Śrāddha (or Shradda; ) is any act that is performed with all sincerity and absolute faith in it. In the Hindu religion, it is the ritual that one performs to pay homage to one's 'ancestors' (Sanskrit: Pitṛs), especially to one's dead parents. Conceptually, it is a way for people to express heartfelt gratitude and thanks towards their parents and ancestors, for having helped them to be what they are and praying for their peace. It also can be thought of as a "day of remembrance". It is performed for both the father and mother separately, on their respective 'thithi' – death anniversaries  as per the Hindu Calendar. In addition it is performed for the entire community of 'pitr' – both from paternal and maternal side – collectively during the Pitru Paksha or Shraaddha paksha (Fortnight of ancestors), right before Sharad Navaratri in autumn.

Etymology
'Śrāddha' means 'confidence, devotion', stemming from Proto-Indo-Iranian *ćraddʰaH- ('believe, have trust in'), ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European compound *ḱred-dʰeh₁- ('to put one's heart into somebody' > 'to believe'). It is cognate with the Latin crēdo ('to entrust, give credence'), the Old Avestan zrazdā- ('devoted, trusting, believing'), or the Old Irish creitid ('believe').

Rituals

In practice, the karta (person who performs the Śrāddha) (1) invites Brahmanas (priests) that day, invokes in them the divinity of his/her parent, worships and feeds them (2) performs a homa (fire ritual), appeasing Agni and Soma – the deities who transmit the offerings to the ancestors, nourish and protect them and (3) offers balls of rice to the departed souls ("pinda pradaana", offered to the Pitṛs, the ancestral spirits).The offerings are made to three generations i.e. father, grandfather and great-grandfather  / mother, fathers' mother, fathers' grandmother.
The karta extends hospitality to the priest and concludes the ceremony by giving "dakshina" (fees) to the brahmanaas. (There are various other actions done to show respect to the Brahmanaas, like washing their feet etc. during the course of shraaddha). Crows are also revered in Hinduism and during Śrāddha the practice of offering food or pinda to crows is still current.

Since this is one of the more important and noble "" (rituals meant to cleanse the mind and soul) that the Hindu sages have envisaged, it is imperative that the performer of the ritual understands what he or she is doing. Only then will the true intent of the ritual be fulfilled and the performer of the ritual feel completely gratified. Otherwise, the ritual becomes just a mechanical exercise on one's part.

After death, the family performs the final rituals and holam. These rites are a reflection of a person's life. They may also include Santhi-homam and Agni-homam. After the Santhi-homam, the body is sprinkled with holy water to cleanse it. Other rituals include offering food and applying herbs to the body. The Havan is performed in order to appease the God of Fire, Agni. During the homam, verses are recited while the performer asks the god to forgive the deceased's mistakes and sins.

The Śrāddha period
The scripture mandate performing 96 Śrāddha karmas. However, these practices are difficult to be adhered to.
In addition, once in year offerings are to a larger universe of forefathers –  during the pitr paksha.
In Hindu amanta calendar ( ending with amavasya ), second half of the month Bhadrapada is called Pitru Paksha: Pitṛpakṣa or Śrāddha pakṣa and its amavasya ( new moon ) is called sarvapitri amavasya. This part is considered inauspicious in muhurtaśāstra (electional astrology). At this time (generally September) crops in India and Nepal are ready and the produce is offered as a mark of respect and gratitude (by way of pinda) first to the ancestors be they parents or forefathers before other festivals like Navaratri begin.

Many people visit Hindu pilgrimage sites to perform, Śrāddha ceremonies, like Pehowa, Kurukshetra, Haridwar, Gokarna, Nashik, Gaya etc. Haridwar is also known for its Hindu genealogy registers.

See also

 Antyesti
 Brahmin
 Hindu genealogy registers at Chintpurni, Himachal Pradesh
 Hindu genealogy registers at Haridwar
 Hindu genealogy registers at Jawalamukhi, Himachal Pradesh
 Hindu genealogy registers at Kurukshetra, Haryana
 Hindu genealogy registers at Peohwa, Haryana
 Hindu genealogy registers at Trimbakeshwar, Maharashtra
 Hindu genealogy registers at Varanasi
 Pitrs
 Sandhyavandhanam
 Vedic priesthood
 Śrāddha (Buddhadharma)

References

Further reading
 Shraaddha, R. K. Srikanta Kumaraswamy, IIT, Chennai. In the Kannada language
 ಆಶ್ವಲಾಯನ ಪಾರ್ವಣ ಶ್ರಾದ್ಧ ಚಂದ್ರಿಕಾ (Kannada language) by mundodu narayana bhatta, hayagreeva nagara, udupi 576 102
 Shraaddha Chandrika (english) by mundodu narayana bhat, viraja, hayagreeva nagara udupi 576 102

Hindu rituals related to death

Śrāddha


William Henry Johnson ( – April 9, 1926),  known as  Zip the Pinhead, was an American freak show performer known for his tapered head.

Early life

William Henry Johnson was likely born in New Jersey, and was one of six children in a very poor African-American family. His parents were William and Mahalia Johnson, former slaves. As he grew, his body developed normally, but his head remained small. His tapering cranium and heavy jaw made him attractive to agents from van Emburgh's Circus in Somerville, New Jersey. His appearance caused many to believe that he was a "pinhead", or microcephalic. Microcephaly patients are characterized by a small, tapering cranium and often have impaired mental faculty. It is arguable, however, whether he was intellectually disabled.

Johnson's parents agreed to allow the circus to display him in return for money. He was billed as a missing link, supposedly caught in Africa and displayed in a cage. He was a popular attraction, and his success led his agent to show his charge to showman P.T. Barnum.

Barnum purchased the right to display Johnson from the circus and gave him a new look. A furry suit was made to fit him, and his hair was shaped to a tiny point that further accented his sloping brow. Finally, he was given the name, "Zip the Pinhead", the "What-Is-It?," or the "Man-Monkey".

Career
Johnson was first exhibited by Barnum when he was 18, and his career lasted longer than 60 years. He was eventually renamed "Zip" after "Zip Coon", an archetypal character in minstrel shows. Johnson was "[l]aughed at, pelted with coins, called a 'cross between a nigger and a baboon'".

Zip's early performances were set against a background story. It was told to the audience that a tribe of "missing links" had been discovered in Africa, and that Zip was one of these. It was further explained that the "wild man", the "What-Is-It", subsisted on raw meat, nuts, and fruit, but was learning to eat more civilized fare such as bread and cake.

Zip would then be revealed in a cage where he could rattle the bars and screech. This act was tremendously successful for Barnum, and Zip was as big an attraction to Barnum's American Museum as the famous Siamese twins, Chang and Eng Bunker.

In later years, Zip became more "civilized" in his act. He shared the stage with other anomalies, including his friends "Texas Giant" Jim Tarver,  "Tallest Man in the World" Jack Earle and Koo-Koo the Bird Girl. He traveled extensively with the Ringling Brothers circus.

In 1860, he was visited at the museum by Albert Edward, the Prince of Wales; his photo was taken by  Civil War photographer Mathew Brady.

Throughout this period, Zip's best friend and manager was Captain O.K. White. White conscientiously looked after Zip's interests. He also gave Zip one of his prized possessions, a tuxedo.

In his later years, Zip eschewed traveling in favor of performing at Coney Island. One Sunday afternoon in 1925, Zip heard a little girl cry for help. He noticed the girl waving her arms in the ocean and swam out to rescue her.

Zip caught bronchitis in early 1926, and despite the wishes of his doctor and Captain White, he continued to perform his part in the stage play Sunny at the New Amsterdam Theater. Upon the closing of the play, he returned to his home in Bound Brook, New Jersey, where he was cared for by his doctor, Captain White, and his sister. When his condition worsened, he was moved to Bellevue Hospital in New York City, where he died.

It is estimated that during his 67 years in show business, Zip entertained more than one hundred million people.

Zip the Pinhead was buried in Plot 399 of the Bound Brook Cemetery on April 28, 1926. A small gravestone bearing the inscription "William H. Johnson, 1857–1926" marks his resting place.

Inspiration

Johnson is partly the inspiration for Bill Griffith's comics character, Zippy the Pinhead. He was featured in the "Freak Show Tech" episode of the History Channel series Wild West Tech.  Although not the first pinhead in the American circus sideshows, his costumes and presentation led to the display of several other microcephalic people to the American public.

See also

 Human zoos
 Krao Farini, one of several sideshow performers billed as a "missing link"
 Ota Benga

Notes

References

External links

Weird NJ – Zip the What Is It
The Human Marvels – ZIP THE PINHEAD – What is it?

1850s births
1926 deaths
19th-century African-American people
20th-century African-American people
Burials in New Jersey
Ethnological show business
People from Bernards Township, New Jersey
People from Bound Brook, New Jersey
People with microcephaly
American people with disabilities
Entertainers with disabilities
Sideshow performers
20th-century American people
19th-century American people

Zip the Pinhead


Lars Linus Persson (born December 29, 1985) is a Swedish professional ice hockey right winger, currently playing for Leksands IF in the Swedish Hockey League (SHL). Persson won TV-pucken with Värmland in 2000, won four Swedish Junior Championships with Västra Frölunda HC in 2002 and 2003 (under-20 and under-18), won promotion to Elitserien with Rögle BK in the 2008 Kvalserien, and won the 2012 European Trophy with Luleå HF.

Persson has represented Sweden at two International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF)-sanctioned events; the 2003 IIHF World U18 Championships and the 2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.

