The Danger Room is a fictional training facility appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. It first appeared in The X-Men #1 (September 1963) and was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. The facility is depicted as built for the X-Men as part of the various incarnations of the X-Mansion. Its primary purpose is to train the X-Men, initially using traps, projectile firing devices, flamethrowers, and mechanical dangers such as presses and collapsing walls. These were replaced by holographics, when the Danger Room was rebuilt using Shi'ar technology. It gained sentience in Astonishing X-Men as Danger.

Publication history
An obstacle course in which the X-Men train appears in The X-Men #1 (September 1963), but the Danger Room is never mentioned by name. The name "Danger Room" is first used in The X-Men #2 (November 1963). According to X-Men writer/editor/co-creator Stan Lee, "the Danger Room was Jack Kirby's idea. I thought it was great because we could always open with an action sequence if we needed to."

Early designs

In the early books it was filled with traps, projectile firing devices, flamethrowers, and mechanical dangers such as presses, collapsing walls and the like intended to challenge the trainee. Meanwhile, an observer is in the overhanging control booth managing the room's mechanisms to oversee the exercise while manually ensuring the subject's safety. Later the Danger Room was upgraded with machines and robots for the X-Men to fight against.

After befriending the Shi'ar the X-Men rebuilt the Danger Room with Shi'ar hard-light holographic technology. These upgrades were largely added by Beast. The Danger Room is located in the X-Mansion; every destruction of the latter led to a rebuilding, and usually upgrading, of the Danger Room. The training facility has endured extensive damage over the years, usually from X-Men training or X-Men going rogue, as Colossus did during The Muir Island Saga. Supervillains have dealt critical damage to it as well as taking over the facility, especially Arcade. The security and safety protocols that ensure the safety of anyone using the Danger Room have frequently been disrupted, tampered with by villains, failed, or have been completely negated in all the years of its use, each time happening more frequently as the room began to get more and more upgraded.

It is suggested in the X-Men Official Guide that the objects in the Danger Room are holograms surrounded by force fields, supposedly confirmed in Astonishing X-Men when a student managed to kill himself by jumping from a holographic cliff face. It is also revealed that the Danger Room can display holograms in only 32-bit color.

Sentience

Gaining self-awareness
In Joss Whedon's Astonishing X-Men, the Danger Room developed self-awareness. It is mentioned by Wolverine as 'acting twitchy all semester'. The first thing it does is convince Wing, who has recently been depowered by Ord's cure, to kill himself. The next thing it does is take control of an old, broken Sentinel robot and knock out all the psychics within the X-Mansion. During the Sentinel's attack, Cyclops orders Shadowcat and the students to go hide in the Danger Room for safety. While there, they find the corpse of Wing. The Danger Room reanimates the corpse and attacks the students. Apart from Wing, there are no additional fatalities among the students. After being freed from its prison, it takes the form of a woman. She is dubbed "Danger" and attacks the X-Men. After defeating them, she travels to Genosha to kill Professor Xavier.

Xavier was revealed to have known of the Danger Room's sentience and chosen not to reveal it, much to the dismay of the X-Men who seem to view this deception as taking on one of Magneto's former ideals. During the battle on Genosha, she takes control of Cassandra Nova's second Wild Sentinel and engages Beast in a vicious and brutal fight while the other X-Men take on the Wild Sentinel. After Beast destroys her body, Danger's consciousness was presumed to still exist within the conflicted consciousness of the Wild Sentinel.

Ord and the Breakworld
Later, Danger reappears in a new humanoid form, similar to her previous one, in which she infiltrated S.W.O.R.D. headquarters to speak with Ord of the Breakworld and offer her assistance.

Danger and Ord both ended up on Breakworld, along with the X-Men and S.W.O.R.D., and after the robot encountered Emma Frost and an unconscious Cyclops, Emma told the robot that despite its supposed enmity it has let the mutants live too often, meaning it hasn't overcome its parent programming, so it cannot kill any mutant. Cyclops recovers, and Emma tells Danger to help the X-Men in Breakworld, and in exchange, it will be given Professor Xavier. Danger later attacks some of Breakworld's inhabitants and sides with the X-Men and S.W.O.R.D.

Revenge
After the Breakworld incident, S.W.O.R.D. takes Danger into custody. When the S.W.O.R.D. headquarters is destroyed during Secret Invasion, Danger escapes and goes to Australia, taking on the form of an anthropologist from Melbourne University. She approaches Rogue in her disguise but is targeted by a low flying Shi'ar salvage spacecraft, where she reveals who she really is and that she is going to use Rogue as a conduit so she can get her revenge on Professor Xavier.

After being damaged by the crew, she warps the entire area with her holographic projections of past moments within Rogue's life as well as other famous moments from the X-Men's history. Xavier confronts Danger and she reveals she intended to make Rogue absorb all Xavier's powers and memories permanently, leaving the Professor crippled and useless. Xavier reveals that when she first said Where am I?, Xavier consulted her Shi'ar makers who assured him it was not possible she could have gained self-awareness and that Xavier had no way of knowing what she was or would become. The Professor tried to free her but because she was really billions of lines of machine code, Xavier didn't know which lines to erase without lobotomizing her. Because of not knowing what she was capable of, if she had been freed, she might have killed his X-Men because she had the knowledge and power, so instead Xavier did nothing and watched her suffer. Xavier ends her suffering by repairing her. She then sides with Xavier, Rogue, and Gambit and takes out the Shi'ar salvage crew. Afterwards, with Xavier, she helps Rogue gain full control over her powers.

Utopia
Danger joins Rogue and Gambit to help the X-Men settle the unrest in San Francisco. She saves a child who mistakes her for a Transformer. She comes to aid Rogue and Gambit during a fight with Ares and later departs with the two to find Trance and any other students still out during the riots. After locating Trance, they are attacked by Ms. Marvel who manages to seriously damage her shoulder.

After the events of Utopia, Danger is seen being repaired by Madison Jeffries when they are attacked by Emplate. Danger tries to defend Madison only to be further damaged by Emplate. After being repaired, at the request of Cyclops, she informs the inhabitants of Utopia who Emplate is. She works alongside Madison, Rogue and the X-Club on erasing Legion's many personalities, and is offered the position of warden of Utopia by Emma, which she accepts because it also allows her to study the best and the worst of what humanity has to offer. Danger's first job was to interrogate Scalphunter who was forced into bringing five Predator Xs to Utopia. Armor confronts Danger, due to her being responsible for Wing's death. The get into a tussle. Danger was able to discover Armor's weakness and insists that they talk. Armor angrily expresses to Danger that her presence with the X-Men pisses on Wing's memory. Danger tells Armor, that she constantly reboots herself, but can't wipe out Wing's image in her memory. Armor is surprised that Danger can experience feelings of guilt, and she proceeds to tell her about Wing.

Necrosha
As warden of Utopia, some of the prisoners she guards include Empath, Sebastian Shaw and Donald Pierce. She uses her Virtual Reality technology in an attempt to rehabilitate them. During the invasion from Selene's forces, she detects an energy source, but then malfunctions and crashes. Then, Shinobi Shaw and Harry Leland (who have been resurrected by the T-O virus) appear and are ready to kill Shaw for preventing Selene's ascent to godhood. However, Danger is able to adapt to the mass increase and severed Shinobi's hand before Sebastian could be killed.

Second Coming

Danger appears to have been compromised as she is not aware that Pierce has free rein to sabotage Utopia's defenses.

Wolverine and the X-Men
Beast rebuilds the Westchester School at the behest of Wolverine at the aftermath of the Schism event. Built on the ruins of the previous Xavier Institute, the school is rechristened the Jean Grey School for Higher Learning and is built with state of the art Shi'ar Technology, gifted by the current Emperor of the Shi'ar Empire Gladiator (Kallark) whose son Kid Gladiator is enrolled. The school incorporates a decentralized Danger Room that is integrated into the entire building itself instead of just one room.

All-New X-Factor
Danger reappears in the All-New X-Factor series. She appears as a prisoner of a member of the Thieves Guild, which Gambit is running, and when Gambit discovers this, Gambit orders her freed. After restoring her memory which was lost due to the imprisonment, Gambit invites her to join the new X-Factor team.

X-Men: Blue
Danger appears in the form of the Blackbird jet plane and is used as the main transport for the original time-displaced X-Men.

During the Secret Empire storyline, Danger takes Jean Grey and Jimmy Hudson to a prison stronghold to rescue their captured teammates. During the ensuing battle, she reveals her true form and projects holograms of the adult X-Men to keep the guards occupied.

Krakoa
When Krakoa became a sovereign nation for mutants, Madison Jeffries tried to bring Danger with him but the island rejected the home he tried to build for her. Madison was subsequently put into the Pit of Exile for breaking Krakoa's third law and Danger was forced to leave the island. Abandoned and alone, Danger joined and began working with the CIA's Dolores Ramirez and potentially the anti-mutant organization Orchis and is revealed to be behind the "X-Robots".  It was later revealed by Third Eye's report that Danger is not a villain, but just a non-mutant being who has been abused and rejected by Krakoan society and abandoned by those meant to protect her.

Powers and abilities
As Danger gained self-awareness and adopted a more humanoid appearance, she has shown enhanced strength and durability, the abilities to create hard-light holographic projections that can affect entire areas, emit modulated energy waves for blasts, binding and protection, flight capability, mechanical regeneration & shapeshifting; with which to alternate her physical form as well as rebuild herself after her body is destroyed (at one point even rebuilding herself with butterfly-like wings which are soon destroyed by Beast), control and assimilate machinery and cybernetic components into herself via thought. She is able to bring other machines into self-awareness and upload her consciousness into foreign digitized and/or mechanical systems to build, operate or otherwise commandeer new bodies. Danger also possesses more detailed knowledge of the X-Men and their combat skills than any other source, having trained against them as the Danger Room for generations.

Danger Cave
With the Danger Room gone, the X-Men have resorted to using the empty room to train with their students. Also, the student Prodigy, using the borrowed knowledge from several X-Men, built a "Danger Cave" underneath the X-Mansion that is a giant stone room with a large metal circle control center. The Danger Cave is similar to the Danger Room, but what makes the Danger Cave unique is that it uses holograms to train the students by re-enacting renowned battles the X-Men were involved in, like Inferno, Broodworld, Planet X, or Onslaught, even going so far as to dress the participants up in what the X-Men wore at that time.

Analysis
Molly Louise Sharp in her dissertation on heroines and feminism wrote that "from a third wave feminist perspective, Danger seems to be constructed as a radical feminist character as viewed through a third wave feminist lens... Danger is born from a literal revolution of consciousness; she becomes newly sentient and realizes that she is forced into a role that is not fulfilling and in which she cannot reach her potential... Danger herself and her conflict with the X-Men are also similar to radical feminism through patriarchy, essentialism, and separatism. That Danger is a female character is crucial because there is no narrative reason that Danger needs to be female other than to align her with the feminism present in the rest of the text".

