, and the speed of the band's rhythm: British light infantry and rifle regiments, for example, Quick March at 140 beats per minute, a legacy of their original role as highly mobile skirmishers. Highland regiments, which march to bagpipe music, march at 112 paces per minute when with pipe bands solely, while on 120 when with military bands.
 Australian Army Quick Time is 116 paces per minute with a  pace
 Canadian Armed Forces Quick March is 120 paces per minute with a 75 cm pace
 United States Quick Time is 120 paces per minute

The way the march is performed is based on the regiment's nationality. All Western Bloc nations nowadays have a similar style of quick marching, lifting their legs in a natural or casual manner. And with their opposite arm up level to the breast pocket, kept straight and used similar to a guided pendulum. Former Eastern Bloc nations and several Latin American, Asian and African nations use or have used the Prussian/German invented goose step, with legs remaining straight during each step. Both of these function to maintain individual pace, unit pace uniformity, and actually help the soldiers march in their relatively elevated pace.

The United States command for a start is "For-ward, MARCH," or "quicktime, MARCH" when resuming quicktime from another pace or from "routestep". Arm movement is kept to 9 inches to the front and 6 inches to the rear (6 inches and 3 inches, respectively, in the U.S. Navy, Coast Guard, Marine Corps, and Air Force) while marching, while the interval between ranks and files is both 40 inches. The light infantry version of the march is also used by the Spanish Legion during parades, as well as the Chasseurs of the French Army (Chasseurs alpins inclusive).

 Slow March: This is a ceremonial pace, used for funeral marches and when a unit's colours are marched out in front of the troops.  The feet are kept parallel to the ground and the arms are never used. In the United States Army and Marine Corps, arms swing as the distance they normally would in quicktime, but at the same pace as marching.  U.S. Marine Color Guards do not swing their arms.  Slow March is typically used in the Marine Corps for funeral details and ceremonies such as the Marine Corps Ball (when the cake is escorted out).  In Spain, Latin America, and the Philippines this is done during religious processions whenever a military band joins it. This march style is the official parade march in the armed forces of Bolivia and Ecuador and the military academies and schools of Venezuela, done with the goose step during parades and ceremonies. It is the iconic march step used in the French Foreign Legion. The standard pace is 60 paces per minute (88 for the FFL).
 Australian Army Slow Time is 70 paces per minute with a 75cm pace.
 Half Step March or Cut the pace: This is a U.S. march pace. It is at the same tempo as Quick Time, but instead of 30 inches, the step is 15 inches.
 Double March: This is essentially a moderate jog at approximately 180 36 inch paces per minute. It creates a travel speed of approximately double that of Quick Time, designed to be used even when carrying heavy burdens. This is often erroneously used to describe a sprint or an ordinary run. The U.S. command is "Double Time, MARCH." This is also used by the elite airborne units and special forces of the National Armed Forces of Venezuela as well as in the Armed Forces of Bolivia, soldiers of the Italian Army's Bersaglieri, and historically, Iraqi special forces units and the current Iraqi Special Operations Forces during parades and ceremonies.
 Easy March: This is an unrestricted march at approximately Quick Time. This is designed for field marches and other rough conditions, though is not used in combat areas. The U.S. command is "Route-step, MARCH."
 Mark Time: The military mark time is essentially a stationary march with the knees coming up parallel to the ground or the foot dangling six inches off the ground. The time of what they were previously marching is kept or Quick March is used if no time is supplied. This is designed to maintain the time of large parades when portions need no forward speed, but is also used as a common punishment for physical training because of its tiring nature. United States service members move the knees upward approximately 6 inches.
 Step For -Ward or Forward or Forward, March: This causes troops marking time to resume a normal march. If it is implicitly used (as when the marking time is used to align formations or to wait for the former rank to pass when entering "Column of Route" from a depth-style formation) the (typically) Right Marker stomps his foot to signal it to the rest of the troops.

See also

 Military parade
 Marching
 Marching band
 Lockstep
 Drill commands

References

External links

 Canadian Forces Manual for Drill and Ceremonial, also PO 401 DRILL
 US Marine Corps Drill & Ceremonies Manual
 A foot drill manual of an English boot squad

Military marching
Military education and training
Walking
Military traditions

Military step


Especially in the United States, the term spree killer is used for someone who commit several murders, usually in a short period of time. Very often, the killings are done in different locations. There is disagreement about what 'short time' means: The US Bureau of Justice Statistics speaks about ""almost no time break between murders". Some academics say that there may be weeks or months between the murders. As an example, Andrew Cunanan killed five people over a period of three months. He is considered to be a spree killer.

Crime

Spree killer


A haplotype is a term in genetics. It is short for haploid genotype. A haplotype is a collection of specific alleles (particular DNA sequences) in a cluster of tightly-linked genes on a chromosome. A cluster is usually inherited together. Put simply, haplotype is a closely-knit group of genes which a child inherits from one parent.

A second meaning of the term haplotype is a set of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) usually found together on a single chromatid (of a chromosome pair). So, finding a few alleles of a haplotype sequence identifies all other sites in its region. Such information is very valuable for investigating the genetics of common diseases.

Comparing haplotypes of two or more people shows the degree of genetic relationship between their respective lines. It is done in genetic genealogy projects.

References

Genetics

Haplotype


Margaret Gilbert (born 1942) is a British philosopher best known for her founding contributions to the analytic philosophy of social phenomena. She has also made substantial contributions to other philosophical fields including political philosophy, the philosophy of law, and ethics. She is currently a Distinguished Professor and the Abraham I. Melden Chair in Moral Philosophy at the University of California, Irvine.

Life
Gilbert was born in the United Kingdom,  the second and youngest child of Peter Gilbert, a north London jeweler, and his wife Miriam. The original family name Goldberg was Anglicised to Gilbert. All four of her grandparents had been born in the Pale of Settlement in Tsarist Russia (today's Poland and Lithuania).

She obtained a "double first" B.A. degree in Classics and Philosophy from Cambridge University and a B.Phil. and D.Phil. degree in Philosophy from Oxford University. From 1983 until 2006, she taught at the University of Connecticut, Storrs, where she was Professor of Philosophy, and is now Professor Emerita. As of Fall 2006, she holds the Abraham I. Melden Chair in Moral Philosophy at the University of California, Irvine. She has been a visiting teacher and researcher at many academic institutions including Princeton University, the Institute for Advanced Study, the University of Pennsylvania, Indiana University, Wolfson College, Oxford, Technische Universität Dresden, King's College London, and the Swedish Collegium for Advanced Study in the Social Sciences, and regularly gives invited lectures in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere. Gilbert was married to noted philosopher Saul Kripke and is the sister of famed British historian Sir Martin Gilbert.  In 2016, Margaret Gilbert was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2019 she was awarded the Lebowitz Prize for Philosophical Achievement and Contribution by Phi Beta Kappa in conjunction with the American Philosophical Association.

Works
In her book On Social Facts (1989) Gilbert presented novel accounts of a number of central social phenomena in the context of critical reflections on proposals by the founders of sociology Émile Durkheim, Georg Simmel, and Max Weber and others, including the philosopher David Lewis. The phenomena discussed include social conventions, social groups in a central sense of the term, group languages, collective belief, and acting together. Gilbert argued that these were all 'plural subject phenomena'. In a summary passage she writes, with allusion to Rousseau, that "One is willing to be the member of a plural subject if one is willing, at least in relation to certain conditions, to put one's own will into a 'pool of wills' dedicated, as one, to a single goal (or whatever it is that the pool is dedicated to)". If two or more people have openly expressed such willingness in relation to a particular goal, in conditions of common knowledge, then the pertinent pool of wills is set up. In other words, the people concerned constitute the plural subject of the goal. As an alternative to talking of a pool of wills Gilbert refers also to joint commitment as when she writes: "the wills of the parties are jointly committed" (198). In later work she has preferred the language of joint commitment. Gilbert compares the plural subject to the singular subject and argues, with allusion to Durkheim, that "In order for individual human beings to form collectivities, they must take on a special character, a 'new' character, insofar as they need not, qua human beings, have that character. Moreover, humans must form a whole or unit of a special kind...a plural subject".

In subsequent writings Gilbert has continued the development and application of her plural subject theory. Each of the essay collections Living Together (1996), Sociality and Responsibility (2000) and Marcher Ensemble (in French) (2003) is composed of relevant papers authored by Gilbert.

In her book A Theory of Political Obligation (2006; 2008) Gilbert offers a new perspective on a classical problem in political philosophy, generally known as 'the' problem of political obligation. As Gilbert makes clear in her book, there are many versions of this problem. She addresses the question whether there is something about one's being the member of a particular society that means one is obligated to uphold the political institutions of that society. Unlike most contemporary writers on the subject, she does not insist that the obligation in question is a matter of moral requirement. Gilbert argues that there are obligations of a different sort, and that these that are a function of membership in a political society construed as membership in a particular kind of plural subject constituted, as are all plural subjects, by a joint commitment.