Playing career
Persson started playing hockey in his youth with IK Viking, in his hometown Hagfors. He won TV-pucken with Värmland in 2000, scoring six goals and a total of eleven points in eight games. For the 2001–02 season Persson signed with Västra Frölunda HC to play for their junior organisation, and attend the hockey gymnasium in Gothenburg. Persson spent the majority of the season with the under 20 team in the J20 SuperElit. Playing 35 games, Persson scored six goals and ten assists for a total of 16 points. In the playoffs Persson played five games, scoring one goal and an assist as Frölunda won the Swedish under 20 Championship. Having played just three games with the under 18 team during the regular season, scoring one goal, Persson joined the team for the playoffs, leading Frölunda to a gold medal in the Swedish under 18 Championship by scoring four goals in a 10–1 win against Huddinge IK in the first game of the finals. He became the playoff leading scorer with six goals and three assists for nine points in three games. The following season Persson played 30 games in the J20 SuperElit, scoring ten goals and 19 assists, and five assists in six playoff games as Frölunda captured a consecutive gold medal in the Swedish under 20 Championships. Not having played with the under 18 team during the regular season, Persson appeared in two playoff games, assisting on two goals in the quarterfinals against Leksands IF, and scoring one goal and an assist in the decisive game two of the final against Modo Hockey, which Frölunda won 6–1, winning consecutive gold medals at the under 18 Swedish Championship as well. For the 2003–04 Persson was named captain of Frölunda's under 20 team. He played 36 games in the J20 SuperElit, scoring nine goals, 24 assists for 33 points. During the season Persson was called up to Frölunda's senior team, playing in two exhibition games and was on the roster for one game in Elitserien—Sweden's premier men's league—on December 28 in a 4–0 win against Timrå IK, though not receiving any time on the ice. In the J20 SuperElit playoffs Persson played five games, scoring one goal and five assists as Frölunda were eliminated in the semifinal against Modo Hockey.

After the season, Persson was offered a contract by Frölunda to continue playing junior hockey and be used as a thirteenth forward with the senior team, but chose to sign a two-year contract with Hammarby IF in HockeyAllsvenskan—Sweden's second tier men's league. Persson only played 13 games with Hammarby's senior team before being loaned to AIK in Division 1—Sweden's third tier men's league—where he played five games, scoring three goals and two assists.

After four successful seasons in Karlskoga, Persson signed a two-year contract with Luleå HF in Elitserien. Persson scored nine goals and eleven assists for 20 points in 51 games. On April 4, 2013, Linus Persson scored his fifth Elitserien playoff goal of his career, just twelve seconds into overtime of Game 4 against Färjestad BK, which broke the record for the fastest overtime goal ever scored in Elitserien playoff history. With eight goals and four assists in 15 games Persson was the scoring leader in the 2013 Swedish Championship playoffs. He led Luleå to the final where they lost the best-of-seven series in four games to Skellefteå AIK.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

International

References
 All statistics per historical.stats.swehockey.se/ — by the Swedish Ice Hockey Association

External links

1985 births
Living people
Swedish ice hockey right wingers
AIK IF players
IFK Arboga IK players
BIK Karlskoga players
Färjestad BK players
Frölunda HC players
Hammarby Hockey (1921–2008) players
Leksands IF players
Luleå HF players
People from Hagfors
Rögle BK players
Sportspeople from Värmland County

Linus Persson (ice hockey)


Bard College is a private liberal arts college in the hamlet of Annandale-on-Hudson, in the town of Red Hook, in New York State. The campus overlooks the Hudson River and Catskill Mountains within the Hudson River Historic District—a National Historic Landmark.

Founded in 1860, the institution consists of a liberal arts college and a conservatory, as well as eight graduate programs offering over 20 graduate degrees in the arts and sciences. The college has a network of over 35 affiliated programs, institutes, and centers, spanning twelve cities, five states, seven countries, and four continents.

History

Origins and early years

During much of the nineteenth century, the land since owned by Bard was mainly composed of several country estates. These estates were called Blithewood, Bartlett, Sands, Cruger's Island, and Ward Manor/Almont.

In 1853, John Bard and Margaret Bard purchased a part of the Blithewood estate and renamed it Annandale. John Bard was the grandson of Samuel Bard, a prominent doctor, a founder of Columbia University's medical school,  and physician to George Washington. John Bard was also the nephew of the Rev. John McVickar, a professor at Columbia University. The family had strong connections with the Episcopal Church and Columbia.

The following year, in 1854, John and Margaret established a parish school on their estate in order to educate the area's children. A wood-frame cottage, known today as Bard Hall, served as a school on weekdays and a chapel on weekends. In 1857, the Bards expanded the parish by building the Chapel of the Holy Innocents next to Bard Hall.  During this time, John Bard remained in close contact with the New York leaders of the Episcopal Church. The Church suggested that he found a theological college.

With the promise of outside financial support, John Bard donated the unfinished Chapel, and the surrounding , to the diocese in November 1858. In March 1860, St. Stephen's College was founded. In 1861, construction began on the first St. Stephen's College building, a stone collegiate gothic dormitory called Aspinwall. During its initial years, the college relied on wealthy benefactors, like trustee Cornelius Vanderbilt, for funding.

The college began taking shape within four decades. In 1866, Ludlow Hall, an administrative building, was erected. Preston Hall was built in 1873 and used as a refectory. A set of four dormitories, collectively known as Stone Row, were completed in 1891. And in 1895, the Greek revival Hoffman Memorial Library was built. The school officially changed its name to Bard College in 1934 in honor of its founder.

Growth and secularization

In the 20th century, social and cultural changes amongst New York's high society would bring about the demise of the great estates. In 1914, Louis Hamersley purchased the fire-damaged Ward Manor/Almont estate and erected a Tudor style mansion and gatehouse, or what is today known as Ward Manor. Hamersley expanded his estate in 1926 by acquiring the abandoned Cruger's Island estate. That same year, after Hamersley's combined estate was purchased by William Ward, it was donated to charity and served as a retirement home for almost four decades.

By the mid-1900s, Bard's campus significantly expanded. The Blithewood estate was donated to the college in 1951, and in 1963, Bard purchased  of the Ward Manor estate, including the main manor house. The rest of the Ward Manor estate became the  Tivoli Bays nature preserve.

In 1919, Fr. Bernard Iddings Bell became Bard's youngest president at the age of 34. His adherence to classical education, decorum, and dress eventually clashed with the school's push towards Deweyism and secularization, and he resigned in 1933.

In 1928, Bard merged with Columbia University, serving as an undergraduate school similar to Barnard College. Under the agreement, Bard remained affiliated with the Episcopal Church and retained control of its finances. The merger raised Bard's prestige; however, it failed to provide financial support to the college during the Great Depression. So dire was Bard's financial situation that in 1932, then-Governor of New York and College trustee Franklin D. Roosevelt sent a telegram to the likes of John D. Rockefeller Jr., George Eastman and Frederick William Vanderbilt requesting donations for the college.

On May 26, 1933, Dr. Donald Tewksbury, a Columbia professor, was appointed dean of the college. Although dean for only four years, Tewksbury had a lasting impact on the school. Tewksbury, an educational philosopher, had extensive ideas regarding higher education. While he was dean, Tewksbury steered the college into a more secular direction and changed its name from St. Stephen's to Bard. He also placed a heavy academic emphasis on the arts, something atypical of colleges at the time, and set the foundations for Bard's Moderation and Senior Project requirement. While Tewksbury never characterized Bard's curriculum as "progressive," the school would later be considered an early adopter of progressive education. In his 1943 study of early progressive colleges, titled General Education in the Progressive College, Louis T. Benezet used Bard as one of his three case studies.

During the 1940s, Bard provided a haven for intellectual refugees fleeing Europe. These included Hannah Arendt, the political theorist, Stefan Hirsch, the precisionist painter; Felix Hirsch, the political editor of the Berliner Tageblatt; the violinist Emil Hauser; the linguist Hans Marchand; the noted psychologist Werner Wolff; and the philosopher Heinrich Blücher.
Arendt is buried at Bard, alongside her husband Heinrich Blücher, as is eminent novelist Philip Roth.

In 1944, as a result of World War II, enrollment significantly dropped putting financial stress on the college. In order to increase enrollment, the college became co-educational, thereby severing all ties with Columbia. The college became an independent, secular, institution in 1944. Thus enrollment more than doubled, from 137 students in 1944, to 293 in 1947.  In the 1950s, with the addition of the Blithewood estate and Tewksbury Hall, the college would increase its enrollment by 150 students.

Late twentieth and early twenty-first century

Donald Fagen and Walter Becker's experiences at Bard prompted them to write the 1973 song "My Old School" for their rock group, Steely Dan.  The song was motivated by the 1969 drug bust at Bard in which the college administration colluded.  The DA involved was G. Gordon Liddy of Watergate notoriety. Fagen wrote another Steely Dan song, "Rikki Don't Lose That Number", about novelist, artist and former Bard faculty spouse Rikki Ducornet.

In 2020, Bard College, along with Central European University, became the founding members of the Open Society University Network, a collaborative global education initiative endowed with US$1 billion. As part of this new initiative, the college received a US$100 million gift from the Open Society Foundations which ranks among the largest financial contributions to a U.S. institution in recent history. In 2021, philanthropist George Soros made a $500 million endowment pledge to Bard College. It is one of the largest pledges of money ever made to higher education in the United States.

In June 2021, Bard College was declared an "undesirable institution" in Russia, becoming the first international higher education organization to be branded with this designation. Bard president Botstein hypothesize that this tag was due their association with and funding from the Open Society Foundations (also classified undesirable in Russia) and related conspiracy theories about George Soros.

College leaders
At various times, the leaders of the college have been titled president, warden or dean. They are listed below:

 George Franklin Seymour (1860–1861)
 Thomas Richey (1861–1863)
 Robert Brinckerhoff Fairbairn (1863–1898)
 Lawrence T. Cole (1899–1903)
 Thomas R. Harris (1904–1907)
 William Cunningham Rodgers (1909–1919)
 Bernard Iddings Bell (1919–1933)
 Donald George Tewksbury (1933–1937)
 Harold Mestre (1938–1939)
 Charles Harold Gray (1940–1946)
 Edward C. Fuller (1946–1950)
 James Herbert Case Jr. (1950–1960)
 Reamer Kline (1960–1974)
 Leon Botstein (1975–Present)

Campus
The campus of Bard College is in Annandale-on-Hudson, a hamlet in Dutchess County, New York, United States, in the town of Red Hook. It contains more than 70 buildings with a total gross building space of  and was listed as a census-designated place in 2020. Campus buildings represent varied architectural styles, but the campus remains heavily influenced by the Collegiate Gothic and Postmodern styles.

Bard's historic buildings are associated with the early development of the college and the history of the Hudson River estates (see Bard College History). During a late twentieth-century building boom, the college embraced a trend of building signature buildings designed by prominent architects like Venturi, Gehry, and Viñoly.