Reception
The Danger Room is well known and viewed as an iconic part of the X-Men mythos.

Other versions

Age of Apocalypse
The Danger Room equivalent in the Age of Apocalypse reality was the Killing Zone. The facility was located in Mount Wundagore and was apparently destroyed by Nemesis. Later, it was Dazzler who replaced the Danger Room and acted as a one-woman training facility for the fully fledged X-Men.

Ultimate Marvel
The Ultimate Marvel version of the Danger Room has similar technology, including smaller holographic training rooms in the hidden safehouses prepared for the X-Men. However, these are prone to malfunctions, such as a fight sequence producing Hasidic rabbis instead of ninjas (though to no less of an effect towards the latter intent).

What If?

Danger became Ultron's wife
In the alternate universe of What If? Astonishing X-Men, the Danger Room got a body of her own and betrayed the X-Men. She eventually married Ultron and the two conquered Earth, the Shi'ar Empire and the entire universe.

In other media

Television
 The Danger Room appears in Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends.
 The Danger Room appears in X-Men: Pryde of the X-Men.
 The Danger Room appears in X-Men: The Animated Series.
 The Danger Room appeared in the Spider-Man: The Animated Series episode "The Mutant Agenda".
 The Danger Room appeared in X-Men: Evolution. This version is purely mechanical, similar to the earliest comic incarnation, and was primarily used for training.
 The Danger Room appears in Wolverine and the X-Men. Additionally, Master Mold's characterization has elements of Danger.

Film
The Danger Room appears in the X-Men film series.
 The Danger Room was meant to appear in X-Men (2000), but the scene was deleted.
 The Danger Room was alluded to in X2 (2003), and was meant to make an appearance, but the idea was quickly scrapped due to budget concerns.
 The Danger Room appears in X-Men: The Last Stand (2006).
 The Danger Room appears in X-Men: Apocalypse (2016).

Video games
 A malfunctioning Danger Room appears as the stage for all but the last level of X-Men.
 The Danger Room appears as Cyclops's stage in X-Men: Children of the Atom.
 The Danger Room appears as Cyclops's stage in X-Men: Mutant Academy.
 The Danger Room appears as Beast's stage in X-Men: Mutant Academy 2.
 The Danger Room appears in X-Men Legends and X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse. In both games, players can use the room for training as well as gaining levels, items, new powers, and rare character exclusive equipment.
 The Danger Room appears as the training stage for Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds.
 The Danger Room appears in the "Rise of the Phoenix" DLC for Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, with its A.I. voiced by Laura Bailey.
 The Danger Room appears as a playable game mode in Marvel: Future Fight.

Miscellaneous
The Danger Room and Danger are featured as a wizard mode in Stern's X-Men Pinball machines.

References

External links
UncannyXmen.net Spotlight on Danger

1963 in comics
Characters created by Jack Kirby
Characters created by Stan Lee
Characters created by Joss Whedon
Comics characters introduced in 2005
Female characters in comics
Fictional elements introduced in 1963
Fictional gynoids
Fictional rooms
Fictional technology
Holography in fiction
Marvel Comics supervillains
Marvel Comics female supervillains
Fiction about virtual reality
X-Men
Marvel Comics objects

Danger Room


Greenprinting relates to the conservation of land. Greenprinting is the creation of conservation scenarios that help communities make informed conservation decisions.

Greenprinting can galvanize public support and encourage partners to work toward common conservation goals. Greenprinting often involves use of state-of-the-art maps and models created with Geographic Information System (GIS) software that combines layers of spatial and demographic information to guide growth management efforts.

Publications
 Local Greenprinting for Growth
 The Trust For Public Land - Greenprinting Case Studies
 The Trust for Public Land - Greenprinting for Growth in Texas
 Vision North Texas Greenprinting Project Presentation Jan 27th 2007
 Vision North Texas Greenprinting Project Status Report March 20th 2008

External links
 The Trust for Public Land
Environmental conservation
Environmental planning
Parks

Greenprinting


Totton and Eling () is a civil parish in Hampshire, England, with a population of about 28,100 people. It contains the town of Totton and is situated between the eastern edge of the New Forest and the River Test, close to the city of Southampton but outside the city boundary; the town is within the New Forest non-metropolitan district. Surrounding towns and villages include Ashurst, Marchwood, Cadnam and Ower.

Description
Totton claimed to be the largest village in England until it was made a town in 1974. The town is often considered to be made up of several smaller villages, such as Testwood, Calmore and Hammonds Green (as well as the original village of Totton) which have been connected by new clusters of housing to form the town as it is today. This is backed up by the presence of several areas of local shops, which served their respective villages in the past, and to an extent still do today. Until the 1967 forest perambulation fencing, New Forest ponies were free to roam its streets. The town's built up area has swollen significantly since the later half of the 20th century and now forms a near continuous web of development with surrounding villages, with Ower, Netley Marsh and Ashurst in particular having little or no discernible distinction in built up area.

Totton's town centre has changed little since the 1970s. Commercial Road and the A35 causeway are the main exit routes from the town.

The areas behind Calmore Industrial Estate by the River Test have been regenerated with lakes for boating, but their main use is for fishing and as a water supply resource.
There is also the Testwood Lakes Centre, with walks along the Test Way running from Totton to Inkpen Beacon in Berkshire, via Romsey in Hampshire.

Eling can be accessed by crossing the railway line which divides the original old village of Totton and the areas of Eling, and Hounsdown. This goes to Brokenford which has some pathways from Totton to the A35 Bypass road at Eling recreation ground, by Bartley Water. The village's name is pronounced the same as that of the London town and borough of Ealing.

History

Early history
The Iron Age Hillfort at Tatchbury Mount is evidence of early settlement in the Totton area and Netley Marsh on the edge of Totton was the site of an early battle between Anglo Saxon invaders under Cerdic and Romano-Celtic peoples under Natanleod. The construction of Testwood Lakes revealed a treasure-trove of ancient artefacts including one of the oldest known bridges in England, believed to date to around c.1,500BC.

Totton Appears on the "Hantoniae sive Sovthantonensis Comitatvs" map in Joan Blaeu's Atlas Major Vol. 5 Published in 1665

The area's history is inevitably closely connected with ship and boat building but more with its timber trade. It was the site of much illegal dealing in the timber unlawfully obtained from the New Forest.

Eling's attractions include the parish church and Eling Tide Mill Experience. St Mary's is a Norman church built on Saxon foundations with registers dating back to 1537. The Eling Tide Mill Experience is Eling Tide Mill, its visitor centre, and the outdoor walks around the mill pond at Bartley Water and the Solent Water shoreline at Goatee Beach.  Eling Tide Mill is one of the very few working tide mills in the UK but cannot be equated with the mill listed in the Domesday Book. Hampshire's only surviving medieval toll bridge is here, across Bartley Water by the side of the Tide Mill. This has been in use since at least 1418 and still charges users today. The Eling Tide Mill Experience was closed for refurbishment from 2015 and reopened 9 April 2018.

Recent history
The original village of Totton can be described as the areas of Totton, Testwood and the Salmon Leap, dissected by the A36 and the A336 and bordered by the River Test. From this, many new developments were made to expand the town. The Calmore estate was built in the early 1970s to the north of the town, and subsequent housing has merged the estate to the town as a whole. Extended housing to the Hounsdown region also occurred during the 1970s, with the construction of the school and the increased housing found there. In the late 1980s and 1990s, more housing was built to the west of the town towards Netley Marsh and along Ringwood Road. These developments, collectively referred to as West Totton, consisted of a new communal area and church and hall as well as huge amounts of new homes.

Transport
Totton and Eling is served by the railway at Totton railway station, on the South West Main Line to Southampton, London Waterloo, Bournemouth and Poole, and is run by South Western Railway.

Bus services in the town are run by two main companies. Bluestar operate services to Southampton, Cadnam, Hythe, Dibden and around the town. Salisbury Reds also operate cross county routes between Salisbury and Southampton.

The town has easy access to the nearby M27 motorway, to Salisbury via the A36 Salisbury Road, to Lyndhurst and Southampton via the A35 and to the Waterside region by the A326.

The town also has numerous cycle routes, which started with the suburban cycleway through West Totton, constructed when the estate was built and running from Hounsdown to Calmore Road. This has further been extended to two on-road routes to the centre of Totton from Calmore schools down Water Lane, and down Salisbury Road. In addition, there are several links to the New Forest cycle network at Ashurst and Foxhills.

Sport
One of the most successful sporting enterprises of the area has been Totton and Eling Cricket Club. Under its former guise of B.A.T. Sports, it won the Southern Premier League, the highest level of club cricket in the Hampshire area, four times in six seasons between 2001 and 2006. In September 2007 Totton and Eling C.C. became North Gear National 2020 Champions beating Ockbrook & Borrowash in the live televised final on Sky Sports.

Totton also has two local football teams, A.F.C. Totton who play at Testwood Stadium and Totton & Eling F.C. who play at Little Testwood Farm. In 2007, AFC Totton made it to the final of the FA Vase and so had the chance to play in the second competitive match at Wembley Stadium. The club were previously based at a ground in the centre of the town, however moved in 2011 to a new stadium with stand and several training pitches near the outskirts of the town in Calmore. The ground reportedly cost £2.5 million.

Rugby: Tottonians RFC play at water lane. They are an amateur club with 4 adult teams and a thriving mini & junior section. The 1st XV currently play in regional 1 south (level 6). They have won one Hampshire cup whilst playing in the London & South West leagues. Ex players include Italian international David Sisi.

Schools
There are two secondary schools and a sixth form college within the parish.
Testwood School is in the north of the town was built in the 1940s, and gained Sports College status in 2004. This resulted in improvement of facilities including building of a synthetic turf pitch and an extension to the sports hall. The Testwood school logo includes the river, the wood and salmon, indicating the nearby River Test and the salmon leap. Testwood hires out its sporting facilities after hours, namely the synthetic turf pitch, which is used frequently by the community. Testwood's pupils mainly come from the central Totton and Calmore areas.

Hounsdown School, a Specialist Science College, built in 1963, opened in 1969
is located in the Hounsdown area of the town, south of the A35. It too has experienced expansion in recent years, including the construction of a new sports hall. The Hounsdown logo is of a stylised, curved triangle. Hounsdown also hires out its sporting facilities after school, namely the swimming pool, which is used frequently by the local community and groups. Hounsdown's catchment area covers Hounsdown village, Eling, West Totton and Ashurst.

The sixth form college, Totton College, opened in 1955 as Totton Grammar School to provide selective education, when grammar schools were phased out it changed status to a 16 - 19 yr old FE college.