Other topics Gilbert has addressed in one or more of her publications include agreements and promises, authority, collective emotions, collective responsibility, personal decisions and intentions, marital love, mutual recognition, patriotism, rights (in particular claim-rights), shared attention, shared values, social rules, and social unity.

Gilbert's essay collection Joint Commitment (2014) contains eighteen recent papers that together address most of the topics in the above list along with several others that Gilbert argues can be illuminated by an appeal to joint commitment.

Gilbert's book Rights and Demands (2018) is the first extended treatment of demand-rights, a class of rights that, she argues, are apt to be considered rights par excellence. To have a demand-right is to have the standing to demand an action of someone. That person is, correspondingly, obligated to the right-holder to perform the act in question. Seeking to answer the question "How are demand rights possible?" Gilbert argues for two main theses. First, joint commitment is a ground of demand-rights. Second, joint commitment may well be their only ground. In this connection Gilbert asks whether there are demand-rights whose existence can be demonstrated by moral argument without invoking a joint commitment, and finds wanting existing arguments to the effect that there are. She also argues against the possibility of accruing demand-rights through the existence of a given legal system or other institution without the involvement of a joint commitment. The final chapter of the book applies its findings to the topic of human rights.

In the course of Rights and Demands Gilbert engages with the work of central figures in contemporary rights theory such as H. L. A. Hart, Joseph Raz and Judith Thomson, and with prominent human rights theorists such as Charles Beitz and Alan Buchanan. She argues that promises and agreements - both commonly understood to ground demand-rights - are constituted by joint commitments, rejecting promise theorists' standard assumption that the obligations most closely associated with promises are a matter of moral requirement.

Gilbert's work has influenced a number of theorists outside philosophy including that of developmental psychologist Michael Tomasello.

Selected publications

Books
On Social Facts, London, New York: Routledge, (1989, Reprinted 1992)
Living Together: Rationality, Sociality, and Obligation, Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, MD. (1996)
Sociality and Responsibility: New Essays in Plural Subject Theory, Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, MD. (2000)
Marcher ensemble: Essais sur les fondements des phénomènes collectifs, Presses universitaires de France: Paris, France, (2003)
A Theory of Political Obligation: Membership, Commitment, and the Bonds of Society, Oxford University Press: Oxford (2006)(2008)
Joint Commitment: How We Make the Social World, Oxford University Press: New York (2014).
Il Noi Collettivo: Impegno Congiunto e Mondo Sociale, Raffaelo Cortina: Milano (2015).
Rights and Demands: A Foundational Inquiry, Oxford University Press: Oxford (2018).

See also
 Collective intentionality

References

External links
 http://www.faculty.uci.edu/profile.cfm?faculty_id=5365

1942 births
Living people
20th-century British  philosophers
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Academics of King's College London
Analytic philosophers
British ethicists
British women philosophers
Fellows of Wolfson College, Oxford
Philosophers of law
Philosophers of social science
Political philosophers
Women political writers
20th-century British women writers
Women legal scholars

Margaret Gilbert


The Data Discman is an device that plays electronic books. It was made by Sony Corporation, which was the parent company of Sony Pictures Entertainment. It came out in the Western market in late 1991 or early 1992. It was marketed in the United States to college students and international travelers, but was only successful in Japan. The Discman product name was first used for Sony's range of portable CD players, such as the Sony Discman D-50, which first came out in 1984.

The Data Discman allows information to be accessed quickly on a pre-recorded disc. This is done using a QWERTY keyboard and the "Yes" and "No" keys.

Most Data Discman models have a small low-resolution grayscale LCD (256x200 at first, then up to 320x240 and in colour for later models), a CD drive (either Mini CD or full size), and a computer that is not very powerful. Early versions of the device cannot play audio CDs. Software is pre-recorded and mostly is encyclopedias, foreign language dictionaries and novels. Software was usually made using the Sony Electronic Book Authoring System (SEBAS).

A DD-1EX Data Discman is in the permanent collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is displayed in the V&A's 20th Century Gallery. This early model cannot play sound.

An updated model, the DD-10EX, came out in 1992 or 1993. The manual that comes with it gives a copyright date of 1992. Unlike the DD-1EX, the DD-10EX can also play audio files. The British version comes with two discs: one with the Thomson Electronic Directory for April 1992 on it, and one with the Pocket Interpreter 5-language conversation book for travelers on it. A DD-10EX was in an exhibition called The Book and Beyond: Electronic Publishing and the Art of the Book, which was held at the Victoria and Albert Museum, which is in London, from April 1995 to October 1995. The exhibition also included a CD-ROM for the Data Discman, which is called The Library of the Future, and came out in 1993.

The DD-1EX and DD-10EX were both in a flip or clamshell design, while the flat, rectangular design of the DD-8 was closer to later e-book readers, such as the Amazon Kindle.

References

Other websites
 Techmoan: e-books in the '90s with Sony's Data Discman, YouTube, published on 5 July 2018

E-books

Data Discman


The Acropolis of Athens is  the most famous acropolis. It is a large hill in the center of Athens, on which the Parthenon and other Greek buildings were built. It is often known as The Acropolis.
 The Acropolis is a group of ancient temples that were built on a high, rocky hill in Athens, Greece. The word acropolis even means 'high city' in Greek. Other cities have an acropolis, too, but the one in Athens is the most well-known.

 The Acropolis of Athens is the most striking and complete ancient Greek monumental complex still existing in our times. It is situated on a hill of average height (156m) that rises in the basin of Athens. Its overall dimensions are approximately 170 by 350m.
 The buildings were a citadel where people could escape to if the city was attacked. The Acropolis was mostly destroyed by 580 B.C. The people of Athens weren't going to rebuild it. However, a hundred years later, Themistocles and Pericles persuaded them to build it again.
 Over the centuries, the Acropolis was many things: a home to kings, a citadel, a mythical home of the gods, a religious center and a tourist attraction. It has withstood bombardment, massive earthquakes and vandalism yet still stands as a reminder of the rich history of Greece.

Buildings and structures in Ancient Athens
1st millennium BC buildings and structures

Acropolis of Athens


Begampur () is a village in Phillaur tehsil in Jalandhar district of Punjab State, India. It is located 9.7 km away from Phagwara, 35 km from Phillaur, 30 km from district headquarter Jalandhar and 126 km from state capital Chandigarh. The village is administrated by a sarpanch who is an elected representative of village as per Panchayati raj (India).

Demography
As of 2011, Begampur has a total number of 192 houses and population of 849 of which 443 are males while 403 are females according to the report published by Census India in 2011. Literacy rate of Begampur is 76.35%, higher than state average of 75.84%. The population of children under the age of 6 years is 71 which is 8.36% of total population of Begampur, and child sex ratio is approximately 972 as compared to Punjab state average of 846.

Most of the people are from Schedule Caste which constitutes 70.79% of total population in Begampur. The town does not have any Schedule Tribe population so far.

Per census 2011, 265 people were engaged in work activities out of the total population of Begampur which includes 245 males and 20 females. According to census survey report 2011, 84.53% workers describe their work as main work and 15.47% workers are involved in marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months.

Transport

Rail
Phagwara Junction train station is the nearest train station however, Bannga railway station is 23 km away from the village.

Air
The nearest domestic airport is located 63.6 km away in Ludhiana and the nearest international airport is located in Chandigarh also Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport is the second nearest airport which is 124 km away in Amritsar.

References

Villages in Jalandhar district
Villages in Phillaur tehsil

Begampur, Punjab


Rhetoric is the art of convincing and persuading people by language through public speaking or writing. The root of the word is from Greek ῥητορικὴ [τέχνη] roughly meaning 'the art of speech'.

Webster's dictionary defines it as "the art or science of using words effectively in speaking or writing, especially the art or science of literary composition."
The word "effectively" in this definition is a relative matter. What is effective in one context may be entirely different in another cultural setting. Different languages differ in their rhetorical styles – that is, in the way that they use language to accomplish various purposes. People can be trained in this skill. It is the art or the technique of persuasion, used by orators (public speakers), writers and media.

History
Its origin was in Ancient Greece of the 5th century. They made their decisions by speaking for or against proposals in a public place. Also, speeches were made when a person was accused of a serious crime before the magistrates. Because rhetoric was so important to them, the Greeks and Romans wrote about how to be a good rhetorician. This is sometimes called 'secondary rhetoric'. It is a technique which can be taught, and used in writing. An early example is Plato, who wrote his works in the form of dialogues. Each question raised is discussed between two characters. In the ancient world, the Romans, who were much influenced by the ancient Greeks, also used the same methods for decision-making. Cicero was one of their famous orators. In their case, the debates did not involve all citizens, just the Roman Senate or the courts.

In medieval universities rhetoric was taught as part of the curriculum. Rhetoric, dialectic and grammar form the trivium which, with the quadrivium, make up the seven liberal arts of Western culture. During Antiquity and the Middle Ages, rhetoric was used for persuasion in public and political arenas, and also in the courts of justice. The words 'rhetoric' or 'sophism' are often used with a negative meaning, of disinformation or propaganda. As the art of persuasion, the rhetoric continues to be important in present-day public life. They are also used to describe a speech with doubtful or slanted arguments. Several hundred rhetorical figures were recognised by classical rhetoricians. Some of these are still in use, such as metaphor, simile and paradox.