In January 2016, Bard purchased Montgomery Place, a  estate adjacent to the Bard campus, with significant historic and cultural assets. The estate consists of a historic mansion, a farm, and some 20 smaller buildings. The college purchased the property from Historic Hudson Valley, the historical preservation organization that had owned Montgomery Place since the late 1980s. The addition of this property brings Bard's total campus size to nearly  along the Hudson River in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York.

The area around the campus first appeared as a census-designated place (CDP) in the 2020 Census with a population of 358.

Academics

Rankings and awards

In its 2022-2023 edition of college rankings, U.S. News & World Report ranked Bard 60th overall, 5th in "Most Innovative Schools", tied at 38th for "Best Undergraduate Teaching", tied at #70 in "Top Performers on Social Mobility", tied at #19 in "First-Year Experiences", and 19th for "Best Value" out of 210 "National Liberal Arts Colleges" in the United States.

Bard's Master of Fine Arts program was ranked one of ten most influential Master of Fine Arts programs in the world by Artspace Magazine in 2023.

Bard has been named a top producer of U.S. Fulbright Scholars. Many Bard alumni have also been named Watson Fellows, Critical Language Scholarship recipients, Davis Projects for Peace winners, Rhodes Scholars, Marshall Scholars, and Peace Corps fellows, among other postgraduate awards.

Undergraduate programs
In the undergraduate college, Bard offers Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees. There are 23 academic departments that offer over 40 major programs, as well as 12 interdisciplinary concentrations. The college was the first in the nation to offer a human rights major. Its most popular undergraduate majors, based on 2021 graduates, were:
Social Sciences (140)
Fine/Studio Arts (106)
English Language and Literature/Letters (81)
Biological and Physical Sciences (80)

In the three weeks preceding their first semester, first-year students attend the Language and Thinking (L&T) program, an intensive, writing-centered introduction to the liberal arts. The interdisciplinary program, established in 1981, aims to "cultivate habits of thoughtful reading and discussion, clear articulation, accurate self-critique, and productive collaboration." The program covers philosophy, history, science, poetry, fiction, and religion. In 2011, the core readings included works by Hannah Arendt, Franz Kafka, Frans de Waal, Stephen Jay Gould, Clifford Geertz, M. NourbeSe Philip, and Sophocles.

The capstone of the Bard undergraduate experience is the Senior Project, commonly referred to as SPROJ amongst its students. As with moderation, this project takes different forms in different departments. Many students write a paper of around eighty pages, which is then, as with work for moderation, critiqued by a board of three professors. Arts students must organize a series of concerts, recitals, or shows, or produce substantial creative work; math and science students, as well as some social science students, undertake research projects.

Undergraduate admissions
For the academic year 2022-2023, Bard's acceptance rate stands at 46%. Out of the total 6,482 students who applied, 2,982 were admitted to the school. For the 2022-2023 academic year 447 students enrolled representing a yield rate of 15%. Admission trends note a 25% increase in applications in the 2022-2023 academic year. Bard does not require applicants to submit SAT or ACT test scores in order to apply. As an alternative, applicants may take an examination composed of 19 essay questions in four categories: Social Studies; Languages and Literature; Arts; and Science, Mathematics, and Computing, with applicants required to complete three 2,500-word essays covering three of the four categories. For admitted students who submitted test scores, 50% had an SAT score between 1296 and 1468 or an ACT score between 28 and 33, with a reported average GPA of 3.79. Admissions officials consider a student's GPA a very important academic factor. Honors, AP, and IB classes are important, an applicant's high school class rank is considered, and letters of recommendation are considered very important for admissions officials at Bard.

Graduate programs
Bard College offers a range of postgraduate degree programs, including the Bard MFA, Bard Graduate Center, Center for Curatorial Studies, Center for Human Rights and the Arts, Center for Environmental Policy, Bard MBA in Sustainability, Levy Economics Institute, and the Master of Arts in Teaching.

Bard MFA
Milton Avery Graduate School of the Arts is a nontraditional graduate school for interdisciplinary study in the visual and creative arts. The program takes place over two years and two months, with students residing on campus during three consecutive summers, and two winter sessions of independent study completed off campus. Notable artists and writers that have been affiliated with the Bard MFA as faculty and visiting artists include Marina Abramovic, Eileen Myles, Paul Chan, Robert Kelly, Tony Conrad, Okkyung Lee, Yto Barrada, Carolee Schneemann, Lynne Tillman, and Ben Lerner.

Bard Graduate Center
The Bard Graduate Center: Decorative Arts, Design History, Material Culture is a graduate research institute and gallery located in New York City. Established in 1993, the institute offers a two-year MA program and a PhD program that began in 1998. The institute's facilities include a gallery space at 18 West 86th Street and an academic building with a library at 38 West 86th Street.

Center for Curatorial Studies

The Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College (CCS Bard) established in 1990, is a museum and research center dedicated to the study of contemporary art and exhibition practices from the 1960s to the present. In 1994, CCS Bard launched its (MA) Master of Arts in Curatorial Studies program. The center also hosts public events throughout the year including lectures and panel discussions on topics in contemporary art.

The museum, spanning an area of 55,000 square feet, offers a variety of exhibitions accessible to the general public throughout the year. It houses two distinct collections, the CCS Bard Collection and the Marieluise Hessel collection, which has been loaned to CCS Bard on a permanent basis. Artists such as Keith Haring, Julian Schnabel, Wolfgang Tillmans, Stephen Shore, and Cindy Sherman, among numerous others, are featured within these collections.

The CCS Bard Library is a research collection for contemporary art with a focus on post-1960s contemporary art, curatorial practice, exhibition histories, theory, and criticism. in 2023 historian Robert Storr donated over 25,000 volumes to the Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College, nearly doubling the total collection size to 63,000 volumes. Other noteworthy contributors include Louise Bourgeois, Yto Barrada, Leon Golub, Jenny Holzer, Gerhard Richter, and Rachel Whiteread.

In 2022 CCS Bard received $50 million from a $25 million donation from the Gochman Family Foundation to form a Center for American and Indigenous Studies at CCS Bard and a matching donation of $25 million from George Soros. This followed two 2021 gifts of $25 million, one from Marieluise Hessel and a matching donation from Soros.

Center for Human Rights & the Arts

The Center for Human Rights & the Arts at Bard College is an interdisciplinary research institution dedicated to exploring the intersection of art and human rights. The center is affiliated with the Open Society University Network (OSUN). The center's flagship initiative is the Master of Arts program in Human Rights & the Arts. The center includes initiatives such as resident research fellowships, research grants, artist commissions, public talks, accessible publications, and a biennial arts festival organized in partnership with the Fisher Center at Bard and other OSUN institutions and art venues worldwide.

Center for Environmental Policy
The Center for Environmental Policy (CEP) at Bard College is a research institution offering a range of graduate degree programs focused on environmental policy, climate science, and environmental education. The CEP offers a series of graduate degrees including the Master of Science in Environmental Policy and Master of Education. In addition to these individual degree programs, CEP offers dual-degree options that allow students to combine their environmental studies with programs in law or business.

Levy Economics Institute
Levy Economics Institute is a public policy think tank focused on generating public policy responses to economic problems. Through research, analysis, and informed debate, the institute aims to enable scholars and leaders from business, labor, and government to collaborate on common interest issues. The institute's findings are disseminated globally through various channels, including publications, conferences, seminars, congressional testimony, and partnerships with other nonprofits. Its research encompasses a wide range of topics, including stock-flow consistent macro modeling, fiscal policy, monetary policy and financial structure, financial instability, income and wealth distribution, financial regulation and governance, gender equality and time poverty, and immigration/ethnicity and social structure. The Levy Economics Institute is particularly known for its research in heterodox economics, with a focus on Post-Keynesian and Marxian economics. It is additionally recognized as the leading research center for the study of Modern Monetary Theory (MMT). Notable individuals that have been affiliated with the Levy Economics Institute as professors, directors, and economists include Joseph Stiglitz, Hyman Minsky, William Julius Wilson, L. Randall Wray, Jan Kregel, Bruce C. Greenwald, Dimitri B. Papadimitriou, Lakshman Achuthan, Warren Mosler, Stephanie Kelton, Bill Mitchell, and Pavlina R. Tcherneva.

Endowment
Bard has access to multiple, distinct endowments. Bard, along with Central European University, is a founding member of the Open Society University Network, endowed with $1 billion from philanthropist George Soros, which is a network of universities to operate throughout the world to better prepare students for current and future global challenges through integrated teaching and research. Bard maintains its own endowment of approximately $412 million. In July 2020, Bard received a gift of $100 million from the Open Society Foundations, which will dispense $10 million yearly over a period of ten years. In April 2021, Bard received a $500 million endowment challenge grant from George Soros. Once matched, on a five-year timeline, Bard will have an endowment of more than $1 billion.

Programs, centers, and associated institutes

Bard has developed several innovative graduate programs and research institutes, including the Milton Avery Graduate School of the Arts, the Levy Economics Institute which began offering a Masters of Science in Economic Theory and Policy in 2014, the Center for Curatorial Studies and Art in Contemporary Culture, the Bard Center for Environmental Policy, the Bard College Conservatory of Music, the ICP-Bard Program in Advanced Photographic Studies in Manhattan, the Master of Arts in Teaching Program (MAT), the Bard College Clemente Program, and the Bard Graduate Center in Manhattan.

In 1990, Bard College acquired, on permanent loan, art collector Marieluise Hessel's substantial collection of important contemporary artwork. In 2006, Hessel contributed another $8 million (USD) for the construction of a 17,000-square-foot addition to Bard's Center for Curatorial Studies building, in which the collection is exhibited.

The Bard Prison Initiative (BPI) provides a liberal arts degree to incarcerated individuals (prison education) in five prisons in New York State, and enrolls nearly 200 students. Since federal funding for prison education programs was eliminated in 1994, BPI is one of only a small number of programs of its kind in the country.

Bard awards the Bard Fiction Prize annually to "a promising emerging writer who is an American citizen aged 39 years or younger at the time of application". The prize is $30,000 and an appointment as writer-in-residence at the college.

The Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities is located at Bard College. The center hosts an annual public conference, offers courses, runs various related academic programs, and houses research fellows, and is directed by Dr. Roger Berkowitz, a legal scholar and an associate professor of politics, philosophy, and human rights.