Totton has a split site special educational needs school called Forest Park School, which opened in September 2009, which caters for children from Nursery to Post 16. It's an amalgamation of 2 former SEN schools called Forest Edge School, which was located on Lydlynch Road, this is now the site of Forest Park Primary School, which was built around the old school building. The secondary school, called Forest Park Secondary School, was called Salterns school, which is located on Commercial Road. The Primary site has a range of pupils with moderate, severe and profound learning difficulties, whilst the secondary site provides education for children with severe and profound learning difficulties.

Religion
The town has a number of churches in the area, the biggest and oldest being St. Mary the Virgin church in Eling. Other Anglican churches in the town include the church of St. Anne in Calmore, the church of St. Matthew in Netley Marsh and the church of St. Winfrid in Testwood. These churches form the Team parish of Totton and are part of the Diocese of Winchester. In addition to these, there is also Testwood Baptist Church and Trinity Church in West Totton (Methodist/URC).

St. Mary the Virgin Church

St Mary the Virgin is the oldest of the churches in the Totton area. Several years ago during the reordering of the church, part of a Celtic cross dating back to the 9th (possibly the 6th) century was found. The site of St Mary's has been a place of Christian worship since that date. The church building has Saxon origins.

Today the church stands on the hill looking out over the bay to the container port on the Southampton side of Millbrook.

The church has a modern interior with a light, open effect and the traditional stone, including a Saxon arch.

St Mary the Virgin Church is a part of the Anglican team ministry that covers Totton and Eling with 38,000 people within its area. Historically the mother church to the area, St Mary's is now one of four churches in the team ministry along with Calmore, Netley Marsh and Testwood. In 2003 two self-styled 'vampires' were imprisoned for harassment of the vicar of St Mary's and his family.

References

External links

Official Totton & Eling Town Council Website. Accessed 24 November 2007
Totton Local Business & Trade Services Guide

Civil parishes in Hampshire
New Forest District

Totton and Eling


Dominique Kalifa (12 September 1957 – 12 September 2020) was a French historian, columnist and professor.

Early life
Kalifa was born in Vichy and attended the local École normale supérieure at Saint-Cloud.

Under the supervision of Michelle Perrot, he undertook postgraduate research and received his doctorate in 1994.

Career
Kalifa was professor at the University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne and director of the Centre of 19th Century History, and a member of the Institut universitaire de France. He also taught at the Institut d'études politiques de Paris (Sciences Po) from 2008 to 2015, and was several times visiting scholar at New York University, Brigham Young University and the University of St Andrews.

A student of Michelle Perrot, he specialised in the history of crime, transgression, social control, and mass culture in 19th and early 20th century France and Europe.

From 1990, he was also columnist (historical reviews) for the French newspaper Libération. His study about the underworld and its role in the Western imagination is now translated into Portuguese (EDUSP), Spanish (Instituto Mora) and forthcoming in English (Columbia University Press).

His  Véritable Histoire de la Belle Epoque, published in 2017, won the Eugène Colas Prize from the Académie française.

He also worked on a project about love, Paris and the topographical imagination. He has been described as a specialist in the  and social imagination.

Selected works
 L'Encre et le Sang. Récits de crimes et société à la Belle Époque, Fayard, Paris, 1995.
 Naissance de la police privée, Plon, Paris, 2000.
 La Culture de masse en France, tome 1 1860–1930, La Découverte, Paris, 2001.
 Vidal le tueur de femmes. Une biographie sociale (with Philippe Artières), Perrin, Paris, 2001.
 Imaginaire et sensibilités au e siècle (with Anne-Emmanuelle Demartini), Creaphis, Paris, 2005.
 Crime et culture au e siècle, Perrin, Paris, 2005.
 L'Enquête judiciaire en Europe au e siècle (ed), Creaphis, Paris, 2007.
 Le Commissaire de police au e siècle  (ed), Publications de la Sorbonne, 2008.
 Crimen y cultura de masas en Francia, siglos XIX-XX, Instituto Mora, Mexico, 2008.
 Biribi. Les bagnes coloniaux de l'armée française, Paris, Perrin, 2009.
 La Civilisation du journal. Histoire culturelle et littéraire de la presse au XIXe siècle (ed), Nouveau Monde, Paris, 2011.
 Les bas-fonds. Histoire d'un imaginaire, Seuil, Paris, 2013.
 Atlas du crime à Paris, du Moyen Age à nos jours (with J.-C. Farcy), Paris, Parigramme, 2015.
La Véritable histoire de la Belle Époque, Paris, Fayard, 2017.
Tu entreras dans le siècle en lisant Fantômas, Paris, Vendémiaire, 2017.
Paris. Une histoire érotique d'Offenbach aux sixties, Paris, Payot, 2018.

In English : "Crime Scenes: Criminal Topography and Social Imaginary in Nineteenth Century Paris", French Historical Studies, vol. 27, n° 1, 2004, p. 175-194; "Criminal Investigators at the Fin-de-siècle", Yale French Studies, n° 108, 2005, p. 36-47; "What is now cultural history about?", in Robert Gildea and Anne Simonin (eds), Writing Contemporary History, London, Hodder Education, 2008, p. 47-56; « The Press », in E. Berenson, V. Duclert & C. Prochasson (eds), The French Republic. History, Values, Debates, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 2011, p. 189-196; "Minotaur", Journal of Modern History, vol. 84, n° 4, 2012, p. 980-982; "Naming the Century: Chrononyms of the 19th Century", Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle, n° 52, 2016; "An Informal History of Herbert Asbury's Underworld", Medias19, 2018; Vice, Crime, and Poverty. How the Western Imagination Invented the Underworld, Columbia University Press, 2019.

Filmography
 Co-author with Mathilde Damoisel of the film Romantic Paris, Erotic Paris, France Television, 2021
 Co-author with Hugues Nancy of the film A beautiful era: France before 14, CP&B/France 3, 2019
 Management (with E. Blanchard) of the series Faits divers : l'histoire à la Une broadcast on Arte, 2017
 Columnist in Casque d'or et les Apaches (1902), a 52 min episode of the television documentary series Des crimes almost parfaits directed by Patrick Schmidt and Pauline Verdu, Planète+ CI, 2015
 Arsène, 55 min documentary directed by Lucien Dirat and Nathan Miler, La Sept Arte, FRP, 2000
 In the Belle Epoque of bad boys, 52 min documentary directed by Nicolas Lévy-Beff
 Les Enfants du prison, 52 min documentary directed by Nicolas Lévy-Beff
 Miscellaneous facts? Cézanne and the murder, interview with Dominique Kalifa and Philippe Comar, exhibition "Cézanne et Paris" presented at the Musée du Luxembourg, 2011-2012

Death
Kalifa died by suicide in Brugheas, his home town, at the age of 63; in the afternoon, as per the Libération report.

References

1957 births
2020 deaths
Academic staff of the University of Paris
20th-century French historians
20th-century French male writers
21st-century French historians
21st-century French male writers
French male non-fiction writers
Academic staff of Sciences Po
2020 suicides
Suicides in France

Dominique Kalifa


Robert Heger (19 August 1886 – 14 January 1978) was a German conductor and composer from Strasbourg, Alsace-Lorraine.

Life and career

He studied at the Conservatory of Strasbourg under Franz Stockhausen, then in Zurich under Lothar Kempter and finally in Munich under Max von Schillings. After early conducting engagements in Strasbourg he made his debut at Ulm in 1908 or 1909. He held appointments in Barmen (1909), at the Vienna Volksoper (1911), and at Nuremberg (1913), where he also conducted Philharmonic concerts. He went on to Munich and Vienna, where he recorded a magnificent version of Goldmark's Rustic Wedding Symphony with the Vienna Philharmonic; and then to Berlin (1933-1950), where a live wartime Lohengrin was preserved and afterwards issued on LP, after which he returned again to Munich.

In 1932, he conducted the Vienna Symphony Orchestra and one-armed pianist Paul Wittgenstein in the world premiere of Maurice Ravel's Piano Concerto for the Left Hand, after Arturo Toscanini had declined Ravel's invitation to conduct the premiere.

In 1937, Heger joined the Nazi Party. Heger conducted one of the final concerts of the Berlin Philharmonic on 12 April 1945 at the Berlin the Philharmonic Hall, 4 days before the Red Army started the Battle of Berlin. The Berliner played Wagner's Brünnhilde's last aria and the finale from Götterdammerung, Beethoven's Violin Concerto and Bruckner's Romantic Symphony, in attendance of the Albert Speer and Admiral Karl Dönitz. Historical records confirm that members of the Hitler Youth offered cyanide capsules to the audience when leaving the building, to the horror of Albert Speer.

Heger conducted at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, from 1925 to 1935, and again with his Munich company in 1953, when he gave the first London performance of Richard Strauss's opera Capriccio. He lived to conduct stereo recordings, notably a fine rendition of Schubert's complete Rosamunde incidental music in the 1960s, before his death at 91 in Munich.

Compositions
Heger composed four operas. His works include:
The Jewess of Worms (melodrama)
Pianoforte trio, op 14
Songs
A Festival at Haverslev (3-act opera, prod. Nuremberg 1919)
Hero and Leander (symphonic drama, full orchestra) op. 12
Violin concerto in D major op. 16
Symphony in D minor
A Song of Peace (choral work for soli, chorus, orchestra and organ)

Decorations and awards
 1956 Grand Merit Cross of the Federal Republic of Germany
 1959 Bavarian Order of Merit
 1961 Honorary Citizen of Munich
 1961 Member of the Bavarian Academy of Fine Arts
 1967 Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class

References

Sources
A. Eaglefield-Hull, A Dictionary of Modern Music and Musicians (Dent, London 1924)
H. Rosenthal and J. Warrack, Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera (OUP, London 1974 printing)

1886 births
1978 deaths
Musicians from Strasbourg
Alsatian-German people
German composers
German male conductors (music)
People from Alsace-Lorraine
Nazi Party members
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Recipients of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
20th-century German conductors (music)
20th-century German male musicians

Robert Heger


Martin Boykan (April 12, 1931 – March 6, 2021) was an American composer known for his chamber music as well as music for larger ensembles.

Biography

Boykan was born in New York City. He studied composition first with Walter Piston at Harvard, where he received a BA in 1951. He then went to Zürich to study with Paul Hindemith, with whom he continued his studies at Yale University, earning an MM in 1953. Subsequently, he went to Vienna on a Fulbright scholarship. He also studied composition with Aaron Copland at Tanglewood (1949, 1950), and piano with Eduard Steuermann. Upon his return to the United States in 1955, he founded the Brandeis Chamber Ensemble, whose members included Robert Koff (Juilliard String Quartet), Nancy Cirillo (Wellesley), Eugene Lehner (Kolisch Quartet), and Madeline Foley (Marlboro Festival). This ensemble performed widely with a repertory divided equally between contemporary music and the tradition. At the same time Boykan appeared regularly as a pianist with soloists such as Joseph Silverstein and Jan DeGaetani. In 1964–65, he was the pianist with the Boston Symphony Orchestra under Erich Leinsdorf.