In the modern world, speeches made on television, ideas embedded in advertisements or in front of crowds are all rhetorics. They speak to people directly with the intention of persuading them. Before World War II, radio and print media were powerful tools for rhetoric. The newspapers and books persuade readers towards a particular point of view. Rhetoric does not depend only on a live audience.

Structure
According to Aristotle, a rhetoric has three elements in persuasion:
Ethos: depends on the personal character of the speaker (must appear good, worthy of trust).
Pathos: puts the audience in a fit state of mind (stirs their emotions).
Logos: proof, or apparent proof, provided by the words of the speech (the actual argument).

Contrastive rhetoric
A 1988 study was conducted by Söter in Australia among students who were native speakers of Arabic, Vietnamese and English. The sample, 6th and 11th grade students were asked to write a bedtime story for a young child. Patterns were immediately evident in the different approaches used by the student's in the story writing task.

The Vietnamese stories placed primary focus on characters and the relationships between them (manifested in a great proportion of dialog). English stories placed primary focus on the sequential forward movement of the plot. Arabic stories placed primary focus on descriptive elements of the setting.

Contrastive rhetorics says that people who share a common language might have different rhetoric styles due the influence of culture and exchanges. The discourse goes beyond the target language's native forms of discourse organization or rhetoric.

A paraphrasing task study was done in the USA among Chinese and Russian students. American students were easily able to paraphrase, but Chinese students found it hard, perhaps due to their academic environment influenced by Confucian traditions. Russian students struggled with the paraphrasing because norm in Russian academic environment was that students are only required to read and describe, and was not required to give a personal interpretation or an opinion.

U.S. rhetorical style: ethnocentric sources describe it as typically direct and relatively logical.

Quotes
Some very witty things have been said against orators and their rhetoric:
 Plato: "The orator is one who intends to mislead another, without being misled himself".
 Kant: "Oratory is the art of playing for one's own purpose upon the weaknesses of men, and merits no respect whatever".

Related pages
Public speaking

References

Hayakawa S.I. Language in thought and action. London: Allen & Unwin.

Other websites
 Robert A. Harris. A Handbook of Rhetorical Devices. Virtualsalt, 2013.
  The Forest of Rhetoric -  silva rhetoricae, Brigham Young University.

Literature
Public speaking
Performing arts

Rhetoric


Muzzle flash is the light — both visible and infrared — created by a muzzle blast, which is caused by the sudden release and expansion of high-temperature, high-pressure gases from the muzzle of a firearm during shooting.  Both the blast and flash are products of the exothermic combustion of the propellant (gunpowder), and any remaining unburned powders reacting with ambient air.  The size and shape of the muzzle flash is dependent on the combustion energy of propellant being used, the amount of combustible ejecta remaining, and any devices attached to the muzzle (such as a flash hider, suppressor or muzzle shroud).

Characteristics

Muzzle flash can be broken down into five distinct components.

The muzzle glow is a reddish glow that is visible before the bullet leaves the barrel.  It glow is created by superheated gases that have leaked past the projectile and have exited the barrel ahead of it.
The primary flash is caused by superheated propellant gases exiting the firearm behind the projectile, which radiates its energy to the surroundings partly as visible light.  Although amongst the brightest of the flashes, the heat of the primary flash dissipates very quickly, and thus is usually not distinctly noticeable.
The intermediate flash is caused by shock waves created by the high speeds of the escaping gases and projectile, and appears as a reddish disc-shaped in front of the muzzle.
The secondary flash appears farthest from the muzzle as a large white or yellow fireball, and is caused by a newly ignited oxidation of incompletely combusted ejecta when mixed with abundant oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere.
Following the dissipation of the muzzle flash, partially unburnt powder or other heated materials (e.g. dislodged lead, copper and/or carbon foulings) can be further ejected from the muzzle and appear as airborne residual sparks.

Detection
Muzzle flashes create distinct signatures that can be located using infrared imaging technology. Technology is being developed to detect enemy muzzle flashes before the projectile reaches its target.

Suppression
Muzzle flash, particularly the longer-duration secondary flash, is an inherent problem in most firearms.  Due to its brightness, muzzle flash can temporarily blind the shooter, or give away the shooter's location, especially at night.  Ingestion of the muzzle flash from aircraft-mounted guns has also been implicated in compressor stall and flameout, causing loss of aircraft.

Flash hiders attempt to suppress the flash mechanically, by interfering with the blast wave using either a cone or a series of slots at the muzzle of the firearm.  However, since the primary cause of the secondary flash is combustion of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, chemical approaches are also used.  In World War I, bags of sodium chloride (table salt) were placed in front of the propellant charges of artillery to suppress the flash.  Addition of a few percent of alkali salts to the powder for flash suppression is common, typically salts of potassium such as potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, potassium carbonate and potassium bicarbonate.  In both cases, the salts act as catalysts, and interfere with the hydrogen-oxygen combustion to reduce the muzzle flash.  The side effects of the alkali salts are a reduction in power, an increase in smoke, and fouling and corrosion of the firearm and nearby equipment (a significant concern with aircraft guns).  Ammonium chloride and ammonium nitrate salts have also been tried with success.

Silencers, while designed to mitigate the loud sound of gunfire, can also suppress muzzle flash.  This is done by trapping and delaying the expansion of the propellant gases with containing multiple sound baffles, which slows the gases and dissipating their energy over a larger surface area before releasing them at a cooler temperature.  The enclosure of the silencer can also serve as a muzzle shroud to physically conceal any light emitted by the gases and residuals.

See also

 Muzzle blast
 Flash hider
 Suppressor
 Muzzle shroud

References

External links
High-speed photographs of shotgun muzzle blasts
Tutorial on how to add muzzle flares to a gun

Firearm terminology
Light sources
Noise

es:Bocacha apagallamas

Muzzle flash


The Catete Palace (, ) is an urban mansion in Rio de Janeiro's Flamengo neighborhood. The property stretches from Rua do Catete (Catete Street) to Praia do Flamengo (Flamengo Beach). Construction began in 1858 and ended in 1867. From 1897 to 1960, it was Brazil's presidential palace and the site of Getúlio Vargas' suicide. It now houses the Museu da República (Republic Museum) and a theatre. The Catete underground rail station is adjacent.

History

The building was built as the residence of family of the Portuguese-born Brazilian coffee producer António Clemente Pinto, Baron of Nova Friburgo, in the then capital of the Empire of Brazil. It was called the Palace of Largo Valdetaro and Palace of Nova Friburgo.

With the design of German architect Carl Friedrich Gustav Waehneldt, dated 1858, the work began with the demolition of the old house. The construction officially ended in 1866, but the finishing works still continued for over a decade.

After the death of the Baron and the Baroness, their son Antônio Clemente Pinto Filho, the Count of São Clemente, sold the property in 1889, shortly before the Proclamation of the Republic of Brazil, to an investors group, who founded the Companhia Grande Hotel Internacional (Grande Hotel Internacional Company). This development, however, did not succeed in turning the palace into a luxury hotel. Due to the economic crisis  in the late 1880s and early 1890s (The Encilhamento), the venture went bankrupt, and its titles acquired by counselor Francisco de Paula Mayrink. Five years later, Mayrink paid off debts to the Bank of Brazil.

The seat of the executive branch of Brazil was the Itamaraty Palace in Rio de Janeiro. In 1897, President Prudente de Morais became ill and Vice President Manuel Vitorino took office as interim. He acquired the Catete Palace and over there installed the seat of government. Officially, the palace was the seat of the Federal Government from 1897 until 1960, when the capital and the Federal District were transferred to Brasília.

Various historical events happened in the palace halls, such as the death of President Afonso Pena in 1909; the signing of the declaration of war against the German Empire and its allies in 1917, during World War I; the visit and hosting of Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli, the future Pope Pius XII, in 1934; the declaration of war against the Axis in World War II in 1942; the suicide of President Getúlio Vargas in 1954, with a shot in the heart, in his bedroom on the third floor of the palace; among others.

Gallery

See also
Catetinho
Palácio do Planalto
Palácio da Alvorada

Presidential palaces in Brazil
Palaces in Rio de Janeiro (city)
Museums in Rio de Janeiro (city)
Theatres in Rio de Janeiro (city)
History museums in Brazil
Government buildings completed in 1867
Houses completed in 1867
1867 establishments in Brazil
Tourist attractions in Rio de Janeiro (city)
Neoclassical architecture in Brazil
National heritage sites of Rio de Janeiro (state)

Catete Palace


Aifili Paulo Lauvao (December 24, 1919 – August 1, 2002) was an American politician. He served twice as governor of American Samoa from 1985 through 89 and again from 1993 through 1997. He was the founder of the U.S territory's Democratic Party. He had a long career in the legislature and the judiciary in American Samoa.

Lutali was born in Aunu'u Island, American Samoa. He was elected to the American Samoa House of Representatives in 1955 and served as its speaker from 1955 through 1958. Lutali died on August 1, 2002 from complications of a stroke at a hospital in Pago Pago, American Samoa, aged 82.