In February 2009, Bard announced the first dual degree program between a Palestinian university and an American institution of higher education. The college entered into a collaboration with Al-Quds University involving an honors college, a master's program in teaching and a model high school.

In accordance with AlQuds-Bard requirements, students are not allowed to decide their major during the first year of their studies; instead, as a liberal arts college, students are advised to diverge in different classes that would allow them to decide what program they would like to take interest in as in the following year. Students are encouraged to look upon different classes to help them decide the subject they would mostly enjoy studying. Bard gives students the opportunity to dissect different programs before committing to a specific major. As a policy, throughout a student's undergraduate years, they must distribute their credits among different courses so that they can liberally experience the different courses Bard has to offer.

In June 2011, Bard officially acquired the Longy School of Music in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and in November 2011, Bard took ownership of the European College of Liberal Arts in Berlin, Germany, to become Bard College Berlin.

In 2013, Bard entered into a comprehensive agreement with Soochow University in Suzhou, China, that will include a joint program between the Soochow University School of Music and the Bard College Conservatory of Music, exploration leading to the establishment of The Bard College Liberal Arts Academy at Soochow University, and student exchange.

In 2020, Bard announced that through the new Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Advanced Achievement Scholars program the college will offer admission to high school juniors within 120 miles from the college based on an essay process based on the popular Bard Entrance Exam, first launched in 2013.

Student life

Over 120 student clubs are financed through Bard's Convocation Fund, which is distributed once a semester by an elected student body and ratified during a public forum.
Bard College has one print newspaper, the Bard Free Press, which was awarded a Best in Show title by the Associated Collegiate Press in 2013. In 2003, the Bard Free Press won Best Campus Publication in SPIN Magazine's first annual Campus Awards. Student-run literary magazines include the semiannual Lux, The Moderator, and Sui Generis, a journal of translations and of original poetry in languages other than English. The Draft, a human rights journal, the Bard Journal of the Social Sciences, Bard Science Journal, and Qualia, a philosophy journal, are also student-published. Bard Papers is a privately funded literary magazine operated jointly between faculty and students.

Other prominent student groups include: the International Students Organization (ISO), Afropulse, Latin American Student Organization (LASO), Caribbean Student Association (CSA), Asian Student Organization (ASO), Bard Musical Theatre Company (BMTC), Black Student Organization (BSO), Anti-Capitalism Feminist Coalition, Body Image Discussion Group, Self-Injury Support and Discussion, Bard Film Committee, Queer Student Association, Trans Life Collective, The Scale Project, Student Labor Dialogue, Bard Debate Union, Bard Model UN, Surrealist Training Circus, Bard Bike Co-Op, Bard Bars, Bard POC Theater Ensemble, and college radio station WXBC. WXBC was founded in 1947. In 2006, WXBC was nominated for "Station of the Year" and "Biggest Improvement" in the CMJ College Radio Awards.

Bard has a strong independent music scene considering its isolation and size. The college's Old Gym was once a popular location for concerts and parties in the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s. In 2004, the Old Gym was shut down and in spring 2006 transformed into a student-run theater by students Brel Froebe, Julie Rossman, and Kell Condon. Many activities that once took place there, occur in the smaller SMOG building. SMOG is primarily used as a music venue featuring student-run bands.

Athletics
Bard College teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III. The Raptors are a member of the Liberty League. Prior conference affiliations include the Skyline Conference and the former Hudson Valley Athletic Conference. Women's sports include basketball, cross country, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, volleyball and squash. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, soccer, squash, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball.

One of the more popular club sports on campus is rugby. Bard College Rugby Football Club fields men's and women's teams that compete in the Tristate Conference, affiliated with National Collegiate Rugby. Additional club sports include: ultimate frisbee, fencing, and equestrian.

Alumni and faculty

Notable alumni of Bard include fraternal songwriters Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman, comedian and actor Chevy Chase (1967); Walter Becker and Donald Fagen of Steely Dan (1969); actors Blythe Danner (1965), Adrian Grenier, Gaby Hoffmann, Larry Hagman; filmmakers Gia Coppola, Todd Haynes (MFA), Sadie Bennings (MFA), Lana Wachowski (dropped out); Herb Ritts, photographer; Christopher Guest, actor/director (This is Spinal Tap, Waiting for Guffman, Best in Show); songwriters Billy Steinberg (Madonna's "Like A Virgin," Cyndi Lauper's "True Colors," The Bangles "Eternal Flame"); Anne Bogart, theater director; Howard E. Koch, screenwriter (Casablanca, Letter from an Unknown Woman); David Cote, writer; Adam Conover, comedian and creator of Adam Ruins Everything; Raphael Bob-Waksberg, comedian and creator of Bojack Horseman; classical composer Bruce Wolosoff; Ronan Farrow, journalist who exposed the Harvey Weinstein scandal; writer and social theorist Albert Jay Nock; Adam Yauch of the Beastie Boys; and artists Freya Powell and Tschabalala Self.

Among the college's most well-known former faculty are Hannah Arendt, Toni Morrison, Heinrich Blücher, Roy Lichtenstein, Mary McCarthy, Arthur Penn, John Ashbery, Richard Teitelbaum, Mary Lee Settle and Chinua Achebe. Current faculty who are well-known include Stephen Shore, An-My Lê, Neil Gaiman, Bill T. Jones, Daniel Mendelsohn, Joan Tower, Masha Gessen, Kelly Reichardt, Francine Prose,  Ann Lauterbach, Charles Burnett, Valeria Luiselli, Tan Dun, Tschabalala Self, and Sky Hopinka.

References

External links

 Official athletics website

History of Columbia University
1860 establishments in New York (state)
Universities and colleges established in 1860
Liberal arts colleges in New York (state)
Red Hook, New York
Annandale-on-Hudson, New York
Universities and colleges affiliated with the Episcopal Church (United States)
Universities and colleges in Dutchess County, New York
Private universities and colleges in New York (state)
Tourist attractions in Dutchess County, New York

Bard College


The May Revolution () was a series of revolutionary political and social events that took place during the early nineteenth century in the city of Buenos Aires, capital of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a colony of the Spanish Crown which at the time contained the present-day nations of Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay. The consequence of the revolution was that the Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, was force out from office, and role of government was assumed by the Primera Junta. There are many reasons, both local and international, that promoted such developments.

International causes

United States Declaration of Independence

The United States had emancipated themselves from the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1776, which provided a tangible example that led Criollos to believe that revolution and independence from Spain could be realistic aims. In the time between 1775 and 1783 the Thirteen Colonies started the American Revolution, first rejecting the governance of the Parliament of Great Britain, and later the British monarchy itself, and waged the American Revolutionary War against their former rulers. The changes were not only political, but also intellectual and social, combining both a strong government with personal liberties. The text of the Declaration of Independence stated that all men are created equal (and thus become equal before the law), and had unalienable rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. They had also chosen a republican form of government, instead of keeping a monarchic one. Even more, the fact that Spain aided the colonies in their struggle against Britain weakened the argument that ending allegiance to the mother country could be considered a crime.

French Revolution

The ideals of the French Revolution of 1789 were spreading as well. During the Revolution, centuries of monarchy were ended with the overthrow and execution of the King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, and the removal of the privileges of the nobility. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was highly popular among the young Criollos. The French Revolution also boosted liberal ideals in political and economic fields. Some of the most notable political liberal authors, who opposed monarchies and absolutism, were Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, while the most notorious economic liberal was Adam Smith. Liberal ideas also reached the church, and the concept of the divine right of kings started to be questioned. Francisco Suárez claimed that political power did not pass directly from God to the governor, but to the population and through it to the governor. According to Suarez, such power belongs to the people and is delegated to the governor, but if such governors did not serve the public good as they should, they would become tyrants and the people would have the right to fight them and choose new governors. The falling consensus about the divine right being legitimate gave room to monarchies being replaced by republics in France and the United States, but also to constitutional monarchies, such as in Great Britain.

However, the spread of such idea was mainly forbidden in the Spanish territories, as well as the traffic in related books or their unauthorized possession. Such blockades started when Spain declared war on France after the execution of Louis XVI, but remained after the peace treaty of 1796. Nevertheless, the events of 1789 and the statements of the French Revolution spread around Spain despite the efforts to keep them at bay. Even more, the National Convention declared that France would give shelter and aid to all populations aiming to become free, and made many plans to disrupt the power of Spain over their overseas colonies. Many enlightened Criollos came into contact with those authors and their works during university studies. such as Manuel Belgrano in Spain or Mariano Moreno, Juan José Castelli or Bernardo Monteagudo at the American university in Chuquisaca. Books from the US also found their way into the Spanish colonies through Caracas, due to the closeness of Venezuela to the United States and West Indies.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution started in Britain, with manual labour and horse-drawn vehicles being replaced by machine-based manufacturing and transportation aided by railways and steam power. This led to dramatic increases in the productive capabilities of Britain, and the need of new markets to sell the surplus of coal, steel and clothes. The Napoleonic Wars, where Britain was at war with France, made this a difficult task, after Napoleon countered the British naval blockade with the Continental System, not allowing Britain to trade with any other European country. Thus, England needed to be able to trade with the Spanish colonies, but could not do so because they were restricted to trade only with their own metropoli. For this end they tried to conquer key cities during the British invasions, and after it to promote their emancipation. The Industrial Revolution also gave room to authors who proposed a liberal economy, like Adam Smith. François Quesnay compared the worldwide economy with a living organism, stating that economics worked beyond political power and should not be affected by it.

Peninsular War

The Napoleonic wars were taking place in Europe, involving France, Great Britain and most European countries. Portugal broke the blockade imposed on British trade and, as a result, was invaded by France. However, the Royal Family and the bulk of the kingdom's administration fled to colonial Brazil, in a move to preserve Portuguese sovereignty. Under the pretext of reinforcing the Franco-Spanish army occupying Portugal, French Imperial troops began filing into Spain. Shortly before the Spanish King Charles IV abdicated due to the mutiny of Aranjuez and gave the throne to his son, Ferdinand VII. Feeling that he was forced to abdicate, Charles IV requested that Napoleon restore him to power. Napoleon helped remove Ferdinand VII from power, but did not return the crown to the former king: instead, he crowned his own brother Joseph Bonaparte, as the new Spanish King. This whole process is known as the Abdications of Bayonne. Joseph's designation found severe resistance in Spain, and the Junta of Seville took power in the absence of the King. Until then, Spain had been  an ally of France against Britain, but at this point the Spanish resistance changed sides and allied with Britain against France. The Junta of Seville was eventually defeated as well, being replaced by another one located in Cádiz.