Boykan had residencies at Yaddo (1981 and 1992), the MacDowell Colony in Peterborough, New Hampshire (1982, 1989, 1992), and the Virginia Center for the Creative Arts, Amherst, Virginia (1992, 2007, 2010).

Boykan taught at Brandeis University starting in 1957, and was appointed professor there in 1976. He held the title Irving G. Fine Professor of Music. Boykan was a composer-in-residence at the Composer's Conference in Wellesley in 1987 and a visiting professor at Columbia University (1988–89) and at New York University (1993 and 2000). He was Senior Fulbright Lecturer at Bar-Ilan University, Israel (1994) and composer-in-residence at Warebrook Contemporary Music Festival, Irasburg, Vermont (1998). He served on many panels, including the Rome Prize, the Fromm Commission, the New York Council for the Arts (CAPS), and the Virginia Center for the Creative Arts. His hundreds of students include Steven Mackey, Peter Lieberson, Ross Bauer, Paul Beaudoin, Craig Walsh, and Marjorie Merryman.

Boykan's mature compositional style, beginning with the partly serial String Quartet No. 1 (1967), is marked by the influence of Anton Webern and Igor Stravinsky's late works. After the First Quartet, he began consistently to use twelve-tone technique.

Boykan wrote for a wide variety of instrumental combinations, including four string quartets, a concerto for large ensemble, many trios, duos and solo works, song cycles for voice and piano, voice and other instruments, and choral music. The Utah Symphony premiered his symphony for orchestra and baritone solo in 1993 and the Boston Modern Orchestra Project premiered his Concerto for Violin in 2009. His work is widely performed and has been presented by ensembles including the Boston Symphony Chamber Players, the New York New Music Ensemble, Speculum Musicae, the League-ISCM, Earplay, Musica Viva and Collage New Music.

Boykan received the Jeunesse musicales award for his String Quartet No. 1 in 1967, and the League-ISCM award for Elegy in 1982. Other awards include a Rockefeller grant (1974), NEA award (1983), Guggenheim Fellowship (1984), two Fulbrights (1953–55), as well as a recording award and the Walter Hinrichsen Publication Award from the American Academy (1988) and National Institute of Arts and Letters (1986). In 1994 he was awarded a Senior Fulbright to Israel. He received numerous commissions from chamber ensembles, the Koussevitsky Foundation in the Library of Congress (1985), and the Fromm Foundation (1976).

Personal life
Boykan was the son of New York dentist Joseph Boykan and his wife Matilda, and the brother of mathematical logician Marian Pour-El. He married the silverpoint artist Susan Schwalb in 1983. Boykan died at his home on March 6, 2021, aged 89.

Selected works and publications

 String Trio (1948)
 String Quartet (1949)
 Flute Sonata (1950)
 Duo for Violin and Piano (1951)
 Flute Quintet (1953)
 By the Waters of Babylon, prelude for organ (1964)
 Psalm 128 for a cappella chorus (1965)
 String Quartet No. 1 (1967), recorded by CRI
 Concerto for 13 players (1971), APNM
 String Quartet No. 2 (1974), recorded by CRI
 Trio for violin, cello and piano (1975), commissioned by the Fromm Foundation
 Elegy for soprano and six Instruments, on texts by Goethe, Leopari, Wngaretti, Emily Dickinson, and Li Ho (1982), recorded by CRI
 String Quartet No. 3 (1984)
 Shalom Rav''' for baritone, chorus and organ (1985)
 Piano Sonata No. 1 (1986)
 Epithalamion for baritone, violin and harp (1987), recorded by CRI
 Symphony for orchestra with baritone solo (1989), commissioned by the Koussevitzky Foundation
 Piano Sonata No. 2 (1990)
 Nocturne for Cello, Piano and Percussion (1991)
 Eclogue, for flute, horn, viola, cello and piano (1991)
 Echoes of Petrarch for flute, clarinet and piano (1992), recorded by CRI
 Sonata for cello and piano (1992)
 Voyages for soprano and piano, on texts by Hart Crane (1992)
 Sea Gardens, four songs for soprano and piano, on texts by Hart Crane, Whitman, and Shakespeare (1993)
 Impromptu for violin solo (1993)
 Three Psalms for soprano and piano (1993)
 Pastorale for piano (1993)
 Sonata for Violin and Piano (1994) C.F. Peters
 Ma'ariv Settings for chorus and organ (1995)
 String Quartet No. 4 (1995–96), recorded by CRI
 Three Shakespeare Songs for chorus (1996)
 City of Gold (1996), recorded by CRI
 Trio No. 2 for violin, cello and piano (1997) recorded for CRI
 Psalm 121 for Soprano and String Quartet (1997)
 Usurpations, five bagatelles for piano (1997)
 Sonata for solo violin (1998)
 Flume for clarinet and piano (1998)
 Romanza for flute and piano (1999)
 A Packet for Susan, five songs for mezzo-soprano and piano on texts by Keats, Donne, Landor and Lear (2000)
 Motet for mezzo-soprano and consort of viols (2001)
 Songlines for flute, clarinet, violin and 'cello (2001)
 Concerto for violin and piano (2004)
 Second Chances (2005), song cycle on texts by Mary Oliver for mezzo-soprano and piano, premiere performances in New York (Jan. 2006) and Boston (Feb. 2006).
 Piano Trio No. 3, "Rites of Passage" (2006)
 Piano Sonata No. 3 (2007)
 Toward the Horizon, Novella, for piano solo (2008)
 Soliloquies of an Insomniac, four songs for soprano and piano (2008)
 Sonata No. 2 for violin and piano (2009)
 "As Once on a Deserted Street..." (2010) for quintet (piano, violin, clarinet, horn, cello)

Recordings

The String Quartets Nos. 1 and 2 are recorded on CRI. A disc of vocal music (Elegy and Epithalamion) was released by CRI in 1998, along with the String Quartet No. 4. A second CD including the Piano Trio No. 2, Echoes of Petrarch (trio for flute, clarinet and piano), City of Gold (flute) and the Second Quartet was released in January 2000. Another CD of chamber works issued by CRI (now assigned to New World Records) includes a violin sonata, Flume for clarinet and piano, a song cycle (A Packet for Susan), and the First String Quartet. Sonata for Solo Violin (commissioned by Dan Stepner) is included on a CD by the violinist Curt Macomber (also CRI/New World).

In 2010 Albany Records released the CD Second Chances, which includes String Quartet No. 3, Motet, Songlines and Second Chances featuring mezzo-soprano Pamela Dellal and pianist Donald Berman. Scores are published by Mobart Music Press and C.F. Peters.

In 2004 Scarecrow Press, Maryland, published Boykan's collection of essays Silence and Slow-Time: Studies in Musical Narrative. Pendragon Press published his second book, The Power of the Moment: Essays on the Western Musical Canon, in 2011. Three artist books produced in collaboration with his wife, the artist Susan Schwalb, were purchased by the Music Division of the Library of Congress: City of Gold (flute solo), Flume (clarinet), and Nocturne (viola da gamba).

References

Further reading
 Anderson, Paul E. 2000. "Echoes of Petrarch: Martin Boykan and Musical Narrative". Perspectives of New Music 38, no. 2 (Summer): 168–181.
 Cory, Eleanor. 1976. "Martin Boykan: String Quartet No. 1 (1967)". The Musical Quarterly 62:616–620.
 Harbison, John, and Eleanor Cory. 1973. "Martin Boykan: String Quartet (1967), Two Views". Perspectives of New Music 11, no. 2 (Spring–Summer): 204–248.
 Pollack, Howard. 1992. Harvard Composers: Walter Piston and His Students from Elliott Carter to Frederic Rzewski. Lanham, Maryland: Greenwood Press.
 Rakowski, David. 2000. "For Martin Boykan's Birthday Festschrift". Perspectives of New Music 38, no. 2 (Summer): 199–207.
 Roens, Steven. 2000. "Encomium". Perspectives of New Music 38, no. 2 (Summer): 208–212.

External links

 Profile at Boston Modern Orchestra Project
 Profile at DRAM
 Profile at Sigma Alpha Iota
 Project Muse – John Lowell Brackett's review of Boykan's Silence and Slow Time
 "Martin Boykan, 15, makes piano debut" by R.L., The New York Times'', P. 53, January 12, 1947

1931 births
2021 deaths
Harvard University alumni
Composers from New York City
Twelve-tone and serial composers
American classical composers
American male classical composers
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
20th-century American composers
21st-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters

Martin Boykan


Spandex, Lycra, or elastane is a synthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity. It is a polyether-polyurea copolymer that was invented in 1958 by chemist Joseph Shivers at DuPont.

Name
The name spandex, which is an anagram of the word "expands", is the preferred name in North America. In continental Europe, it is referred to by variants of elastane. It is primarily known as Lycra in the UK, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Latin America, Australia, and New Zealand.

Brand names for spandex include Lycra (made by The Lycra Company, previously a division of DuPont Textiles and Interiors), Elaspan (The Lycra Company), Acepora (Taekwang Group), Creora (Hyosung), INVIYA (Indorama Corporation), ROICA and Dorlastan (Asahi Kasei), Linel (Fillattice), and ESPA (Toyobo).

Production

Unlike many other synthetic fibers, spandex cannot be melt-processed because the polymer degrades upon melting.  Spandex fibers are produced by several spinning technologies.  Typically, a concentrated solution of the polymer is drawn through spinnerets at temperatures where the solvent evaporates.

Spandex is mainly composed of a polyurea derived from the reaction of a diol and a diisocyanate.  Two classes of spandex are defined by the "macrodiols".  One class of macrodiols is the oligomer produced from tetrahydrofuran (i.e. polytetrahydrofuran).  Another class of diols, the so-called ester diols, are oligomers derived from condensation of adipic acid and glycols.  Spandex produced from the ester diols is more resilent photochemically and to chlorinated waters.  Almost always, the diisocyanate is methylenebis(phenyl isocyanate).  The key linking reaction is formation or the urea (aka urethane):

The polyurea is usually treated with various diamines, which function as chain extenders.

Function
The exceptional elasticity of spandex fibers increases the clothing's pressure comfort, enhancing the ease of body movements. Pressure comfort is the response towards clothing by the human body's pressure receptors (mechanoreceptors present in skin sensory cells). The sensation response is affected mainly by the stretch, snug, loose, heavy, lightweight, soft, and stiff structure of the material.