Other websites
 Rulers.org

1919 births
2002 deaths
Deaths from stroke
Governors of American Samoa
Democratic Party (United States) politicians

A. P. Lutali


Scandinavie is a historica an geographic region in northren Europe that includes, an is cried efter, the Scandinavie Peninsula. It conseests o the kinricks o Norawa, Swaden, an Denmark. Whiles some fowk threaps that Finland an Iceland is pairt o Scandinavie an aw but for ordinar Scandinavie juist means Denmark, Norrowey an Swaden, that aw haes sib leeds (a dialect continuum), ethnic composeetion an close cultural an historic baunds, tae some degree Scandinavie fowk micht be thocht o as the ae ilk.

Europe

Scandinavie


Martin Petrus Frederik Blomberg (December 11, 1888, in Östervåla, Sweden — March 29, 1966, in Winter Park, Florida) was an American engineer of Swedish origin.  He became well known for the development of the truck frame for the diesel-electric locomotives of the Electro Motive Division (EMD).

Early life
Blomberg grew up as a son of a teacher and minister.  He graduated from the technical institute in Örebro, and in 1910 went to the university at Uppsala.  In this time, he was very active and trained for the Olympic Games of 1912 in Sweden. However, he immigrated to Canada in the same year.  From 1912 to 1914, he worked in Trois-Rivières, Quebec in a paper mill, and studied technical drawing and mechanical construction in an evening school. From 1915, he worked then National Steel Car Ltd Hamilton, Ontario. He later traveled for a year by canoeing 900 miles from the Albany River to the Hudson Bay.

In 1916, he went to the US and enlisted with the US Army during World War I. After he returned, he married Laura Van Buskirk. His son Richard Nelson Blomberg was born on October 21, 1924.

Pullman-Standard
From 1925 to 1935, Blomberg worked for the Pullman Company, where he was responsible for the construction of railroad truck frames and passenger car bodies. Among his designs he assisted at Pullman were the Union Pacific M-10000 in 1934 (), and the Brooklyn Rapid Transit "Green Hornet", lightweight MS Multi-section car (New York City Subway car) for use on the BRT elevated transit lines in Brooklyn, New York.

Electro-Motive
On September 1, 1935, he accepted a position in the Electro-Motive Corporation (from 1941, it was renamed to Electro-Motive Division of General Motors). There Blomberg was given responsibility for the construction of locomotive bodies, frames and truck frames. The EMC E4 diesel-electric locomotive was mostly his design, including the three-axle (A1A) truck. In 1939 he designed the four-wheel flexible truck frame from the three-axle version for the new diesel-electric freight locomotive called the EMD FT.  This four-wheel truck frame and its derivations were incorporated in more than 15,000 locomotives. Unofficially, but generally accepted, the two-axle trucks, Blomberg B and Blomberg M, are named after him. The two-axle AAR Type A switcher truck is also a Blomberg design.

Blomberg registered over 100 patents with the US Patent and Trademark Office during his 32 years with EMD.  In 1947, he became lead engineer after the chief engineer of EMD.

Retirement
On 1 June 1949, he retired.  He died on March 29, 1966, at the age of 77 in Winter Park, Florida.

20th-century Swedish engineers
1888 births
1966 deaths
American railroad mechanical engineers
Swedish emigrants to the United States

Martin P. Blomberg


Stichaeidae, the pricklebacks or shannies, are a family of marine ray-finned fishes in the suborder Zoarcoidei of the order Scorpaeniformes. Most species are found in the North Pacific Ocean with a few in the North Atlantic Ocean.

Taxonomy
Stichaeidae was first proposed as a family in 1864 by the American zoologist Theodore Gill, although he called it the Stichaeoidae. The 5th edition of Fishes of the World classifies this family within the suborder Zoarcoidei, within the order Scorpaeniformes. Other authorities classify this family in the infraorder Zoarcales wihin the suborder Cottoidei of the Perciformes because removing the Scorpaeniformes from the Perciformes renders that taxon non monophyletic.

Fishes of the World mentions six subfamilies but does not assign genera to the subfamilies while other authorities split the Cebidichthyidae, Opisthocentridae, Lumpenidae and Neozoarcidae from the Sitchaeidae as valid families. The genera which are classified within the family Eulophiidae were also previously included within the Stichaeidae.

Subfamilies and genera
The family Stichaeidae is classified into subfamilies and genera as follows († means extinct):

Catalog of Fishes classifies these fishes as follows:

Etymology
The name of the family comes from that of its type genus Stichaeus, which means "set in a row", which may be an allusion to the row of black spots on the dorsal fins of the species in that genus.

Characteristics
Stichaeidae are characterised by having elongate bodies which are a little compressed. They have a very long dorsal fin which typically contains a large number of sharp spines, giving rise to the common name of prickleback, and there may be some spines at the rear of the dorsal fin. The anal fin is long and has its origin closer to the head than to the tail, or halfway between the head and tail. The pectoral fins may be very small to very large and fan shaped, containing between 2 and 21 rays. The normally present small pelvic fins are located anterior to the pectoral fins, and have a single spine and between one and four rays. There are no appendages on the head, although some species have a crest, and there is a single pair of nostrils. The body is typically covered with small, overlapping scales but the head, other than the cheeks, is normally lacking scales. The sensory canals on the head are typically well developed; there are normally 6 preopercular pores and 4 mandibular pores. There may be two lateral lines which can vary from a hardly noticeable row of neuromasts to one or more canals which can have complex branching. Their teeth are small and may be incisor-like or conical in shape. In the majority of species the gill membranes are widely joined and separate from the isthmus. Most species have a siphon on the operculum. They usually have pyloric caeca but not a swim bladder. They have ribs.

Distribution and habitat
Stichaeidae is found in the North Pacific, North Atlantic, and Arctic oceans, with the majority of species in the North Pacific. They are coastal fishes which are found beneath rocks and in algae from the intertidal zone to shallow bays. the can be found at depths greater than  on the outer continental shelf.

References

Zoarcoidei

Stichaeidae


Robynn Ragland is a singer and songwriter, based primarily in the American midwest.  Her work has appeared on soundtracks for television shows such as Dawson's Creek, MTV's The Real World, Wonderfalls, Wolf Lake, and many others.

Career

Robynn was born in Joliet, Illinois.

She attended college at California Polytechnic State University in San Luis Obispo, California. While there she was the lead singer for the band Rhythm Akimbo and recorded the album Temple Beth Skyturn in 1991.

She is best known for her single "People You Know", a song which received heavy airplay on St. Louis and Midwestern radio stations.  Robynn was voted "Best Pop Artist in St. Louis" in the "Slammy Awards", a local awards program, while self-released and self-promoted album "Modern American Female Gut" became the #1 Best Selling Album in Missouri & St. Louis on Amazon.com for a time, and the #5 top selling album of the year at prominent independent St. Louis record store, Vintage Vinyl.

Robynn also spent time in Los Angeles, where she was named "Songwriter of the Year 2004" by the 2004 DIY Music Convention.

Across the U.S., either solo or with her band, Robynn has opened for artists such as Boston, Tom Petty, Oasis, the Black Crowes, Fleetwood Mac, Aerosmith, and James Taylor.  Robynn herself has performed with artists such as The Jayhawks, Pat Benatar, Dido, Sixpence None the Richer, Juliana Hatfield, and Barenaked Ladies.

Robynn's songs were also heard in the feature films Wish You Were Dead and the Disney Channel movie Tru Confessions.

She has a law degree from Washington University in St. Louis and is currently practicing as an attorney at a small St Louis law firm. She occasionally performs in the St Louis area.

Trivia

Robynn was voted "Best Pop Artist in St. Louis" in the 2001 "Slammies"
Robynn was voted "2004 DIY Songwriter of the Year"

In 2003 Robynn performed alongside Boston's "Corporate America" Tour.
In 2004 Robynn performed alongside Fleetwood Mac's "Say You Will" Tour.

External links
 Official Website
 Robynn's MySpace page
 Facebook Robynn Ragland | Singer-Songwriter

Discography

Official Albums
 Modern American Female Gut (2003)
 Paragraph Thirteen (2000)
 105.7 The Point Platinum - Version 1.0 (2xCD, Comp) (Elizabeth Einstein 1998)
 Five of These (Five of These 1995)
 Temple Beth Skyturn (Rhythm Akimbo 1991)
 Juvenilia(Rhythm Akimbo 1990)

Sources

Living people
American women singer-songwriters
American women lawyers
California Polytechnic State University alumni
Washington University School of Law alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)
American male singer-songwriters

Robynn Ragland


Jurnal Ilmiah Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris
Language Literacy: Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Language Teaching is  a blind peer-reviewed international journal biannually published by the Faculty of Literature, Universitas Islam Sumatera Utara (UISU), Medan, Indonesia. Publication is issued in June and December. Its first issue was published in December 2017. It has been added to DOAJ since 27 June 2018, and is nationally accredited with Grade 4 (SINTA 4) by the Ministry of Research Technology and Higher Education of Republic Indonesia based on the Decree Number: 28/E/KPT/2019 dated 26 September 2019. The accreditation is valid from Volume 2 Number 1 2018 to Volume 6 Number 1 2022 (5 years). Authors are encouraged to submit complete unpublished and original works or research results, which are not under review in any other journals. Manuscripts should follow the style of the journal and are subject to both review and editing. The scopes of the journal include, but not limited to, the following areas: linguistics, literature and language teaching written in English.