National causes

Spanish monopsony
During colonial times Spain was the only buyer of goods from the viceroyalty, and by law it was forbidden to trade with other nations. This situation damaged the viceroyalty, as Spain's economy was not powerful enough to buy and sell the quantities of goods that the Americas required. and many of them were even brought by Spain to France or Britain and then resold in the Americas at a higher price. Buenos Aires was even more damaged, as Spain did not send enough ships to the city. To prevent the risk of piracy the trade ships had to be followed by war ships, which made the journey very expensive. Lacking any gold or silver resources, or established indigenous populations to employ systems of encomienda, it was more profitable for Spain to send them all to Mexico or Lima. This led Buenos Aires to develop a system of smuggling to obtain, by illegal means, the products that could not be received otherwise. This smuggling was allowed by most local authorities, and developed similar amounts of traffic as the legal commerce with Spain. This whole situation developed two antagonistic groups: the ones who made leather products and wanted free commerce to be able to sell them, and the ones who benefited from the prices of the smuggled products, which would have to sell them at lower prices if such commerce was allowed.

Social rivalries

In the political structure most authoritative positions were filled by people designated by the Spanish monarchy, most of them Spanish people from Europe, without strong commitments to American problems or interests. This created a growing rivalry between the Criollos, people born in America, and the Peninsulares, people arrived from Europe (the term "Criollo" is usually translated to English as "Creole", despite being unrelated to most other Creole peoples). Despite the fact that all of them were considered Spanish, and that there was no legal distinction between Criollos and Peninsulares, most Criollos thought that Peninsulares had undue weight in political conflicts and expected a higher intervention in them, sentiment shared by the lower clergy. This practice was mainly the result of social prejudice. Criollos were also angered by the ease of immigrants from Spain, regardless of having humble origins, to acquire properties and social distinction that was negated to them. This rivalry evolved later into a rivalry between supporters of becoming autonomous from Spain and supporters of keeping things the way they were. However, this process was much slower than the one experimented by the British colonies in North America, in part because the educative system was managed almost exclusively by the clergy, influencing the development of a population as conservative as in the mother country.

Unlike the European countries and, to some degree, the United States, the Spanish colonies lacked a sense of peoplehood, a needed factor for the development of a nation. The Spanish colonies were carefully designed as extensions of Spain itself, being completely dependent in economic, cultural and political terms to the mother country.

British Invasions of the Río de la Plata

Buenos Aires and Montevideo had successfully resisted two British invasions. The first one was in 1806, when a British army led by William Carr Beresford took control of Buenos Aires, until it was defeated by an army from Montevideo, led by Santiago de Liniers. The following year a bigger army took Montevideo, but failed to take Buenos Aires, being forced to surrender and leave both cities. There was no Spanish aid from Europe either time, and to prepare for the second invasion Liniers formed militias with Criollos, despite regulations prohibiting such militias. This gave them military power and political influence they did not have before, with the biggest Criollo army being the Patricios Regiment led by Cornelio Saavedra. This victory achieved without help also boosted confidence in independence, by showing that Spanish aid was not needed. The prestige earned by Buenos Aires before the other cities of the viceroyalty was exploited by Juan José Paso during the open cabildo to justify taking immediate action and hearing the opinions of other cities afterwards.

Carlotism

By the ending of 1808 the whole Royal Family of Portugal left Europe, with the country being attacked by Napoleon, and settled in Brazil. The regent prince arrived with his wife, Charlotte Joaquina, daughter of Charles IV and sister of Ferdinand VII. When the news of the imprisonment of Ferdinand VII arrived in South America, Charlotte tried to take control of the viceroyalties as regent, a project known as Carlotism. She could do so due to the derogation of the salic law by Charles IV in 1789, and she intended to prevent a French invasion in the Americas. Some Criollos like Castelli, Beruti, Vieytes and Belgrano supported the project, considering it a chance to get a local government instead of one in Europe, or a medium for a later declaration of independence. Other Criollos like Moreno, Paso or Saavedra were critics of it, as well as most peninsular Spaniards and Viceroy Liniers. They suspected the whole project of concealing Portuguese ambitions in the region, and her public image wasn't positive: the people around her in Brazil (like the infant Pedro Carlos de Bourbon), and her relations with her husband, caused strong public dislike. Charlotte also rejected her supporters, as they intended her to lead a constitutional monarchy, while she wanted to retain an absolute monarchy. Britain, with strong presence in Portugal, also opposed the project: they did not want to let Spain, now allied with them against France, be split into many kingdoms, and did not consider Charlotte able to prevent separatism.

See also
 May Revolution

References

May Revolution
May Revolution

Causes of the May Revolution


Ferdinand Gottlob Schichau (30 January 1814 – 23 January 1896) was a German mechanical engineer and businessman.

Schichau was born in Elbing, West Prussia (modern Elbląg, Poland) to a smith and iron worker. He studied engineering in Berlin and visited the Rhineland and England. In 1837 he started his own company in Elbing. He also built a shipyard in Pillau near Königsberg (East Prussia) (today Baltiysk, Kaliningrad Oblast).

The Schichau-Werke became a large industrial complex, which employed several thousand people. Schichau made hydraulic presses, industrial machines and steam engines. For his workers he erected a large living quarter section in Elbing. The Borussia, constructed by him, was the first screw-vessel in Germany.

Schichau gained an associate when his daughter married around 1873 Carl H. Ziese (1848 -1917) the constructor in 1874 of the first compound steam engine to be integrated in a German gunship.

The company had so many orders that it became necessary to construct another large shipyard in nearby Danzig (Gdańsk) as well. In 1896 Schichau employed about 4,000 labourers his private assets were appraised at 30 million German gold mark. Schichau died in Elbing on 23 January 1896, his son in law (Ziese) continued to lead the company till his own death in 1917. Ziese's only daughter, Hildegard, married Swedish Engineer Carl Carlson.

After her husband's death, Hildegard Carlson ran the former firm of her father Carl and grand father Ferdinand building, mainly, railway engines till the thereafters of a company active till no less than 1945.

When Elbing and Danzig were transferred to Poland after World War II, Schichau's memory all but disappeared. The street in Elbing named after him (Schichaustraße) was renamed ul. Stoczniowa, and his statue was destroyed. His contributions only recently became known in Poland at the end of the Cold War.

Schichau's name remains in the Schichau Seebeck Shipyard at Bremerhaven.

References

External links

1814 births
1896 deaths
People from Elbląg
19th-century German businesspeople
German mechanical engineers
19th-century German inventors
People from West Prussia
German railway mechanical engineers
German railway entrepreneurs

Ferdinand Schichau


Alexander Gordon, Lord Rockville (1739 – 13 March 1792) was a Scottish judge.

Life

Rockville was the youngest son of William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen, by his third wife Lady Anne, daughter of Alexander Gordon, 2nd Duke of Gordon.

He became an advocate 7 August 1759 and served as Sheriff of Kirkcudbright from 1764 to 1784. He was appointed a Lord of Session in 1784, filling the position vacated by the death of David Dalrymple, Lord Westhall and took the judicial title of Lord Rockville after the name of his home in Haddington. He became a Senator in 1788.

He died on 13 March 1792 and is buried in St Cuthbert's churchyard in Edinburgh. The eroded family stone lies in the north-west corner close to the elaborate Gothic Bailey vault.

Family
Rockville married Anne, daughter of William Duff and widow of William Dalrymple-Crichton, 5th Earl of Dumfries, in 1769. One of their sons was Sir William Duff-Gordon, 2nd Baronet, MP for Worcester. He died in March 1792. Lady Rockville died in 1811.

See also
Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair
Duff-Gordon baronets

References
www.thepeerage.com

1739 births
1792 deaths
Alexander
Rockville
Scottish sheriffs
Younger sons of earls

Alexander Gordon, Lord Rockville


The Allahabad Address () is a speech by Pakistani scholar Sir Muhammad Iqbal.

The speech was given on 29 December 1930, at Allahabad, British India. This was during the 25th annual session of the All-India Muslim League. Iqbal wanted an independent state for Muslim-majority provinces in northwestern India. Iqbal said there could be no peace until the Muslim provinces were given the same privileges as the Hindu provinces.

References

Pakistan Movement
1930
1930s in India

Allahabad Address


Jorge Reina Schement, Ph.D., was dean of what is now the School of Communication and Information at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. Schement is a Professor II of Communication, Professor II of Latino-Hispanic Caribbean Studies, and Professor II of Public Policy at Rutgers.

In 2013 he was named by Rutgers University President Robert Barchi as the Vice Chancellor of Institutional Diversity and Inclusion.

Schement's research and scholarship address issues in the areas of information policy, global telecommunications, the social aspects of the Information Age, Spanish-language media, and information-consumer behavior. More specifically, he has focused on the social and policy consequences of the production and consumption of information, with a special interest in policy as it relates to ethnic minorities.

Schement serves as the editor-in-chief of the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Communication and Information, as well as an editorial board member of: IT & Society, Journal of Media and Religion, Information and Behavior, and Telematics and Informatics.

Prior to his appointment at the School of Communication and Information, Schement was a distinguished professor at Penn State University and a co-director of the Institute for Information Policy at that school. Previously he was a faculty fellow at the Columbia Institute for Tele-Information at Columbia University.

Jorge earned his Ph.D. in Communications from the Institute for Communications Research at Stanford University in 1976, an M.S. in Marketing from the School of Commerce at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign in 1972, and a BBA in Management at the Southern Methodist University in 1970. During his time at Southern Methodist University, he was Vice President of Sigma Iota Epsilon.

References

External links
Dean's Welcome at School of Communication, Information and Library Studies (Rutgers University)
Information Bill of Rights at Internet on The Air (IOTA)
Encyclopedia of Communication and Information
Profile at SourceWatch

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Rutgers University faculty
Stanford University alumni
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign alumni
Southern Methodist University alumni

Jorge Reina Schement


The Dream of the Mad Monkey (Le rêve du singe fou) is a novel by Christopher Frank, published in 1976. It was adapted to film in 1990 as Twisted Obsession.