The elasticity and strength (stretching up to five times its length) of spandex has been incorporated into a wide range of garments, especially in skin-tight garments. A benefit of spandex is its significant strength and elasticity and its ability to return to the original shape after stretching and faster drying than ordinary fabrics. For clothing, spandex is usually mixed with cotton or polyester, and accounts for a small percentage of the final fabric, which therefore retains most of the look and feel of the other fibers. An estimated 80% of clothing sold in the United States contained spandex in 2010.

Gallery

History
The easy condensation of diols and diisocyanates was recognized in the 1930's as the result of work by Otto Bayer.  Fibers suitable for replacing nylon were not created from urethanes, but instead this theme led to a family of specialized elastic fabrics.

In the post-World War II era, DuPont Textiles Fibers Department, formed in 1952, became the most profitable division of DuPont, dominating the synthetic fiber market worldwide. At this time, women began to emerge as a significant group of consumers because of their need for underwear and hosiery. After conducting market research to find out what women wanted from textiles, DuPont began developing fibers to meet such needs—including a better fiber for women's girdles, which were commonly made of rubber at the time.

In the early 1950s chemist Joseph C. Shivers modified Dacron polyester, producing an elastic fiber that could withstand high temperatures.

Lycra brand
To distinguish its brand of spandex fiber, DuPont chose the trade name Lycra (originally called Fiber K). DuPont launched an extensive publicity campaign for its Lycra brand, taking advertisements and full-page ads in top women's magazines. Audrey Hepburn helped catapult the brand on and off-screen during this time; models and actresses like Joan Collins and Ann-Margret followed Hepburn's aesthetic by posing in Lycra clothing for photo shoots and magazine covers.

By the mid-1970s, with the emergence of the women's liberation movement, girdle sales began to drop as they came to be associated with anti-independence and emblematic of an era that was quickly passing away. In response, DuPont marketed Lycra as the aerobic fitness movement emerged in the 1970s. The association of Lycra with fitness had been established at the 1968 Winter Olympic Games, when the French ski team wore Lycra garments.  The fiber came to be especially popular in mid-thigh-length shorts worn by cyclists.

By the 1980s, the fitness trend had reached its height in popularity and fashionistas began wearing shorts on the street. Spandex proved such a popular fiber in the garment industry that, by 1987, DuPont had trouble meeting worldwide demand. In the 1990s a variety of other items made with spandex proved popular, including a successful line of body-shaping foundation garments sold under the trade name Bodyslimmers. As the decade progressed, shirts, pants, dresses, and even shoes were being made with spandex blends, and mass-market retailers like Banana Republic were even using it for menswear.

Environmental impact
Most clothes containing spandex are difficult to recycle. Even a 5% inclusion of spandex will render the fabric incompatible with most mechanical recycling machines.

Notes

References

External links

 "What's That Stuff: Spandex" Chemical and Engineering News

Products introduced in 1958
1970s fashion
1980s fashion
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
Copolymers
Elastomers
Synthetic fibers
Technical fabrics
Woven fabrics
Polyethers
Polyurethanes

Spandex


Holy Smoke! is a 1999 independent romantic comedy-drama film directed by Jane Campion, and starring Kate Winslet and Harvey Keitel. Its plot follows an American exit counselor (Keitel) who attempts to deprogram a young Australian woman (Winslet) who has been indoctrinated into a new age cult in India. Julie Hamilton, Tim Robertson, Daniel Wyllie, and Pam Grier appear in supporting roles.

Director Jane Campion wrote the screenplay for the film with her sister, Anna Campion. The film was a co-production between Australia and the United States. The film premiered at the 56th Venice International Film Festival and was shown at the New York Film Festival and the Taipei Golden Horse Film Festival before being released theatrically.

Plot
During a trip to India, 18-year old Ruth Barron has a spiritual awakening and embraces the teachings of a guru named Baba. Back home in the Sydney suburb of Sans Souci, her parents are appalled to learn their daughter now answers to the name Nazni and has no intention of returning. They concoct a tale about her father Gilbert having had a stroke and being on the verge of death, and her mother Miriam travels to India in hopes of persuading her to come home, with no success until she suffers a serious asthma attack. Ruth agrees to accompany her to Australia on her return flight.

Meanwhile, Miriam has arranged a phony reunion with Gilbert in the Outback, claiming to Ruth that he is recuperating there. Gilbert, as well as Ruth's brothers Robbie—along with his promiscuous wife Yvonne—and Tim—along with his male lover, Yani—all convene at a nearby resort. There, they meet with P.J. Waters, a famous American exit counselor who deprograms members of religious cults. Ruth arrives, and goes to visit her father at a farm; there, she is confronted by her family along with P.J., who have staged an intervention. Ruth is defiant and attempts to fight them, but ultimately relents and agrees to accompany P.J. for a treatment session, under the provision that she may return to India once they have finished.

Ruth departs with P.J. to a remote cabin where he isolates her and begins to challenge her faith in Baba, exposing that Baba's doctrines have been directly copied from Hinduism. During the first night, Yvonne, who is staying nearby, arrives to bring a change of clothes for Ruth, and performs oral sex on P.J. The following morning, Ruth is angered when she finds P.J. has strung her sari up in a tree, and retaliates by forming a "HELP" signal out of stones. Later, P.J. takes Ruth to visit her family, and they all screen a documentary exposing the tactics of cults, including the Manson family, Heaven's Gate, and the Rajneesh.

That night, after returning to the cabin, P.J. awakens to find a distressed, naked Ruth has lit the tree and her sari on fire. Ruth propositions P.J., and the two have sex. In the morning, Yvonne, Tim, and Yani arrive to bring Ruth to a party, which P.J. accompanies her on. When they return, a drunken Ruth insults P.J.'s manhood before ordering him to perform oral sex on her. The next morning, P.J's assistant and lover, Carol, arrives from the United States, chastising him for screening her phone calls, and demanding he return home. She ultimately agrees to the deprogramming session lasting one more day. Ruth begins to taunt P.J. and emasculates him by making him wear a dress, but relents when he responds by writing the phrase "Be Kind" on her forehead; she is suddenly overcome with guilt and begins crying, confessing that she does not allow anyone to become emotionally close to her.

Ruth decides to leave, but P.J., who believes himself to be in love with her, attempts to stop her. The two have a physical altercation in which he punches her, knocking her unconscious. P.J. leaves with an unconscious Ruth in the boot of his car. On the road, he encounters Tim, Robbie, and Yvonne en route to the cabin. P.J. tells them Ruth has fled, and that they should separate and search for her. Yvonne insists she accompany P.J., who reluctantly allows her in the car. As they drive, Yvonne hears Ruth banging on the lid of the boot, and orders him to stop the car. She lets Ruth out of the boot, and she begins running into the bush, with P.J. pursuing her on foot, proclaiming his love for her. P.J. eventually collapses of exhaustion in the heat, and has a vision of Ruth as the Durga before Yvonne, Tim, and Robbie come to his and Ruth's aid. Ruth departs with Yvonne, Tim, and Robbie, along with P.J., whom they place in the bed of the truck. During the drive, Ruth asks them to stop the truck. She gets into the bed with P.J., and comforts him.

A year later, Ruth writes to P.J. from Jaipur, where she is now living with her mother, after her father left her for his secretary. Ruth explains to P.J. that she is still seeking spirituality, and has recently completed reading the Bhagavad Gita. She now has a boyfriend, but confesses she still loves P.J. "from afar." Back in the United States, P.J. responds to Ruth, explaining that he and Carol now have twin sons, though he too confesses a love for her.

Cast

Production
The film was made on location in Paharganj in Delhi and Pushkar in India and Sydney and Hawker in the Flinders Ranges in South Australia. Interiors were filmed at Fox Studios Australia.

Angelo Badalamenti's soundtrack is performed by artists including Annie Lennox, Alanis Morissette, Burt Bacharach, Neil Diamond and Chloe Goodchild.

Release

Box office
In the United States, the film was initially given a limited release on 3 December 1999, earning $33,307 its opening weekend. The release expanded to a total of 93 cinemas, ultimately grossing $1,758,780 at the U.S. box office. The film earned a further $1,380,029 during its theatrical release in Australia. The film's worldwide box office gross totaled $3,580,723.

Critical response
Holy Smoke! received mixed reviews from critics, holding a 45% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 82 reviews. The critical consensus on the website reads, "Superb performances hindered by weak script and incoherent story." On Metacritic, it receives an average score of 57 out of 100 based on 30 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

In her review in The New York Times, Janet Maslin said, "As Holy Smoke moves from its early mix of rapture and humor into [the] more serious, confrontational stage, it runs into trouble . . . the screenplay . . . threatens to become heavy-handedly ideological beneath its outward whimsy . . . it turns out to be more fundamentally conventional than might be expected . . . Shot so beautifully by Dion Beebe that it seems bathed in divine light, [the film] has a sensual allure that transcends its deep-seated ponderousness. The richly colored Indian scenes have a hallucinogenic magic, while exquisite desert vistas radiate an attunement with nature. And the steamily claustrophobic look of the intense scenes between Ms. Winslet and Keitel have an eroticism that will not surprise viewers of The Piano."

In his review, Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 2 and a half stars out of 4. He observed, "It's a little surprising, although not boring, when it turns from a mystic travelogue into a feminist parable . . . Winslet and Keitel are both interesting in the film, and indeed Winslet seems to be following Keitel's long-standing career plan, which is to go with intriguing screenplays and directors and let stardom take care of itself . . . A smaller picture like this, shot out of the mainstream, has a better chance of being quirky and original. And quirky it is, even if not successful."

In Variety, David Rooney stated, "Original in every sense, this often difficult film about family, relationships, sexual politics, spiritual questing, faith and obsession further explores the director's abiding fascinations in excitingly unconventional terms. Mainstream audiences may be unwilling to surrender to the pull of a unique journey that strips away its characters' masks and refuses easy solutions, and many men especially will find it too confronting. But others will embrace its thematic and stylistic complexity as qualities all too rare in contemporary cinema."

Bob Graham of the San Francisco Chronicle said, "Holy Smoke sometimes has the mentality, for better or worse, of an encounter group. It also has a terrific subject and the spirit to bring it off."

Accolades
At the Venice Film Festival, Jane Campion and Kate Winslet won the Elvira Notari Prize. Campion was nominated for the Golden Lion but lost to Zhang Yimou for Not One Less.

See also
Cinema of Australia

Notes

References

External links

Holy Smoke at Oz Movies
Holy Smoke! at the National Film and Sound Archive

1990s English-language films
1999 drama films
1999 films
1999 independent films
Australian drama films
Australian independent films
Australian LGBT-related films
Bisexuality-related films
Films about new religious movements
Films directed by Jane Campion
Films shot in Rajasthan
Films shot in Delhi
Films shot in Flinders Ranges
Films scored by Angelo Badalamenti
Films shot in India
Films set in India
Films set in Delhi
Films set in Jaipur
Films set in Rajasthan
English-language independent films

Holy Smoke!