This scientific journal is published by Faculty of Literature, Universitas Islam Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia located at: Jln. SM. Raja Teladan Medan, Telp. (061) 7869911.

We kindly invite authors to submit unpublished manuscripts for consideration in this scientific journal. Topics to be discussed in this journal include (but are not limited to) Linguistics, Literature and Language Teaching. Please submit your manuscript via our journal system: https://jurnal.uisu.ac.id/index.php/languageliteracy/about/submissions#onlineSubmissions Should you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact us: email@example.com.

Referece

Pranala luar
  Situs resmi Universitas Islam Sumatera Utara
  Language Literacy: Journal of Linguistics, Literature, and Languagfe Teaching

Jurnal bahasa
Scientific Journal in Linguistics, Literature, Language Teaching

JULISA


Utility Warehouse is a multiservice provider based in London, England that uses multi-level marketing to obtain customers through independent distributors. It is a brand name of its parent company, Telecom Plus. It currently handles over 949,000 customer accounts. Utility Warehouse supplies customers with landline telephony, mobile telephony, broadband, gas, and electricity. The Utility Warehouse brand is the primary engine of revenue generation for Telecom Plus.

History
Telecom Plus, a FTSE 250 company, established Utility Warehouse in 2002 as a subsidiary and brand to encompass all of their residential energy, telephony and broadband offerings. The Utility Warehouse headquarters is in Colindale, North London.

In 2006, UW and Telecom Plus entered into an agreement with npower, under which npower would supply energy (gas and electricity) to UW customers. UW sold its two subsidiaries (Electricity Plus and Gas Plus) to npower. A 2009 article by The Guardian reported that Telecom Plus's rates were generally average, and as much as 20% higher than the best deals.

In 2013, however, npower sold the two former Telecom Plus subsidiaries back to Utility Warehouse for £218 million. As a result, Utility Warehouse became one of the largest independent energy suppliers in the UK. The deal sparked commentary about the possibility of npower's parent company RWE leaving the UK, or the emergence of a "Big Seven" in place of the existing Big Six energy suppliers.

In 2021, UW agreed to pay £1.5million into Ofgem's redress fund, after an investigation begun by Ofgem in 2018 found that since 2013 the company had not given sufficient support to customers in payment difficulties.

Products
The company supplies gas, electricity, broadband, mobile and landline telephony, home insurance and a cashback card. Their telephony and energy services are often bundled to reduce costs for customers.

Business model
Utility Warehouse employs a multi-level marketing model that utilizes independent distributors to obtain new customers. Distributors introduce both residential and business customers.

Utility Warehouse has no shops and does not advertise on television or in the national press. The company uses word-of-mouth as a primary means of promotion, and offers bonuses to distributors who recruit new customers and distributors.

Distributors gain a commission from their own customers and their distributor's customers, making Telecom Plus a multi-level marketing company. There is a joining cost to become a distributor (reduced if they become, or already are a customer). A 2017 Guardian investigation found that total commission paid to distributors in the previous financial year was £21.1 million, or less than 3% of revenue; if that amount was divided equally among the 41,717 distributors they would each receive £505 per year. Utility Warehouse responded that the calculation was misleading: "there are many who for whatever reason earn considerably less than £500 per year, and there are those who work at their business extremely hard and earn considerably more than this". In 2019, the average distributor earned £12 a week, prior to taking costs into consideration.

References

External links

Utility Warehouse customer satisfaction survey results – Which?
Utility Warehouse for Business

Companies established in 2002
Companies based in the London Borough of Barnet
Internet service providers of the United Kingdom
Electric power companies of England

Utility Warehouse


Prosopis glandulosa, commonly known as honey mesquite,  is a species of small to medium-sized, thorny shrub or tree in the legume family (Fabaceae).

Distribution
The plant is primarily native to the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico. Its range extends on the northeast through Texas and into southwestern Kansas and Oklahoma and northwestern Louisiana (the South Central states), and west to southern California.

It can be part of the Mesquite Bosque plant association community in the Sonoran Desert ecoregion of California and Arizona (U.S.), and Sonora state (México), and in the Chihuahuan Desert of New Mexico and Texas in the US, and Chihuahua in Mexico.

Description

Prosopis glandulosa has rounded, big and floppy, drooping branches with feathery foliage and straight, paired thorns on twigs.  This tree normally reaches , but can grow as tall as . It is considered to have a medium growth rate.

It flowers from March to November, with pale, yellow, elongated spikes and bears straight seedpods, which are yellow or maroon. The seeds are eaten by a variety of animals, such as scaled quail. Other animals, including deer, collared peccaries, coyotes, cactus mice, and jackrabbits, feed on both pods and vegetation.

Varieties
 Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa (syn. Prosopis chilensis var. glandulosa (Torr.) Standl., Prosopis juliflora var. glandulosa (Torr.) Cockerell)
 Prosopis glandulosa var. torreyana (L.D.Benson) M.C.Johnst. (syn. Prosopis juliflora var. torreyana L.D.Benson)

Invasive species
Prosopis glandulosa has been intentionally introduced into at least a half-dozen countries, including Australia, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa.  The IUCN considers it as one of the world's 100 worst invasive species outside its native habitat range.

The seeds are disseminated by livestock that graze on the sweet pods, and the shrubs can invade grasslands, with cattlemen regarding mesquites as range weeds to be eradicated. Due to latent buds underground, permanent removal is difficult. Cutting them will only coppice them: A single-trunked tree that is cut down will soon be replaced by a multi-trunked version.

Uses
Prosopis glandulosa shrubs and trees provide shelter and nest building material for wildlife, and produce seed pods in abundance containing beans that are a seasonal food for diverse birds and small mammal species. As the common name indicates, honey mesquite is a honey plant that supports native pollinator species of bees and other insects, and cultivated honey bees. It is a larval host for the long-tailed skipper and Reakirt's blue butterflies.

Mesquite flour is high in protein, low in carbohydrates, and can be used in recipes as a gluten-free substitute for wheat flour.

Within its native range, its wood smoke is used to flavor meats when cooked over a mesquite fire. This is particularly popular in Texas in the US.

In Namibia, although an invasive species, it has qualities that have made it useful for humans, including: growing extremely rapidly there, having very dense shade, abundantly producing seed pods, and a readily available firewood.

Indigenous peoples
The indigenous peoples of California and southwestern North America use parts of Prosopis glandulosa as a medicinal plant, food source, building and tools material, and fuel.
The Cahuilla eat the blossoms and pods, which were ground into meal for cake. The Pueblo peoples of New Mexico in the southwest United States use the seeds to produce mesquite flour for making traditional horno bread.  The thorns of the plant are used as tattoo needles, and the ashes for tattoos, by the Cahuilla and Serrano Indians of Southern California. Its dense and durable wood is prized for making tools and arrow points, and for the unique flavor it lends to foods cooked over it. The deep taproots, often larger than the trunks, are dug up for firewood.

This species of mesquite, known as haas (pronounced ) by the Seri people of northwestern Mexico, is very important for food and nonfood uses. The Seris have specific names for various stages of the growth of the mesquite pod. Historically, it was a very important wild food plant because it fruits even during drought years.

References

External links

USDA Plants Profile for Prosopis glandulosa (honey mesquite)
 Calflora Database: Prosopis glandulosa (Honey mesquite)
Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center NPIN−Native Plant Information Network: Prosopis glandulosa (Honey mesquite)
 UC CalPhotos gallery

glandulosa
Flora of the Sonoran Deserts
Flora of the Chihuahuan Desert
Flora of the California desert regions
Flora of Northeastern Mexico
Flora of Northwestern Mexico
Flora of the Southwestern United States
Flora of the South-Central United States
Flora of the Rio Grande valleys
North American desert flora
Trees of the Southwestern United States
Trees of the South-Central United States
Trees of the North-Central United States
Trees of Baja California
Trees of Chihuahua (state)
Trees of Coahuila
Trees of Tamaulipas
Natural history of the Colorado Desert
Natural history of the Mojave Desert
Flora of the Mexican Plateau
Plants described in 1827
Plants used in Native American cuisine
Plants used in traditional Native American medicine
Forages
Edible legumes

Prosopis glandulosa


William Windom (September 28, 1923 – August 16, 2012) was an American movie, radio, stage, voice, and mostly television actor who's career has lasted for 56 years. Windom is mostly known for his roles in popular television series such as; Matt Decker in Star Trek, as Dr. Seth Hazlitt in Murder, She Wrote, Glen Morley in The Twilight Zone, and is also known for his voice as Puppetino in Pinocchio and the Emperor of the Night.