Plot summary

An American screenwriter, Dan Gillis, living in Paris, has been abandoned by his wife. He has a hard time getting used to a new life as a single parent with his son, Danny. He is commissioned by successful producer, Legrand, to write a script. Dan has worked with that same producer in the past. This time though, he is required to write an unconventional story together with Malcolm - a young and unknown film director. Dan hesitates about taking the job, since it as far from the kind of work he usually does. Legrand insists and the intriguing personality of the young director eventually convinces him to accept, even though his agent, the beautiful, disabled Marilyn, advises against it. As soon as he starts working on the script Dan discovers that there is something else behind this job. He becomes painfully aware of and shamelessly intrigued by the incestuous relationship between Malcolm and his beautiful younger sister Jenny. Sexual fantasy and hallucinatory dream sequences lead Malcolm to become obsessed with Jenny as he starts his own investigating of the circumstances behind the making of this particular movie. He ultimately discovers that he has been had and is caught in a haywire of greed and ambition from which he cannot escape.

Edition information
Frank, Christopher. Le Reve du Singe Fou. Seuil (Paris), 1976

References

1976 novels
French novels adapted into films

The Dream of the Mad Monkey


"The Humpty Dance" is a song by the rap group Digital Underground from their debut album Sex Packets. Released as the second single from the album in January 1990, it reached No. 11 on the pop chart, No. 7 on the R&B chart, and No. 1 on the Billboard Rap Singles chart. The song is sung by Shock G's alter ego, "Humpty Hump", marking the character's second musical appearance; the first was Digital Underground's "Doowutchyalike," a pre-album video-single released in the spring of 1989. The song has been sampled by many different artists and producers. In the song's video, a young Tupac Shakur is visible in the background.

In 2008, "The Humpty Dance" was ranked No. 30 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop and No. 65 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of the 90s in 2007. The song was selected as one of many songs to hear and download in the musical reference book 1001 Songs You Must Hear Before You Die: And 10,001 You Must Download. The song was nominated for Best Rap Video at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards, but lost to "U Can't Touch This" by MC Hammer. Canadian television channel MuchMoreMusic's series Back In... rated the song's video as one of the worst of 1990.

1989 songs

The Humpty Dance


Julie A. Reuben (born August 2, 1960) is a historian interested in the role of education in American society and culture. Her teaching and research address broad questions about the purposes of education; the relation between educational institutions and political and social concerns; and the forces that shape educational change.

Biography
Reuben is Charles Warren Professor of the History of American Education on the faculty of the Harvard University Graduate School of Education. She received her BA in history from Brandeis University and her MA and PhD in history from Stanford University. She has been selected as a fellow for the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences and received a Major Research Grant from the Spencer Foundation.

She is the author of Making of the Modern University: Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality, selected as a Choice Outstanding Academic Book. This book examines the relation between changing conceptions of knowledge, standards of scholarship, and the position of religion and morality in the American university during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The book draws on examples from eight universities: Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Johns Hopkins, Chicago, Stanford, Michigan, and Berkeley. A review by Landy compares Reuben's work to that of George Marsden, who is more directly concerned with the role of religion and Christianity.

She has written a number of articles related to campus activism, access to higher education, curriculum changes, and citizenship education in the public schools. She is currently working on a book, tentatively entitled Campus Revolts: Politics and the American University in the 1960s, which will be the first serious historical study of campus protests and their impact on American higher education.

Works
 In search of truth : scientific inquiry, religion, and the development of the American University, 1870-1920, 1990.
 The making of the modern university : intellectual transformation and the marginalization of morality , 1996. . (Chinese translation, 2004)

Awards
 Fellowship, Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (2000)
 Choice Outstanding Academic Book Award for Making of the Modern University (1997)
 National Academy of Education/Spencer Postdoctoral Fellowship (1992)
 Dissertation, Whiting Fellowship in the Humanities (1988)
 Spencer Dissertation Fellowship (1987)

References

External links
 Pruitt Memorial Symposium Lecture by Dr. Julie Reuben, delivered at Baylor University
 Harvard Graduate School of Education Profile
 Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study Harvard University, Fellow

Harvard Graduate School of Education faculty
1960 births
Living people
21st-century American historians
Miller Center Affiliates
Brandeis University alumni
Stanford University alumni
American women historians
Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences fellows
21st-century American women

Julie Reuben


Sir Auckland Colvin  (1838–1908) was a colonial administrator in India and Egypt, born into the Anglo-Indian Colvin family. He was comptroller general in Egypt (1880–2), and financial adviser to the Khedive (1883–87). From 1883–92 he was back in India, first as financial member of council, and then as Lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces (as his father had been) and Oudh. He founded Colvin Taluqdars' College in Lucknow.

Early life and family
Colvin, born at Calcutta on 8 March 1838, was third son of the ten children of John Russell Colvin, an Anglo-Indian administrator, by his wife Emma Sophia, daughter of Wetenhall Sneyd, vicar of Newchurch, Isle of Wight. Three of his brothers, Bazett Wetenhall Colvin, Elliott Graham Colvin, and Sir Walter Mytton Colvin, all passed distinguished careers in India, and a fourth, Clement Sneyd Colvin, was secretary of the public works department of the India Office in London.

He was born when his father was private secretary to George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland, then Governor-General of India, and was named after him. In retirement he wrote a biography of his father, who rose to be lieutenant-governor of the North-Western Provinces and died in the Mutiny.

The year the biography was published, the 5th Baron Auckland had a son, and named him Frederick Colvin George Eden, the first and only time Colvin was chosen as a name in that family. In 1905 Auckland Colvin gave a stained glass East window to the church of St. Mary at Earl Soham, both as a thanksgiving for the termination of the Second Boer War, and as a permanent memorial to his father.

He was educated at Eton College from 1850, and then from 1854 at the East India College.

Early career in India
Colvin arrived in India on 17 January 1858 and was posted to the Agra provinces. After serving the usual district novitiate, Auckland went to headquarters in May 1864 as under secretary in the home, and afterwards in the foreign, department of the government of India. He returned to his own province in July 1869 as a settlement officer, and did good work in the revision of the Allahabad district settlement. He officiated as secretary to the government of the North-West Provinces in April 1873, and from the following June as commissioner of excise and stamps. The lieutenant-governor, Sir George Couper, resented some criticism of the local government in the Pioneer (Allahabad), which was attributed to Colvin's pen or inspiration. In the spring of 1877, Couper sent Colvin back to district work as collector of Basti. From November 1877 he officiated for a short period as commissioner of inland customs under the government of India, and he was afterwards collector of Bijnaur.

Move to Egypt
Colvin's opportunity came when in January 1878 he was transferred for employment in Egypt, serving first as head of the cadastral survey, and then from 24 May as British commissioner of the debt, in place of Major Evelyn Baring (afterwards Lord Cromer). Again in June 1880 he succeeded Major Baring as English controller of Egyptian finance, with M. de Blignières as his French colleague. From time to time he acted as British Consul-general in Sir Edward Malet's absence, and he was acting for Malet when the mutiny of 9 September 1881 broke out. By his advice and persuasion the timorous Khedive Tewfik confronted Urabi, the rebel leader, in the square of the Abdin palace, and succeeded in postponing the insurrection.

In various ways, and not least by his work as Egyptian correspondent of the Pall Mall Gazette, he influenced public opinion at home, and forced the reluctant hands of Gladstone's government towards acceptance of responsibility in Egypt. Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, Colvin's bitterest opponent, in his Secret History of the English Occupation (1907), pays unwilling homage to the resource with which Colvin conducted the struggle. After the British occupation Colvin became financial adviser to the Khedive, who conferred on him the Grand Cordons of the Osmanieh and Medjidieh Orders. He was created K.C.M.G. in 1881.

Mature career
When Lord Cromer became British agent in Egypt, Colvin succeeded him as financial member of the Viceroy's council in India in August 1883. Financial difficulties faced him. The war in Upper Burma and the danger of hostilities with Russia, consequent upon the Panjdeh Incident, were not only costly in themselves, but were followed by great capital outlay on improving the strategic position on the north-west frontier, and by increases of the British and native armies. With Sir Courtenay Ilbert, then legal member, Colvin minuted against this increase, and after retirement he complained that the military element in the council was disproportionately strong. The finances were also disturbed by the continued decline in the sterling value of the rupee, while suggestions made by the Governor-general in council, at Colvin's instance, for seeking an international acceptance of bimetallism were treated by the British Cabinet at home, Colvin thought, with scant respect.

Although he caused a committee to be appointed under Sir Charles Elliott to recommend economies, he was compelled not only to suspend the Famine Insurance Fund, and to take toll of the provincial governments, but to increase taxation. In January 1886 he converted some annual licence duties in certain provinces into a general tax on non-agricultural incomes in excess of Rs. 500 per annum. This unpopular proceeding was immortalised in Kipling's Departmental Ditties by The Rupaiyat of Omar Kalvin, which represents the finance member as plying the begging-bowl among his European countrymen. In his last budget (1887–88) he increased the salt duty by twenty-five per cent, and imposed an export duty on petroleum.

Colvin welcomed his transfer on 21 November 1887 to Allahabad as Lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces and chief commissioner of Oudh, in succession to Sir Alfred Comyn Lyall. His father had been charged with "over-governing" the same provinces thirty years before, and the son resembled him in his personal attention to detail. To his influence were due good water supplies and drainage systems in the larger towns of what are now the United Provinces, several new hospitals, and the Colvin Taluqdars' school at Lucknow.

Towards the Indian National Congress he declared himself uncompromisingly hostile, both in allocutions at divisional durbars and in a published correspondence with Allan Octavian Hume, formerly of his own service, the "father" of the new movement (1885). Colvin resolutely rallied loyalist opinion against the Congress.