Discovery is the act of detecting something new, or something "old" that had been unknown. In science and academic disciplines, discovery is the observation of new phenomena. It is discovery of new actions, or new events. It provides new reasoning to explain the knowledge gathered through such observations. A discovery may sometimes be based on earlier discoveries, collaborations, or ideas. Some discoveries represent a radical breakthrough in knowledge or technology. Visual discoveries are often called sightings.

Scientific discovery
Before the 17th century, it took extraordinary genius to make even small discoveries. Men such as Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton and many of their contemporaries made great discoveries. But their greatest contribution was in developing and furthering the scientific method. This was an organized method of making new discoveries. By the end of the century science literally exploded with new discoveries. Ordinary educated scientists could now do what only geniuses could do before. Ancient Greeks depended on observation and philosophy to come up with theories about the physical laws of the universe. Beginning in the 17th century scientists now used scientific proof of their discoveries through experiments. They also defended their discoveries against their peers. This was an important part of the scientific method.

References

Problem solving
History of science
Cognition

Discovery (observation)


The vocal fry register (also known as pulse register, laryngealization, pulse phonation, creaky voice, creak, croak, popcorning, glottal fry, glottal rattle, glottal scrape) is the lowest vocal register and is produced through a loose glottal closure that permits air to bubble through slowly with a popping or rattling sound of a very low frequency. During this phonation, the arytenoid cartilages in the larynx are drawn together, which causes the vocal folds to compress rather tightly and become relatively slack and compact. This process forms a large and irregularly vibrating mass within the vocal folds that produces the characteristic low popping or rattling sound when air passes through the glottal closure. The register (if well controlled) can extend far below the modal voice register, in some cases up to 8 octaves lower, such as in the case of Tim Storms who holds the world record for lowest frequency note ever produced by a human, a G−7, which is only 0.189 Hz, inaudible to the human ear.

Vocal fry is thought to have become more common among young female speakers of American English in the early 21st century, with the style of speaking being considered informal, nonaggressive and urban-oriented.

History of register classification

The vocal fry register has been a recognized and identifiable register in American English only within the past few decades, but its characteristic sound was recognized much earlier. Discussion of the vocal fry or pulse register began first within the field of phonetics and speech therapy and did not enter the vocabulary of vocal music pedagogists until the early 1970s, when it was initially controversial. However, controversy surrounding the term within vocal music has subsided as more research into the use of the vocal fry register within the context of singing ensued. In particular, vocal pedagogist Margaret Greene's videotaping of the physiological processes occurring in the body while singers were phonating in the vocal fry register offered solid evidence that this type of vocal phonation should be considered a vocal register from the perspectives of both speech pathology and vocal music. Like any other vocal register, the vocal fry register has a unique vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound that distinguishes it from other vocal registers.

In speech

Discussion of vocal fry is much more frequent in books related to phonetics and speech therapy than it is in those dealing with singing. Some authorities consider the use of vocal fry in speech a dysphonia, but others consider it so only if it is used excessively such as Hollien, Moore, Wendahl, and Michel:

It is simply our intent to suggest that ordinarily vocal fry constitutes one of several physiologically available types of voice production on the frequency-pitch continuum and hence, of itself, is not logically classified among the laryngeal pathologies. While the excessive use of fry could result in a diagnosis of voice disorder, this quality is too often heard in normal voices (especially in descending inflections where the voice fundamentally falls below frequencies in the modal register) to be exclusively a disorder.

Many are quick to point out that although vocal fry is minimally a part of routine speaking patterns, the continued use of such a pattern makes it non-utilitarian or pathological.

During the 20th century, vocal fry in English was most commonly associated to intonational falls produced by male speakers of RP (Received Pronunciation). Notable examples are the movie characters James Bond as played by Sean Connery, and Shere Khan, voiced by actor George Sanders who turned creaky voice into his trademark.

Some evidence exists of vocal fry becoming more common in the speech of young female speakers of American English in the early 21st century, but its frequency's extent and significance are disputed. Researcher Ikuko Patricia Yuasa suggests that the tendency is a product of young women trying to infuse their speech with gravitas by means of reaching for the male register and found that "college-age Americans ... perceive female creaky voice as hesitant, nonaggressive, and informal but also educated, urban-oriented, and upwardly mobile."

A 2014 national study of American adults found that speech with vocal fry was perceived more negatively than a voice without vocal fry, particularly in a labor market context. In young adult women, it was perceived as sounding less trustworthy, less competent, less attractive, and less hireable. The negative evaluation was stronger when the evaluator was also a woman.

A national study of 800 listeners across age groups found that people making hiring decisions preferred a voice without vocal fry to one with vocal fry. A limitation of the study was that the vocal fry samples were produced by imitators rather than natural vocal fry speakers. That suggests that more research is needed, as the negative reaction could be attributable to other factors.

In native speakers of American English, young women use vocal fry more frequently than men. When asked to read a passage, female speakers used vocal fry at a rate four times higher than male speakers.

Creaky voice is frequent in a number of languages, including Finnish, where it serves as a cue for phrase-boundaries and turn-taking. Some languages, such as Jalapa Mazatec, use vocal fry (creaky voice) as a linguistically significant marker; the presence or absence of vocal fry can then change the meaning of a word.

Social implications

Some people seek out the help of speech pathologists as they feel vocal fry makes them appear unsure and less confident. Researchers have found that young adult women who use vocal fry are perceived as less competent and less hireable (listeners have less of a negative reaction to male voices). Others argue that these perceptions are part of a broader attack on women's speech, noting how male voices with vocal fry carry different, and sometimes opposite, connotations.

Vocal fry in spoken English is generally seen as a negative characteristic in the workplace, but a study by Duke University researchers has determined the phenomenon is becoming more common and socially acceptable.

In Finnish, creaky voice is an integrated part of the pronounciation and is used by all genders. A study from Finland showed that the absence of voice fry in spoken Finnish was perceived as the speaker being less fluent.

In singing
The croaking sound produced by male singers at the start of phrases in American country music is produced by moving from this to the modal register. Within choral music, when true basses are not available, choirs often rely on singers who can "fry" the low bass notes. Singers such as Tim Storms, Mike Holcomb and various other gospel basses use this technique to sing very low tones.  Some styles of folk singing showcase the vocal fry register in the female voice. Vocal fry is also used in metal music, usually in combination with air from the diaphragm, in order to create a "growl" or "scream", which sounds aggressive and harsh.

The chief use of the vocal fry register in singing is to obtain pitches of very low frequency, which are not available to the singer in the modal register. The physiological production of the vocal fry register may be extended up into the modal register. In some cases, vocal pedagogues have found the use of vocal fry therapeutically helpful to students who have trouble producing lower notes. Singers often lose their low notes or never learn to produce them because of the excessive tension of the laryngeal muscles and of the support mechanism that leads to too much breath pressure.

Some throat singing styles such as kargyra use vocal techniques similar to vocal fry.

See also

 Basso profondo
 Breathy voice
 Creaky voice
 Death growl
 Throat singing
 Glottal stop
 Harsh voice
 High rising terminal
 Overtone singing
 Sexy baby voice
 Slack voice
 Valleyspeak
 Vocal register

Notes

References

Phonation
Voice registers

Vocal fry register


The  were one of the three sites in the vicinity of Edo (the forerunner of present-day Tokyo, Japan) where the Tokugawa shogunate executed criminals in the Edo period. Alternate romanized spellings are Kozukahara and Kotsukappara.

The site is located in modern Minami Senju, Arakawa, Tokyo, a three-minute walk away from Minami-Senju Station. Located next to Enmeiji Temple, a large part of the grounds are now covered by railway tracks.

It is estimated that between 100,000 and 200,000 people were executed here. Those executed include Hashimoto Sanai and Yoshida Shōin, who were executed as a result of the Ansei Purge.

Sugita Genpaku, Nakagawa Jun'an, Katsuragawa Hoshū and their colleagues studied anatomy by conducting dissections at Kozukappara.

Kozukappara began operation in 1651, and continued until the Meiji period. Executions were stopped in an attempt to convince Western powers to end the unequal treaties with Japan.

See also
Capital punishment in Japan

External links
The Japan Foundation Library
Arakawa Yū Net
Nihon-kankou site
Sightseeing document
Japan Times

Edo-period sites
Execution sites in Japan

Kozukappara execution grounds


Jean Rogers (born Eleanor Dorothy Lovegren; March 25, 1916 – February 24, 1991) was an American actress who starred in serial films in the 1930s and low–budget feature films in the 1940s as a leading lady. She is best remembered for playing Dale Arden in the science-fiction serials Flash Gordon (1936) and Flash Gordon's Trip to Mars (1938).

Early life

Rogers was born Eleanor Dorothy Lovegren in Belmont, Massachusetts. Her father was an immigrant from Malmö, Sweden. She graduated from Belmont High School.

She had hoped to study art, but in 1933 she won a beauty contest sponsored by Paramount Pictures that led to her career in Hollywood. Rogers starred in several serials for Universal between 1935 and 1938, including Ace Drummond and Flash Gordon.

Early career
Rogers was one of seven women chosen out of 2,700 passengers on excursion boats and ferries who were interviewed for roles in the 1934 film Eight Girls in a Boat. The group began work in Hollywood on September 3, 1933. By 1937, Rogers was the only one of the seven featured as an actress.

Flash Gordon
Rogers was assigned the role of Dale Arden in the first two Flash Gordon serials. Buster Crabbe and Rogers were cast as the hero and heroine in the first serial, Flash Gordon. The evil ruler Ming the Merciless (Charles B. Middleton) lusted after her, and Gordon was forced to rescue her from one situation after another.  While filming the series in 1937, her costume caught fire and she suffered burns on her hands. Co-star Crabbe smothered the fire by wrapping a blanket on her.

In the first serial, Arden  competed with Princess Aura (Priscilla Lawson) for Gordon's attention. Rogers' character was fragile, small-chested, diminutive, and totally dependent on Gordon for her survival; Lawson's Princess Aura was domineering, independent, voluptuous, conniving, sly, ambitious, and determined to make Gordon her own. The competition for Gordon's attention is one of the highlights of the film. In Flash Gordon's Trip to Mars, the second serial, Rogers sported a totally different look. She had dark hair and wore the same modest costume in each episode. Rogers matured after the first serial, and  no sexual overtones are seen in Trip to Mars. Rogers told writer Richard Lamparski that she was not eager to do the second serial and asked her studio to excuse her from the third.

Feature films

Despite starring in serial films, Rogers felt she was not going to improve her career unless she could participate in feature films. She discovered that  working in feature films was more tedious. She played John Wayne's leading lady in the 1936 full-length motion picture Conflict and co-starred with Boris Karloff in the crime drama Night Key the following year.