Early life
Windom was born on September 28, 1923 in New York City, New York to Isobel Wells (née Peckham) and Paul Windom.

Personal life
Windom was married to Carol Keyser from 1947 until they divorced in 1955. Secondly he married Barbara Joyce from 1958 until they divorced in 1963. Thirdly he married Barbara Goetz from 1963 until they divorced in 1968. Fourthly he married Jacqulyn Hopkins from 1969 until they divorced in 1974. Lastly he married Patricia Tunder from 1975 until his death in 2012.

Death
Windom died on August 16, 2012 from congestive heart failure in his home in Woodacre, California, he was 88 years old.

References

Other websites

1923 births
2012 deaths
Deaths from congestive heart failure
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
American radio actors
American stage actors
Actors from New York City
Emmy Award winning actors

William Windom (actor)


Albert V, Duke of Mecklenburg (1397 – 1 June /6 December 1423) was Duke of Mecklenburg from 1412 until his death.

Life
Albert V was the son of Albert III, Duke of Mecklenburg, and Agnes (II) of Brunswick-Lüneburg, daughter of Duke Magnus II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg.  Albert III died in 1412 and, in accordance with an agreement with John IV, Agnes acted as guardian and regent for Albert V.  In 1415 or 1416 he started ruling for himself.  After John IV died in 1422, Albert V and John IV's widow acted as co-regents for her minor sons Henry IV and John V.

On 13 February 1419, Albert V and John IV together with the Council of the Hanseatic City of Rostock founded the University of Rostock as the first university in northern Germany and in the entire Baltic region.

Since 1413 Albert had been engaged to Cecilia, the second daughter of the Burgrave Frederick of Nuremberg, later Elector of Brandenburg.  However, Albert and Cecilia never married.  Instead, Albert married Cecilia's sister Margaret in 1423.  Frederick gave Albert the districts of Dömitz and Gorlosen as her dowry. However, Albert died shortly after he and Margaret were married.

External links
 Genealogical table of the House of Mecklenburg

Dukes of Mecklenburg
House of Mecklenburg
1397 births
1423 deaths
15th-century German people
Sons of kings

Albert V, Duke of Mecklenburg


The Rutgers School of Dental Medicine (formerly New Jersey Dental School) is the dental school of Rutgers University. It is one of several professional schools that form Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, a division of the university. Established in 1956, the dental school is located in the University Heights neighborhood in city of Newark, New Jersey, United States. It is the only dental school in New Jersey and is one of only two public dental schools in the New York metropolitan area.

On June 28, 2012 the New Jersey state legislature passed a bill that dissolved the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey and merged most of its schools, including New Jersey Dental School, with Rutgers University, forming Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences effective July 1, 2013.

Admission
RSDM has a less than 5% acceptance rate. Most classes received over 2,200 applicants, with less than 95 seats available (~4.3%).
In 2023, over 3,200 applications were received by the School of Dental Medicine. Applicants who gained admission to RSDM (class of 2027) had an average GPA of 3.6, and average sGPA of 3.7, and an average DAT score of 22. These statistics make it one of the most competitive dental schools in the United States.

Background

Rutgers School of Dental Medicine graduated its first class of students over forty years ago. The school was established as part of the Seton Hall College of Medicine and Dentistry, admitting its first students in 1956. In 1965, the Seton Hall complex was acquired by the state. Three years later, the medical school moved into Newark, occupying temporary quarters near the Martland Medical Center. The dental school remained at the Jersey City location until the completion of its permanent facilities in Newark early in 1976.

The school awards the Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.) degree upon completion of a comprehensive four-year program. In addition, educational programs are offered in every field of dental study, from continuing education for practicing dentists to training in tooth brushing for school-age youngsters. Rutgers Dental has one of the most rigorous clinical programs of all DMD programs in the world, with ~90% acceptance rate into first choice GPR (General Practice Residency) programs and post-doctoral speciality programs.

Facilities

In 2004, RSDM underwent major renovations with the additions of the 78,000-square-foot Oral Health Pavilion and the completion of renovations to the 194,000-square-foot Bergen Street Pavilion. The facility is on the Newark Campus.
The Delta Dental Educational Conference Center on the main level consists of a Multipurpose Room and three lecture halls with seating for 400 and audiovisual equipment. Members of student organizations hold meetings and events there, and the dental school host celebrations there, including the annual White Coat ceremony and Match Day reception. When the Conference Center is not being used by the dental school, the community can use it for civic, cultural and educational events. On the upper level, faculty and students provide treatment in patient clinics that are outfitted with dental equipment and technology. During the annual Cancer Screening and Health Fair, faculty members perform oral examinations in the clinics, and students from across the country converge there to participate in our Gateway to Dentistry and Summer Medical and Dental Education programs.

Education
Rutgers School of Dental Medicine offers the following academic programs:

D.M.D. Program
A four-year program leading to the Doctor of Dental Medicine degree.

Internationally trained dentists D.M.D. Program
A two-year program leading to the Doctor of Dental Medicine degree for international dentists.

Graduate Dental Education
• General Practice Residency
• Master's degree in oral biology

Specialty Graduate Dental Education
• endodontics
• periodontics
• oral surgery, four-year and six-year programs
• orthodontics
• pedodontics (pediatric dentistry)
• prosthodontics

See also

 American Student Dental Association

References

External links
 Rutgers School of Dental Medicine

Rutgers University colleges and schools
Education in Newark, New Jersey
Dental schools in New Jersey
Universities and colleges established in 1956
Universities and colleges in Essex County, New Jersey
1956 establishments in New Jersey

Rutgers School of Dental Medicine


is an online music and video store for the Japanese market operated by Sony Music Solutions, a part of Sony Music Entertainment Japan (SMEJ). It is integrated into the Japanese version of Sony's Music Center for PC software, and was also integrated into its predecessors such as SonicStage. It is now the official store for their Walkman devices.

History
When Sony released its NW-MS7 Memory Stick compatible digital Walkman player, Sony Music Entertainment Japan started offering digital music through a store called bitmusic in December 1999. Bitmusic was merged into mora in July 2007.

In 2000, Label Gate Co., Ltd. was formed, a joint venture of 17 Japanese record companies including Sony Music Entertainment Japan, Avex Group, and Universal Music Japan, which would then operate the bitmusic store.

The mora store was launched on April 1, 2004. At this time Label Gate was funded by 18 companies while 29 record labels were participant. Originally, music purchased from mora was exclusively in Sony's proprietary ATRAC3 format with OpenMG DRM. A partner store called  was also in operation, using Windows Media Audio (WMA) codec and Windows Media DRM encryption, and integrated into the Japanese version of Microsoft's Windows Media Player 11 as the "recommended store" in Japan.

On October 1, 2012, mora underwent a rehaul into a DRM free store, selling songs and music videos in Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) formats. The mora win service was also eliminated in the restructuring, with the DRM free store being integrated into the Media Go service in Windows 8. One year later on October 17, 2013, mora began offering songs and albums as 24bit/96kHz FLAC files.

Label Gate merged into Sony Music Solutions in 2021.

See also
Sony Connect
LISMO

References

External links
 (In Japanese)

Online music stores of Japan
Sony Music Entertainment Japan
Avex Group
Universal Music Japan
Mass media companies based in Tokyo

Mora (music store)


St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church & Parsonage is a historic church at 412–414 East Lyon Street in Minneota, Minnesota, United States.  It was built in 1891 by Icelandic immigrants and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.

The church serves the second-largest Icelandic community in the United States.  Immigrants from Iceland began arriving in the area in 1875, and eventually around 800 Icelanders had settled in Lyon County, Lincoln County, and Yellow Medicine County.  The immigrants were characterized by a culture of interest in public affairs and a traditional love of learning.  They established schools, churches, libraries, reading clubs, and the only Icelandic language periodical in the United States.  The congregation in Minnesota was organized by pastor Niels Steingrimur Thorkalsson, who arrived in 1887, but it took until 1895 before a building committee was formed.  Ground was broken that fall and the church was completed in December 1895.

The church is an excellent example of Carpenter Gothic church architecture in Minnesota.  It is built of wood frame construction with lap siding on a limestone foundation.  The entrance is at the base of a three-story bell tower topped by an octagonal steeple. The interior has a Gothic altar and a semicircular communion rail.

It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.

References

Buildings and structures in Lyon County, Minnesota
Icelandic-American history
Lutheran churches in Minnesota
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota
Churches completed in 1895
National Register of Historic Places in Lyon County, Minnesota


Loving is an unincorporated community in Young County, Texas, United States. It lies on State Highway 114 eighteen miles southeast of Olney in the northeastern part of the county. As of the 2000 Census, the population was estimated to be 300.

History
Loving was founded in 1907 on land that was part of the Lost Valley Loving Ranch, owned by Oliver Loving who was the grandson of the famous cattle drover, Oliver Loving. The town was moved approximately one mile to the north in 1909  in order to be along the Gulf, Texas and Western Railroad. Trinity Townsite Company trustee B.B. Cain platted the new town on land purchased from the Steadham brothers, members of a local ranching family. Loving grew at a slow but steady pace throughout the early and middle part of the twentieth century and by 1930 possessed several churches, businesses as well as its own school, bank, and church. The population peaked at 350 in 1940, but subsequently declined to 240 by 1980 and maintained this level through the 1990 Census. According to the 2000 Census, however, this figure had increased significantly and Loving is now home to some 300 residents.