Retirement
Created C.I.E. in Oct. 1883, he was gazetted a K.C.S.I. in May 1892, six months before retirement. In England, Colvin settled at Earl Soham Lodge, Framlingham, and took an active part in local affairs and charities. He mainly occupied himself with literature. He wrote the life of his father for the Rulers of India series (1895). His Making of Modern Egypt (1906), while dealing generously with the work of other Englishmen, says nothing of his own part in surmounting the crises of 1881 and 1882. The book was soon overshadowed by Lord Cromer's Modern Egypt (1908). From 1896 onward he was chairman of the Burma Railways, the Egyptian Delta Railway, and the Khedivial Mail Steamship Company, and was on the boards of other companies. He died at Suffolk House, Maple Road, Surbiton – the residence of his eldest daughter Emma Sophia Groome – on 24 March 1908. He was buried at Earl Soham.

He married on 4 August 1859 Charlotte Elizabeth (d 1865), daughter of Lieut.-general Charles Herbert, C.B., and had a son, who died in infancy, and three daughters, the middle of whom married the military commander Bindon Blood and whose portrait is held by the National Portrait Gallery.

References

Attribution

Further reading

External links

 History of Earl Soham parish

1838 births
1908 deaths
Burials in Suffolk
Administrators in British India
Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Auckland
Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire
Recipients of the Order of the Medjidie
Place of birth missing
Founders of Indian schools and colleges
British biographers
Members of the Council of the Governor General of India

Auckland Colvin


St John the Baptist chapel, also called the All Saints Chapel () or the Zubov Chapel, is a chapel built in the Romantic Classical style located in the old graveyard of Plungė City, Lithuania. It is said that it was built by local craftsmen, funded by one of the Zubov counts and the parishioners. In the chapel, members of the Zubov family are buried, as well as the families of other noblemen from the surrounding areas – Lešcevski, Vaitkevičius and Moikovskis.

Architecture
The chapel is associated with both the Romantic and Historic architectural styles. Chapels that were designed for vigils and burials became popular in Lithuania during the Romantic period. The chapel has a long rectangular shape with a lowered semi-circle apse, as a single continuous space, with a tower in the southern part facing the gate to the graveyard. The size of the chapel is 20.6 x 12.4 m, with a height of 12 m (23.8 m including the tower). The building includes a rare feature: a tower, which was an unusual element in chapel architecture.

History
The last religious ceremony was held there in 1934. During the Soviet era, the chapel was unattended and unprotected. The cellar was torn down, and the remains were desecrated. At present, the chapel has been partially renovated and mass sometimes takes place in the building. In 1997, the chapel was added to the cultural heritage list.

Gallery

References

Chapels in Lithuania

St John the Baptist chapel


The 20th Continental Regiment was a unit of the Connecticut Line in the 1776 establishment of the Continental Army.  It was often referred to in records as Durkee's Regiment, after Colonel John Durkee, its commanding officer for most of its existence, or incorrectly as the 20th Connecticut Regiment.  The regiment was posted in New Jersey during the early stages of the New York and New Jersey campaign.  The regiment retreated with George Washington's army in late 1776, and then participated in the Battle of Trenton.  Some of its men chose to overstay their enlistment and also saw action in the Battle of the Assunpink Creek and the Battle of Princeton in early 1777.

The first colonel of the regiment was Benedict Arnold, but he never actually commanded the regiment, as he was in Quebec at the time of its creation, and he was soon thereafter promoted to brigadier general.  John Durkee was its first lieutenant colonel, and was promoted and made the regiment's colonel in August 1776.

References
Connecticut Historical Society. The Record of Connecticut Men in the Military and Naval Service During the War of the Revolution, 1775-1783, p. 160.

External links
Bibliography of Connecticut's participation in the Continental Army compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History

Connecticut regiments of the Continental Army
Military units and formations established in 1776
Military units and formations disestablished in 1776
1776 establishments in the United States

20th Continental Regiment


George Baron (died June 18, 1818) was a mathematician who emigrated from Northumberland, England to Hallowell, Maine in the United States, thereafter moving to New York.  He was the first superintendent and mathematics professor at what would become the United States Military Academy in 1801 and the founder and editor-in-chief of the Mathematical Correspondent, which was the first American "specialized scientific journal" and the first American mathematics journal, first published May 1, 1804.

Baron was first offered the position at the fledgling academy at West Point, New York by the newly elected United States President Thomas Jefferson's Secretary of War Henry Dearborn, a friend of Baron's who had lived near him in Maine.  After agreeing upon salary and perks, instruction began on September 21, 1801 employing the use of Charles Hutton's A Course in Mathematics and a blackboard, the first recorded use of the latter in America.  In October, there was a disagreement between Baron and one of the cadets, Joseph Gardner Swift. Swift was called upon to apologize and was reprimanded for the language he employed against Baron, but went on to become the Military Academy's first graduate, and later a Brigadier General.  For a variety of reasons, Baron was court-martialled in December, and Major Jonathan Williams became the supervisor and Captain William Amherst Barron became the instructor of mathematics.

Baron became a teacher of mathematics in New York City, there joining the Theistical Society of New York, a deist group led by Elihu Palmer that came to public attention in the course of a pamphlet war between supporters of United States Vice President Aaron Burr and supporters of then United States Senator from New York DeWitt Clinton.

References

Further reading

English mathematicians
19th-century American mathematicians
British emigrants to the United States
1818 deaths
People from Hallowell, Maine
18th-century births

George Baron


The College of Management Academic Studies, a college located in the city of Rishon LeZion, Israel, is the largest college in Israel. Founded in 1978, COLMAN is the first non-subsidized, not-for-profit research academic institution in Israel to be recognized and certified by the Council for Higher Education in Israel. It offers bachelor's and master's degrees in business administration, law, media, economics, organizational development and consulting, computer science, behavioral sciences, family studies and interior design. The college places an emphasis on social awareness and responsibility, encouraging both students and faculty to take part in communities and outreach activities.

History
The College of Management - Academic Studies  (COLMAN) gained authorization in 1986 to award a BA degree in business administration and accounting. COLMAN became the first non-subsidized, non-profit academic institution in Israel to be recognized and certified by the country's supreme educational authority, the Council for Higher Education in Israel. Official recognition of COLMANS' status marked the democratization of Israeli higher education. Today, COLMAN is the largest college in Israel and has become a dynamic, innovative force in Israel's higher educational framework.

The Academic Studies has achieved its impressive growth because of its success in meeting a real need - the desire of young Israelis for a unique curricula that combines professional knowledge with practical application, close ties between faculty and students, and small classes.

Teaching and degrees
The Teaching Authority  was established to improve the quality of teaching at institutions of higher education in Israel in general, and at COLMAN in particular through various means, while developing tools to measure quality instruction. It encourages debate on the essence of academic teaching and its quality amongst the faculty and academic management.

The Research Authority aims to encourage research activity among the college schools and academic departments to aid faculty to locate research funds both in Israel and abroad and to prepare grant proposals.
The Authority encourages faculty to engage in both basic and applied research as an important element for the improvement of the quality of teaching, a stepping-stone for the personal academic advancement of the faculty and the placing of the college on the academic map in Israel and abroad.

Academic year
The academic year is divided into three terms lasts from October to January ; from February to May; and from June to September.

Libraries

Central library
The College of Management central library lies in Rishon LeZion campus since 1995. In the year 2010, inaugurated in its building dedicated to the library structure. The library serves the students and the academic ranks of the college.

Library building covers three floors and includes reading rooms housing collection of varies fields, work in group rooms, Daily Press Room, audiovisual room and a teaching class.
In the entry level  there is the lending books desk, display shelves displaying new books and journals, sitting areas and computerized seating positions. Copiers are placed on each floor near the elevator. Printers are located in each work in group room.

The library collection contains more than 80,000 volumes of books and copies of electronic media. The collection includes 450 journals in print, thousands of electronic journals, 40 databases, and publications of research institutes, newspapers, videotapes and DVDs.
The collection covers all topics included in undergraduate and graduated curricula: management, financing, marketing, accounting, operations management, economics, international trade, international organizations, behavioral science, criminology, organizational behavior, family studies, communication, computer science, interior design art and more. Books in the library are arranged by classification numbers representing the classification of areas and issues.

Law library
The law library was established in 1990, in 1995 it has moved to its new residence in the law school building on the Rishon LeZion campus.
The library has a key role in the academic teaching, research and activities taking place in law school and allowing large accessibility to legal information worldwide. At the entrance level, there is a reading hall containing reference books, sources files, Jewish law, multi-disciplinary collection, legislation and case law sets and display shelves displaying the latest journals.

The library has a comprehensive collection of library files legislation and case law from Israel and abroad, monographs and other areas related, law journals, legal series, encyclopedias, dictionaries and guides.
In addition to the printed collection, the library subscribed to a wide range of legal databases and others, including foreign legislation and case law, digital books and hundreds of electronic journals. These collections also can be accessed off-campus.

Faculties and Departments

Business Administration
The school of business is the largest in the country with an enrollment of approximately 3,500 students. It is the first private, non-state academic program ever officially accredited by the Council for Higher Education in Israel, Israel's accreditation authority for institutes of higher education.

Law
The Haim Striks School of Law  was founded by Daniel Friedmann (subsequently Minister of Justice)  in 1990. It offers both an LL.B. and a subsequent Master's program.

In 2005, as part of Englard report, prepared for the Council for Higher Education in order to Evaluate the Quality of Law Faculties in Israel, COMAS's Law School granted the highest ranking among the non-subsidized institutions and ranked as one of Israel's leading law schools.

The Haim Striks School of Law closely cooperates with leading universities in the United States and England such as Fordham University and University of Oxford.

Media Studies
The School is the largest school of Media Studies in the country catering to more than 50% of Israel's students of Media Studies. The School's B.A. program in Media Studies and Management integrates theoretical and practical knowledge.

Economics
The School of Economics was established in 1994, and in recent years has undergone accelerated growth and development. Today, it is one of the largest   departments in its field in Israel. It caters to 1,300 students for a BA in Economics and Management.

Computer Science
The Department of Computer Science is one of the largest and leading departments in its field in Israel.

Behavioral Sciences
The School of Behavioral Sciences at the College of Management was established in 1994 as a multidisciplinary department for studying psychology, sociology, and anthropology.

Interior Design
The Interior Design Department was founded in 1995 is a full academic track in interior design separate from architecture or design studies.