During the 1940s, Rogers appeared only in feature films, including  The Man Who Wouldn't Talk (1940) with Lloyd Nolan,  Viva Cisco Kid (1940) with Cesar Romero as the Cisco Kid,  Design for Scandal (1941) with Rosalind Russell and Walter Pidgeon, Whistling in Brooklyn (1943) with Red Skelton, A Stranger in Town (1943) with Frank Morgan, Backlash (1947), and Speed to Spare (1948) with Richard Arlen. Still, she was unhappy with the studios, possibly because she was relegated to B-movie productions on a lower salary. She decided to freelance with companies such as 20th Century Fox and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). Her last appearance was in a supporting role in the suspense film The Second Woman, made in 1950 by United Artists.

Later life
Rogers married Dan Winkler in 1943 after she was dropped by MGM. She continued freelancing until retiring in 1951. Because she starred mainly in low-budget films, she was never a top star. In a 1979 interview, she explained what it was like and why she decided not to play Dale Arden in the third Flash Gordon serial.

Rogers was a lifelong Democrat who supported Adlai Stevenson's campaign during the 1952 presidential election and a practicing Lutheran.

She died in Sherman Oaks in 1991 at the age of 74  following surgery. She was later cremated and her ashes returned to her family.

Selected filmography

Footlight Parade (1933) as Chorus Girl (uncredited)
Eight Girls in a Boat (1934) (with Dorothy Wilson) as School Girl (uncredited)
Stand Up and Cheer! (1934) as Dancer (uncredited)
Twenty Million Sweethearts (1934) as Radio Fan (uncredited)
Dames (1934) as Chorus Girl (uncredited)
Manhattan Moon (1935) (with ZaSu Pitts) as Joan
Lady Tubbs (1935) as Debutante (uncredited)
His Night Out (1935) as Information (uncredited)
Stormy (1935) as Kerry Dorn
Tailspin Tommy in the Great Air Mystery (1935, Serial) (with Noah Beery Jr.) as Betty Lou Barnes
Fighting Youth (1935) as Blonde Student
The Adventures of Frank Merriwell (1936 serial) (with Donald Briggs) as Elsie Belwood
Don't Get Personal (1936) as Blondy
Flash Gordon (1936, Serial) (with Buster Crabbe) as Dale Arden
Spaceship to the Unknown (1936, edited serial) (with Buster Crabbe) as Dale Arden
Crash Donovan (1936) as Blonde (uncredited)
My Man Godfrey (1936) (with William Powell) as Socialite (uncredited)
Two in a Crowd (1936) as Minor Role (uncredited)
Ace Drummond (1936 serial) (with Noah Beery Jr.) as Peggy Trainor
Conflict (1936) (with John Wayne) as Maude Sangster
Mysterious Crossing (1936) as Yvonne Fontaine
When Love Is Young (1937) as Irene Henry
Secret Agent X-9 (1937, Serial) (with Lon Chaney Jr.) as Shara Graustark
Night Key (1937) (with Boris Karloff) as Joan Mallory
The Wildcatter (1937) as Helen Conlon
Reported Missing (1937) as Jean Clayton
Flash Gordon's Trip to Mars (1938, Serial) (with Buster Crabbe) as Dale Arden
Deadly Ray from Mars (1938, edited serial) (with Buster Crabbe) as Dale Arden
Time Out for Murder (1938) as Helen Thomas
Always in Trouble (1938) (with Jane Withers) as Virginia Darlington
While New York Sleeps (1938) as Judy King
Inside Story (1939) as June White
Hotel for Women (1939) (with Linda Darnell) as Nancy Prescott
Stop, Look and Love (1939) as Louise Haller
Heaven with a Barbed Wire Fence (1939) (with Glenn Ford) as Anita Santos
The Man Who Wouldn't Talk (1940) (with Lloyd Nolan) as Alice Stetson
Charlie Chan in Panama (1940) (with Sidney Toler) as Kathi Lenesch
Viva Cisco Kid (1940) (with Cesar Romero) as Joan Allen
Brigham Young (1940) as Clara Young
Yesterday's Heroes (1940) as Lee Kellogg
Let's Make Music (1941) as Abby Adams
Design for Scandal (1941) (with Rosalind Russell) as Dotty
Dr. Kildare's Victory (1942) as Annabelle Kirke
Sunday Punch (1942) as Judy Galestrum
Pacific Rendezvous (1942) as Elaine Carter
The War Against Mrs. Hadley (1942) (with Fay Bainter) as Patricia Hadley
Swing Shift Maisie (1943) (with Ann Sothern)
A Stranger in Town (1943) (with Frank Morgan) as Lucy Gilbert
Swing Shift Maisie (1943) as Iris Reed
Whistling in Brooklyn (1943) (with Red Skelton) as Jean Pringle
Rough, Tough and Ready (1945) as Jo Matheson
The Strange Mr. Gregory (1945) as Ellen Randall
Gay Blades (1946) as Nancy Davis
Hot Cargo (1946) (with William Gargan) as Jerry Walters
Backlash (1947; top billing) as Catherine Morland
Speed to Spare (1948) (with Richard Arlen) as Mary McGee
Fighting Back (1948) (with Morris Ankrum) as June Sanders
The Second Woman (1950) (with Robert Young) as Dodo Ferris (final film role)

References

External links

 Tony LoBue's Dale Arden Page
 NYT Article on Jean
 Rotten Tomatoes Jean Rogers Filmography

1916 births
1991 deaths
Actresses from Massachusetts
American film actresses
Film serial actresses
People from Belmont, Massachusetts
American people of Swedish descent
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players
20th-century American actresses
Belmont High School (Massachusetts) alumni
American Lutherans
Massachusetts Democrats
California Democrats

Jean Rogers


Williams Island Dam is located on the James River in the independent city of Richmond, Virginia. Just below the dam,  of rapids mark the descent of the river downstream through the geological Fall Line region to the navigable tidal portion below Richmond, which extends southeast to Hampton Roads.

Williams Island Dam was built in 1905 as part of a drinking water project of the City of Richmond which made use of a portion of the former James River and Kanawha Canal along the north shore of the river west of Richmond. A gravity dam, its height is . Its normal storage capacity is estimated to be .  It was connected with an early waterworks building which is located on Pumphouse Drive just west of the city's Boulevard Bridge.

Williams Island Dam is wholly located within the city's James River Park System. Williams Island, which separates the two sections of the dam, is a  wildlife preserve  and has the nest of a bald eagle. According to the James River Park website, Richmond is the only capital city in the lower 48 states to have an eagle nesting inside the corporate limits.

References

External links
James River Park official website
Discover Richmond - Williams Island and Dam

Williams Island Dam
Dams in Virginia
Dams completed in 1905
1905 establishments in Virginia

Williams Island Dam


Alexander Eig ( ; 1894, near Minsk, Belarus – 30 July 1938, Jerusalem, Mandatory Palestine) was a botanist, one of the first plant researchers in Israel, head of the department of Botany at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and co-founder of the National Botanic Garden of Israel on Mount Scopus campus.

Biography

Alexander Eig was born in Schedrin near Minsk. He used to wander in the forests and join his family on hunting and fishing expeditions observing the plants  around.  At the age of 15 he immigrated to Palestine, where he became a student at Mikveh Israel agricultural school.

In 1925 he was invited by Otto Warburg to join the agricultural experimental station in Tel Aviv, where he worked with Michael Zohary. A year later, the unit moved to Jerusalem, and they joined the staff of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. That year he married Itta Faktorovsky, the sister of his closest friend and fellow botanist Elazar Faktorovsky.

In 1931 he graduated with his Ph.D., and founded the Botanic Garden on Mount Scopus, together with Zohary and Naomi Feinbrun-Dothan. On 1932 he started teaching botany. Among his students were the brothers Aaron and Ephraim Katzir.

On 1937 he was invited by Yitzhak Ben-Zvi to testify before the Peel Commission, on the question of whether the country could  sustain a large population. He was later asked to prepare a map that would serve the arguments of the Zionist side in the international arena.

Eig died of cancer in 1938, at the age of less than 44 years. He was buried in the Mount of Olives Jewish Cemetery. His gravestone bears the inscription "The creator of plant science in Israel." He was eulogized by Moshe Sharett, Hugo Bergmann, Judah Leon Magnes and Yitzhak Ben-Zvi.

Works

Taxonomic patronyms
In honor of Alexander Eig, four taxonomic patronyms were given in plants with names of genus, species and subspecies:
 Eigia longistyla (Eig) Soják
 Bellevalia eigii
 Poa eigii
 Salvia eigii
 Ornithogalum neurostegium subsp. eigii (Feinbrun) Feinbrun

References

1894 births
1938 deaths
Israeli botanists
Jewish biologists
Scientists from Minsk
Deaths from cancer in Israel
Burials at the Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives
Academic staff of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the Ottoman Empire
Natural history of Palestine (region)

Alexander Eig


Peanut butter is a type of moist paste that is made of crushed roasted peanuts. There are two kinds of peanut butter: crunchy/chunky peanut butter and smooth/creamy peanut butter. It can be eaten, for example on bread, usually with jelly to make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich or a peanut butter sandwich with only peanut butter. Marcellus Gilmore Edson was the real inventor, not George Washington Carver.

January 24 is National Peanut Butter Day.

Health
Peanut butter can protect people from cardiovascular sickness. Peanut butter (and peanuts) have lots of protein, E, magnesium, folate, food fiber, and arginine. However, some people with peanut allergies can have a shock or allergic reaction from eating or smelling it, which has made some schools decide not to let their students eat peanut butter in their schools. Some oils put inside peanut butter to make it easier to spread can also make people have heart disease. Peanut butter can also carry salmonella and make people sick because of it.

Peanut butter has around 188 calories, with there being 71 percent of fat, 14 percent of protein, and 15 percent of carbohydrate. Other peanut butter types may have 616 or 195 calories. Although peanut butter has some fat, it may help with losing weight.

Ingredients
Peanuts
Sugar
Salt
Vegetable Oil

References

Other websites
 The National Peanut Board
 The federal "Peanut Butter Law" in the U.S.
 The USDA's Commercial Item Description for peanut butter and peanut spread (PDF)  (Last accessed 3 September 2008)
 How Products are Made: Volume 1: Peanut Butter (Last accessed 16 October 2009)

Peanuts
Nut butters

Peanut butter


The Colombian Catholic Church, or Catholic Church in Colombia, is the branch of the Roman Catholic Church in the South American nation of Colombia.

Organization
It is organized into 13 ecclesiastical provinces, subdivided into 13 archdioceses and 52 dioceses, and a Maronite apostolic exarchate. Over 120 religious orders, institutes, and lay organizations run hundreds of primary and secondary schools, hospitals, clinics, orphanages, colleges, and 8 universities across the country. The best known are Pontificia Universidad Javeriana (in Bogotá) and Pontificia Universidad Javeriana (in Cali), both Jesuit universities.