Education
Loving's students are served by the Graham Independent School District.

References

Unincorporated communities in Young County, Texas
Unincorporated communities in Texas

Loving, Texas


Ciprofloxacin/dexamethasone (Ciprodex) is an antibiotic/steroid combination medication. It contains the synthetic broad-spectrum antibacterial agent, ciprofloxacin hydrochloride (0.3%), combined with the anti-inflammatory corticosteroid, dexamethasone (0.1%), in a sterile, preserved suspension for otic use.

Ciprofloxacin, a fluoroquinolone antibiotic, has shown in vitro activity against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Dexamethasone acts as an anti-inflammatory corticosteroid.

Medical uses
Ciprodex is indicated for use in the treatment of acute otitis media and acute otitis externa (swimmer's ear) in people aged six months and older.

Mechanism of action
Ciprofloxacin functions as a bactericide by interfering with DNA gyrase, an enzyme with a key role in the synthesis of bacterial DNA. Dexamethasone is used in combination in order to aid in the reducing inflammatory responses that often accompany bacterial infection.

Clinical trials
In clinical trials, the median time to cessation of ear pain in Ciprodex was five days in a sample population of 909 participants. However, the clinical trial failed to demonstrate any significant benefit of using the combination of active ingredients in Ciprodex over ciprofloxacin alone, in regards to ear pain. Ciprodex was superior to ciprofloxacin in regards to time to cessation of otorrhea.

Phase I
The most reported adverse effects of phase I studies included headache, rhinitis, pain, dyspepsia, and dysmenorrhea. Investigators did not believe that any of these were directly treatment-related, as many of these events are considered symptoms or manifestations of the underlying illness.

Phase II and III
Treatment-related adverse effects in AOE studies were determined in phase II and III trials. This includes ear pruritus, ear debris, superimposed ear infection, ear congestion, ear pain, and erythema. Similar effects were demonstrated in AOMT studies. Overall, Ciprodex was determined as a safe and well-tolerated drug for the treatment of AOE and AOMT. The proposed dosage for all patients was also effective and safe. Cure rates for pediatrics were slightly higher than adults in AOE studies.

Drug interactions
Drug interactions have not been studied with Ciprodex.

Commercialization
Ciprodex, owned by Alcon Laboratories, Inc., is protected by multiple patents and will be restricted from generic manufacturing until 2025. Ciprodex is the number 1 topical antibiotic ear drop prescribed since 2007 by ENTs and pediatricians. There have been 18 million prescriptions filled for Ciprodex since 2003, making it the world leading marketed ear drops for AOE.

In October 2015, Alcon sued Dr. Reddy's Laboratories (DLR) for allegedly infringing on Ciprodex patents.  A judge in the UK upheld the Alcon patent.

References

External links

Combination drugs
Novartis brands

Ciprofloxacin/dexamethasone


María Elena Lucena Arcuri (25 September 1914 – 7 October 2015) was an Argentine film actress of the Golden Age of Argentine Cinema (1940–60). She began her career in radio in the 1930s and reached her greatest success with the role of "Chimbela", which was later depicted in film, theater and television. Her extensive film career includes approximately 50 films, including notable performances in Chimbela (1939) and Una noche cualquiera (1951). During the 1940s, she participated in films with comedians like Pepe Arias, Pepe Iglesias "El Zorro", , Mirtha Legrand and Carlos Estrada. Her most acclaimed film work occurred in Elvira Fernández, vendedora de tienda (1942) by Manuel Romero, Cinco besos by Luis Saslavsky and La Rubia Mireya for which she received the 1948 Best Comedy Actress Award from the Argentine Film Critics Association.

She also performed as a dancer and, beginning in 1960, did several musical comedies. On stage she replaced Libertad Lamarque in Hello, Dolly! and she portrayed the widow of Larraín de Valenzuela in the Chilean comedy La pérgola de las flores, which was later made into a movie. Beginning in the late 1960s, she participated in several television roles. Her later performances include the series 099 Central (2002) and the 2010 film Brother and Sister for which she was nominated as Best Supporting Actress and a role in the 2012 TV movie El Tabarís, lleno de estrellas. She had one of the longest careers of Argentine actresses and was one of the last survivors of Argentine cinema from the 1930s. She retired in 2012.

Biography
Lucena was born on 25 September 1914 in Buenos Aires, Argentina. She was working as a seamstress, getting paid eighty cents per dozen shirts made, when she made a radio test to sing tangos. Her mother was against it, but it paid 60 pesos per month. She took the contract at Radio Belgrano. Beginning as a singer in 1937, she soon moved from singing into acting, reading tragic parts on Radio Belgrano, where it was noted that she had an expressive face. She moved to the National Radio as part of an acting troupe "Estampas porteñas" and soon after, caught the attention of Arsenio Mármol. He created a character called "Chimbela" for her which she performed on radio and later on film, theater and television. Almost immediately the role brought success and she began touring the country, and appeared on both the Teatro Palmolive and Radio Cine Lux.

Her film debut was in La que no perdonó (1938), under the direction of José A. Ferreyra with Elsa O'Connor, Mario Danesi and José Olarra. In 1939 her signature character was taken to film in a screenplay written by Antonio Botta and directed by Ferreyra and Lucena was the star of Chimbela, although it was only her second film. The story is of a young girl who is supporting her family and falls in love with a man who is running from the police for a murder he did not commit. The supporting cast included Eloy Álvarez, Floren Delbene, Mary Dormal, Nuri Montsé and others. She also made her next two films El ángel de trapo (1940) and Pájaros sin nido (1940) with Ferreyra. Some of her most memorable roles were: Ven mi corazón te llama (1942); Elvira Fernández, vendedora de tiendas (1942) directed by Manuel Romero with Paulina Singerman; Cinco besos (1945) in which she worked with Mirtha Legrand; La Rubia Mireya (1948) by Manuel Romero with Mecha Ortiz for which she won Best Comic Actress from the Argentine Film Critics Association; Una noche cualquiera (1951); El Calavera (1954) by Carlos Borcosque; and La murga (1963) by René Mugica.

In addition to film, Lucena worked in many of the theaters along Calle Corrientes and traveled with tours both throughout Argentina and through Brazil, Spain and Uruguay. Participating in both classic and modern works, some of her most memorable performances were in Cuando el gato no está, Cuando las mujeres dicen sí, Cuanta Milonga, Cuatro escalones abajo, El enfermo imaginario, Juanita la popular, Madame 13, Penélope ya no teje, La Pulga en la Oreja,  Quien me presta una hija, Valss, Vengo por el aviso, and Una viuda difícil among others. During Libertad Lamarque's run of Hello Dolly!, produced by Luis Sandrini and Daniel Tinayre, Lucena was called in to replace Lamarque. She also performed in the Chilean musical La pérgola de las flores by Isidora Aguirre, which made a successful run throughout Latin America.

From the 1960s Lucena began working in television. Some of her most noted performances included Piel Naranja (1975), Duro como la piedra, frágil como el cristal (1985–1986), Como pan caliente (1996), 099 Central (2002) and El Tabarís, lleno de estrellas (2012). She died on 7 October 2015 at the age of 101.

Awards and nominations
 1948: Best Comic Actress (Argentine Film Critics Association) for La Rubia Mireya
 2006: Silver Condor (lifetime achievement award) from the Argentine Film Critics Association
 2011: Nominated for Best Supporting Actress (Argentine Film Critics Association) for Brother and Sister

Filmography

Films

 La que no perdonó (1938)
 Chimbela (1939)
 El ángel de trapo (1940)
 Pájaros sin nido (1940)
 Napoleón (1941)
 Elvira Fernández, vendedora de tienda (1942)
 Ven...mi corazón te llama (1942)
 Un nuevo amanecer (1942)
 La calle Corrientes (1943)
 Cinco besos (1945)
 La Rubia Mireya (1948)
 Una noche en el Ta Ba Rin (1949)
 Valentina (1950)
 Una noche cualquiera (1951)
 El Calavera (1954)
 Estrellas de Buenos Aires (1956)
 Buenas noches, mi amor (inconclusa – 1961)
 Buscando a Mónica (1962)
 La murga (1963)
 El Galleguito de la cara sucia (1966)
 La casa de Madame Lulú (1968)
 Joven, viuda y estanciera (1970)
 La casa del amor (1973)
 Millonarios a la fuerza (1979)
 Frutilla (1980)
 Una viuda descocada (1980)
 Luna de octubre (1997)
 Brother and Sister (2010)