Alumni and academics
The Alumni Forum was established to cater for the college's 31,000 alumni. It aims to maintain the connection between the college and its graduates, to encourage contact between the graduates and to fulfill the needs of the alumni both academically and in the business and employment fields.

Office of International Programs
The College of Management - Academic Studies has an international office that works with students from several countries. There is also a student club for foreign and Israeli students on campus known as the International Student Community (ISC).

See also
List of universities and colleges in Israel
Education in Israel

References

External links
 College website
 Admissions website

Universities and colleges established in 1978
Colleges in Israel
1978 establishments in Israel
Law schools in Israel

College of Management Academic Studies


Monophysitism is an idea about the nature of Jesus Christ that Christ has only one nature, the divine one.

There are two main doctrines that can be called Monophysite ():

Eutychianism
Eutychianism says that the human and divine natures of Christ were combined into one new single mono) nature, and his human nature was "dissolved like a drop of honey in the sea".

Apollinarism
Apollinarism, or Apollinarianism, says that Christ had a human body and human "living principle" but that the Divine Logos had taken the place of the nous, or "thinking principle". That is analogous but not identical to what might be called a mind today.

Opposition
After Nestorianism, which was taught by Nestorius, Archbishop of Constantinople, was refused at the First Council of Ephesus, Eutyches, an archimandrite at Constantinople came up with new ideas. Monophysitism and Eutycheism were also refused at the Council of Chalcedon in 451.

Monophysitism is also rejected by the Oriental Orthodox Churches but was widely accepted in Syria, the Levant, and Egypt. That caused many tensions in the early days of the Byzantine Empire.

Later, Monothelitism was developed as an attempt to bridge the gap between the Monophysite and the Chalcedonian position, but it was also rejected by the members of the Chalcedonian synod though it had at times the support of the Byzantine emperors and one of the Popes of Rome, Honorius I. Some thought that Monothelitism was at one time held by the Maronites, but the Maronite community, for the most part, dispute that by stating that it has never been out of communion with the Catholic Church.

Miaphysitism, the christology of the Oriental Orthodox churches, is sometimes considered a variant of Monophysitism, but those churches view their theology as distinct from Monophysitism and anathematize Eutyches.

Christology

Monophysitism


The Calchaquí or Kalchakí were a tribe of South American Indians of the Diaguita group, now extinct, who formerly occupied northern Argentina. Stone and other remains prove them to have reached a high degree of civilization. Under the leadership of Juan Calchaquí they offered a vigorous resistance to the first Spanish colonists coming from Chile.

Their language, known as Cacán, became extinct in the mid-17th century or beginning of 18th century. Its genetic classification remains unclear. The language was supposedly documented by the Jesuit Alonso de Bárcena, but the manuscript is lost.

Friedrich Ratzel in The History of Mankind reported in 1896 that among the Calchaquis of Northern Argentina is found pottery painted with line drawings of birds, reptiles, and human faces, which remind one of Peruvian and Malay work. The Calchaqui people had Bronze Age technology.

Etymology
The name of "Calchaquí" was not given until the 17th century. The Europeans called "Calchaquíes" to a set of Diaguita cultures, such as Yocavil, Quilme, Tafí, Chicoana, Tilcara, Purmamarca, among others. The denomination "Calchaquí" seems to derive from one of the main kuraka (chief) who opposed the Spaniards: Kalchakí called by the Spaniards Juan Calchaquí, who dominated in the valley of Yocavil. Kalcha means "courageous" or "brave" and Qui means "very" or "much".

Life and Culture
They were farmers, herders, and great potters. They worshipped the sun, the moon, thunder and the earth, and spoke their own language called kakán. With the third expansion of the Inca territory, in 1480, they were incorporated into the Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu), from which they received a strong cultural influence.

Calchaquí Wars

During the whole period of the conquest the Spaniards had not been able to penetrate in the Calchaquí Valleys, where the Diaguita culture (Pazioca or Pazioc) had taken refuge, an advanced confederation of independent agro-pottery lordships belonging to the Santa María culture, united by a common language, the Kakán, and in turn part of the great group of the Andean civilizations. The Spaniards referred to their members, incorrectly, as Calchaquíes, name corresponding to one of the Pazioca lordships (called "curacazgos" by the Spanish). These lordships were gathered in three great nations: Pular to the north, Diaguita to the west and Calchaquí to the east. Minor groups were the Ocloy formed by 2,000 people and the Calchaquí, some 12,500 people (2,500 tributary Indians), according to Sotelo Narváez (1583). An ancestral tradition of self-sufficiency of the Paziocas and the scarce number of Spaniards in Tucumán, allowed a series of defense acts of its territory by the Pular-Diaguita-Calchaquí confederation, known as Calchachi by the Spanish. These fights have been historically known as the Calchaquí Wars that extended for more than a century.

 The First Calchaquí War was unleashed in 1560 and was led by the kuraka Juan Calchaquí along with the kurakas Quipildor and Viltipoco. The confederation managed to keep the Europeans out of its territory, razing the three new cities founded by the Spaniards: Cañete, Córdoba de Calchaquí, and Londres.
 The Viltipoco rebellion. Later in 1594 Viltipoco, chief of the Omaguaca, initiated a new uprising gathering an army of 10,000 lances, however, 25 Spaniards and their native allies under the command of the captain Francisco de Argañaras y Murguía infiltrated the Quebrada de Humahuaca where they attacked by surprise the enemy camp, killing the chiefs and capturing Viltipoco, who was taken to San Salvador de Jujuy where he died in prison some years later.
 The Second Calchaquí War lasted 7 years (1630-1637) and was directed by the kuraka Chalamín. The Paziocas again destroyed the cities installed by the Spaniards, Londres II and Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe. In 1637 the Spanish army captured and executed Chalamín. The inhabitants who participated in the war were deported and reduced to slavery by the Spaniards.
 The Third Calchaquí War lasted for eight years (1658-1667). This war had the particularity that, in its beginnings, the Spanish adventurer Pedro Bohórquez, who claimed to be Inca, the "Inca Hualpa" (Inka Wallpa), was accepted as a military leader by the Paziocas. Bohórquez maneuvered cunningly, obtained even the support of the Jesuits and organized a solid indigenous army of 6,000 warriors with which he maintained control of the region for several years. However, in 1659, Bohórquez handed over to the Spaniards with the intention of being forgiven, who sent him to Lima and finally executed him. The confederation continued the war led by José Henriquez. When the lordship of Quilme was defeated in 1665, the Spaniards ordered their complete uprooting and deportation of all its 11,000 members to the Pampean territories close to Buenos Aires, where the city of Quilmes stands today, and where they finally disappeared as an ethnic group. The war ended on January 2, 1667, when the last of the Pazioca lordships, Acali or Calian, was defeated. The Spaniards took the decision to divide, deport, and reduce all the Diaguita peoples to slavery.

See also
 Diaguita
 Pedro Bohórquez
 Tucumán Province

References

Diaguita
Indigenous peoples in Argentina
Salta Province

Calchaquí


Herbert "Kat" Cowans or Cowens (May 24, 1904 – January 23, 1993) was an American jazz drummer born in Texas.

Cowans worked as a shoeshine boy as a child. His first professional engagement as a drummer was with the Satisfied Five, a local Texas ensemble. After moving to Wichita Falls, he played in Frenchy's New Orleans Jazz Band, then worked with Charlie Dixon. He quit Dixon's ensemble to finish high school while still in his teens. He played in theater orchestras early in the 1920s, then moved to New York City to play with Cleo Mitchell in the Shake Your Feet revue. Following this, he did work with the Kansas City Blackbirds, Jimmy Cooper's Black and White Revue, and Eubie Blake in addition to leading his own band (which included Sylvester Lewis among its members).

In the 1930s Cowans played with Fats Waller and Stuff Smith, and joined Eddie Heywood's band for recordings behind Billie Holiday in 1941. He worked with Garvin Bushell in 1942, then played in the pit orchestra for the Broadway show The Pirate. Cowans led a USO band in 1943, touring military bases worldwide, then led small ensembles for several decades thereafter. He also worked with Louis Metcalfe in 1963. He worked with USO again in East Asia in the 1970s, then retired to Dallas.

References
Eugene Chadbourne, [ Herbert Cowans] at Allmusic

American jazz drummers
1904 births
1993 deaths
Jazz musicians from Texas

Herbert Cowans


Mexico Azul (Blue Mexico), is the sixth studio album by the Latin jazz Mexican singer Magos Herrera. Released on Aug 27, 2010 and digital release on Sep 7. Tim Ries produced the album along with Magos Herrera.

Background and theme

Recorded in New York City, produced by Tim Ries and Magos Herrera, Mexico Azul shares a contemporary view of issues such as "Noche criolla" and "Azul" by Agustín Lara, "Luz de Luna" by Álvaro Carrillo and "Dos Gardenias" Isolde Carrillo, among others, accompanied by a first class band with great musicians like the bassist John Patitucci, representing once again, the Mexican jazz in the world.

Magos Herrera pays homage with this album to one of the most remembered in Mexico in the 1930s and '40s, which took place in the Golden Age of Mexican cinema and on the television program La Hora Azul (The Blue Hour), with Agustín Lara.

The material also pays tribute to artists from Puerto Rico and Cuba, who developed their careers in Mexico.

"I'm very happy with this material because it shows that I am given to jazz, that I love to give continuity to my career here in Mexico. The word 'blue' has a connotation interesting because it is depth, which drew my attention. "

The singer also said that this album represents, within the bicentennial and centennial celebrations in Mexico.

"It's important to celebrate, and that is why this disc is attached to the celebrations that are very important to Mexicans", he said.

The album was released in Mexico on August 27, and will be released digitally on September 7 worldwide.

Track listing
 "Luz de Luna" (Moonlight)
 "Noche Criolla" (Creole Night)
 "Azul" (Blue)
 "Angelitos Negros" (Black Little Angels)
 "Seguire Mi Viaje" (Will Continue My Journey)
 "Voz Antigua (A Mi Tierra)" (Ancient Voice - My Land)
 "Lamento Jarocho" (Jarocho's Lament)
 "Que Sea Para Mi" (It Is For Me)
 "Tres Palabras" (Tree Words)
 "Obsesión" (Obsession)
 "Dos Gardenias" (Two Gardenias)

References

Magos Herrera albums
2010 albums

Mexico Azul