Based on studies and a survey, about 90% of the Colombian population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%) are Catholic, while 16.7% adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism) or other Christian groups.

In 2020, almost 10,000 priests and over 12,000 nuns served over 4,500 parishes.

History
Catholicism was introduced to the country in 1508. Two dioceses were organized in 1534. The Church grow significantly by the mid-17th century, in spite of the variety of indigenous languages, government interference and competition among religious orders. Some persecution followed the declaration of independence in 1819.

Throughout Latin America, the Church was subject to Spain and served its purposes throughout the colonial period and part of the nineteenth century. It was responsible for founding and directing schools for educating native elites (San Bartolomé, Universidad del Rosario, and the Universidad Santo Tomás), creating and sustaining hospitals, help from the colonial bureaucracy and generally, as an instrument of control and social cohesion.

In the late eighteenth century, the Bourbon reforms began to break down this scheme, especially with respect to education. For the first time the usefulness of the scholastic system used until then was questioned, and changes were sought.

At Independence, the clergy split between those who supported the king (royalists) and those who preferred absolute independence (nationalists). The high clergy (bishops and dignitaries) supported the former, while parish priests and many of the religious, supported the latter. The role played by the clergy in Independence was decisive, because it contributed to the mobilization and recruitment of fighters; they served as chaplains and military leaders.

With the 1991 Constitution of Colombia, the Colombian State became no longer Catholic. Equality and religious freedom were recognized.

On June 22, 2012, media in Colombia published the report titled "The Pope is concerned about the penetration of Pentecostals in Colombia" where religious pluralism merited serious consideration. The increasingly active presence of Pentecostal and Evangelical communities in many parts of Latin America were evident.

On October 31, 2012 Bishop Juan Vicente Córdoba, Secretary General of the Colombian Episcopal Conference, announced that the Catholic Church would seek parishioners in shopping centers, placing parishes in these commercial establishments. 4

Mariano de Jesus Euse Hoyos (the "father Marianito") and 7 religious of San Juan de Dios were beatified in 2000, while Mother Laura Montoya, founder of the Missionaries of Mary Immaculate and St. Catherine of Siena ("Lauritas"), was canonized.

Influence
Catholicism wielded a strong influence on public opinion and government affairs. The Church influences various fields and institutions, including:

 Military and Police -The Bishopric of Colombia Castrense serves exclusively as staff diocese to active and retired staff and family members of the Colombian Armed Forces and the National Police.
 The Apostolic Nunciature - the embassy of the Holy See in the country.
 The faithful - representing about 90% of the population.
 Churches - land acquisition and construction
 The Concordat with the Holy See came into force in 1886; the Constitutional Court enforced some of its provisions in 1993. The Colombian Bishops' Conference spoke against it two weeks later.

See also
Christianity in Colombia
Religion in Colombia
List of Catholic dioceses in Colombia
List of South American saints
Pan-Amazonian Ecclesial Network (REPAM)

Notes

Colombia
1508 establishments in the Spanish Empire

Catholic Church in Colombia


Ferdinand August Otto Heinrich, Graf von Loeben (18 August 1786 in Dresden – 3 April 1825 in Dresden) was a German writer.

Biography
He was born into an aristocratic Protestant family, and was educated by private tutors. From 1804 he studied law at the University of Wittenberg, but moved to Heidelberg in 1807, where he befriended Joseph von Eichendorff, also meeting Achim von Arnim, Clemens Brentano and Johann Joseph von Görres. Over the next few years he travelled between Vienna, Dresden and Berlin, meeting Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué at Nennhausen. He was involved in the campaign of 1813–14; after his return, he married Johanna Victoria Gottliebe née von Bressler and spent the rest of his life in Dresden. A stroke suffered in 1822 left him an invalid until his death.

Graf von Loeben was a very prolific writer of the Dresden school, and he influenced Eichendorff and Ludwig Tieck among others, but quickly fell out of favour, most later critics viewing his work as bordering on parody. His most important novel is Guido, written under the pen-name "Isidorus Orientalis". Under a second pseudonym, Heinrich Goeble (sometimes just H. Goeble), he authored the poem Abendlied unterm gestirten Himmel, set to music by Ludwig van Beethoven as WoO 150.

An article about him can be found in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, and a monograph by Raimund Pissin was published in Berlin in 1905. On the basis of these two sources, Porterfield enumerates his known works as "one conventional drama, one musical-romantic drama, two narrative poems, one of which is on Ferdusi, three collections of poems, between 30 and 40 novelettes, fairy tales and [several thousand] aphorisms and detached thoughts." He is discussed by his friend Eichendorff in Ahnung und Gegenwart (ch. 12) and Erlebtes (ch. 10).

Selected works
Guido, novel
Das weisse Ross, eine altdeutsche Familienchronik in 36 Bildern, a novelette (1817)
Die Sonnenkinder, short story
Die Perle und die Maiblume, novelette
Cephalus und Procris, play
Ferdusi
Persiens Ritter, short story
Die Zaubernächte am Bosporus
Prinz Floridio, fairy-tale
Leda, short story
Weinmärchen, fairy-tales
Gesänge
Abendlied unterm gestirten Himmel

Further reading

Porterfield, Allen Wilson. "Graf von Loeben and the Legend of Lorelei." Modern Philology, Vol. 13, No. 6 (Oct., 1915), pp. 305–332.  A highly critical account of some of Loeben's works, dismissing the theory that one of his poems of 1821 provided the inspiration for Heinrich Heine's Die Lorelei.
Ignaz Hub, ed. Deutschlands Balladen- und Romanzen-Dichter. Karlsruhe, 1845. Contains five poems, some with alterations.

References

1786 births
1825 deaths
German poets
19th-century German novelists
Writers from Dresden
People from the Electorate of Saxony
German male poets
German male novelists
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German writers

Otto Heinrich von Loeben


The Karlsschrein () is located in Aachen Cathedral and contains the remains of Charlemagne. It was completed in 1215 in Aachen at the command of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. Previously, Charlemagne's remains had been in the Palatine Chapel part of the cathedral until 1165, when Frederick Barbarossa placed the remains in a sarcophagus beneath the floor of the cathedral.

Frederick II personally carried out the transfer of the bones and the sealing of the shrine on 27 July 1215, the first anniversary of the Battle of Bouvines, which had spurred him to seek the German throne. Two days before, he had been crowned again and finally as the King of the Romans at Aachen.

Construction
The Shrine is part of the late 12th century shrine tradition. It has the form of a naved church, without a transept. It is an oak box 2.04 metres long, 0.57 metres wide, and 0.94 metres high (80.3in by 22.4in by 37.0in), decorated with gilt silver, gilt copper, filigree, precious stones, enamel and firnisbrand. The double step of the base is adorned with enamel plates, engravings, filigree, and silver stamped with floral designs. The two long sides each show an arcade of eight archways resting on double columns, in which the kings and emperors of the realm are enthroned.

The front gable end shows Charlemagne enthroned, with Pope Leo III standing to his right and Archbishop Turpin of Rheims to his left. A half-figure of Christ is located in a medaillon above Charlemagne.

On the rear gable end the Madonna with Christ is enthroned between the Archangels Michael and Gabriel. Three half-figures, the personifications of Faith, Hope, and Love, are depicted above.

The two surfaces of the roof show four reliefs with scenes from the romanticised life of Charlemagne. A crest of gilded copper, with five towers, decorates the ridge and gable of the roof.

Each of the long sides of the shrine depicts eight enthroned emperors. Shown on its right side, as viewed from the front gable end, are the following (from left to right): Henry II, Otto III, Otto I, Otto II, Charles the Fat, an unnamed Emperor, Henry VI, and Frederick II. Depicted on the opposite side are Henry III, Zwentibold, Henry V, Henry IV, Otto IV, Henry I, Lothair I, and Louis the Pious.

The iconographic concept
The composition is determined by Hohenstaufen imperial thought. Charlemagne is enthroned on the front between the representatives of the church at a location which is reserved on all other shrines for Christ alone. He himself, Emperor Charlemagne, is the viceroy of Christ, towering over the Pope and the archbishop. On the two long sides of the shrine, otherwise reserved for Prophets and Apostles, sixteen Holy Roman Emperors and Kings are enthroned, the roof reliefs continue the imperial character of the composition. These show the legendary life of Charlemagne, based on the Historia Karoli Magni et Rothalandi, allegedly written by Archbishop Turpin of Rheims (c. 748–749). However, modern research has revealed that the Historia Karoli was actually composed around 1130–1140 in France.

Anthropological investigation
In 1874, the Aachen Stiftkapitel allowed a scientific investigation of the remains of Charlemagne to be carried out by Hermann Schaaffhausen (1816–1893), an anthropologist from Bonn. From the remains Schaafhausen determined a height of 2.04 metres. This height, which was especially rare in the Middle Ages, was reported by Einhard, "for it is known that in height he measured seven of his feet" (nam septem suorum pedum proceritatem eius constat habuisse mensuram). The right collarbone had broken and rehealed. No historian mentions this injury. The skull shows a dolichocephalic form (elongated), the seams closed without a trace, which is a sign of old age. The findings indicate the authenticity of the remains.

However, according to a more recent article, estimates of Charlemagne's height done by different methods (but all based on the dimensions of his left tibia) range from 1.79 metres to 1.92 metres and average 1.84 metres. That would still make Charlemagne very tall by the standards of his time.

Inventory and securing, 1983–88
On 30 January 1983, during a vespers service, the sealed zinc box with the remains of Charlemagne was taken out of the shrine and opened. In the evening of the same day, the box was resealed and the remains were put in a provisional wooden shrine. At night, the Karlsschrein itself was brought into the cathedral goldsmiths' workshop, where the goldsmiths Gerhard Thewis and Peter Bolg worked for five years under the scholarly direction of Herta Lepie on the conservation of the artwork. Here, care was taken that apart from this conservation a restoration or renovation was not made – as frequently happened in the repair of artworks in the past – which would have irreversibly changed the shrine or damaged its original form.

References

Bibliography
 Florentine Mütherich, Dietrich Kötzsche (ed.): Der Schrein Karls des Grossen. Bestand und Sicherung 1982-1988. Aachen: Einhard, 1998, .
 Helga Giersiepen: Die Inschriften des Aachener Doms (= Die Deutschen Inschriften, 31). Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1992, , p. 29–36 (online).
 Ernst Günther Grimme: Der Karlsschrein und der Marienschrein im Aachener Dom, Aachen: Einhard, 2002, .

External links

 The Inscription of the Karlsschrein on www.inschriften.net

1215 works
Aachen Cathedral Treasury
Aachen Cathedral
Charlemagne
Christian reliquaries
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor

Karlsschrein