Television
 Domingos de teatro cómico (1969)
 Viernes de Pacheco (1971) Episode:"Giuanín, Rey de la pizza" ... (Rosaura)
 Aplausos (1972) ... (Margo)
 Todo es amor (1972–1973)
 El patio de la Morocha (1973) ...  (Reneé)
 Piel de pueblo (1973) ... (Rosita's mother)
 El chupete (1973–1976)
 Piel naranja (1975) ... (Angélica)
 Herencia de amor (1981) ... (Jorgelina)
 Aprender a vivir (1981–1982) ... (Zuzú)
 El ciclo de Guillermo Bredeston y Nora Cárpena (1982) Episode: "La viuda es sueño" ... (Julia)
 Duro como la roca, frágil como el cristal (1985–1986) ... (Tona)
 Alta Comedia (1994)
 Como pan caliente (1996)
 099 Central (2002)
 El Tabarís, lleno de estrellas (2012)

See also
 List of centenarians (actors, filmmakers and entertainers)

References

External links

1914 births
2015 deaths
Argentine centenarians
Actresses from Buenos Aires
Argentine television actresses
Argentine film actresses
Argentine stage actresses
20th-century Argentine actresses
21st-century Argentine actresses
Women centenarians

Elena Lucena


Steeple is a fell in the English Lake District. It is situated in the mountainous area between Ennerdale and Wasdale and reaches a height of . Steeple is really part of Scoat Fell, being just the rocky northern projection of that fell. However, because of its prominent peak and steep crags it has earned the reputation of being a separate fell. The Lake District writer Alfred Wainwright rated Steeple and its name very highly saying, "Seen on a map, it commands the eye and quickens the pulse, seen in reality it does the same".

Topography
Steeple's close proximity to Scoat Fell robs it of being one of the best fells in the area; the two fells are linked by the Steeple arête with a lowest height of . The arête is stony and loose underfoot due to erosion and it is better to stick to the firmer rock along the crest. Scoat Fell is only  higher than Steeple but the short distance between them means that the higher dominates the lower significantly.

Ascents
Steeple can be ascended from Wasdale or Ennerdale; it is usually climbed in conjunction with other nearby fells such as Pillar, Scoat Fell and Red Pike as part of the Mosedale Horseshoe walk. It can be climbed directly from Ennerdale by a public footpath that leaves the valley at grid reference  and goes south through the forest to reach the open fell and climbs the north ridge of Steeple to reach the summit.

Summit
The top of the fell is a sharp peak with hardly room for a cairn. In fact there is room for only a few people and often there is a queue to stand at the highest point. The ground falls away sharply on all sides especially to Windgap Cove to the east. The view is limited by higher fells to the south and east but there is an excellent view of Ennerdale Water and an opportunity to examine the nearby cliffs and hollows of Mirk and Mirklin Coves.

References
 A Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, The Western Fells, Alfred Wainwright,
 Complete Lakeland Fells, Bill Birkett,

Fells of the Lake District
Nuttalls
Borough of Copeland

Steeple (Lake District)


Pseudo-City (2005) is the third book by American author D. Harlan Wilson.  Referred to as a novel as often as a collection of stories—Wilson himself has called it a "story-cycle"—it contains twenty-nine irreal short stories and flash fiction that overlap and feature recurrent characters.  Pieces in this collection originally appeared in magazines and journals such as Albedo one, The Dream People, Red Cedar Review, Nemonymous, Milk Magazine and Bust Down the Door and Eat All the Chickens.

External links
 Review by Mary Pat Mann at Mytholog

2001 short story collections
Novels by D. Harlan Wilson
Short story collections by D. Harlan Wilson

Pseudo-City


Slum clearance in the United States has been used as an urban renewal strategy to regenerate derelict or run-down districts, often to be replaced with alternative developments or new housing. Early calls were made during the 19th century, although mass slum clearance did not occur until after World War II with the introduction of the Housing Act of 1949 which offered federal subsidies towards redevelopments. The scheme ended in 1974 having driven over 2,000 projects with costs in excess of $50 billion.

Background

Contemporary slums have been dated back to population growth in industrial cities during the Industrial Revolution, where workers would crowd into subdivided or makeshift dwellings because no new housing was available. Congress authorized $20,000 for a survey of large city slum conditions in 1892, although did not take any action until the final year of the Hoover administration in 1932.

The definition of a slum was classed by the Federal Housing Act of 1937 as "any area where dwellings predominate which, by reason of dilapidation, overcrowding, faulty arrangements or design, lack of ventilation, light or sanitation facilities, or any combination of these factors, are detrimental to safety, health or morals".

Clearance programs garnered some criticism, particularly at the lack of attention given to the potential of regenerating existing structures deemed to be dilapidated. Some slums may have been viable for inexpensively cleaning up through use of stricter safety and sanitation enforcement. In the mid 20th century, a housing court was established in Baltimore with the power to impose penalties for violations of agreed codes of practice, which in turn helped to regenerate around 16,000 slum properties.

Obstacles

The Housing Act of 1949 offered federal subsidies to local redevelopment projects, allowing local agencies to clear and sell blighted land for redevelopment, up to a limit of $808 million per year. Federal subsidies helped alleviate potential hurdles in acquiring land with high purchase costs. In some cases, cities were unwilling to progress with slum clearance unless significant amounts of the original upfront cost could be reclaimed by sale of the improved land. Estimates from the National Association of Home Builders suggested that subsidies authorized to the maximum amount could have cost in excess of $12 billion.

The act was hindered by defensive priorities, with clearance grants deferred if the project was not consistent with defense requirements. Clearance of slum and blighted areas could be justified as serving the defensive effort as these areas were considered the most vulnerable in the event of enemy attack. In 1951, 32 cities and towns surveyed indicated that much of their cleared land was to be reused for private residential developments, with some public housing also included.

Some slum clearance projects suffered delays as a result of local resident hostility towards clearance and forced migration. In some neighborhoods, foreign-born and minority ethnic residents occupied some of the worst city center housing, yet they feared moving away from their own language and cultural groups. African Americans in particular felt strongly that their areas and houses were targeted for urban renewal through means of ethnic cleansing and that they would be classed as the "wrong" type of people to be living in the city, helpless to prevent it without proper policy or controls in place.

20th century

Between 1932 and 1952, eradication of slums was federally supported, yet nearly every city still contained neighborhoods with derelict or unsafe housing. The Emergency Relief and Construction Act of 1932 approved slum clearance loans and new low-rent housing, yet New York City was the only place where development occurred under the act. In 1933, the act was replaced with the National Industrial Recovery Act which focused on slum clearance and home construction for low-income families and produced nearly 60 projects that built around 24,500 new houses. The first federal slum clearance program was proposed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933, citing the high cost of land as the primary reason for government intervention. In 1949, the Senate Banking and Currency Committee stated in its report that 1 in 5 urban families lived in slum conditions. Federal law required cities to relocate displaced residents in safe and sanitary permanent residences prior to demolition of their slum home, with priority for available public housing. A report in 1950 suggested that over 6 million dwellings, representing around 20% of all city housing, did not meet minimum sanitation standards.

Following World War II, housing issues became top of the domestic policy agenda, including the eradication of slums. Congress in 1949 approved the Housing and Home Finance Agency to offer local assistance with renewal projects with grants between 66 and 75% of the project cost. In some cities, slums were cleared solely for aesthetic reasons with little regard for those displaced. Despite 6.5 million new housing units built between 1945 and 1952, some cities saw an expansion in slum areas.

While slum clearance did not feature prominently during the 1952 presidential election, President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower referred to the requirement of having decent housing for Americans forced to live in slums as a "moral obligation". In 1957, Congress began planning for new legislation that would help to clear slum areas, having authorized the federal government to provide $1.25 billion of funding since 1949 to cities for regeneration or demolition of run-down neighborhoods. States that were promised funding included $143 million for New York, $83 million for Illinois and nearly $29 million for Massachusetts. Some states, such as Florida, Mississippi and South Carolina, did not pass laws that would have allowed their communities to participate in slum clearance schemes. The Eisenhower administration intended to reduce the budget for the Urban Renewal Program from $250 million to $175 million for the 1958 fiscal year, however following protests from city mayors across the country, Congress ultimately chose to increase the budget to $350 million.

As of June 1966, projects which had gained approval had clearance intended or completed for over 400,000 houses, displacing over 300,000 families. Within the clearance areas, 35% was proposed for residential redevelopment while just over a quarter was reserved for streets and footpaths. Although initially starting with wide political support, it became controversial over time. Federally subsidized clearances ended in 1974, after funding over 2,000 renewal projects at a cost of around $50 billion.

Redevelopments

Proposals for slum clearance came as early as the 1820s in relation to the Five Points neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York City. Efforts towards the late 19th century were successful in razing the Mulberry Bend area, then deemed to be one of the most blighted sections of the neighborhood.

Mar Vista Gardens is a housing project completed in 1954 built on an abandoned celery field. Construction paused in the early 1950s when a 6.4 acre strip of land was discovered to be county territory and was annexed in 1952 as part of slum clearance measures. Manhattanville Houses is a public housing project built during the late 1950s on slum clearance land formerly occupied by tenement blocks.

See also

 Subsidized housing in the United States
 Slum clearance in the United Kingdom
 Slum clearance in India

Notes and references

Slum clearance
Housing in the United States

Slum clearance in the United States